text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
For additional review on Night, visit www.shmoop.com/night.
Terms in this set (53)
The narrator of Night and the stand-in for the memoir's author, Elie Wiesel. Night traces Eliezer's psychological journey, as the Holocaust robs him of his faith in God and exposes him to the deepest inhumanity of which man is capable. Despite many tests of his humanity, however, Eliezer maintains his devotion to his father. It is important to note that we learn Eliezer's last name only in passing, and that it is never repeated. His story, which parallels Wiesel's own biography, is intensely personal, but it is also representative of the experiences of hundreds of thousands of Jewish teenagers.
Where is Eliezer from?
He is from the small town of Sighet.
What is the nature of Eliezer and Moshe the Beadle's relationship?
Eliezer and Moshe the Beadle know each other through religion and he mentored Eliezer on the Kabbala.
When Moshe returned to the village, after he had escaped the Gestapo's capture, what story did Moshe the Beadle tell?
The story of how he watched the German soldiers kill Jews and use babies as shooting targets.
How did the townspeople react to the horrible news he brought back to them?
Warning the townspeople of the potential threat they faced, they initially thought he was crazy and felt as though it was an exaggeration of reality.
What might be the reasons for the townspeople's widespread denial of the evidence facing them, even though the Germans have arrived and have moved all the Jews into ghettos?
Reasons for this were that if they denied it and did not accept it, it could help them feel as though the threat was not as real. If they suppressed the fear, it might not have had as large an effect on their person.
Explain the experience of life in the ghetto.
Despite the fact that the Jewish people's rights and freedoms were limited or taken away, the people had a false sense of security. It was ruled in a mindset that this was a small incident and would "blow over". However it should be noted that this was not the case.
What were the conditions of the train?
The train was cramped and unsecured.
German officers informed them that there were eighty people in the cattle car. If anybody went missing, _____.
they would all be shot
What was foreshadowed by Madame Schachter's nightmare?
It foreshadowed the fires and crematories.
What did some of the passengers do to quiet Madame Schachter?
The passengers hit her, gagged her and tied her up.
Where did the train finally stop?
When questioned by the SS officer, why did Elie lie about his age and occupation?
The boys that were too young and the men who were too old would have been cremated.
Immediately after they arrive Elie is _____.
separated from his mother and sisters
Where are Elie and his father originally assigned?
Both Eliezer and his father are assigned to labor units, so death is not immediate.
How had Elie changed in a short time?
He had forgotten his faith.
What was the compulsory formality at the entrance to all camps?
Running, a hot shower and new clothes.
Who was Stein and what did he ask Elie? Explain Elie's response and why he said what he did.
A relative named Stein came looking for Eliezer and his father after they've been in Auschwitz for about a week. Stein was Eliezer's cousin, and he was looking for news about his wife and children. Eliezer lied to Stein, saying he heard they are well. He said this as it would possibly lift his sprits and might give him a purpose to live.
Why was the prisoner in charge of Elie's block removed from this position?
He was too kind to the prisoners.
What happens to Stein?
He finds out the truth about his family and is never seen again. Presumably, he gave up hope and died.
They finally receive their work orders and they depart with the next transport. The destination is _____.
Once arriving at Buna, Eliezer and his dad are assigned to _____.
work in a warehouse for electrical equipment
How did Elie initially avoid losing his gold crown?
He pretended to be sick.
Describe how Elie and the French girl met.
At the warehouse, Eliezer worked near a young French girl who seemed to him to be Jewish although she passes herself off as Aryan. One day, Idek gets angry and beat Eliezer. The French girl was kind to him and gave him a little bit of bread. She told him not to give up hope.
How did Elie react when Idek beat his father?
As his father was being beaten, rather than being mad at Idek, Eliezer was mad at his father for not avoiding the Kapo.
Who was Franek and what did he want from Eliezer?
Franek, the foreman, decided he wanted Eliezer's gold crown. Eliezer wouldn't give it to him.
How did Elie eventually lose his golden crown?
Franek discovered Eliezer's weakness, his father, and began to torment Eliezer's father during their marches. At last, Eliezer gave in and his tooth was then extracted with a rusty spoon in the bathroom.
Why did Idek beat Eliezer?
Idek marched them out of the camp and Eliezer went exploring and discovers why Idek didn't want anyone in the camp; he was sleeping with the young Polish girl. Idek discovered Eliezer and gave him lashes with a whip in front of the whole block and told him he would get five times that if he told anyone what he saw.
What happened, during the air raid, when one man dared to venture out to get some extra soup?
The man was killed when the Allies started bombing Buna.
Why were the prisoners excited to hear the air raid?
All of the prisoners were glad to hear the bombs; they gained renewed hope.
Explain why during Rosh Hashanah Eliezer did not ask forgiveness for his sins.
Eliezer felt himself to be "the accuser, God the accused".
Why didn't Elie fast on Yom Kippur?
His father didn't want him too and he had lost faith anyway.
Where was Eliezer transferred to, job wise?
Eliezer was no longer in the same block as his father because he was transferred to the construction Kommando, which had the bad jobs where one would haul huge stones around.
What was Eliezer's inheritance from his father?
A knife and a spoon.
Akiba Drumer, one of their fellow prisoners, was selected. He asked them to remember to say the _____ for him after he dies. Do they follow though?
Kaddish, They promise but they forgot to say it.
In January, Eliezer's foot began to swell. What did Elie do?
Because it was so swollen, he went to a Jewish doctor, a prisoner, who told him that he needed an operation or it would have to be amputated. So Eliezer entered the hospital.
What was Elie's greatest fear regarding the hospital?
That he would be selected at the hospital while recuperating.
While he waited in the hospital, rumors flew that the Russians were not far away and the camp was _____. Those who are in the hospital would probably be _____.
going to be evacuated, "liquidated" or killed
How did Elie respond to the potential threat?
So Eliezer, even though his foot was still recovering, went in search of his father. He didn't want to stay behind in the hospital and be separated from his father during the evacuation.
The camp was evacuated and the prisoners went on a march. What happened to anyone who could not keep up?
They were shot or trampled.
When Eliezer fell asleep, his dad woke him and warned him not to fall asleep as it was dangerous to sleep in the snow. Why?
To sleep means death.
What horrible realization did Elie come to concerning Rabbi Elahou and his son?
His son wanted his father to die.
Where did they arrive at the end of this march?
At last, they reached a camp, Gleiwitz, and they entered the barracks to sleep.
What was the last thing Juliek does before he dies?
Juliek played Beethoven through the long night.
A selection was carried out and Elie's father was selected. How did Eliezer get his father back on his side?
Eliezer's father was sent to the left, to death. Eliezer managed to slip into the left side and, in the middle of confusion, moved his father back to the right.
What happened to those that were not sent to death?
They were sent on another march and left the camp. They marched until they were told to stop and wait for the train. They waited for hours.
On the train, survival was a struggle to the death. Explain.
A German workman by the train tracks threw some bread into the train car. The German watched, amused, as the men fought each other to the death to get the bread. A son killed his own father for a piece of bread.
The bread incident was so interesting to the German workers that they began tossing more bread into the train cars.
When someone tried to strangle Eliezer, who saved him?
The man in charge of the wagon, Meir Katz, managed to save him.
Where did the train take him next?
The train at last arrived at Buchenwald. A hundred prisoners had gotten on the train while only a dozen get off. Eliezer and his father were among that dozen.
Why was Elie's father being beaten?
He was being too loud while calling Elie to get him water.
Eliezer's father remained alive for a few more days, but died as a result of _____.
After Eliezer was at Buchenwald for a couple more months, SS officers began to evacuate the camp and started moving thousands of prisoners out each day. Why was Eliezer lucky that his unit had not been moved out with earlier units?
An underground resistance movement in the camp acted and gained control.
Who liberated the camp?
YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE...
Night Test Prep
Night by Elie Weisel Study Guide Questions
Sections 8&9 Night
OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR
Mind and Body Fitness
the metamorphosis quiz from online book
Unit 1 - AP US History | <urn:uuid:83347e47-32af-4d9a-8279-e24615706f75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quizlet.com/189324496/night-flash-cards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.990709 | 2,296 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0548968128859... | 1 | For additional review on Night, visit www.shmoop.com/night.
Terms in this set (53)
The narrator of Night and the stand-in for the memoir's author, Elie Wiesel. Night traces Eliezer's psychological journey, as the Holocaust robs him of his faith in God and exposes him to the deepest inhumanity of which man is capable. Despite many tests of his humanity, however, Eliezer maintains his devotion to his father. It is important to note that we learn Eliezer's last name only in passing, and that it is never repeated. His story, which parallels Wiesel's own biography, is intensely personal, but it is also representative of the experiences of hundreds of thousands of Jewish teenagers.
Where is Eliezer from?
He is from the small town of Sighet.
What is the nature of Eliezer and Moshe the Beadle's relationship?
Eliezer and Moshe the Beadle know each other through religion and he mentored Eliezer on the Kabbala.
When Moshe returned to the village, after he had escaped the Gestapo's capture, what story did Moshe the Beadle tell?
The story of how he watched the German soldiers kill Jews and use babies as shooting targets.
How did the townspeople react to the horrible news he brought back to them?
Warning the townspeople of the potential threat they faced, they initially thought he was crazy and felt as though it was an exaggeration of reality.
What might be the reasons for the townspeople's widespread denial of the evidence facing them, even though the Germans have arrived and have moved all the Jews into ghettos?
Reasons for this were that if they denied it and did not accept it, it could help them feel as though the threat was not as real. If they suppressed the fear, it might not have had as large an effect on their person.
Explain the experience of life in the ghetto.
Despite the fact that the Jewish people's rights and freedoms were limited or taken away, the people had a false sense of security. It was ruled in a mindset that this was a small incident and would "blow over". However it should be noted that this was not the case.
What were the conditions of the train?
The train was cramped and unsecured.
German officers informed them that there were eighty people in the cattle car. If anybody went missing, _____.
they would all be shot
What was foreshadowed by Madame Schachter's nightmare?
It foreshadowed the fires and crematories.
What did some of the passengers do to quiet Madame Schachter?
The passengers hit her, gagged her and tied her up.
Where did the train finally stop?
When questioned by the SS officer, why did Elie lie about his age and occupation?
The boys that were too young and the men who were too old would have been cremated.
Immediately after they arrive Elie is _____.
separated from his mother and sisters
Where are Elie and his father originally assigned?
Both Eliezer and his father are assigned to labor units, so death is not immediate.
How had Elie changed in a short time?
He had forgotten his faith.
What was the compulsory formality at the entrance to all camps?
Running, a hot shower and new clothes.
Who was Stein and what did he ask Elie? Explain Elie's response and why he said what he did.
A relative named Stein came looking for Eliezer and his father after they've been in Auschwitz for about a week. Stein was Eliezer's cousin, and he was looking for news about his wife and children. Eliezer lied to Stein, saying he heard they are well. He said this as it would possibly lift his sprits and might give him a purpose to live.
Why was the prisoner in charge of Elie's block removed from this position?
He was too kind to the prisoners.
What happens to Stein?
He finds out the truth about his family and is never seen again. Presumably, he gave up hope and died.
They finally receive their work orders and they depart with the next transport. The destination is _____.
Once arriving at Buna, Eliezer and his dad are assigned to _____.
work in a warehouse for electrical equipment
How did Elie initially avoid losing his gold crown?
He pretended to be sick.
Describe how Elie and the French girl met.
At the warehouse, Eliezer worked near a young French girl who seemed to him to be Jewish although she passes herself off as Aryan. One day, Idek gets angry and beat Eliezer. The French girl was kind to him and gave him a little bit of bread. She told him not to give up hope.
How did Elie react when Idek beat his father?
As his father was being beaten, rather than being mad at Idek, Eliezer was mad at his father for not avoiding the Kapo.
Who was Franek and what did he want from Eliezer?
Franek, the foreman, decided he wanted Eliezer's gold crown. Eliezer wouldn't give it to him.
How did Elie eventually lose his golden crown?
Franek discovered Eliezer's weakness, his father, and began to torment Eliezer's father during their marches. At last, Eliezer gave in and his tooth was then extracted with a rusty spoon in the bathroom.
Why did Idek beat Eliezer?
Idek marched them out of the camp and Eliezer went exploring and discovers why Idek didn't want anyone in the camp; he was sleeping with the young Polish girl. Idek discovered Eliezer and gave him lashes with a whip in front of the whole block and told him he would get five times that if he told anyone what he saw.
What happened, during the air raid, when one man dared to venture out to get some extra soup?
The man was killed when the Allies started bombing Buna.
Why were the prisoners excited to hear the air raid?
All of the prisoners were glad to hear the bombs; they gained renewed hope.
Explain why during Rosh Hashanah Eliezer did not ask forgiveness for his sins.
Eliezer felt himself to be "the accuser, God the accused".
Why didn't Elie fast on Yom Kippur?
His father didn't want him too and he had lost faith anyway.
Where was Eliezer transferred to, job wise?
Eliezer was no longer in the same block as his father because he was transferred to the construction Kommando, which had the bad jobs where one would haul huge stones around.
What was Eliezer's inheritance from his father?
A knife and a spoon.
Akiba Drumer, one of their fellow prisoners, was selected. He asked them to remember to say the _____ for him after he dies. Do they follow though?
Kaddish, They promise but they forgot to say it.
In January, Eliezer's foot began to swell. What did Elie do?
Because it was so swollen, he went to a Jewish doctor, a prisoner, who told him that he needed an operation or it would have to be amputated. So Eliezer entered the hospital.
What was Elie's greatest fear regarding the hospital?
That he would be selected at the hospital while recuperating.
While he waited in the hospital, rumors flew that the Russians were not far away and the camp was _____. Those who are in the hospital would probably be _____.
going to be evacuated, "liquidated" or killed
How did Elie respond to the potential threat?
So Eliezer, even though his foot was still recovering, went in search of his father. He didn't want to stay behind in the hospital and be separated from his father during the evacuation.
The camp was evacuated and the prisoners went on a march. What happened to anyone who could not keep up?
They were shot or trampled.
When Eliezer fell asleep, his dad woke him and warned him not to fall asleep as it was dangerous to sleep in the snow. Why?
To sleep means death.
What horrible realization did Elie come to concerning Rabbi Elahou and his son?
His son wanted his father to die.
Where did they arrive at the end of this march?
At last, they reached a camp, Gleiwitz, and they entered the barracks to sleep.
What was the last thing Juliek does before he dies?
Juliek played Beethoven through the long night.
A selection was carried out and Elie's father was selected. How did Eliezer get his father back on his side?
Eliezer's father was sent to the left, to death. Eliezer managed to slip into the left side and, in the middle of confusion, moved his father back to the right.
What happened to those that were not sent to death?
They were sent on another march and left the camp. They marched until they were told to stop and wait for the train. They waited for hours.
On the train, survival was a struggle to the death. Explain.
A German workman by the train tracks threw some bread into the train car. The German watched, amused, as the men fought each other to the death to get the bread. A son killed his own father for a piece of bread.
The bread incident was so interesting to the German workers that they began tossing more bread into the train cars.
When someone tried to strangle Eliezer, who saved him?
The man in charge of the wagon, Meir Katz, managed to save him.
Where did the train take him next?
The train at last arrived at Buchenwald. A hundred prisoners had gotten on the train while only a dozen get off. Eliezer and his father were among that dozen.
Why was Elie's father being beaten?
He was being too loud while calling Elie to get him water.
Eliezer's father remained alive for a few more days, but died as a result of _____.
After Eliezer was at Buchenwald for a couple more months, SS officers began to evacuate the camp and started moving thousands of prisoners out each day. Why was Eliezer lucky that his unit had not been moved out with earlier units?
An underground resistance movement in the camp acted and gained control.
Who liberated the camp?
YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE...
Night Test Prep
Night by Elie Weisel Study Guide Questions
Sections 8&9 Night
OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR
Mind and Body Fitness
the metamorphosis quiz from online book
Unit 1 - AP US History | 2,178 | ENGLISH | 1 |
: MAKING LAWS IN PARLIAMENT
What does a Member of Parliament do?
The British public elects Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent their interests and concerns in the House of Commons. MPs are involved in considering and proposing new laws, and can use their position to ask government ministers questions about current issues.
MPs split their time between working in Parliament, working in the constituency that elected them and working for their political party. Some MPs from the governing party (or parties) become government ministers with specific responsibilities in certain areas, such as Health or Defence.
Working in Parliament
When Parliament is sitting (meeting), MPs generally spend their time working in the House of Commons. This can include raising issues affecting their constituents, attending debates and voting on new laws. Most MPs are also members of committees, which look at issues in detail, from government policy and new laws, to wider topics like human rights.
Working in their Constituency
In their constituency, MPs often hold a ‘surgery’ in their office, where local people can come along to discuss any matters that concern them. MPs also attend functions, visit schools and businesses and generally try to meet as many people as possible. This gives MPs further insight and context into issues they may discuss when they return to Westminster. | <urn:uuid:f9056010-e2d0-4260-851b-d473f1e9c3b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britpolitics.co.uk/what-does-a-member-of-parliament-do/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.983876 | 268 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.028854247182... | 10 | : MAKING LAWS IN PARLIAMENT
What does a Member of Parliament do?
The British public elects Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent their interests and concerns in the House of Commons. MPs are involved in considering and proposing new laws, and can use their position to ask government ministers questions about current issues.
MPs split their time between working in Parliament, working in the constituency that elected them and working for their political party. Some MPs from the governing party (or parties) become government ministers with specific responsibilities in certain areas, such as Health or Defence.
Working in Parliament
When Parliament is sitting (meeting), MPs generally spend their time working in the House of Commons. This can include raising issues affecting their constituents, attending debates and voting on new laws. Most MPs are also members of committees, which look at issues in detail, from government policy and new laws, to wider topics like human rights.
Working in their Constituency
In their constituency, MPs often hold a ‘surgery’ in their office, where local people can come along to discuss any matters that concern them. MPs also attend functions, visit schools and businesses and generally try to meet as many people as possible. This gives MPs further insight and context into issues they may discuss when they return to Westminster. | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thanksgiving Day is a holiday celebrating and giving thanks for the harvest of the previous year. It has religious and cultural roots, but is also now celebrated as a secular holiday. There is some debate as to when the first modern Thanksgiving in the United States took place—whether it was in Virginia or Massachusetts. Thanksgiving events took place in what would become Virginia, beginning in 1607, and Jamestown, Virginia, started holding thanksgivings in 1610. When 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred, in Virginia in 1619, the day of their arrival was to be celebrated as a day of thanksgiving from there on forth. In 1621 and 1623 there were thanksgiving events held in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The 1621 observance was held after a fruitful growing season, and lasted for three days during the fall. It was not formally known as thanksgiving, but as a harvest festival. It included 90 Native Americans, and 50 Pilgrims from the Mayflower. The 1623 celebration was known as Thanksgiving, and was recognized by a civil authority, Governor Bradford. Other colonies soon afterwards celebrated Thanksgiving, such as the Massachusetts Bay Colony beginning in 1630.
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress designated some days as thanksgiving days each year. The Continental Congress made its first national proclamation for Thanksgiving in 1777. A Thanksgiving was also proclaimed by General George Washington in December, 1777, as a celebration for the defeat of the British at Saratoga. In 1789 President George Washington issued a proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the United States government. Washington again declared a Thanksgiving Day in 1795, and President John Adams did so in 1798 and 1799. It was proclaimed by President James Madison, and by governors throughout the country. By 1858 there were 25 states whose governors had proclaimed a Thanksgiving. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Thanksgiving Day to be celebrated on the final Thursday of November, and since then the holiday has been observed annually each year.
Presidents following Lincoln also declared Thanksgiving to be on the final Thursday of November, until 1939 when Franklin Roosevelt designated it to be on the next-to-last Thursday of the month. He did this to lengthen the Christmas buying season, to help the economy while the Great Depression still lingered on. Roosevelt's change was not legally binding, and many ignored it and continued to celebrate the holiday on the final Thursday of the month. In December of 1941, a bill was passed by the House and Senate and signed by Roosevelt, that made Thanksgiving take place on the fourth Thursday of November. This meant the holiday usually fell on the last Thursday of November, but sometimes on the next to last Thursday.
Thanksgiving celebrations have changed over the years. During the latter half of the 19th century, New England celebrations often had Thanksgiving Eve raffles, and Thanksgiving morning shooting matches—where chickens and turkeys were used as targets. Church services were common, followed by a Thanksgiving feast, where many of today's staples were eaten, such as turkey and pumpkin pie, but also foods such as pigeon pie.
Today Thanksgiving is probably most known for the meal that accompanies it. The main dish is usually turkey, often roasted and stuffed. Additional foods often include mashed potatoes and gravy, squash, corn, brussel sprouts, cranberry sauce, green bean casserole, and pie, such as pumpkin. Americans eat more during this meal than any other day of the year. Those who are religious often attend services and and give thanks.
Parades have been an important aspect of the holiday. Most notably, the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade has been held in New York City since 1924. It is televised on NBC and runs from the Upper West Side of Manhattan to Macy's main location in Herald Square. Parade floats with specific themes, scenes from Broadway plays, large balloon cartoon characters, TV personalities, high school marching bands, and a Santa Claus float are usual parts of the parade. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Detroit, Michigan, also hold prominent parades.
Sports, particularly professional football, have become a big part of the holiday. Since its founding in 1920, The National Football League has held games on Thanksgiving. From 1934 to 1938, and since 1945, the Detroit Lions have played on Thanksgiving. The Dallas Cowboys have done so since 1966. In 2006 a third game on the day was added, and various teams switch off each year playing that game. Another sport-related event popular on the day is the turkey trot, which is a running event held in many cities across the country.
Beginning in 1947, The National Turkey Federation began giving the President one live turkey and two dressed turkeys each Thanksgiving. The tradition of turkey pardoning was started by President Ronald Reagan in 1987, although John F. Kennedy was the first President to spare the turkey given to him. Each president since Reagan has continued the tradition of pardoning a turkey.
Thanksgiving Day, also known as Thanksgiving, is being observed today! It was observed annually on April 13th from 1815 until 1862. It was observed the first Thursday in December in 1865. It has been observed the fourth Thursday in November since 1942.
Celebrate the day by gathering with family and friends and cooking a large Thanksgiving meal. There are many types of food that could be made. Maybe you don't have to worry about eating a lot because you did a turkey trot earlier in the day. After your meal, you could relax by watching the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, a football game, or a film that takes place on the holiday. But, if you ate a lot there's a good chance you'll fall asleep during whatever you are trying to watch. If you are religious this is also a fitting day to go to your house of worship to give thanks.
Winter Countdown ~ 23 days
Christmas Countdown ~ 26 days
New Year Countdown ~ 33 days
Did You Know ~
Give thanks and count your blessings every day, not just on Thanksgiving. | <urn:uuid:dcda0332-1f8a-4e61-89ad-d80c879f4abd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sparkpeople.com/mypage_public_journal_individual.asp?blog_id=6635220 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.982572 | 1,214 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.429378211498... | 1 | Thanksgiving Day is a holiday celebrating and giving thanks for the harvest of the previous year. It has religious and cultural roots, but is also now celebrated as a secular holiday. There is some debate as to when the first modern Thanksgiving in the United States took place—whether it was in Virginia or Massachusetts. Thanksgiving events took place in what would become Virginia, beginning in 1607, and Jamestown, Virginia, started holding thanksgivings in 1610. When 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred, in Virginia in 1619, the day of their arrival was to be celebrated as a day of thanksgiving from there on forth. In 1621 and 1623 there were thanksgiving events held in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The 1621 observance was held after a fruitful growing season, and lasted for three days during the fall. It was not formally known as thanksgiving, but as a harvest festival. It included 90 Native Americans, and 50 Pilgrims from the Mayflower. The 1623 celebration was known as Thanksgiving, and was recognized by a civil authority, Governor Bradford. Other colonies soon afterwards celebrated Thanksgiving, such as the Massachusetts Bay Colony beginning in 1630.
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress designated some days as thanksgiving days each year. The Continental Congress made its first national proclamation for Thanksgiving in 1777. A Thanksgiving was also proclaimed by General George Washington in December, 1777, as a celebration for the defeat of the British at Saratoga. In 1789 President George Washington issued a proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the United States government. Washington again declared a Thanksgiving Day in 1795, and President John Adams did so in 1798 and 1799. It was proclaimed by President James Madison, and by governors throughout the country. By 1858 there were 25 states whose governors had proclaimed a Thanksgiving. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Thanksgiving Day to be celebrated on the final Thursday of November, and since then the holiday has been observed annually each year.
Presidents following Lincoln also declared Thanksgiving to be on the final Thursday of November, until 1939 when Franklin Roosevelt designated it to be on the next-to-last Thursday of the month. He did this to lengthen the Christmas buying season, to help the economy while the Great Depression still lingered on. Roosevelt's change was not legally binding, and many ignored it and continued to celebrate the holiday on the final Thursday of the month. In December of 1941, a bill was passed by the House and Senate and signed by Roosevelt, that made Thanksgiving take place on the fourth Thursday of November. This meant the holiday usually fell on the last Thursday of November, but sometimes on the next to last Thursday.
Thanksgiving celebrations have changed over the years. During the latter half of the 19th century, New England celebrations often had Thanksgiving Eve raffles, and Thanksgiving morning shooting matches—where chickens and turkeys were used as targets. Church services were common, followed by a Thanksgiving feast, where many of today's staples were eaten, such as turkey and pumpkin pie, but also foods such as pigeon pie.
Today Thanksgiving is probably most known for the meal that accompanies it. The main dish is usually turkey, often roasted and stuffed. Additional foods often include mashed potatoes and gravy, squash, corn, brussel sprouts, cranberry sauce, green bean casserole, and pie, such as pumpkin. Americans eat more during this meal than any other day of the year. Those who are religious often attend services and and give thanks.
Parades have been an important aspect of the holiday. Most notably, the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade has been held in New York City since 1924. It is televised on NBC and runs from the Upper West Side of Manhattan to Macy's main location in Herald Square. Parade floats with specific themes, scenes from Broadway plays, large balloon cartoon characters, TV personalities, high school marching bands, and a Santa Claus float are usual parts of the parade. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Detroit, Michigan, also hold prominent parades.
Sports, particularly professional football, have become a big part of the holiday. Since its founding in 1920, The National Football League has held games on Thanksgiving. From 1934 to 1938, and since 1945, the Detroit Lions have played on Thanksgiving. The Dallas Cowboys have done so since 1966. In 2006 a third game on the day was added, and various teams switch off each year playing that game. Another sport-related event popular on the day is the turkey trot, which is a running event held in many cities across the country.
Beginning in 1947, The National Turkey Federation began giving the President one live turkey and two dressed turkeys each Thanksgiving. The tradition of turkey pardoning was started by President Ronald Reagan in 1987, although John F. Kennedy was the first President to spare the turkey given to him. Each president since Reagan has continued the tradition of pardoning a turkey.
Thanksgiving Day, also known as Thanksgiving, is being observed today! It was observed annually on April 13th from 1815 until 1862. It was observed the first Thursday in December in 1865. It has been observed the fourth Thursday in November since 1942.
Celebrate the day by gathering with family and friends and cooking a large Thanksgiving meal. There are many types of food that could be made. Maybe you don't have to worry about eating a lot because you did a turkey trot earlier in the day. After your meal, you could relax by watching the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, a football game, or a film that takes place on the holiday. But, if you ate a lot there's a good chance you'll fall asleep during whatever you are trying to watch. If you are religious this is also a fitting day to go to your house of worship to give thanks.
Winter Countdown ~ 23 days
Christmas Countdown ~ 26 days
New Year Countdown ~ 33 days
Did You Know ~
Give thanks and count your blessings every day, not just on Thanksgiving. | 1,324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the series The Great Artists Collection
Grade Range: 7th – 12th
Page Count: 64
Lexile Level: 1300L
Vincent van Gogh was one of the world's most famous and prolific 19th century painters, yet, only sold one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, (1888) for 400 Francs. The painting, which sold in Brussels just a few months before van Gogh's death at the age of 37, was to provide the artist with a legacy that would see him become a global inspiration for the future of art.Through sheer commitment, and determination, Van Gogh created an artistic phenomenon that would capture the hearts of millions of art lovers for many generations to come. Van Gogh began working in November 1881 at the age of 28, believing that to become a great artist he needed to master the art of drawing before adding color. He drew and practiced drawing for a year before he evolved as an artist, and over the course of 10 years, he created more than 2,000 works of art including his most popular paintings; Sunflowers, Poppies, The Potato Eaters, Starry Night, Irises, The Bedroom, The Mulberry Tree and Blossoming Almond Tree. Bold color would become synonymous with the paintings of Van Gogh in later works and the painter predicted that the great painter of the future “would know how to use color” and produce works of art like no other. Interestingly, it appears that van Gogh did not think he would be the great influential artist of the future, rather, someone who would encourage and do all he could to ensure that this “painter of the future” would prevail. However, Theo van Gogh was convinced of his brother's legacy as a great painter and believed that his older sibling would one day be rightly acknowledged for his talents. Theo's beliefs were to be proven beyond doubt.
Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. | Sitemap | <urn:uuid:723b8117-9344-4258-98f6-6214e5e35eaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lightswitchlearning.com/product/van-gogh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.983046 | 409 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.475021392107... | 4 | From the series The Great Artists Collection
Grade Range: 7th – 12th
Page Count: 64
Lexile Level: 1300L
Vincent van Gogh was one of the world's most famous and prolific 19th century painters, yet, only sold one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, (1888) for 400 Francs. The painting, which sold in Brussels just a few months before van Gogh's death at the age of 37, was to provide the artist with a legacy that would see him become a global inspiration for the future of art.Through sheer commitment, and determination, Van Gogh created an artistic phenomenon that would capture the hearts of millions of art lovers for many generations to come. Van Gogh began working in November 1881 at the age of 28, believing that to become a great artist he needed to master the art of drawing before adding color. He drew and practiced drawing for a year before he evolved as an artist, and over the course of 10 years, he created more than 2,000 works of art including his most popular paintings; Sunflowers, Poppies, The Potato Eaters, Starry Night, Irises, The Bedroom, The Mulberry Tree and Blossoming Almond Tree. Bold color would become synonymous with the paintings of Van Gogh in later works and the painter predicted that the great painter of the future “would know how to use color” and produce works of art like no other. Interestingly, it appears that van Gogh did not think he would be the great influential artist of the future, rather, someone who would encourage and do all he could to ensure that this “painter of the future” would prevail. However, Theo van Gogh was convinced of his brother's legacy as a great painter and believed that his older sibling would one day be rightly acknowledged for his talents. Theo's beliefs were to be proven beyond doubt.
Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. | Sitemap | 431 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last week Year 4 began their new DT topic – Edible Gardens. We began by looking at a variety of herbs that can be easily grown at home, either indoors in pots or outside in the summer months. We played ‘Guess the Herb’ and tried to identify which herb was which from their smell and appearance. Some of us recognised them easily as we associated the smell with different foods we had eaten such as pizza or soup.
We then talked about all the different kinds of herbs; where they came from, what they can be used in and how they can be grown. We were astonished to hear that chives were used as medicine hundreds of years ago and that they have been grown in China since 300BC! Many of the children found the smell of rosemary quite powerful, imagine how bad it must have smelt back in plague times when it was used to freshen the air!
We then drew the different herbs from our observations and recorded some of these facts in our books. | <urn:uuid:1809852d-9518-403c-84cd-647115ea2af9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.corpuschristigateshead.org.uk/category/year-4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.991507 | 202 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.393940508365... | 4 | Last week Year 4 began their new DT topic – Edible Gardens. We began by looking at a variety of herbs that can be easily grown at home, either indoors in pots or outside in the summer months. We played ‘Guess the Herb’ and tried to identify which herb was which from their smell and appearance. Some of us recognised them easily as we associated the smell with different foods we had eaten such as pizza or soup.
We then talked about all the different kinds of herbs; where they came from, what they can be used in and how they can be grown. We were astonished to hear that chives were used as medicine hundreds of years ago and that they have been grown in China since 300BC! Many of the children found the smell of rosemary quite powerful, imagine how bad it must have smelt back in plague times when it was used to freshen the air!
We then drew the different herbs from our observations and recorded some of these facts in our books. | 201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, but the academic consensus is that there is no definite evidence for the month in which Jesus was born.
The tradition of celebrating his birth later in the year started in the fourth century. The marking of the mid-winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, around 23 December, with its powerful connections to the emergence from winter and the celebration of light, warmth, fecundity and positive powers, meant that many religions and cultures had celebrations then.
In the Roman world, the major festival was Saturnalia, held in honour of Saturn, the father of the major gods of the Greeks and Romans.
The celebration of the birthday of Mithras, the sun god of the Persians whose mystery religion was popular among soldiers in the Roman army, was also celebrated on 25 December.
Mithras was often perceived as a rival to Jesus Christ, and Christians took advantage of the popularity of the 25 December date to celebrate the birth of their own influential religious figure.
The popularity of decorating a pine tree as part of Christmas also has its origins in non-Christian traditions from the northern parts of Europe, where the festival of Yule was celebrated at the mid-winter solstice.
The traditional Christmas tree is an evergreen, whose green branches defy the chill winter and point to the ultimate victory of the sun.
Our big-bellied, bearded giver of gifts has his origins in several equally generous figures. Saint Nicholas was a Greek bishop in the fourth century who provided dowries to poor girls to prevent them turning to prostitution.
The figure of Kris Kringle is derived from the German Christ Kindl (Christ child) who was the gift-giver in the German-speaking world. His tradition was brought to the United States by Pennsylvania Dutch people, among whom he is still popular.
Boxing Day grew out of the world of work. The tradition, which some claim may extend back to the late Roman period, but which is probably medieval, is that employers would give their apprentices boxes containing gifts. Masters would do the same for their servants. | <urn:uuid:0c7a77ee-3bb0-4b3f-9514-e8b4ed218749> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2019/12/17/four-things-you-might-not-know-about-christmas.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.98056 | 425 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.11457485705614... | 13 | Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, but the academic consensus is that there is no definite evidence for the month in which Jesus was born.
The tradition of celebrating his birth later in the year started in the fourth century. The marking of the mid-winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, around 23 December, with its powerful connections to the emergence from winter and the celebration of light, warmth, fecundity and positive powers, meant that many religions and cultures had celebrations then.
In the Roman world, the major festival was Saturnalia, held in honour of Saturn, the father of the major gods of the Greeks and Romans.
The celebration of the birthday of Mithras, the sun god of the Persians whose mystery religion was popular among soldiers in the Roman army, was also celebrated on 25 December.
Mithras was often perceived as a rival to Jesus Christ, and Christians took advantage of the popularity of the 25 December date to celebrate the birth of their own influential religious figure.
The popularity of decorating a pine tree as part of Christmas also has its origins in non-Christian traditions from the northern parts of Europe, where the festival of Yule was celebrated at the mid-winter solstice.
The traditional Christmas tree is an evergreen, whose green branches defy the chill winter and point to the ultimate victory of the sun.
Our big-bellied, bearded giver of gifts has his origins in several equally generous figures. Saint Nicholas was a Greek bishop in the fourth century who provided dowries to poor girls to prevent them turning to prostitution.
The figure of Kris Kringle is derived from the German Christ Kindl (Christ child) who was the gift-giver in the German-speaking world. His tradition was brought to the United States by Pennsylvania Dutch people, among whom he is still popular.
Boxing Day grew out of the world of work. The tradition, which some claim may extend back to the late Roman period, but which is probably medieval, is that employers would give their apprentices boxes containing gifts. Masters would do the same for their servants. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Classical Grammar and Literature
21st October 2013
Influence of the Gods in The Iliad
The Gods in The Iliad had a monumental impact on the outcome of the story. They played with the characters, almost like a simple game of chess. After considering a move, they sprung, which eventually culminated into considerable consequences. In the Iliad, battles were won with the help of Zeus and other Gods influencing the opposing army or the area surrounding them. Hector and Patroclus’ deaths were influenced majorly. The Gods in The Iliad played their role as “God” fabulously and unequivocally by manipulating, but not totally controlling a character’s opinions and desires.
Zeus was rather reluctant to tamper with the continuation of battle between the Trojans and Greeks. His brothers and sisters attempted to influence his opinions to their preferred outcomes. Hera and Athena were opposed to the Trojan forces as Paris said that Aphrodite was more beautiful than them. Thus, they attempted to force Zeus to intervene in different circumstances. Rivalries and alliances were created between different Gods long before the Iliad took place; this is shown when Paris had to choose who was the most gorgeous goddess. “Paris liked Aphrodite’s gift best of all, so he awarded the apple to her, and from that time on Hera and Athena hated all Trojans”(Rosenberg 125).
In Patroclus’ case, Achilles asked, “Lord of Olympus, in the past you have heard my prayers. You have honored me, and you have brought destruction upon the Greeks. Now hear my prayer again. I am sending my dearest friend into war with my Myrmidons. Grant him success and glory, but when he has driven the Trojans from the hollow ships, let him return uninjured to me”(Rosenberg 142). Zeus granted Patroclus success in battle, but did not grant him a safe return from battle. Apollo was angered by Patroclus’ many attempts to climb the Trojan’s walls. He told Patroclus that he needed to stand down and that it was not his fate to take Priam with his spear. Apollo then went to Hector and asked why he was not in battle and told him that he would help him kill Patroclus. “Unseen, the Lord of the Silver Bow took his immortal hand and struck the warrior on the back with such a mighty force that him eyes whirled in his head. Then he knocked Patroclus’s helmet to the ground, where it clattered as it rolled beneath the feet of the horses, and its horsehair crest became covered with blood and dust”(Rosenberg 144). With Apollo’s help Hector killed Patroclus, yet Hector’s fate was still intact.
Zeus wanted to intervene in Hector’s death and said, “I pity Hector, whom I… | <urn:uuid:be4733fd-8c25-4fec-b2f1-adc4d3968775> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Gods-In-The-Iliad-598509.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.983358 | 613 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Classical Grammar and Literature
21st October 2013
Influence of the Gods in The Iliad
The Gods in The Iliad had a monumental impact on the outcome of the story. They played with the characters, almost like a simple game of chess. After considering a move, they sprung, which eventually culminated into considerable consequences. In the Iliad, battles were won with the help of Zeus and other Gods influencing the opposing army or the area surrounding them. Hector and Patroclus’ deaths were influenced majorly. The Gods in The Iliad played their role as “God” fabulously and unequivocally by manipulating, but not totally controlling a character’s opinions and desires.
Zeus was rather reluctant to tamper with the continuation of battle between the Trojans and Greeks. His brothers and sisters attempted to influence his opinions to their preferred outcomes. Hera and Athena were opposed to the Trojan forces as Paris said that Aphrodite was more beautiful than them. Thus, they attempted to force Zeus to intervene in different circumstances. Rivalries and alliances were created between different Gods long before the Iliad took place; this is shown when Paris had to choose who was the most gorgeous goddess. “Paris liked Aphrodite’s gift best of all, so he awarded the apple to her, and from that time on Hera and Athena hated all Trojans”(Rosenberg 125).
In Patroclus’ case, Achilles asked, “Lord of Olympus, in the past you have heard my prayers. You have honored me, and you have brought destruction upon the Greeks. Now hear my prayer again. I am sending my dearest friend into war with my Myrmidons. Grant him success and glory, but when he has driven the Trojans from the hollow ships, let him return uninjured to me”(Rosenberg 142). Zeus granted Patroclus success in battle, but did not grant him a safe return from battle. Apollo was angered by Patroclus’ many attempts to climb the Trojan’s walls. He told Patroclus that he needed to stand down and that it was not his fate to take Priam with his spear. Apollo then went to Hector and asked why he was not in battle and told him that he would help him kill Patroclus. “Unseen, the Lord of the Silver Bow took his immortal hand and struck the warrior on the back with such a mighty force that him eyes whirled in his head. Then he knocked Patroclus’s helmet to the ground, where it clattered as it rolled beneath the feet of the horses, and its horsehair crest became covered with blood and dust”(Rosenberg 144). With Apollo’s help Hector killed Patroclus, yet Hector’s fate was still intact.
Zeus wanted to intervene in Hector’s death and said, “I pity Hector, whom I… | 602 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lucretia Mott was considered by many of her contemporaries to be the greatest woman of the 19th century. A Quaker minister shaped by her Nantucket upbringing, she was one of the earliest advocates of women’s rights and an uncompromising abolitionist.
She mentored Elizabeth Cady Stanton, lectured widely and raised money to eliminate slavery, organized the Seneca Falls Convention and helped incorporate Swarthmore College. She was a pacifist commemorated by a sculpture in Syracuse, N.Y., by another pacifist, Pablo Picasso.
Nantucket women had to be independent as their husbands spent years at sea. When her father sailed to China, Lucretia Mott’s mother kept a small store, and traveled to the mainland to trade oil, whalebone and candles for dry goods and groceries. Acting like a man in that way wasn’t unusual for Nantucket Quaker women. Quakers also gave girls the same education as boys and allowed them to become ministers – which is exactly what Lucretia Mott did at 28.
Lucretia Coffin was born Jan. 3, 1793, the second of eight children by Anna Folger and Thomas Coffin, a ship captain and later shipowner.
Early on, Lucretia Mott had a problem with authority. When she was a child, her grandmother told her she couldn’t go on a hayride because she’d misbehaved. Lucretia Mott talked about the incident 40 years later. More importantly, she resisted the authority of the Quaker elders who didn’t mind women’s independence but weren’t so keen on women’s equality.
“We too often bind ourselves by authorities rather than by the truth,” she said.
She was given the same education as the Quaker boys on the island. She later wrote, “education & intellectual culture have been for years equal for girls & boys — so that their women are prepared to be the companions of men in every sense — and their social circles are never divided.”
The whaling industry influenced her in another way: The Nantucket Quakers not only tolerated but employed Wampanoag Indians and African-Americans as crews on whaling ships. The Nantucket Society of Friends was the first in America to oppose slavery, and Nantucket’s slaves were freed shortly after the Revolution.
When she was four years old, Lucretia Mott was shown at school a British abolitionist’s diagram of the 482 slaves packed aboard the Brooke on their voyage from Africa to Jamaica. It was something else she told her children and grandchildren. She also renounced the use of products made by slaves, such as calico, sugar, rice and indigo dye – something she was taught in her Nantucket school.
In 1801, her mother invited Rhode Island Quaker minister Elizabeth Coggeshell to her home. Lucretia was intrigued by the role model of a minister who wasn’t afraid to challenge authority.
Mott was sent to a Quaker boarding school in Dutchess County, N.Y. Becoming a teacher inspired her interest in women’s rights, as she found out men were making three times as much as she did.
Lucretia Mott would move with her family to Philadelphia, marry James Mott and become a Quaker minister. But as Elizabeth Cady Stanton later said, her 11 years on Nantucket were central to the public activism that would make her one of the most famous women in America.
With thanks to Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century by Carol Faulkner. This post was updated from the 2014 story. | <urn:uuid:fe67ad4d-96fb-419e-b59b-efd0b88dfce8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/nantucket-childhood-lucretia-mott/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.981823 | 790 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.421460688... | 2 | Lucretia Mott was considered by many of her contemporaries to be the greatest woman of the 19th century. A Quaker minister shaped by her Nantucket upbringing, she was one of the earliest advocates of women’s rights and an uncompromising abolitionist.
She mentored Elizabeth Cady Stanton, lectured widely and raised money to eliminate slavery, organized the Seneca Falls Convention and helped incorporate Swarthmore College. She was a pacifist commemorated by a sculpture in Syracuse, N.Y., by another pacifist, Pablo Picasso.
Nantucket women had to be independent as their husbands spent years at sea. When her father sailed to China, Lucretia Mott’s mother kept a small store, and traveled to the mainland to trade oil, whalebone and candles for dry goods and groceries. Acting like a man in that way wasn’t unusual for Nantucket Quaker women. Quakers also gave girls the same education as boys and allowed them to become ministers – which is exactly what Lucretia Mott did at 28.
Lucretia Coffin was born Jan. 3, 1793, the second of eight children by Anna Folger and Thomas Coffin, a ship captain and later shipowner.
Early on, Lucretia Mott had a problem with authority. When she was a child, her grandmother told her she couldn’t go on a hayride because she’d misbehaved. Lucretia Mott talked about the incident 40 years later. More importantly, she resisted the authority of the Quaker elders who didn’t mind women’s independence but weren’t so keen on women’s equality.
“We too often bind ourselves by authorities rather than by the truth,” she said.
She was given the same education as the Quaker boys on the island. She later wrote, “education & intellectual culture have been for years equal for girls & boys — so that their women are prepared to be the companions of men in every sense — and their social circles are never divided.”
The whaling industry influenced her in another way: The Nantucket Quakers not only tolerated but employed Wampanoag Indians and African-Americans as crews on whaling ships. The Nantucket Society of Friends was the first in America to oppose slavery, and Nantucket’s slaves were freed shortly after the Revolution.
When she was four years old, Lucretia Mott was shown at school a British abolitionist’s diagram of the 482 slaves packed aboard the Brooke on their voyage from Africa to Jamaica. It was something else she told her children and grandchildren. She also renounced the use of products made by slaves, such as calico, sugar, rice and indigo dye – something she was taught in her Nantucket school.
In 1801, her mother invited Rhode Island Quaker minister Elizabeth Coggeshell to her home. Lucretia was intrigued by the role model of a minister who wasn’t afraid to challenge authority.
Mott was sent to a Quaker boarding school in Dutchess County, N.Y. Becoming a teacher inspired her interest in women’s rights, as she found out men were making three times as much as she did.
Lucretia Mott would move with her family to Philadelphia, marry James Mott and become a Quaker minister. But as Elizabeth Cady Stanton later said, her 11 years on Nantucket were central to the public activism that would make her one of the most famous women in America.
With thanks to Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century by Carol Faulkner. This post was updated from the 2014 story. | 765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The seven ancient wonders of the world
Only the pyramids stand today. What did the other 6 look like?
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World were marvels of architecture, human ingenuity, and engineering on a scale that even the greatest artists of contemporary times would have a hard time replicating today. These man-made structures were all built sometime during the classical era and stretched across the current known western-world at that time. In books and writings that reference the historian Herodotus (484 - 425 BCE) and Callimachus of Cyrene (305 - 240 BCE) from the Museum of Alexandria, scholars over the years discovered the lists of the seven wonders of classical antiquity.
The list we currently reference today was compiled in the Middle Ages and only includes places that the ancient Greeks had visited or conquered. Only one of the seven ancient wonders still stands – and arguably one of the most famous ones at that, the Great Pyramid of Giza.
From a time spanning roughly between 2650 - 3rd Century BCE, these masterpieces dotted the landscapes for a variety of purposes. Some were great tombs housing the remains of powerful kings, monolithic statues praising great deities and others were frankly just about testing the limits of what was possible in the early technological and civilized prowess of mankind.
While the majority of these constructions were destroyed, in 2007 over 100 million people voted to declare a New Seven Wonders of the World. Many of these places are UNESCO Heritage Sites (UNESCO was not responsible for this new list,) but nonetheless, people felt that these newly championed wonders represented a shared global heritage throughout the entire world.
This new list is equally as monumental and powerful as the one that preceded it, boasting such man-made creations like the Roman Colosseum or the Incan city of Machu Picchu. There have been many differing lists put out through the years with some criteria even including natural wonders of the world. The only official list – due to Herodotus’ efforts which has stood the test of time – is the original ancient wonders of the world.
So without further ado, this is the full ancient list in its entirety.
Great pyramid at Giza, Egypt
The Great Pyramid, commissioned and built by the Pharaoh Khufu, is one of the oldest buildings in existence. It is 456 ft. high and thought to be nearly 4500 years old. It is the largest and oldest of all of the ancient pyramids. Its magnificence and construction has puzzled scholars for years. It’s made of some 2 million stone blocks that weigh around 2 to 30 tons each.
Recently in 2013, archaeologists discovered the first primary historical document during the construction of the pyramid. Logbooks over 4500 years old titled the Diary of Merer recorded the daily activities of workers who helped build the pyramid. These papyri described the transportation of limestone from a harbor nearby. It is the only ancient wonder still in existence.
Hanging gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were supposedly built around 600 BC. Herodotus claimed that the walls stretched for 56 miles, 80 feet thick and reached 320 feet high. Records state that it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1st century BCE. Their existence is debated as the history was not chronicled in Babylonian records but through exterior sources. According to ancient sources, the gardens were built by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife Amytis in 600 BCE.
The Hanging Gardens were most likely built as huge rooftop gardens with foundations of multi-level terraces. With a column structure, they would have been filled in with dirt to allow large areas of plants and trees to grow. Over the years as this lush vegetation began to grow over the sides, it would give the effect that the plants hanging down were floating in a mountain landscape. This would have been a sight to behold in Babylon.
Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece
The Statue of Zeus was sculpted and built in 435 BCE. It was 40 feet tall and stood for hundreds of years before being destroyed by Christian leaders in the 5th and 6th centuries. The statue was a chryselephantine statue – made of ivory and gold. There are no remains of the statue nor were there many picture representations of it either. Doubts remain about the full scope of this wonder, but there is much to be known about Zeus’s builder, Phidias an Athenian sculptor.
The Statue of Zeus resided in a temple in the City of Olympia, which was an important cultural center for the ancient Greeks. It was home to the original Olympic games and its patron deity was the God of Gods Zeus. Descriptions of the statue are sparse but it’s believed that the parts of the body were made of ivory, while Zeus’ beard and clothes were made of gold. A coin from that time shows his likeness and archeologists post that he would have been holding a Victory in his right hand and scepter in his other hand. The cloak was ornamented with many bright colors.
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
The Temple of Artemis took over 120 years to be built before being completed in 550 BCE. It was dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis. Ephesus was a Greek Colony in Asia minor and the construction project was sponsored by King Croesus of Lydia. Many ancient accounts were awestruck by the beauty of power that this structure elicited.
It was supported by 127 60 foot columns, with the max height of the temple standing 425 feet high and stretching back some 225 feet. In 356 BCE, a man named Herostratus sought out to set fire to the temple. His reasoning was to achieve everlasting fame and be associated with destroying something so wonderful. The Ephesians wanted to make sure his name would not stand the test of time, but historians wrote it down anyways. Years later, Alexander the Great would propose to rebuild the temple but the Ephesians refused.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus was built in 351 BCE and rose to around 135 feet high. Its status as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world doesn’t derive from its size or strength, but because of the intricacies of the sculpture reliefs it had to adorn its four walls.
The building was designed by Greek architects and four leading sculptors who were responsible for each side. There were 36 columns and 10-foot statues of Greeks battling Amazons, marble chariots and step pyramids leading to the pinnacle of the structure. Some of these pieces of art have survived today. It was damaged over time by a number of earthquakes before being totally destroyed and ransacked in 1494 by European Crusaders.
Colossus of Rhodes
The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue dedicated to the god Helios. It was constructed between 292 and 280 BCE. At 110 feet tall it overlooked the harbor of Rhodes and stood on a base similar to the Statue of Liberty – which was modeled on the Colossus. The statue was commissioned after the Rhodians defeated an invading army in 304 BCE. Notably, the statue only stood for 56 years before being knocked out by an earthquake.
The statue was made purely out of bronze. Its ruins had become an attraction for over 800 years following its fall. Some ancient sources claimed that some of the fingers of the Colossus were larger than many statues at that time. Eventually, the ruins were sold to a Jewish merchant in 654.
Lighthouse at Alexandria, Egypt
In an age far before skyscrapers, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was one of the tallest buildings in the world for many centuries. Between the 3rd century BCE and 1300 AD, the Lighthouse of Alexandria stood nearly 440 feet tall in Egypt. The lighthouse was built on the island of Pharos, commissioned by Ptolemy I Soter.
Its construction was completed in 280 BCE. It was the third tallest building following the pyramids. A mirror built inside the lighthouse allowed it to be seen as far our as 35 miles into the sea. It was built with a square base and topped off in a circular fashion to build it out to its final height. Many depictions can be found throughout the historical record.
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0.52708482742... | 1 | The seven ancient wonders of the world
Only the pyramids stand today. What did the other 6 look like?
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World were marvels of architecture, human ingenuity, and engineering on a scale that even the greatest artists of contemporary times would have a hard time replicating today. These man-made structures were all built sometime during the classical era and stretched across the current known western-world at that time. In books and writings that reference the historian Herodotus (484 - 425 BCE) and Callimachus of Cyrene (305 - 240 BCE) from the Museum of Alexandria, scholars over the years discovered the lists of the seven wonders of classical antiquity.
The list we currently reference today was compiled in the Middle Ages and only includes places that the ancient Greeks had visited or conquered. Only one of the seven ancient wonders still stands – and arguably one of the most famous ones at that, the Great Pyramid of Giza.
From a time spanning roughly between 2650 - 3rd Century BCE, these masterpieces dotted the landscapes for a variety of purposes. Some were great tombs housing the remains of powerful kings, monolithic statues praising great deities and others were frankly just about testing the limits of what was possible in the early technological and civilized prowess of mankind.
While the majority of these constructions were destroyed, in 2007 over 100 million people voted to declare a New Seven Wonders of the World. Many of these places are UNESCO Heritage Sites (UNESCO was not responsible for this new list,) but nonetheless, people felt that these newly championed wonders represented a shared global heritage throughout the entire world.
This new list is equally as monumental and powerful as the one that preceded it, boasting such man-made creations like the Roman Colosseum or the Incan city of Machu Picchu. There have been many differing lists put out through the years with some criteria even including natural wonders of the world. The only official list – due to Herodotus’ efforts which has stood the test of time – is the original ancient wonders of the world.
So without further ado, this is the full ancient list in its entirety.
Great pyramid at Giza, Egypt
The Great Pyramid, commissioned and built by the Pharaoh Khufu, is one of the oldest buildings in existence. It is 456 ft. high and thought to be nearly 4500 years old. It is the largest and oldest of all of the ancient pyramids. Its magnificence and construction has puzzled scholars for years. It’s made of some 2 million stone blocks that weigh around 2 to 30 tons each.
Recently in 2013, archaeologists discovered the first primary historical document during the construction of the pyramid. Logbooks over 4500 years old titled the Diary of Merer recorded the daily activities of workers who helped build the pyramid. These papyri described the transportation of limestone from a harbor nearby. It is the only ancient wonder still in existence.
Hanging gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were supposedly built around 600 BC. Herodotus claimed that the walls stretched for 56 miles, 80 feet thick and reached 320 feet high. Records state that it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1st century BCE. Their existence is debated as the history was not chronicled in Babylonian records but through exterior sources. According to ancient sources, the gardens were built by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife Amytis in 600 BCE.
The Hanging Gardens were most likely built as huge rooftop gardens with foundations of multi-level terraces. With a column structure, they would have been filled in with dirt to allow large areas of plants and trees to grow. Over the years as this lush vegetation began to grow over the sides, it would give the effect that the plants hanging down were floating in a mountain landscape. This would have been a sight to behold in Babylon.
Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece
The Statue of Zeus was sculpted and built in 435 BCE. It was 40 feet tall and stood for hundreds of years before being destroyed by Christian leaders in the 5th and 6th centuries. The statue was a chryselephantine statue – made of ivory and gold. There are no remains of the statue nor were there many picture representations of it either. Doubts remain about the full scope of this wonder, but there is much to be known about Zeus’s builder, Phidias an Athenian sculptor.
The Statue of Zeus resided in a temple in the City of Olympia, which was an important cultural center for the ancient Greeks. It was home to the original Olympic games and its patron deity was the God of Gods Zeus. Descriptions of the statue are sparse but it’s believed that the parts of the body were made of ivory, while Zeus’ beard and clothes were made of gold. A coin from that time shows his likeness and archeologists post that he would have been holding a Victory in his right hand and scepter in his other hand. The cloak was ornamented with many bright colors.
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
The Temple of Artemis took over 120 years to be built before being completed in 550 BCE. It was dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis. Ephesus was a Greek Colony in Asia minor and the construction project was sponsored by King Croesus of Lydia. Many ancient accounts were awestruck by the beauty of power that this structure elicited.
It was supported by 127 60 foot columns, with the max height of the temple standing 425 feet high and stretching back some 225 feet. In 356 BCE, a man named Herostratus sought out to set fire to the temple. His reasoning was to achieve everlasting fame and be associated with destroying something so wonderful. The Ephesians wanted to make sure his name would not stand the test of time, but historians wrote it down anyways. Years later, Alexander the Great would propose to rebuild the temple but the Ephesians refused.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus was built in 351 BCE and rose to around 135 feet high. Its status as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world doesn’t derive from its size or strength, but because of the intricacies of the sculpture reliefs it had to adorn its four walls.
The building was designed by Greek architects and four leading sculptors who were responsible for each side. There were 36 columns and 10-foot statues of Greeks battling Amazons, marble chariots and step pyramids leading to the pinnacle of the structure. Some of these pieces of art have survived today. It was damaged over time by a number of earthquakes before being totally destroyed and ransacked in 1494 by European Crusaders.
Colossus of Rhodes
The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue dedicated to the god Helios. It was constructed between 292 and 280 BCE. At 110 feet tall it overlooked the harbor of Rhodes and stood on a base similar to the Statue of Liberty – which was modeled on the Colossus. The statue was commissioned after the Rhodians defeated an invading army in 304 BCE. Notably, the statue only stood for 56 years before being knocked out by an earthquake.
The statue was made purely out of bronze. Its ruins had become an attraction for over 800 years following its fall. Some ancient sources claimed that some of the fingers of the Colossus were larger than many statues at that time. Eventually, the ruins were sold to a Jewish merchant in 654.
Lighthouse at Alexandria, Egypt
In an age far before skyscrapers, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was one of the tallest buildings in the world for many centuries. Between the 3rd century BCE and 1300 AD, the Lighthouse of Alexandria stood nearly 440 feet tall in Egypt. The lighthouse was built on the island of Pharos, commissioned by Ptolemy I Soter.
Its construction was completed in 280 BCE. It was the third tallest building following the pyramids. A mirror built inside the lighthouse allowed it to be seen as far our as 35 miles into the sea. It was built with a square base and topped off in a circular fashion to build it out to its final height. Many depictions can be found throughout the historical record.
When it comes to foreign intervention, we often overlook the practices that creep into life back home. | 1,826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Babies and Their Senses
Infants and young children vary greatly in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur. This article will help parents and caregivers become more aware of individual differences among babies' preferences for sensory experience.
In this resource
Healthy babies come into this world beautifully equipped to get acquainted with it and to discover how to use it to meet their needs. They have been hearing sounds within their mothers’ bodies and also sounds that penetrate the womb from the outside world. Babies recognize frequently heard sounds—including their mothers’ voice and their parents’ favorite music—and prefer them after birth, as they may later prefer familiar sights, smells, tastes, and textures. Babies come into the world prepared to enjoy what is novel as well as what is familiar. They pay more focused and intense attention to new stimuli, especially those coming from the human world. A complex drawing receives more concentrated attention than a simple color; infants give their most intense attention to a drawing—or even a schematic approximation—of a human face.
The baby uses its senses both to get acquainted with the environment and to achieve comfort, and every baby goes about this differently. Once I visited a hospital and put three babies in succession back in their cribs after a feeding. One baby relaxed, sucking his thumb. Another kicked at a balloon hanging on the foot of his crib. A third focused on pictures on the wall.
Infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur. With this article I hope to help parents and caregivers become more aware of individual differences among babies’ preferences for sensory experience.
Eager to Touch, See, and Be a Part of the World
Here are one mother’s memories of the sensory responses of her baby: Carl’s responsiveness was apparent at birth, when he started kicking during an interview between the doctor and me. He had had a natural birth with no anesthesia, and he was very alert, looking all around, looking at himself in a mirror. He reacted to TV changes. At two months, when I brought him a little sheepskin blanket, he wiggled and moved around as if to increase the feelings it gave him. At three months, he imitated my hand-waving.
Some little children are very much interested in the natural world. My seven-month-old grandson would stretch out his hands and arms to catch a sunbeam as he sat on the grass under a tree. His older sister, at nearly two, would happily run with arms stretched out to catch a breeze! Another little child was fascinated with the moons she thought she saw from inside her house. “Two moons!” she insisted, as her grandfather held her first at one window, then moved to the next window. She could not accept his correction - that it was the same moon she saw through the two windows. In other words, perception of a sensory stimulus in the first two years is not clearly distinguished from the context in which it is seen.
Some infants and toddlers find their greatest satisfaction in sensory experience of the human world. At four months, Ellen kicked and laughed in excitement as her adoring grandmother approached her. Jennifer, at the same age, showed bouncing delight when she heard her father’s footsteps. As adults, both women continue to show affection intensely and vigorously.
Even very young children have definite preferences for play materials. Al’s nursery school teacher told his parents to give him playthings suitable for his age, such as blocks. Al already had blocks, but ignored them; he did not care for them at all. He liked colors, in crayons and paints. Kevin, however, loved blocks from his earliest years and later remembered with delight all the things he could do with them—make roads, bridges, houses, whole towns. Blocks were the beginning of his interest in wood, in learning to create tables and other things out of wood, an interest that persisted into adulthood. (Al never developed an interest in making things. He became absorbed in music, then books.)
Continuity of Sensory Interests Across Our Lives
In some cases, a strong sensory interest in infancy is deeply rooted and develops into a life career. This occurred with Kim, who tried at seven months to catch a sunbeam. He continued to be interested in aspects of light. At 13, he longed to make a laser. He read about the process at length and told me wistfully that he knew he could make one, but he didn’t t have the $75 he needed for a ruby rod. I added up birthday and Christmas gifts and gave him the $75; he made the laser. His school gave him an “A” on the project but paid no further attention. The next year, Kim became interested in photography and made photographs of the graduating class. He later entered military service, studying electronics. He continued his self-education until he was lecturing MIT students even though he had not had a college education himself. Kim’s absorbing interest in light in various manifestations predominated over all other interests.
Another child, Jeremy, is typical of those babies who are gifted in certain areas of sensory experience and at the same time have difficulties in other areas. Jeremy was extremely sensitive to touch and resisted having his face washed, nose cleaned, or hair cut. His balance was poor, and he did not walk until 18 months. However, this child loved listening to music and his parents’ conversation. By 14 months he knew 200 words. Jeremy’s parents were not upset by his limitations—they respected them, and tried to avoid disturbing him while they supported his good areas of functioning.
Jeremy’s good language led to early reading and easy mastery of school tasks, while his sensitivity to contact prevented him from getting into body encounters with other children. He was not a fighter, but he was a good actor in school plays. He also has a good voice and as an adult loves to sing and perform.
Attention, Focus and Persistence
The quality of a child’s attention is important because it can give us some insight into what a particular experience means to him. Little Stevie’s way of looking was intense, as if he were trying to fathom the meaning of the object he was observing. This intensity continued as his scientific interest developed, until, as an adult, he was working on microscopic studies of DNA. While some children’s intense interests are related to talents, others have different roots. Louise loved trees. As a baby, she lay in her carriage watching sunbeams shining through their branches. This pleasure continued into adulthood, as she watched the shifting sunlight in trees around her country house.
Babies differ in the number of their intense interests. Al was absorbed in music; Molly was intensely interested both in music and in colors; Midge loved music and colors and rhythmic movement. All of these children were gifted in these areas.
Not surprisingly, parents and grandparents are sometimes especially alert to the special quality of a baby’s attention. The mother of a two-day-old baby was holding her as the baby gazed intently at her mother. The grandmother said, “She doesn’t look at me like that - I think she recognizes you.” A two-month-old baby stared intently at his hands, twisting and turning them as his parents and their pediatrician talked. His mother commented, “He has just discovered his hands.”
Often, the excitement of a sensory experience arises from a baby’s ability to control it. In the early months, mobiles suspended in the crib are interesting because they move or make a sound when the baby touches them. As soon as a baby can sit up in a tiny bathtub, floating toys that move in response to the infant’s splashing are a source of delight. The eight-month-old in a high chair soon discovers the fun of grasping a spoon and dropping it over the edge of the tray, retrieving it by a string or having it restored by the caregiver (of course, at this age, games of disappearance and reappearance are fascinating.)
Familiarity and Strangeness
Sensitivity to strangeness can be either a response to something that is actually strange—that is, completely different from what the child is accustomed to—or it can be simply a response to a new experience. For some children, nothing feels strange; for others, every new experience, every new person, is strange.
Adults may easily underestimate young children’s ability to discriminate between the familiar and the strange. At eight months, our baby boy loved a Czecho-Slovak dance record and wanted to hear it over and over. At three years, he asked his grandmother to play a “Beethoven record.” But when she put on the Fifth Symphony, he whimpered, “I wanted the Sixth Symphony!”
The same stimuli can be experienced differently by different babies. Sudden noises—an automobile honk, a doorbell, a slamming door—are a source of curiosity for one baby, a cause for alarm for another. Some babies sleep comfortably anywhere; others are restless unless they are in their own familiar crib. A six-week-old baby boy refused to nurse after his mother had been jogging. The exercise had produced lactic acid, which is secreted into the milk and affects its taste. When this mother gave the baby previously pumped milk, he accepted it.
Some babies seem instantly at home in the world. A three-month-old who visited me in my home for the first time laughed joyously, as if I were a beloved old friend. In contrast, Nina was a sensitive little thing. Sitting in the curl of her mother’s right arm, she looked wide-eyed at the incomprehensible world, which never seemed to become more comprehensible. Her wary expression never relaxed.
How Adults Influence Babies' Sensory Experiences
As an active baby reaches to touch objects in the environment, he encounters things that give him pleasure or pain. He learns what is “out there,” and he also discovers what he likes and dislikes. Babies experience feelings of pleasure and pain in different areas, and at different levels of intensity. Steve was very sensitive to textures as a tiny boy—any woolen pants had to be lined to protect against the feeling of the wool. At the same time, he loved soft surfaces, such as that on a fuzzy teddy bear.
Some babies are not very active—they don’t reach, grab, or play—but they do spend a lot of time watching everything that goes on and listening to all the sounds they can hear. When a baby stares or watches quietly, he is taking in a great deal. We may say, “He doesn’t miss a thing.” Some preschool children spend a great deal of time in any new situation surveying all of the possibilities. When they go into action, they are selective, using observations they have stored up. The quiet child who takes in everything may reflect what has been going on in his mind in his creative productions; these may be more original or more complex than those of the active children.
The baby’s parents and other caregivers restrain or encourage her in her active exploration or quiet observation of the world. When the infant finds books to pull out of the bottom shelf of the bookcase, a concerned grownup may replace the book with a “No! No!” and a shake of his head. But when the child pulls out pans from the low cupboard in the kitchen, she is greeted with approving smiles. The baby is reproved when she puts certain things into her mouth to explore by licking or biting. Yet her smearing baby kisses on mother’s hand are greeted with her kisses and smiles. In these and other ways, the baby’s world is shaped—she learns to use her senses selectively, in ways approved by her culture.
Sensory Experience and Development
The senses constantly guide, stimulate, and reward the actions of the baby. Senses and motor skills cooperate. Neither can function without the other. Looking depends on movement of the eyes from birth, and soon, the head and body, as the baby turns or stretches to see new objects, or to hear a new sound.
As babies watch and listen to what goes on around them, they soon go beyond a reflex reaction to participating with greater awareness and planning in what they see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. They discriminate between shapes and sounds and learn what to expect and what to reach for. They formulate whole images by synthesizing sensory information. In time, toward the end of their first year or early in the second year, they connect these images with words, so they can begin to ask for what they want. But the process of connecting words and images is much slower than the development of the images themselves. The baby recognizes mother long before he becomes able to call her.
Sensory experiences tell us who we are and where we are. The accumulation of images seen and heard, tasted, touched and smelled build a complex image of his surroundings in a little child’s mind. Even a very young child invests a new sensory experience with personal meaning. “Granny!” was the enthusiastic greeting of a three-year-old I had never met before when, in my sixties, I visited her family. The child saw that I was an old lady, a “granny.”
What the child has enjoyed most in the earliest years of life may be deeply cherished and held in long memory. Some adults re-create their earliest sensory experiences in music, painting, and literature. Some continue or elaborate their early sensory experiences in their occupations, domestic arts, and religious observance. Some guide new generations of babies and young children as they explore the comforts, delights, and wonders of the world.
This article was edited from the Zero to Three Journal. To browse article or subscribe to the Journal, click here.
By: Lois Barclay Murphy, Ph.D., with Rachel Moon, M.D., Washington, D.C. Edited from the Zero to Three Journal
Read more about:
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For babies, play is not just about toys, it’s about back-and-forth interactions. Anything from singing a song to your baby as you change his diaper to cooing and smiling back and forth with him as he…
Try these fun games and activities with your children and watch how their eagerness to learn and their relationship with you grow! | <urn:uuid:e741951a-7f6f-42fc-bdb1-80f0c8ff4a62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/242-babies-and-their-senses | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.980572 | 3,074 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.44137996435165... | 1 | Babies and Their Senses
Infants and young children vary greatly in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur. This article will help parents and caregivers become more aware of individual differences among babies' preferences for sensory experience.
In this resource
Healthy babies come into this world beautifully equipped to get acquainted with it and to discover how to use it to meet their needs. They have been hearing sounds within their mothers’ bodies and also sounds that penetrate the womb from the outside world. Babies recognize frequently heard sounds—including their mothers’ voice and their parents’ favorite music—and prefer them after birth, as they may later prefer familiar sights, smells, tastes, and textures. Babies come into the world prepared to enjoy what is novel as well as what is familiar. They pay more focused and intense attention to new stimuli, especially those coming from the human world. A complex drawing receives more concentrated attention than a simple color; infants give their most intense attention to a drawing—or even a schematic approximation—of a human face.
The baby uses its senses both to get acquainted with the environment and to achieve comfort, and every baby goes about this differently. Once I visited a hospital and put three babies in succession back in their cribs after a feeding. One baby relaxed, sucking his thumb. Another kicked at a balloon hanging on the foot of his crib. A third focused on pictures on the wall.
Infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur. With this article I hope to help parents and caregivers become more aware of individual differences among babies’ preferences for sensory experience.
Eager to Touch, See, and Be a Part of the World
Here are one mother’s memories of the sensory responses of her baby: Carl’s responsiveness was apparent at birth, when he started kicking during an interview between the doctor and me. He had had a natural birth with no anesthesia, and he was very alert, looking all around, looking at himself in a mirror. He reacted to TV changes. At two months, when I brought him a little sheepskin blanket, he wiggled and moved around as if to increase the feelings it gave him. At three months, he imitated my hand-waving.
Some little children are very much interested in the natural world. My seven-month-old grandson would stretch out his hands and arms to catch a sunbeam as he sat on the grass under a tree. His older sister, at nearly two, would happily run with arms stretched out to catch a breeze! Another little child was fascinated with the moons she thought she saw from inside her house. “Two moons!” she insisted, as her grandfather held her first at one window, then moved to the next window. She could not accept his correction - that it was the same moon she saw through the two windows. In other words, perception of a sensory stimulus in the first two years is not clearly distinguished from the context in which it is seen.
Some infants and toddlers find their greatest satisfaction in sensory experience of the human world. At four months, Ellen kicked and laughed in excitement as her adoring grandmother approached her. Jennifer, at the same age, showed bouncing delight when she heard her father’s footsteps. As adults, both women continue to show affection intensely and vigorously.
Even very young children have definite preferences for play materials. Al’s nursery school teacher told his parents to give him playthings suitable for his age, such as blocks. Al already had blocks, but ignored them; he did not care for them at all. He liked colors, in crayons and paints. Kevin, however, loved blocks from his earliest years and later remembered with delight all the things he could do with them—make roads, bridges, houses, whole towns. Blocks were the beginning of his interest in wood, in learning to create tables and other things out of wood, an interest that persisted into adulthood. (Al never developed an interest in making things. He became absorbed in music, then books.)
Continuity of Sensory Interests Across Our Lives
In some cases, a strong sensory interest in infancy is deeply rooted and develops into a life career. This occurred with Kim, who tried at seven months to catch a sunbeam. He continued to be interested in aspects of light. At 13, he longed to make a laser. He read about the process at length and told me wistfully that he knew he could make one, but he didn’t t have the $75 he needed for a ruby rod. I added up birthday and Christmas gifts and gave him the $75; he made the laser. His school gave him an “A” on the project but paid no further attention. The next year, Kim became interested in photography and made photographs of the graduating class. He later entered military service, studying electronics. He continued his self-education until he was lecturing MIT students even though he had not had a college education himself. Kim’s absorbing interest in light in various manifestations predominated over all other interests.
Another child, Jeremy, is typical of those babies who are gifted in certain areas of sensory experience and at the same time have difficulties in other areas. Jeremy was extremely sensitive to touch and resisted having his face washed, nose cleaned, or hair cut. His balance was poor, and he did not walk until 18 months. However, this child loved listening to music and his parents’ conversation. By 14 months he knew 200 words. Jeremy’s parents were not upset by his limitations—they respected them, and tried to avoid disturbing him while they supported his good areas of functioning.
Jeremy’s good language led to early reading and easy mastery of school tasks, while his sensitivity to contact prevented him from getting into body encounters with other children. He was not a fighter, but he was a good actor in school plays. He also has a good voice and as an adult loves to sing and perform.
Attention, Focus and Persistence
The quality of a child’s attention is important because it can give us some insight into what a particular experience means to him. Little Stevie’s way of looking was intense, as if he were trying to fathom the meaning of the object he was observing. This intensity continued as his scientific interest developed, until, as an adult, he was working on microscopic studies of DNA. While some children’s intense interests are related to talents, others have different roots. Louise loved trees. As a baby, she lay in her carriage watching sunbeams shining through their branches. This pleasure continued into adulthood, as she watched the shifting sunlight in trees around her country house.
Babies differ in the number of their intense interests. Al was absorbed in music; Molly was intensely interested both in music and in colors; Midge loved music and colors and rhythmic movement. All of these children were gifted in these areas.
Not surprisingly, parents and grandparents are sometimes especially alert to the special quality of a baby’s attention. The mother of a two-day-old baby was holding her as the baby gazed intently at her mother. The grandmother said, “She doesn’t look at me like that - I think she recognizes you.” A two-month-old baby stared intently at his hands, twisting and turning them as his parents and their pediatrician talked. His mother commented, “He has just discovered his hands.”
Often, the excitement of a sensory experience arises from a baby’s ability to control it. In the early months, mobiles suspended in the crib are interesting because they move or make a sound when the baby touches them. As soon as a baby can sit up in a tiny bathtub, floating toys that move in response to the infant’s splashing are a source of delight. The eight-month-old in a high chair soon discovers the fun of grasping a spoon and dropping it over the edge of the tray, retrieving it by a string or having it restored by the caregiver (of course, at this age, games of disappearance and reappearance are fascinating.)
Familiarity and Strangeness
Sensitivity to strangeness can be either a response to something that is actually strange—that is, completely different from what the child is accustomed to—or it can be simply a response to a new experience. For some children, nothing feels strange; for others, every new experience, every new person, is strange.
Adults may easily underestimate young children’s ability to discriminate between the familiar and the strange. At eight months, our baby boy loved a Czecho-Slovak dance record and wanted to hear it over and over. At three years, he asked his grandmother to play a “Beethoven record.” But when she put on the Fifth Symphony, he whimpered, “I wanted the Sixth Symphony!”
The same stimuli can be experienced differently by different babies. Sudden noises—an automobile honk, a doorbell, a slamming door—are a source of curiosity for one baby, a cause for alarm for another. Some babies sleep comfortably anywhere; others are restless unless they are in their own familiar crib. A six-week-old baby boy refused to nurse after his mother had been jogging. The exercise had produced lactic acid, which is secreted into the milk and affects its taste. When this mother gave the baby previously pumped milk, he accepted it.
Some babies seem instantly at home in the world. A three-month-old who visited me in my home for the first time laughed joyously, as if I were a beloved old friend. In contrast, Nina was a sensitive little thing. Sitting in the curl of her mother’s right arm, she looked wide-eyed at the incomprehensible world, which never seemed to become more comprehensible. Her wary expression never relaxed.
How Adults Influence Babies' Sensory Experiences
As an active baby reaches to touch objects in the environment, he encounters things that give him pleasure or pain. He learns what is “out there,” and he also discovers what he likes and dislikes. Babies experience feelings of pleasure and pain in different areas, and at different levels of intensity. Steve was very sensitive to textures as a tiny boy—any woolen pants had to be lined to protect against the feeling of the wool. At the same time, he loved soft surfaces, such as that on a fuzzy teddy bear.
Some babies are not very active—they don’t reach, grab, or play—but they do spend a lot of time watching everything that goes on and listening to all the sounds they can hear. When a baby stares or watches quietly, he is taking in a great deal. We may say, “He doesn’t miss a thing.” Some preschool children spend a great deal of time in any new situation surveying all of the possibilities. When they go into action, they are selective, using observations they have stored up. The quiet child who takes in everything may reflect what has been going on in his mind in his creative productions; these may be more original or more complex than those of the active children.
The baby’s parents and other caregivers restrain or encourage her in her active exploration or quiet observation of the world. When the infant finds books to pull out of the bottom shelf of the bookcase, a concerned grownup may replace the book with a “No! No!” and a shake of his head. But when the child pulls out pans from the low cupboard in the kitchen, she is greeted with approving smiles. The baby is reproved when she puts certain things into her mouth to explore by licking or biting. Yet her smearing baby kisses on mother’s hand are greeted with her kisses and smiles. In these and other ways, the baby’s world is shaped—she learns to use her senses selectively, in ways approved by her culture.
Sensory Experience and Development
The senses constantly guide, stimulate, and reward the actions of the baby. Senses and motor skills cooperate. Neither can function without the other. Looking depends on movement of the eyes from birth, and soon, the head and body, as the baby turns or stretches to see new objects, or to hear a new sound.
As babies watch and listen to what goes on around them, they soon go beyond a reflex reaction to participating with greater awareness and planning in what they see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. They discriminate between shapes and sounds and learn what to expect and what to reach for. They formulate whole images by synthesizing sensory information. In time, toward the end of their first year or early in the second year, they connect these images with words, so they can begin to ask for what they want. But the process of connecting words and images is much slower than the development of the images themselves. The baby recognizes mother long before he becomes able to call her.
Sensory experiences tell us who we are and where we are. The accumulation of images seen and heard, tasted, touched and smelled build a complex image of his surroundings in a little child’s mind. Even a very young child invests a new sensory experience with personal meaning. “Granny!” was the enthusiastic greeting of a three-year-old I had never met before when, in my sixties, I visited her family. The child saw that I was an old lady, a “granny.”
What the child has enjoyed most in the earliest years of life may be deeply cherished and held in long memory. Some adults re-create their earliest sensory experiences in music, painting, and literature. Some continue or elaborate their early sensory experiences in their occupations, domestic arts, and religious observance. Some guide new generations of babies and young children as they explore the comforts, delights, and wonders of the world.
This article was edited from the Zero to Three Journal. To browse article or subscribe to the Journal, click here.
By: Lois Barclay Murphy, Ph.D., with Rachel Moon, M.D., Washington, D.C. Edited from the Zero to Three Journal
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For babies, play is not just about toys, it’s about back-and-forth interactions. Anything from singing a song to your baby as you change his diaper to cooing and smiling back and forth with him as he…
Try these fun games and activities with your children and watch how their eagerness to learn and their relationship with you grow! | 2,929 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A migrant is a person who makes a conscious choice to leave their country to seek a better life elsewhere. Before they decide to leave their country, migrants can seek information about their new home, study the language and explore employment opportunities. They can plan their travel, take their belongings with them and say goodbye to the important people in their lives. They are free to return home at any time if things don’t work out as they had hoped, if they get homesick or if they wish to visit family members and friends left behind.
Refugees are forced to leave their country because they are at risk of, or have experienced persecution. The concerns of refugees are human rights and safety, not economic advantage. They leave behind their homes, most or all of their belongings, family members and friends. Some are forced to flee with no warning and many have experienced significant trauma or been tortured or otherwise ill-treated. The journey to safety is fraught with hazard and many refugees risk their lives in search of protection. They cannot return unless the situation that forced them to leave improves. (UNHCR) | <urn:uuid:7328b13c-6a3b-4325-a34f-e5e4d5f0dd42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ssi.org.au/faqs/refugee-faqs/148-what-is-the-difference-between-a-refugee-and-a-migrant | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.981091 | 221 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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Refugees are forced to leave their country because they are at risk of, or have experienced persecution. The concerns of refugees are human rights and safety, not economic advantage. They leave behind their homes, most or all of their belongings, family members and friends. Some are forced to flee with no warning and many have experienced significant trauma or been tortured or otherwise ill-treated. The journey to safety is fraught with hazard and many refugees risk their lives in search of protection. They cannot return unless the situation that forced them to leave improves. (UNHCR) | 218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Augustine of Hippo Quote
Augustine of Hippo Travel Quote: The world is a book and those who do not travel read only one page.
Augustine of Hippo was born in Thagaste (now known as Algeria) on November 13, 354 AD and died on August 28, 430 AD. Augustine of Hippo, also known as Saint Augustine or Saint Austin, was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.
When he was 19 and a student at Carthage, he read a treatise by Cicero that opened his eyes to the delights of philosophy.
He was from the beginning a brilliant student, with eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek — he tells us that his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized that he really needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never really at home in it.
However, his mastery of Latin was another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to make his points. He became a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage but was dissatisfied. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term and then did not pay. In his late twenties, Augustine decided to leave Africa and seek his fortune in Rome.
He was a Physician, a Writer and a Philosopher. He is one of the most important early figures in the development of Western Christianity and was a major figure in bringing Christianity to dominance in the previously pagan Roman Empire.
He is often considered the father of orthodox theology. The books written by Augustine of Hippo are City of Gods, De Doctrina Christiana, The Confessions of St. Augustine. Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education.
A work early in Augustine’s writings is De Magistro (the Teacher), which contains insights about education. However, his ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. | <urn:uuid:f39c4640-429a-4670-a341-62a8f413f0ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://quotesontravel.com/augustine-of-hippo-the-world-is-a-book-and-those-who-do-not-travel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.989276 | 454 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Augustine of Hippo Travel Quote: The world is a book and those who do not travel read only one page.
Augustine of Hippo was born in Thagaste (now known as Algeria) on November 13, 354 AD and died on August 28, 430 AD. Augustine of Hippo, also known as Saint Augustine or Saint Austin, was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.
When he was 19 and a student at Carthage, he read a treatise by Cicero that opened his eyes to the delights of philosophy.
He was from the beginning a brilliant student, with eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek — he tells us that his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized that he really needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never really at home in it.
However, his mastery of Latin was another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to make his points. He became a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage but was dissatisfied. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term and then did not pay. In his late twenties, Augustine decided to leave Africa and seek his fortune in Rome.
He was a Physician, a Writer and a Philosopher. He is one of the most important early figures in the development of Western Christianity and was a major figure in bringing Christianity to dominance in the previously pagan Roman Empire.
He is often considered the father of orthodox theology. The books written by Augustine of Hippo are City of Gods, De Doctrina Christiana, The Confessions of St. Augustine. Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education.
A work early in Augustine’s writings is De Magistro (the Teacher), which contains insights about education. However, his ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. | 458 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Potted History of The Methodist Church
Methodism has its roots in one person - John Wesley - whose vision, determination and faith inspired folk to re-assess their lives and renew their commitment to God.
Early days – John Wesley and his childhood
John Wesley was born in 1703 to Samuel and Susanna Wesley at Epworth, on Humberside. His father, Samuel, was the Anglican Rector at Epworth and so it was that John was brought up to be part of the Church of England. On one famous occasion during the childhood of John Wesley, a fire broke out in his home and it was feared that ‘Jacky’ would perish in the flames. Instead, he was rescued and his mother, Susanna, famously commented that John was ‘a brand plucked from the burning’ (an Old Testament reference, which was taken to indicate that God had special plans for young John).
University days – the naming of ‘Methodism’
John was educated at Charterhouse Public School (a private, fee-paying school) and showed great academic promise. Both he and his brother Charles attended Oxford University, and it was during their time there that Methodism had its origins. John and his brother Charles met regularly with a number of other students (including George Whitefield) to study the Bible and to pray. Other students ridiculed their devotion and a number of nicknames were attached to them. They were called, ‘Bible Moths’, the 'Holy Club' and ‘Methodists’ – because of their methodical approach to study and prayer! After completing their studies, John, Charles and George were all ordained as Anglican clergy.
Unsettled days – the work in America
In 1735, John and Charles Wesley travelled to America as missionaries. This was a crucial time in their life. There was a storm on the crossing and John found himself terribly afraid of death. He was impressed by a group of Moravian Christians who seemed so at ease even in the midst of the storm. In those moments, John Wesley committed himself to search for the faith that he had seen in them, and to go on searching until he found it.
‘Red Letter’ days – the spiritual awakening of John and Charles Wesley
But God was about to work one of those miracles that transforms a person’s life – and in this case transformed a nation as well. Within three days of one another, in May 1738, both Charles and John underwent profound spiritual experiences which changed their lives and gave them the assurance of faith for which they had searched. John described his experience in his journal for May 24th 1738.
“In the evening I went unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther and the preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter to nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.”
Exciting days – the evangelical revival
In the months and years that followed, God released in John and Charles wonderful gifts that were to change the face of the Christian church in this country and probably prevented Britain from facing revolution, similar to that sweeping other parts of Europe.
Charles found within a glorious gift for hymn writing, providing inspiration from the words of Scripture and often setting the words to tunes that were popular amongst ordinary people. Charles wrote more than 6,000 hymns and many of them are still loved by the Methodists today.
John developed a gift as a preacher of the gospel. His conviction was that the good news of Jesus was for everyone, regardless of social status. At first, he challenged the ‘elitism’ of the Anglican church in his day and called the people to a religion of the ‘heart’, in which every aspect of their daily living was touched and changed by their faith. Before long, John Wesley found that Church pulpits were being closed to him and in 1739, urged on by George Whitefield, he took the important step of preaching in the open air – unheard of in his day.
In the years that followed, John Wesley travelled 250,000 miles on horseback – often preaching five or six times a day. He faced opposition from the authorities and was regularly attacked by organised mobs.
The first Methodist chapel was opened in Bristol. It was called the New Room and can still be visited today. Everywhere he went he organised small groups of believers who could meet together to pray and study. He called these ‘classes’, and small-group fellowship remains an important part of Methodist organisation today.
Wesley worked for justice for all people. He visited prisons and worked alongside widows and orphans to bring relief to those who needed it. He gave away most of what he had or earned, to help others. And the last letter he wrote before his death in 1791 was to William Wilberforce encouraging him to keep fighting for the abolition of the slave trade.
Amongst many sayings that shaped Wesley’s life and ministry was this one:
Uncertain days – following the death of John Wesley
After the death of John Wesley, the authority of the leadership of Methodism switched from one man to the ‘Methodist Conference’. The Conference had been established during Wesley’s life, but its activities and influence were carefully monitored by Wesley himself.
Uncertain days followed his death, and, though the movementk continued to grow at a phenomenal rate, factions began to emerge within the organisation and over a period of time a number of different ‘Methodist groups’ grew up. The strongest of these were the ‘Wesleyan Methodists’ and the ‘Primitive Methodist Church’.
The Primitive Revival
Primitive Methodism was a grass roots, mainly working-class movement, which began in north Staffordshire at the beginning of the 19th century, and quickly spread across the country and overseas to America, Australia and Africa. It fired the hearts and minds of agricultural labourers, miners, potters, mill workers, fishermen, dressmakers and domestic servants, inspiring a passion for justice, which led many to become leaders of the early trade unions. Many women became gifted preachers, and were paid to go out as travelling or itinerant ministers from 1813, which was very radical at the time.
'Primitive': What's in a Name?
The first open air or 'camp' meeting was held in 1807 at Mow Cop in north Staffordshire, whose church nowadays is in Dane and Trent Circuit, and the name 'Society of Primitive Methodists' was adopted in 1812. This reflects a wish to return to the earlier, purer form of Methodism started by John Wesley in the 18th century. After his death the 'Wesleyan Methodists' lost touch with their roots, banning open air meetings and women preachers because they valued their new respectability and feared government repression. Those who held open air meetings also became known as 'Ranters' because of their enthusiastic style.
The Primitives: When did it End?
In 1932, the Primitive Methodists joined the Wesleyan and United Methodists in an Act of Union to become The Methodist Church of today.
Present days – our place in the world Church
The Methodist Church today has nearly ¼ million members in Britain and more than 7 million across the world. There is a World Methodist Council that brings Methodist representatives together from all kinds of different nations. Many of those that come have their own Conferences and are independent of the Methodist Church of Britain, but there remains an affinity with ‘the mother Church’, and the heritage of John Wesley is still valued. | <urn:uuid:e4afdb2c-3a73-4287-928d-826aed1c9f9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.danetrentmethodist.org.uk/21-faith-matters/383-five-minute-history-of-methodism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.986786 | 1,645 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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Methodism has its roots in one person - John Wesley - whose vision, determination and faith inspired folk to re-assess their lives and renew their commitment to God.
Early days – John Wesley and his childhood
John Wesley was born in 1703 to Samuel and Susanna Wesley at Epworth, on Humberside. His father, Samuel, was the Anglican Rector at Epworth and so it was that John was brought up to be part of the Church of England. On one famous occasion during the childhood of John Wesley, a fire broke out in his home and it was feared that ‘Jacky’ would perish in the flames. Instead, he was rescued and his mother, Susanna, famously commented that John was ‘a brand plucked from the burning’ (an Old Testament reference, which was taken to indicate that God had special plans for young John).
University days – the naming of ‘Methodism’
John was educated at Charterhouse Public School (a private, fee-paying school) and showed great academic promise. Both he and his brother Charles attended Oxford University, and it was during their time there that Methodism had its origins. John and his brother Charles met regularly with a number of other students (including George Whitefield) to study the Bible and to pray. Other students ridiculed their devotion and a number of nicknames were attached to them. They were called, ‘Bible Moths’, the 'Holy Club' and ‘Methodists’ – because of their methodical approach to study and prayer! After completing their studies, John, Charles and George were all ordained as Anglican clergy.
Unsettled days – the work in America
In 1735, John and Charles Wesley travelled to America as missionaries. This was a crucial time in their life. There was a storm on the crossing and John found himself terribly afraid of death. He was impressed by a group of Moravian Christians who seemed so at ease even in the midst of the storm. In those moments, John Wesley committed himself to search for the faith that he had seen in them, and to go on searching until he found it.
‘Red Letter’ days – the spiritual awakening of John and Charles Wesley
But God was about to work one of those miracles that transforms a person’s life – and in this case transformed a nation as well. Within three days of one another, in May 1738, both Charles and John underwent profound spiritual experiences which changed their lives and gave them the assurance of faith for which they had searched. John described his experience in his journal for May 24th 1738.
“In the evening I went unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther and the preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter to nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.”
Exciting days – the evangelical revival
In the months and years that followed, God released in John and Charles wonderful gifts that were to change the face of the Christian church in this country and probably prevented Britain from facing revolution, similar to that sweeping other parts of Europe.
Charles found within a glorious gift for hymn writing, providing inspiration from the words of Scripture and often setting the words to tunes that were popular amongst ordinary people. Charles wrote more than 6,000 hymns and many of them are still loved by the Methodists today.
John developed a gift as a preacher of the gospel. His conviction was that the good news of Jesus was for everyone, regardless of social status. At first, he challenged the ‘elitism’ of the Anglican church in his day and called the people to a religion of the ‘heart’, in which every aspect of their daily living was touched and changed by their faith. Before long, John Wesley found that Church pulpits were being closed to him and in 1739, urged on by George Whitefield, he took the important step of preaching in the open air – unheard of in his day.
In the years that followed, John Wesley travelled 250,000 miles on horseback – often preaching five or six times a day. He faced opposition from the authorities and was regularly attacked by organised mobs.
The first Methodist chapel was opened in Bristol. It was called the New Room and can still be visited today. Everywhere he went he organised small groups of believers who could meet together to pray and study. He called these ‘classes’, and small-group fellowship remains an important part of Methodist organisation today.
Wesley worked for justice for all people. He visited prisons and worked alongside widows and orphans to bring relief to those who needed it. He gave away most of what he had or earned, to help others. And the last letter he wrote before his death in 1791 was to William Wilberforce encouraging him to keep fighting for the abolition of the slave trade.
Amongst many sayings that shaped Wesley’s life and ministry was this one:
Uncertain days – following the death of John Wesley
After the death of John Wesley, the authority of the leadership of Methodism switched from one man to the ‘Methodist Conference’. The Conference had been established during Wesley’s life, but its activities and influence were carefully monitored by Wesley himself.
Uncertain days followed his death, and, though the movementk continued to grow at a phenomenal rate, factions began to emerge within the organisation and over a period of time a number of different ‘Methodist groups’ grew up. The strongest of these were the ‘Wesleyan Methodists’ and the ‘Primitive Methodist Church’.
The Primitive Revival
Primitive Methodism was a grass roots, mainly working-class movement, which began in north Staffordshire at the beginning of the 19th century, and quickly spread across the country and overseas to America, Australia and Africa. It fired the hearts and minds of agricultural labourers, miners, potters, mill workers, fishermen, dressmakers and domestic servants, inspiring a passion for justice, which led many to become leaders of the early trade unions. Many women became gifted preachers, and were paid to go out as travelling or itinerant ministers from 1813, which was very radical at the time.
'Primitive': What's in a Name?
The first open air or 'camp' meeting was held in 1807 at Mow Cop in north Staffordshire, whose church nowadays is in Dane and Trent Circuit, and the name 'Society of Primitive Methodists' was adopted in 1812. This reflects a wish to return to the earlier, purer form of Methodism started by John Wesley in the 18th century. After his death the 'Wesleyan Methodists' lost touch with their roots, banning open air meetings and women preachers because they valued their new respectability and feared government repression. Those who held open air meetings also became known as 'Ranters' because of their enthusiastic style.
The Primitives: When did it End?
In 1932, the Primitive Methodists joined the Wesleyan and United Methodists in an Act of Union to become The Methodist Church of today.
Present days – our place in the world Church
The Methodist Church today has nearly ¼ million members in Britain and more than 7 million across the world. There is a World Methodist Council that brings Methodist representatives together from all kinds of different nations. Many of those that come have their own Conferences and are independent of the Methodist Church of Britain, but there remains an affinity with ‘the mother Church’, and the heritage of John Wesley is still valued. | 1,624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genghis Khan was born with the name of Temujin in around 1162.
When Genghis Khan was a teenager, his dad was poisoned by a rival tribe who invited him to dinner. This really did enrage the young Genghis Khan. He then did something about it later.
This enraged him and Genghis Khan and either him or his brother would be ruler so he killed his brother to be ruler. Some people thought he was to young to be a leader though but that didn't stop him.
He was now ruler after killing his brother. He gathered people from his tribe and invaded his past family friends tribe and ransacked the place. He then wanted to reunite all Mongol clans as one.
As his army got bigger and bigger, he thought of the idea of using bow and arrows. He also came up with the idea to use horses in battle. This tactic amazing. He then had over 20,000 battle warriors.
He then went on to concur many more tribes and to concur more territory. When he invaded and took over the tribe's territory, he would kill any of the people not willing to join him. He then eventually died at 65 in 1227. | <urn:uuid:e9d852ac-86f5-4c17-8395-f77a64feb1c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/3c18b2a1/hgghhubdv | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.996647 | 249 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.0030593348201364... | 1 | Genghis Khan was born with the name of Temujin in around 1162.
When Genghis Khan was a teenager, his dad was poisoned by a rival tribe who invited him to dinner. This really did enrage the young Genghis Khan. He then did something about it later.
This enraged him and Genghis Khan and either him or his brother would be ruler so he killed his brother to be ruler. Some people thought he was to young to be a leader though but that didn't stop him.
He was now ruler after killing his brother. He gathered people from his tribe and invaded his past family friends tribe and ransacked the place. He then wanted to reunite all Mongol clans as one.
As his army got bigger and bigger, he thought of the idea of using bow and arrows. He also came up with the idea to use horses in battle. This tactic amazing. He then had over 20,000 battle warriors.
He then went on to concur many more tribes and to concur more territory. When he invaded and took over the tribe's territory, he would kill any of the people not willing to join him. He then eventually died at 65 in 1227. | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
India’s great scientist Sir CV Raman emerged as the first Nobel Prize winner in Physics from across the Asian continent. He discovered the Raman effect on 28 February 1928 which is now celebrated as the National Science Day. The entire nation expresses gratitude to Sir CV Raman and to all the scientists on this day for their discoveries and inventions.
Raman was born on 8 November 1888 in Madras. He was a bright student and started his career with Financial Civil Services as an Assistant Accountant- General in Kolkata. Later on, he also started to work with Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science in his spare time in the field of acoustics. He worked on his own for next 10 years and established himself as a scientist not just in India but also in Europe. In 1917, Raman was appointed as the lecturer in Kolkata University.
During his tenure, he did a lot of experiments and also published a note on “The colour of the sea”. Before Raman introduced his theory, it was believed that the sea gets its blue colour from the sky or due to the suspended matter in the water. But, Raman denied this theory and figured out that the blue colour of the sea was obtained from the molecular diffraction. Then he came up with an experiment on the scattering of light which led to further developments and hence Raman effect was discovered.
Later, 28 February was declared as the National Science Day which was wholly dedicated to science. All the schools and science colleges organise events related to science on this particular day and are also inspired to work in the field of science and technology.
इस आर्टिकल को हिंदी में पढने के लिए यहां क्लिक करें | <urn:uuid:5ccd3309-72d9-4843-9410-c0287180b5cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.festivalsofindia.in/national_science_day/sir-cv-raman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.984143 | 413 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.7012594938278... | 12 | India’s great scientist Sir CV Raman emerged as the first Nobel Prize winner in Physics from across the Asian continent. He discovered the Raman effect on 28 February 1928 which is now celebrated as the National Science Day. The entire nation expresses gratitude to Sir CV Raman and to all the scientists on this day for their discoveries and inventions.
Raman was born on 8 November 1888 in Madras. He was a bright student and started his career with Financial Civil Services as an Assistant Accountant- General in Kolkata. Later on, he also started to work with Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science in his spare time in the field of acoustics. He worked on his own for next 10 years and established himself as a scientist not just in India but also in Europe. In 1917, Raman was appointed as the lecturer in Kolkata University.
During his tenure, he did a lot of experiments and also published a note on “The colour of the sea”. Before Raman introduced his theory, it was believed that the sea gets its blue colour from the sky or due to the suspended matter in the water. But, Raman denied this theory and figured out that the blue colour of the sea was obtained from the molecular diffraction. Then he came up with an experiment on the scattering of light which led to further developments and hence Raman effect was discovered.
Later, 28 February was declared as the National Science Day which was wholly dedicated to science. All the schools and science colleges organise events related to science on this particular day and are also inspired to work in the field of science and technology.
इस आर्टिकल को हिंदी में पढने के लिए यहां क्लिक करें | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is well known that emotional eating is a bane for many weight-conscious individuals. A new study suggest another element may influence why you eat when you’re not really hungry — how well off your family was when you were a child.
“Our research shows that growing up poor promotes eating in the absence of hunger in adulthood, regardless of one’s wealth in adulthood,” explains psychological scientist Sarah Hill of Texas Christian University.
“These findings are important because they suggest that a person’s developmental history may play a key role in their relationship with food and weight management.”
The research appears in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
Prior studies have established that childhood poverty is a risk factor for obesity, but the mechanisms driving this relationship are not completely clear. The lack of access to healthy foods and safe places to play, are frequently used as an explanation for why the poor are often obese.
While these factors are certainty influential, researchers have believed that additional influences are at work. Therefore, Hill and colleagues wondered whether early experiences might become biologically embedded in ways that shape how individuals regulate energy needs throughout the lifespan.
This biological blueprint would help children survive in impoverished environments, leading them to seek out food whenever it is available, and would continue to drive their behavior as they aged, regardless of whether their access to food had improved.
In one study, Hill and colleagues recruited 31 undergraduate women to participate in what was purportedly a consumer research study. To rule out the potential effects of obesity and specific medical conditions, only women who had a body mass index of less than 30 and those who did not have food allergies or diabetes were eligible to participate.
The students received a bowl of chocolate chip cookies and a bowl of pretzels and were told to sample and rate each product. After completing their ratings, they were told that they were free to eat the leftovers while they waited for the next part of the study to begin.
They then completed a survey in which they were asked to think about their childhood before age 12 and rate their level of agreement with three statements: “My family had enough money for things growing up,” “I grew up in a relatively wealthy neighborhood,” “I felt relatively wealthy compared to others my age.”
After they finished, the researchers calculated how much the participants had eaten based on the food that remained in the two bowls.
Looking at the data for students who reported feeling relatively hungry, the researchers found no observable difference in calories consumed between those who grew up in more impoverished environments and those who grew in relatively abundant environments.
But childhood environment did seem to make a difference in how much people ate when they weren’t actually hungry: Students from relatively impoverished environments ate more of the pretzels and cookies, and more calories overall, than did those who came from wealthier backgrounds.
Hill and colleagues found that actual energy need didn’t seem to play a role in determining how much participants from impoverished backgrounds ate.
In another experiment, the researchers varied energy need by providing some participants who had fasted with a full-calorie soda and others with zero-calorie sparkling water. Thus, some participants received a calorie boost to fill their energy need, while others did not.
Again, the researchers found that childhood environment made a difference in how much participants consumed, but only when their energy need was low.
These findings were replicated in a third study that directly measured blood glucose levels in both male and female participants.
“We were surprised by the lasting impact that one’s childhood environment plays in guiding food intake in adulthood,” says Hill.
“We were also surprised by the fact that one’s level of wealth in adulthood had almost no impact on patterns of food intake.”
The researchers caution that these findings do not establish a direct causal relationship between childhood poverty and eating in the absence of energy need. However, they do suggest that early environmental experiences may influence how individuals regulate their energy needs.
“Our research suggests that people who grew up in relatively impoverished environments may have a harder time controlling food intake and managing their body weight than those who grew up in wealthier environments,” explains Hill. | <urn:uuid:729970cf-9adb-4d93-8ca5-15135733a264> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://psychcentral.com/news/2016/02/05/early-poverty-disrupts-hunger-signs-can-lead-to-weight-problems/98700.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.980123 | 871 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0054347123950... | 1 | It is well known that emotional eating is a bane for many weight-conscious individuals. A new study suggest another element may influence why you eat when you’re not really hungry — how well off your family was when you were a child.
“Our research shows that growing up poor promotes eating in the absence of hunger in adulthood, regardless of one’s wealth in adulthood,” explains psychological scientist Sarah Hill of Texas Christian University.
“These findings are important because they suggest that a person’s developmental history may play a key role in their relationship with food and weight management.”
The research appears in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
Prior studies have established that childhood poverty is a risk factor for obesity, but the mechanisms driving this relationship are not completely clear. The lack of access to healthy foods and safe places to play, are frequently used as an explanation for why the poor are often obese.
While these factors are certainty influential, researchers have believed that additional influences are at work. Therefore, Hill and colleagues wondered whether early experiences might become biologically embedded in ways that shape how individuals regulate energy needs throughout the lifespan.
This biological blueprint would help children survive in impoverished environments, leading them to seek out food whenever it is available, and would continue to drive their behavior as they aged, regardless of whether their access to food had improved.
In one study, Hill and colleagues recruited 31 undergraduate women to participate in what was purportedly a consumer research study. To rule out the potential effects of obesity and specific medical conditions, only women who had a body mass index of less than 30 and those who did not have food allergies or diabetes were eligible to participate.
The students received a bowl of chocolate chip cookies and a bowl of pretzels and were told to sample and rate each product. After completing their ratings, they were told that they were free to eat the leftovers while they waited for the next part of the study to begin.
They then completed a survey in which they were asked to think about their childhood before age 12 and rate their level of agreement with three statements: “My family had enough money for things growing up,” “I grew up in a relatively wealthy neighborhood,” “I felt relatively wealthy compared to others my age.”
After they finished, the researchers calculated how much the participants had eaten based on the food that remained in the two bowls.
Looking at the data for students who reported feeling relatively hungry, the researchers found no observable difference in calories consumed between those who grew up in more impoverished environments and those who grew in relatively abundant environments.
But childhood environment did seem to make a difference in how much people ate when they weren’t actually hungry: Students from relatively impoverished environments ate more of the pretzels and cookies, and more calories overall, than did those who came from wealthier backgrounds.
Hill and colleagues found that actual energy need didn’t seem to play a role in determining how much participants from impoverished backgrounds ate.
In another experiment, the researchers varied energy need by providing some participants who had fasted with a full-calorie soda and others with zero-calorie sparkling water. Thus, some participants received a calorie boost to fill their energy need, while others did not.
Again, the researchers found that childhood environment made a difference in how much participants consumed, but only when their energy need was low.
These findings were replicated in a third study that directly measured blood glucose levels in both male and female participants.
“We were surprised by the lasting impact that one’s childhood environment plays in guiding food intake in adulthood,” says Hill.
“We were also surprised by the fact that one’s level of wealth in adulthood had almost no impact on patterns of food intake.”
The researchers caution that these findings do not establish a direct causal relationship between childhood poverty and eating in the absence of energy need. However, they do suggest that early environmental experiences may influence how individuals regulate their energy needs.
“Our research suggests that people who grew up in relatively impoverished environments may have a harder time controlling food intake and managing their body weight than those who grew up in wealthier environments,” explains Hill. | 815 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Because they are used to restrict activities on Sundays, blue laws in the United States are also known as Sunday laws. They long existed in the United States, and have had an impact on public and private activities throughout American history. Most have been enacted at local or state levels, and most were intended to protect Sunday as a day of rest and religious worship. Despite their connection with the Christian Sabbath, the Supreme Court of the United States has many times ruled them constitutional, though some have been overturned by the courts.
Many communities still have their own, and they are enforced with varying degrees of enthusiasm in those that do. Many of the communities which enforce blue laws are small and rural. A large number of them which remain in force restrict the sale of alcohol, both for on-premises consumption and for carry-out purchase. Others restrict sales to types of alcohol. Other blue laws were enacted restricting the sale of certain items on Sunday, including automobiles. In addition to protecting the Sabbath, some states allowed blue laws to protect Christian holidays such as Christmas and Easter. Here is some of the history of blue laws in the United States.
1. Blue laws were not named for the color of the paper on which they were printed in colonial New England
An urban myth exists which claims that the strict prohibitions on activities on the Sabbath in colonial New Haven was printed on blue paper, giving birth to the term blue laws. Like most urban myths, it was repeated so often and in so many places that it acquired the authority of the printed word and became accepted as fact. But researchers have never been able to locate copies of such laws printed on blue paper, nor bound in books with blue covers, as another variation of the myth contends. The laws most likely became referred to as blue because that word was used in the 18th century to describe someone or something prudish.
There was a long list of such laws in New Haven however, supposedly written in the 17th century, according to a 1781 book written by the Reverend Samuel Peters. Subsequent scholars reviewing the list of the laws and the respective punishments Peters described raised questions over his veracity. More than 40 of the laws Peters claimed had once existed in the colony of Connecticut remain unverified as to whether or not they actually existed. Peters’ book, which had a title roughly as long as this paragraph, is usually referred to as the General History of Connecticut, and was both self-serving (he claimed to have given Vermont its name) and anti-American (he was a British loyalist). | <urn:uuid:5221c25f-96e9-437d-ac94-c2cd596bc28a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/the-random-history-of-blue-laws-in-the-united-states/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.987638 | 514 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.100844219... | 7 | Because they are used to restrict activities on Sundays, blue laws in the United States are also known as Sunday laws. They long existed in the United States, and have had an impact on public and private activities throughout American history. Most have been enacted at local or state levels, and most were intended to protect Sunday as a day of rest and religious worship. Despite their connection with the Christian Sabbath, the Supreme Court of the United States has many times ruled them constitutional, though some have been overturned by the courts.
Many communities still have their own, and they are enforced with varying degrees of enthusiasm in those that do. Many of the communities which enforce blue laws are small and rural. A large number of them which remain in force restrict the sale of alcohol, both for on-premises consumption and for carry-out purchase. Others restrict sales to types of alcohol. Other blue laws were enacted restricting the sale of certain items on Sunday, including automobiles. In addition to protecting the Sabbath, some states allowed blue laws to protect Christian holidays such as Christmas and Easter. Here is some of the history of blue laws in the United States.
1. Blue laws were not named for the color of the paper on which they were printed in colonial New England
An urban myth exists which claims that the strict prohibitions on activities on the Sabbath in colonial New Haven was printed on blue paper, giving birth to the term blue laws. Like most urban myths, it was repeated so often and in so many places that it acquired the authority of the printed word and became accepted as fact. But researchers have never been able to locate copies of such laws printed on blue paper, nor bound in books with blue covers, as another variation of the myth contends. The laws most likely became referred to as blue because that word was used in the 18th century to describe someone or something prudish.
There was a long list of such laws in New Haven however, supposedly written in the 17th century, according to a 1781 book written by the Reverend Samuel Peters. Subsequent scholars reviewing the list of the laws and the respective punishments Peters described raised questions over his veracity. More than 40 of the laws Peters claimed had once existed in the colony of Connecticut remain unverified as to whether or not they actually existed. Peters’ book, which had a title roughly as long as this paragraph, is usually referred to as the General History of Connecticut, and was both self-serving (he claimed to have given Vermont its name) and anti-American (he was a British loyalist). | 519 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Did the Barter Trade Start
Bartering is an age-old exchange system that dates way back to when society was mainly tribes, and when money hadn't even been invented yet. If you've ever done a swap with a friend, then you have essentially bartered. And if you've visited a marketplace abroad, chances are you've bartered there too. Bartering may have changed a little since it first began, but it is still used in countries all over the world today. But how did it begin, and how did society work when bartering was the only way to go? Here at OneHowTo, we're going to explain how did the barter trade start?
Historians have found it difficult to pinpoint exactly when the barter trade started, but it is believed to have been introduced way back in 6000 BC, first used by Phoenicians in the Mesopotamia tribes. Tribes would barter goods with other countries overseas for things like food, animal skins, weapons and spices for goods and services that they wanted in return.
At the start of the barter trade, one of the issues that was discovered was that there was no way to assign a specific value for any particular item or service, which of course could be problematic when agreeing on a trade.
One of the main items used for bartering during the start of the trade was salt. In ancient times salt was worth a lot. The Romans eventually went on to pay wages using salt as it was considered that valuable.
Interesting fact: If you've ever heard the idiom describing someone as "worth their salt", the saying takes its origin from this time when the Romans paid wages with salt.
During the Middle Ages, between the 5th and 15th century, the barter trade became even more popular as people began to travel to other areas of the world. This meant that goods and services were being bartered and traded between countries, particularly between Europe and America, where people were able to access items that they did not have in their own country and could also not afford.
The barter trade grew in popularity during the Great Depression of 1929. Bartering was an extremely beneficial and significant trade during this period as it allowed people to gain access to food and clothing which they simply did not have the money for. The Great Depression is an excellent example of how bartering as a system can allow communities and societies to work together in order to gain what they need.
There are many countries today where the barter trade is still used, particularly in countries around southeast and central asia - albeit slightly different to when it first began. There are now websites where people can barter online, trading furniture, clothes or homegrown food in exchange for something they need themselves. Bartering will most likely always play a part in our society as the trade always seems to evolve with the times.
If you want to read similar articles to How Did the Barter Trade Start, we recommend you visit our Economy & business category. | <urn:uuid:2b3959f0-298d-4897-a872-06d97d87fd0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://business.onehowto.com/article/how-did-the-barter-trade-start-10879.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.982556 | 610 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Bartering is an age-old exchange system that dates way back to when society was mainly tribes, and when money hadn't even been invented yet. If you've ever done a swap with a friend, then you have essentially bartered. And if you've visited a marketplace abroad, chances are you've bartered there too. Bartering may have changed a little since it first began, but it is still used in countries all over the world today. But how did it begin, and how did society work when bartering was the only way to go? Here at OneHowTo, we're going to explain how did the barter trade start?
Historians have found it difficult to pinpoint exactly when the barter trade started, but it is believed to have been introduced way back in 6000 BC, first used by Phoenicians in the Mesopotamia tribes. Tribes would barter goods with other countries overseas for things like food, animal skins, weapons and spices for goods and services that they wanted in return.
At the start of the barter trade, one of the issues that was discovered was that there was no way to assign a specific value for any particular item or service, which of course could be problematic when agreeing on a trade.
One of the main items used for bartering during the start of the trade was salt. In ancient times salt was worth a lot. The Romans eventually went on to pay wages using salt as it was considered that valuable.
Interesting fact: If you've ever heard the idiom describing someone as "worth their salt", the saying takes its origin from this time when the Romans paid wages with salt.
During the Middle Ages, between the 5th and 15th century, the barter trade became even more popular as people began to travel to other areas of the world. This meant that goods and services were being bartered and traded between countries, particularly between Europe and America, where people were able to access items that they did not have in their own country and could also not afford.
The barter trade grew in popularity during the Great Depression of 1929. Bartering was an extremely beneficial and significant trade during this period as it allowed people to gain access to food and clothing which they simply did not have the money for. The Great Depression is an excellent example of how bartering as a system can allow communities and societies to work together in order to gain what they need.
There are many countries today where the barter trade is still used, particularly in countries around southeast and central asia - albeit slightly different to when it first began. There are now websites where people can barter online, trading furniture, clothes or homegrown food in exchange for something they need themselves. Bartering will most likely always play a part in our society as the trade always seems to evolve with the times.
If you want to read similar articles to How Did the Barter Trade Start, we recommend you visit our Economy & business category. | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Martyrdom Church was built for those who suffered and died during Japan’s Christianity ban. Of the 200 imprisoned, 42 died. After this incident was reported to the government, the freedom of religion act was established in 1873. To this day, the Christianity ban remains a sore subject for the village. Discrimination continued well into the Meiji era even after the act was passed, and was not unheard of even up until the 1970s. These now exposed Christians were forced into lower class jobs and could not work their way up because of their beliefs. Recently the churches on the Goto islands have become more of a tourist attraction, thanks to the UNESCO honors. The Martyrdom Church reminds visitors the rough conditions the hidden Christians were forced to endure and the resilience of the people who survived. | <urn:uuid:e2211fce-b47d-4aaf-855a-465d94942d86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://japantravel.navitime.com/en/area/jp/guide/NTJsingle0010775-en/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.986684 | 161 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4362561106681824... | 1 | The Martyrdom Church was built for those who suffered and died during Japan’s Christianity ban. Of the 200 imprisoned, 42 died. After this incident was reported to the government, the freedom of religion act was established in 1873. To this day, the Christianity ban remains a sore subject for the village. Discrimination continued well into the Meiji era even after the act was passed, and was not unheard of even up until the 1970s. These now exposed Christians were forced into lower class jobs and could not work their way up because of their beliefs. Recently the churches on the Goto islands have become more of a tourist attraction, thanks to the UNESCO honors. The Martyrdom Church reminds visitors the rough conditions the hidden Christians were forced to endure and the resilience of the people who survived. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ryfka Finkelstein [Annotator's Note: unsure of spelling of her maiden name which is Sushka] was born in Poland in 1926 in a small town named Korytnica. The town is on the Bug River which borders Poland and Ukraine. She was the fourth of five children. There were three sisters, two brothers and her parents. They were a happy family. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and Poland was divided between Germany and Russia. Her town fell under the control of Russia. Life became very restricted. People were not free to go places. They needed a passport or a pass for travel and then they had to explain why they needed to take a trip. Her parents complained about the situation within the family. Her brothers were rabbinical students but had to stop studying because being a rabbi was forbidden in Russia. Finkelstein attended school with an uncertain view toward her future. In 1941, Germany attacked Russia. That is when the troubles really began. The Germans brought with them beatings, killings and forced labor on the local population. They also demanded money and gold. There was good cooperation between the Germans and the Ukrainian police. Ghettos were established. Families were forced to live together in the ghettos where they had previously owned a private home. Families sought help from non-Jewish friends. Some of those friends did help by taking in Jewish children. The children would help the adopted families by working in the fields or being shepherds. Parents were happy because their children were able to be in the open air. Schools for Jewish children were discontinued. The Jews had to wear yellow patches in the front and back making them very obvious. Life had become unbearable. It is hard to remember these times. Finkelstein is taken back to when she was a child when she recollects the horror of the Holocaust. Many things are left out for the sake of time. In May 1942, Gestapo and Ukrainian police came to Korytnica and surrounded the town. They asked for food and valuables every day. The people were poor and did not have much food to give. The police did not care. Early on the morning of 25 May, Finkelstein's father heard noise coming from the village. Her mother was no longer alive at this time. Her father told her sister Rosa [Annotator's Note: unsure of spelling] to go to see what the noise was about. When she returned, she told her father that people in town were saying that the Gestapo would be going through town at noon. There was still time for the family to sleep. Instead, her father told his daughter, Ryfka, that it would be better for her to leave home. She did not know where to go. Her heart was heavy. She had to obey her father. He gave her lima beans to bring with her and told her where to go. She sewed a button on her sister’s clothes before she left. Her sister asked to go with her because she was afraid that they would never meet again. People were running from town. Finkelstein outran everyone. She ran from death to life. She could not return because she would be killed. After 15 minutes, she found the house where her father had directed her. The family was still sleeping inside, but the woman woke up and spoke to Finkelstein through the window. At that time, Finkelstein also saw her cousin, Pearl. She was running and crying. She told Finkelstein that her family was dead. Shooting could be heard from the town. The woman investigated and then told Finkelstein to take off her shoes and coat and run away. She should run toward the fields and meadows. Finkelstein's head was spinning, but she ran. She saw others from town running. She went into a non-Jewish house. The Ukrainian woman told Finkelstein to take a Jewish child she had with her. If she did not, the Ukrainian woman feared she would be killed. The young Jew left the child with the woman because she felt it had a better chance of surviving. Later, Finkelstein met the child's mother. She told the child's mother that she refused to take the child. The mother said that was good. Later, Finkelstein caught up with her cousin, Pearl. They met Finkelstein's brother at a crossroads. He had stayed with a non-Jewish family that night and did not know Finkelstein had survived. As they continued to talk, they noticed that Pearl had been left behind.
Ryfka Finkelstein and her brother were fleeing [Annotator's Note: their village was being surrounded by Gestapo and Ukrainian police on 25 May 1942] when they heard Ukrainian police telling them to stop. The police were returning from executing the Jews in the village she was running to escape. Finkelstein's brother told her to run and let him be caught so that she could live and remember their family. She refused. She did not want to live by herself. She told him that he should run. While they were debating, they were apprehended by the police. They were only guilty of being Jewish but were accused of aiding Russian partisans. There were no Russian partisans then. If there were partisans, they might have helped the Jews. The Ukrainian police might not have cooperated so much with the Germans. The police asked her where she wanted to be killed and if she prefered a gentile or Jewish cemetery. She said a Jewish cemetery, but she really wanted to live a little longer. The police took the two young Jews to the station. They kept hitting her brother. She tried to protect him but got hit as well. The two Jews were accused of being spies and helping the partisans. Finkelstein's cousin, Pearl, was also captured. The police enjoyed harassing and scaring the Jews. The police said they would be taken back to their village in order to have the Judenrat confirm that they were not spies. The Judenrat were the local Jewish representatives that dealt with the Nazis for the Jewish community. That could not happen because there were no Jews left in the village. The police knew that since they took part in the killing. Along the way, they encountered more people who had been hiding in Buczacz [Annotator's Note: the Yiddish spelling for a former Polish village in what is today called Buchach, Ukraine]. Those people fled the police and Finkelstein never saw them again. Some young boys who had lost their parents in the morning killings were captured along the way. The captives were all put in a Jewish house with a cellar. There was a small window to the outside. The police rounded up another Jewish woman and put her in the cellar after taking her jewelry. Some children who had not been captured with their mother came to the cellar and wanted to be with her. She told them to go away but they would not. They were put in the cellar with their mother. There were 15 people in the cellar, mostly children. The woman with seven children in the cellar told the police that she had some hidden liquor that she would give to them if they let her and the children go free. They told her to go get the liquor and they would be set free. The woman did so but ended up being thrown back into the cellar and captivity. The captives were going through hell. Back at the police station, the captives were made to face the wall. They heard clicking of the rifles. It was a beautiful day and they expected to die. They had not done anything to anyone. Just then a wagon with older German soldiers arrived. The Germans asked why the people were being held. The response was that they were Juden or Jews. The Germans told the police to take the people into the building. They were questioned about the Russian partisans. The Jews told the Germans that there were no partisans and that the police were stealing from the people. The Germans left but the people stayed in the building. The next day, an older German came and freed the people. If not for him, the Ukrainian police would have killed the Jews. Only she and her brother survived from the 15 people held in the cellar. Her brother died in Israel and now Finkelstein is the only survivor to tell the story about their beginning in the Holocaust. They had to run and hide during that period. The danger was ever-present. Even a child could point a finger and denounce a Jew. That was enough for a policeman or Gestapo to kill them. There were righteous gentiles however and they are recognized as such. There are deniers of the Holocaust who say it never happened. There are even professors who tell their students that it did not occur. They should go to the remnants of the killing camps and concentration camps in Poland to see for themselves. They need to be educated about the truth of the Holocaust.
All oral histories featured on this site are available to license. The videos will be delivered via mail as Hi Definition video on DVD/DVDs or via file transfer. You may receive the oral history in its entirety but will be free to use only the specific clips that you requested. Please contact the Museum at firstname.lastname@example.org if you are interested in licensing this content. Please allow up to four weeks for file delivery or delivery of the DVD to your postal address.
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To get the best possible experience using our website, we recommend that you upgrade or download an alternative web browser. Downloading a new browser will make internet browsing safer as well as more enjoyable. | <urn:uuid:c7284129-ec43-4c62-a2e9-30b8c6ab4ae6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ww2online.org/view/ryfka-finkelstein | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.994462 | 1,963 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.08713813871... | 2 | Ryfka Finkelstein [Annotator's Note: unsure of spelling of her maiden name which is Sushka] was born in Poland in 1926 in a small town named Korytnica. The town is on the Bug River which borders Poland and Ukraine. She was the fourth of five children. There were three sisters, two brothers and her parents. They were a happy family. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and Poland was divided between Germany and Russia. Her town fell under the control of Russia. Life became very restricted. People were not free to go places. They needed a passport or a pass for travel and then they had to explain why they needed to take a trip. Her parents complained about the situation within the family. Her brothers were rabbinical students but had to stop studying because being a rabbi was forbidden in Russia. Finkelstein attended school with an uncertain view toward her future. In 1941, Germany attacked Russia. That is when the troubles really began. The Germans brought with them beatings, killings and forced labor on the local population. They also demanded money and gold. There was good cooperation between the Germans and the Ukrainian police. Ghettos were established. Families were forced to live together in the ghettos where they had previously owned a private home. Families sought help from non-Jewish friends. Some of those friends did help by taking in Jewish children. The children would help the adopted families by working in the fields or being shepherds. Parents were happy because their children were able to be in the open air. Schools for Jewish children were discontinued. The Jews had to wear yellow patches in the front and back making them very obvious. Life had become unbearable. It is hard to remember these times. Finkelstein is taken back to when she was a child when she recollects the horror of the Holocaust. Many things are left out for the sake of time. In May 1942, Gestapo and Ukrainian police came to Korytnica and surrounded the town. They asked for food and valuables every day. The people were poor and did not have much food to give. The police did not care. Early on the morning of 25 May, Finkelstein's father heard noise coming from the village. Her mother was no longer alive at this time. Her father told her sister Rosa [Annotator's Note: unsure of spelling] to go to see what the noise was about. When she returned, she told her father that people in town were saying that the Gestapo would be going through town at noon. There was still time for the family to sleep. Instead, her father told his daughter, Ryfka, that it would be better for her to leave home. She did not know where to go. Her heart was heavy. She had to obey her father. He gave her lima beans to bring with her and told her where to go. She sewed a button on her sister’s clothes before she left. Her sister asked to go with her because she was afraid that they would never meet again. People were running from town. Finkelstein outran everyone. She ran from death to life. She could not return because she would be killed. After 15 minutes, she found the house where her father had directed her. The family was still sleeping inside, but the woman woke up and spoke to Finkelstein through the window. At that time, Finkelstein also saw her cousin, Pearl. She was running and crying. She told Finkelstein that her family was dead. Shooting could be heard from the town. The woman investigated and then told Finkelstein to take off her shoes and coat and run away. She should run toward the fields and meadows. Finkelstein's head was spinning, but she ran. She saw others from town running. She went into a non-Jewish house. The Ukrainian woman told Finkelstein to take a Jewish child she had with her. If she did not, the Ukrainian woman feared she would be killed. The young Jew left the child with the woman because she felt it had a better chance of surviving. Later, Finkelstein met the child's mother. She told the child's mother that she refused to take the child. The mother said that was good. Later, Finkelstein caught up with her cousin, Pearl. They met Finkelstein's brother at a crossroads. He had stayed with a non-Jewish family that night and did not know Finkelstein had survived. As they continued to talk, they noticed that Pearl had been left behind.
Ryfka Finkelstein and her brother were fleeing [Annotator's Note: their village was being surrounded by Gestapo and Ukrainian police on 25 May 1942] when they heard Ukrainian police telling them to stop. The police were returning from executing the Jews in the village she was running to escape. Finkelstein's brother told her to run and let him be caught so that she could live and remember their family. She refused. She did not want to live by herself. She told him that he should run. While they were debating, they were apprehended by the police. They were only guilty of being Jewish but were accused of aiding Russian partisans. There were no Russian partisans then. If there were partisans, they might have helped the Jews. The Ukrainian police might not have cooperated so much with the Germans. The police asked her where she wanted to be killed and if she prefered a gentile or Jewish cemetery. She said a Jewish cemetery, but she really wanted to live a little longer. The police took the two young Jews to the station. They kept hitting her brother. She tried to protect him but got hit as well. The two Jews were accused of being spies and helping the partisans. Finkelstein's cousin, Pearl, was also captured. The police enjoyed harassing and scaring the Jews. The police said they would be taken back to their village in order to have the Judenrat confirm that they were not spies. The Judenrat were the local Jewish representatives that dealt with the Nazis for the Jewish community. That could not happen because there were no Jews left in the village. The police knew that since they took part in the killing. Along the way, they encountered more people who had been hiding in Buczacz [Annotator's Note: the Yiddish spelling for a former Polish village in what is today called Buchach, Ukraine]. Those people fled the police and Finkelstein never saw them again. Some young boys who had lost their parents in the morning killings were captured along the way. The captives were all put in a Jewish house with a cellar. There was a small window to the outside. The police rounded up another Jewish woman and put her in the cellar after taking her jewelry. Some children who had not been captured with their mother came to the cellar and wanted to be with her. She told them to go away but they would not. They were put in the cellar with their mother. There were 15 people in the cellar, mostly children. The woman with seven children in the cellar told the police that she had some hidden liquor that she would give to them if they let her and the children go free. They told her to go get the liquor and they would be set free. The woman did so but ended up being thrown back into the cellar and captivity. The captives were going through hell. Back at the police station, the captives were made to face the wall. They heard clicking of the rifles. It was a beautiful day and they expected to die. They had not done anything to anyone. Just then a wagon with older German soldiers arrived. The Germans asked why the people were being held. The response was that they were Juden or Jews. The Germans told the police to take the people into the building. They were questioned about the Russian partisans. The Jews told the Germans that there were no partisans and that the police were stealing from the people. The Germans left but the people stayed in the building. The next day, an older German came and freed the people. If not for him, the Ukrainian police would have killed the Jews. Only she and her brother survived from the 15 people held in the cellar. Her brother died in Israel and now Finkelstein is the only survivor to tell the story about their beginning in the Holocaust. They had to run and hide during that period. The danger was ever-present. Even a child could point a finger and denounce a Jew. That was enough for a policeman or Gestapo to kill them. There were righteous gentiles however and they are recognized as such. There are deniers of the Holocaust who say it never happened. There are even professors who tell their students that it did not occur. They should go to the remnants of the killing camps and concentration camps in Poland to see for themselves. They need to be educated about the truth of the Holocaust.
All oral histories featured on this site are available to license. The videos will be delivered via mail as Hi Definition video on DVD/DVDs or via file transfer. You may receive the oral history in its entirety but will be free to use only the specific clips that you requested. Please contact the Museum at firstname.lastname@example.org if you are interested in licensing this content. Please allow up to four weeks for file delivery or delivery of the DVD to your postal address.
Your browser is out of date!
To get the best possible experience using our website, we recommend that you upgrade or download an alternative web browser. Downloading a new browser will make internet browsing safer as well as more enjoyable. | 1,993 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|← South Africa||The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation →|
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The revolution in Haiti caused mixed reactions from the people of the United States of America. Those affected included slaveholders and slaves who feared that slave revolution may potentially spread to other parts of the island. This was a threat to slave holders because they knew that the African slaves might be affected by the revolution such that they would be inspired to engage in trading their services for money, meaning they would get payment for their slavery. Nevertheless, there were advocates of anti-slavery who strongly believed that people deserved the chance to work on their own in liberty and equality for all slaves.
The events that took place during the revolution in 1971 had a massive effect on slaveholders in the United States of America. Because of this, many slaves who encountered revolution were open minded to the idea of fighting for their freedom based on the efforts of the anti-slavery advocates. They began to fight for liberty claiming they had the capacity to work hard on their own will and not under pressure. For this reason, they began to rebel against their masters such that most of them began to engage in other practices such as inventing their own businesses in order to prove to the society that they could be more than slaves could. Because of their tireless efforts to prove themselves worthy, the people experienced continuous growth and prosperity in their farms and businesses. This was because of the minds and new ideas of slaves that they put to use to ensure they contributed towards the growth and development of the United States economy. As many slaveholders would allow their slave, the chance to create new ideas, most people became attracted to their ideas and efforts from the revolution experience and process such that they no longer had to be slave but work as independent individuals.
In conclusion, the revolution caused many slaves to find a better direction in their lives and explore other option in terms of working with liberty. For this reason, most organizations and institutions were able to find new ideas to help develop existing ones. In addition to this, slaves had the chance to create better lives and futures for their families and hope for other slave who still practiced slavery. While slaveholders lost their power and charm over their slaves, the economy benefited from both their efforts in that slaveholders gave slaves, while slaves gave their ideas and efforts.
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Oil and Gas in Wyoming | <urn:uuid:85400300-a4d7-4f95-b7c2-fefe6b9192ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prime-essay.org/samples/research/discussion-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.980271 | 547 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.0615963116288... | 3 | |← South Africa||The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation →|
Buy custom Discussion essay
The revolution in Haiti caused mixed reactions from the people of the United States of America. Those affected included slaveholders and slaves who feared that slave revolution may potentially spread to other parts of the island. This was a threat to slave holders because they knew that the African slaves might be affected by the revolution such that they would be inspired to engage in trading their services for money, meaning they would get payment for their slavery. Nevertheless, there were advocates of anti-slavery who strongly believed that people deserved the chance to work on their own in liberty and equality for all slaves.
The events that took place during the revolution in 1971 had a massive effect on slaveholders in the United States of America. Because of this, many slaves who encountered revolution were open minded to the idea of fighting for their freedom based on the efforts of the anti-slavery advocates. They began to fight for liberty claiming they had the capacity to work hard on their own will and not under pressure. For this reason, they began to rebel against their masters such that most of them began to engage in other practices such as inventing their own businesses in order to prove to the society that they could be more than slaves could. Because of their tireless efforts to prove themselves worthy, the people experienced continuous growth and prosperity in their farms and businesses. This was because of the minds and new ideas of slaves that they put to use to ensure they contributed towards the growth and development of the United States economy. As many slaveholders would allow their slave, the chance to create new ideas, most people became attracted to their ideas and efforts from the revolution experience and process such that they no longer had to be slave but work as independent individuals.
In conclusion, the revolution caused many slaves to find a better direction in their lives and explore other option in terms of working with liberty. For this reason, most organizations and institutions were able to find new ideas to help develop existing ones. In addition to this, slaves had the chance to create better lives and futures for their families and hope for other slave who still practiced slavery. While slaveholders lost their power and charm over their slaves, the economy benefited from both their efforts in that slaveholders gave slaves, while slaves gave their ideas and efforts.
Related Research essays
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‘Caliban’s Shore’ as the Most Incredible Story of Saving Human Lives
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Oil and Gas in Wyoming | 535 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bird lovers may be surprised to discover that the original, real, James Bond, after whom Ian Fleming’s character was named, was one of their own. Bond was born in 1900 in Philadelphia, but when his mother died in 1914, he moved to England with his British-born father. There he went to private school and then to Cambridge.
His interest in ornithology was sparked by his ornithologist father’s expedition to the Orinoco Delta right after graduation. He returned to the US and spent three years as a banker, but his interest in natural history led him to take on a role in an expedition sponsored by the Academy of Natural Sciences by surveying the birds of the West Indies. He travelled extensively through the islands for many decades, spending long periods in Cuba and Hispaniola
He led a series of trips to document avian species throughout the Caribbean. One island that fascinated him was Jamaica, where he noticed that many of the bird species native to that island originated from North America and not South America as had been originally assumed. Later trips to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands led him to the theory that the boundary between North and South American species lay off the northeast coast of Venezuela and Columbia, now called the Bond Line. Bond wrote the seminal book of Caribbean bird watching, Birds of The West Indies, originally published in 1936 and for many years the only definitive bird identification book of the area. He visited more than 100 islands and collected 294 of the 300 bird species there. He ultimately wrote more than 100 scientific papers on Caribbean birds.
His Birds of the West Indies was widely read by bird watchers in the Caribbean area. One such bird watcher, Ian Fleming, had an estate on the north coast of Jamaica and used Bond’s book as a guide for his birding forays. His selection of Bond’s name for the hero of his spy novels made the name if not the man famous. Fleming figured that the real Bond had no objections, although he was not asked; Bond did not even notice for several years.
In 1964 James and his wife Mary were in the Caribbean to continue research on bird species and decided to pay a surprise visit to Ian Fleming, who had on the first exchange of letters invited them to his estate in Jamaica. Fleming was very ill at this time, with about six months to live. At first Fleming was somewhat suspicious, asking Bond to identify some of the birds they saw on the premises. But once Bond passed the test, this was probably the best day Fleming would have for the rest of his life.
Bond was a curator at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, a ellow of the American Ornithologists’ Union, and a member of the British Ornithologists’ Union. In 1952 he was awarded the William Brewster Memorial Award, the most prestigious in American ornithology, by the American Ornithologists’ Union for his work on West Indian birds. He died in Philadelphia at age 89. | <urn:uuid:f3e2f941-0bbf-4bb3-83f5-0f27782ab644> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ornithology.com/bond-james-bond/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.987825 | 609 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1112340390682... | 12 | Bird lovers may be surprised to discover that the original, real, James Bond, after whom Ian Fleming’s character was named, was one of their own. Bond was born in 1900 in Philadelphia, but when his mother died in 1914, he moved to England with his British-born father. There he went to private school and then to Cambridge.
His interest in ornithology was sparked by his ornithologist father’s expedition to the Orinoco Delta right after graduation. He returned to the US and spent three years as a banker, but his interest in natural history led him to take on a role in an expedition sponsored by the Academy of Natural Sciences by surveying the birds of the West Indies. He travelled extensively through the islands for many decades, spending long periods in Cuba and Hispaniola
He led a series of trips to document avian species throughout the Caribbean. One island that fascinated him was Jamaica, where he noticed that many of the bird species native to that island originated from North America and not South America as had been originally assumed. Later trips to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands led him to the theory that the boundary between North and South American species lay off the northeast coast of Venezuela and Columbia, now called the Bond Line. Bond wrote the seminal book of Caribbean bird watching, Birds of The West Indies, originally published in 1936 and for many years the only definitive bird identification book of the area. He visited more than 100 islands and collected 294 of the 300 bird species there. He ultimately wrote more than 100 scientific papers on Caribbean birds.
His Birds of the West Indies was widely read by bird watchers in the Caribbean area. One such bird watcher, Ian Fleming, had an estate on the north coast of Jamaica and used Bond’s book as a guide for his birding forays. His selection of Bond’s name for the hero of his spy novels made the name if not the man famous. Fleming figured that the real Bond had no objections, although he was not asked; Bond did not even notice for several years.
In 1964 James and his wife Mary were in the Caribbean to continue research on bird species and decided to pay a surprise visit to Ian Fleming, who had on the first exchange of letters invited them to his estate in Jamaica. Fleming was very ill at this time, with about six months to live. At first Fleming was somewhat suspicious, asking Bond to identify some of the birds they saw on the premises. But once Bond passed the test, this was probably the best day Fleming would have for the rest of his life.
Bond was a curator at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, a ellow of the American Ornithologists’ Union, and a member of the British Ornithologists’ Union. In 1952 he was awarded the William Brewster Memorial Award, the most prestigious in American ornithology, by the American Ornithologists’ Union for his work on West Indian birds. He died in Philadelphia at age 89. | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In India, the first ever Call to Freedom was given by a mother. Her story is told in the Mahabharata.
Prince Sanjaya was young and inexperienced. When his father died, he became the king of Sauvira. The king of the neighbouring kingdom of Sindhu felt this was the right moment to attack Sauvira.
Sanjaya was terrified when he heard that the Sindhu army was marching towards his capital. Sanjaya’s mother, Vidula, urged him to lead his men and stop the rival king before he reached the gates of the Sauvira capital.
Enthused by his mother’s words, Sanjaya led his men out of the fort. The Sindhu King was surprised to see the Sauvira army approaching. He thought he would take the fort without opposition. Here was the young king himself leading his men!
The Sindhu King ordered his men to mount a fierce attack on the Sauvira forces. Horses galloped, swords clashed, arrows flew. Shaken by the furious attack, Sanjaya turned his horse and rode back to the fort.
When she saw the young king returning from the battle-field, Queen Mother Vidula ordered the guards to close the gates of the fort. Wounded in the battle, the young king was looking for words of consolation and compassion from his mother. But she showed him no sympathy. She urged him to get back to the battle field immediately.
“Abandon your fear. Rise, O coward!” Vidula cried out, standing on the fort ramparts. She reminded him that a warrior should be like an angry elephant destroying all evil-doers.
“Go, son,” said Vidula, “Go back to the battle field. You have only two choice. To defeat the enemy and return home a victor. Or go on fighting till you fall dead.”
Hearing these inspiring words, Sanjaya turned back and fell on his enemies. Such was his bravery that Sanjaya’s men were inspired to fight for their young king. With the tide turning against him, the Sindhu king fled with his men. Sanjaya came home a victor!
This story was told by Kunti to Krishna, and asked him to narrate it to her sons, the Pandavas. The Pandava princes were the rightful heirs of Hastinapur. But they were exiled from their kingdom for 13 years. At the end of thirteen years, their cousin Duryodhana refused to restore their kingdom. Kunti sent a message through Krishna to her eldest son, Yudhisthira, to fight for what was rightfully theirs.
Thus, Vidula’s call for freedom was echoed by another mother. The Pandavas emerged victorious and regained their kingdom.
Vidula’s call reverberated during India’s freedom struggle. When Bengal was partitioned by the British rulers in 1905, the country rose in protest. Aurobindo Ghosh recalled Vidula’s Call of Freedom. In his poem, “The Mother to her Son,” he used Vidula’s words to rouse India’s patriotic spirit. He asked his countrymen not to be intimidated by the might of the British rulers and fight for their rights.
‘Be a hero and deliverer,
raise us from this living death,’
sang Aurobindo —
‘Dare to die, O hero!’ | <urn:uuid:5a819eae-3478-484c-b53d-971dc9aa6d43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kathakids.com/mythology/spirit-of-freedom-call-of-vidula/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.98244 | 739 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2489224076271... | 14 | In India, the first ever Call to Freedom was given by a mother. Her story is told in the Mahabharata.
Prince Sanjaya was young and inexperienced. When his father died, he became the king of Sauvira. The king of the neighbouring kingdom of Sindhu felt this was the right moment to attack Sauvira.
Sanjaya was terrified when he heard that the Sindhu army was marching towards his capital. Sanjaya’s mother, Vidula, urged him to lead his men and stop the rival king before he reached the gates of the Sauvira capital.
Enthused by his mother’s words, Sanjaya led his men out of the fort. The Sindhu King was surprised to see the Sauvira army approaching. He thought he would take the fort without opposition. Here was the young king himself leading his men!
The Sindhu King ordered his men to mount a fierce attack on the Sauvira forces. Horses galloped, swords clashed, arrows flew. Shaken by the furious attack, Sanjaya turned his horse and rode back to the fort.
When she saw the young king returning from the battle-field, Queen Mother Vidula ordered the guards to close the gates of the fort. Wounded in the battle, the young king was looking for words of consolation and compassion from his mother. But she showed him no sympathy. She urged him to get back to the battle field immediately.
“Abandon your fear. Rise, O coward!” Vidula cried out, standing on the fort ramparts. She reminded him that a warrior should be like an angry elephant destroying all evil-doers.
“Go, son,” said Vidula, “Go back to the battle field. You have only two choice. To defeat the enemy and return home a victor. Or go on fighting till you fall dead.”
Hearing these inspiring words, Sanjaya turned back and fell on his enemies. Such was his bravery that Sanjaya’s men were inspired to fight for their young king. With the tide turning against him, the Sindhu king fled with his men. Sanjaya came home a victor!
This story was told by Kunti to Krishna, and asked him to narrate it to her sons, the Pandavas. The Pandava princes were the rightful heirs of Hastinapur. But they were exiled from their kingdom for 13 years. At the end of thirteen years, their cousin Duryodhana refused to restore their kingdom. Kunti sent a message through Krishna to her eldest son, Yudhisthira, to fight for what was rightfully theirs.
Thus, Vidula’s call for freedom was echoed by another mother. The Pandavas emerged victorious and regained their kingdom.
Vidula’s call reverberated during India’s freedom struggle. When Bengal was partitioned by the British rulers in 1905, the country rose in protest. Aurobindo Ghosh recalled Vidula’s Call of Freedom. In his poem, “The Mother to her Son,” he used Vidula’s words to rouse India’s patriotic spirit. He asked his countrymen not to be intimidated by the might of the British rulers and fight for their rights.
‘Be a hero and deliverer,
raise us from this living death,’
sang Aurobindo —
‘Dare to die, O hero!’ | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British potter Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was not only a ceramic artist, but also on the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. Wedgwood brought science into the manufacturing process. He also introduced work standards, time sheets, and many other methods that are common in the modern-day workplace.
While experiments to gain knowledge were already well known in science, craftsmen still followed the old traditions and rarely improved their craft. Josiah Wedgwood was one of the first industrialists who used this scientific method of experimenting and collecting data to propel his wares to an never-before-seen level of quality. Combining this with his keen business sense, he and his firm prospered, and the works of his firm are still highly regarded even today.
Wedgwood was born in 1730 in Burslem, Staffordshire, as the eleventh (!) child of Thomas and Mary Wedgwood. He was the fourth generation of a series of potters. While he was initially a skilled potter, smallpox almost killed him and permanently crippled him. He no longer could use one of his knees and needed crutches. Hence he also could no longer operate a potter’s wheel. Later in his life, his right leg even had to be amputated, in 1768, due to smallpox. (Please note that general anesthesia was invented only eighty years later, although his friend Priestley [see below] experimented with NO2 … but with results only seven years after Wedgwood’s leg was chopped off with a bone saw). Hence Wedgewood focused more on sculpting and design rather than making traditional pottery.
In school he was skilled at math, and was lucky to have a teacher who was skilled in the scientific method and taught him the value of experiments and data. He worked first with his older brother Thomas Wedgwood, and thereafter with Thomas Whieldon (1719 – 1795), who soon became his partner. Whieldon was a creative thinker and liked to experiment and to try things out, significantly influencing Wedgwood.
Eventually Wedgwood established his own workshop in Ivy Works in the town of Burslem in 1759 at the age of 29. He moved his expanding operations to a larger factory, Bell Works, in 1762 in Burslem, and started his famous Etruria Works in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England, in 1769. He married his third cousin in 1764 and had eight children. One of his grandchildren was Charles Darwin. He died at home in 1795, aged 64, probably due to cancer.
First of all, inspired by Matthew Bolton’s Soho factory, he organized his workshops in the flow of the material. His workshop had five major departments, and they were arranged so that the clay traveled from the docks at the river in a circle back to the docks again as finished products. Contrary to modern-day lean manufacturing, however, he was not controlling the inventory but produced as much as possible and had quite large inventories.
Wedgwood strongly believed that a division of labor and subsequently using many different separate process steps is much more efficient and profitable than the previous generalist potter. Hence he organized his workshops in many small tasks, and his workers were assigned specific workplaces. They were not permitted to “wander around” between different tasks, as had been common before. He even had separate entrances for separate processes within the same building.
The speed of each task was also matched to the overall speed of the system (a takt time, if you will). Subsequently the workers became specialists, and therefore also much better and faster at their specialty than the generalist potters before. Out of 278 workers in 1790, only five were “odd men” without a specific assignment. He also created written work instructions for each task, the precursor of modern work standards. Hence he, in his own words, managed “to make Artists… (of)… mere men,” to “make such machines of the Men as cannot err.”
He also found that training older workers was much more difficult, and they tended to resist his new ways. Subsequently he preferred to train young employees to shape them to his vision. Overall, 25% of his workers were apprentices. He also employed women and girls, but also paid them less than the men and boys.
Workers had to show up on time, and Wedgwood introduced the first system to track time using a bell in 1762 in his correspondingly named Bell Works factory. The bell was rung at 5:45AM, an hour before work to wake people up, at 8:30 for breakfast, at 9:00 for the end of breakfast, and so on. He used pieces of paper with the names of the employees to track time and attendance, the precursor of the modern timesheet. This was very much disliked by the older, traditional employees, but they liked his ban on drinking even less. Still, Wedgwood was never able to fully control the work times (many modern-day shop floor managers surely understand. If not, go to the shop floor five minutes before the break and observe the “work”). Potters regularly took whole days of leave, e.g. for funerals or festivals.
To keep discipline, Wedgwood was very stern and often feared by his employees. When a riot happened in 1783, he summoned the military and had one of the men hanged. Keeping this discipline was also difficult, as he had to travel often to other cities on business, and his written rules were usually ignored. He was one of the first who experimented with introducing middle managers, but had difficulties finding suitable people. Experienced workers in a supervisor role continued to ignore the rules. Eventually a nephew of his, Thomas Byerley (1747 –1810), was able to take over, but even then Wedgwood’s absence was bad for production. During his two-week honeymoon, for example, production stopped completely. Nevertheless, he was probably one of the first to introduce the foreman to production.
His workshops were also meticulously clean. Even though the effect of lead poisoning was still not well understood (and few industrialists cared), Wedgwood had more-stringent rules for the lead-glazing room. Workers had to keep the room even cleaner than the rest of the factory, were not allowed to eat in the room, used protective clothing, and used a wet sponge instead of a brush for applying the coat to reduce dust. Similar measures were taken at the grinding of flint, the dust of which could damage the lungs.
Despite his stern rule, working for him was popular, pay was good, housing was clean, and he took care of the health of his people. While he still ruled like a king (like most industrialists of his time), he was a comparatively good employer. Hence, few people left (despite numerous tries by the competition to hire his workers in order to duplicate his success). In his own words, he turned “dilatory drunken, idle, worthless workmen” in 1765 into “a very good sett of hands” by 1775.
Wedgwood also kept track of expenses and profits. Highly unusual for the time, he had an accounting system rather than just working and hoping that the profit would materialize. He knew the cost of every step of his value stream. He experimented with a pay-by-piece remuneration, but found the resulting quality insufficient. He understood the difference between fixed assets and variable costs, and increased mechanization of production. For example, Wedgwood was the first to use a lathe in pottery production.
Influenced by his school teacher and his first partner, Whieldon, Wedgwood was familiar with the scientific method, using experiments and measurements to further knowledge in his field. He performed countless experiments, measuring weights and ingredients, tracking the position in the kiln, and recording the results of the pottery. To measure the temperature, he invented a high-temperature thermometer – a pyrometer, or now called Wedgwood scale – where the temperature is measured based on the expansion of clay.
His notebook was filled with huge amounts of data. He even made models predicting the outcome of his experiments. He studied chemistry and materials, and sampled and experimented with different clays and other minerals both for the pottery and for the glaze. Due to his research, he was able to maintain a consistent quality and color. At that time, if you broke one of your dishes within a larger set from another potter, you could of course order a replacement. But there was no guarantee at all that it would have the same shade of color. In the worst case, you ended up with one of your plates looking different.
He also exchanged ideas with Joseph Priestley (1733 – 1804, discoverer of oxygen), and met and interacted with Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790, one of the US Founding Fathers). He bought a lathe from Mathew Boulton (1728 – 1809) and became a close friend to him. They cooperated to create metal implements in ceramic vases. He was also familiar with Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin; canal-builder James Brindley; industrialist Richard Arkwright; and many more of the who’s-who of eighteenth-century science and industry.
He was one of the principal members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, so named since they met during a full moon – whose extra light made it easier to walk home late at night. These meetings aimed to exchange and discuss ideas, and the society existed for around fifty years. Many of these irregular members are still well known today, including James Watt (steam engine), Matthew Boulton (Watt’s partner), Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin), Joseph Priestley (discoverer of oxygen), John Wilkinson (famous ironmonger), Joseph Black (discoverer of magnesium), Benjamin Franklin (US Founding Father), and many more.
In 1769, Wedgwood partnered with Thomas Bentley (1731 – 1780), a local merchant. Soon Bentley handled the sales in London, and Wedgwood the production in Etruria.
In 1763, Queen Charlotte ordered Wedgwood pottery, which he then marketed as “Queens Ware.” Anything made for the queen was exhibited for advertising beforehand.
They created two different lines of pottery, high-quality hand-crafted and hand-painted “ornamental ware” for the elite, and lower-quality “useful ware” made using simple molds for the middle class. The ornamental ware was made in Etruria, and the useful ware in the Bell Works.
The high-end products were not always profitable. First, he gave away thousands of items for free to nobility. Second, even if it was a sale, how do you force a king to pay a bill? Nevertheless, it was excellent advertising and helped sell his other products to the middle class.
He also advertised in newspapers, and even spread false rumors of upcoming shortages to increase sales. He printed his first catalog in 1773. Due to the quality and popularity of his goods, he was even able to sell his goods to China (usually it was the other way round).
Wedgwood is known for two things: First, for the artistic quality of his wares. His company still exists, and is still positioned in the premium segment for ceramics. Second, and the focus of this post, his scientific approach to manufacturing. As Winslow Taylor is the father of scientific management, so is Wedgwood the father of scientific manufacturing. His approach to measure, experiment, and improve quality, as well as his rigorous organization of his factories, was centuries ahead of others. He was probably the first to use controlled experiments in manufacturing. Hence, I am happy to have the opportunity to commemorate him in this blog post, which turned out much longer than usual. Now go out, understand your processes, and organize your industry!
P.S.: If you want to learn more, I can recommend The Wedgwood Museum in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England. | <urn:uuid:c18a9d7f-401e-4e04-a82d-3ff02976d442> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.allaboutlean.com/225th-anniversary-josiah-wedgwood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.988814 | 2,558 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2808430790901184... | 14 | The British potter Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was not only a ceramic artist, but also on the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. Wedgwood brought science into the manufacturing process. He also introduced work standards, time sheets, and many other methods that are common in the modern-day workplace.
While experiments to gain knowledge were already well known in science, craftsmen still followed the old traditions and rarely improved their craft. Josiah Wedgwood was one of the first industrialists who used this scientific method of experimenting and collecting data to propel his wares to an never-before-seen level of quality. Combining this with his keen business sense, he and his firm prospered, and the works of his firm are still highly regarded even today.
Wedgwood was born in 1730 in Burslem, Staffordshire, as the eleventh (!) child of Thomas and Mary Wedgwood. He was the fourth generation of a series of potters. While he was initially a skilled potter, smallpox almost killed him and permanently crippled him. He no longer could use one of his knees and needed crutches. Hence he also could no longer operate a potter’s wheel. Later in his life, his right leg even had to be amputated, in 1768, due to smallpox. (Please note that general anesthesia was invented only eighty years later, although his friend Priestley [see below] experimented with NO2 … but with results only seven years after Wedgwood’s leg was chopped off with a bone saw). Hence Wedgewood focused more on sculpting and design rather than making traditional pottery.
In school he was skilled at math, and was lucky to have a teacher who was skilled in the scientific method and taught him the value of experiments and data. He worked first with his older brother Thomas Wedgwood, and thereafter with Thomas Whieldon (1719 – 1795), who soon became his partner. Whieldon was a creative thinker and liked to experiment and to try things out, significantly influencing Wedgwood.
Eventually Wedgwood established his own workshop in Ivy Works in the town of Burslem in 1759 at the age of 29. He moved his expanding operations to a larger factory, Bell Works, in 1762 in Burslem, and started his famous Etruria Works in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England, in 1769. He married his third cousin in 1764 and had eight children. One of his grandchildren was Charles Darwin. He died at home in 1795, aged 64, probably due to cancer.
First of all, inspired by Matthew Bolton’s Soho factory, he organized his workshops in the flow of the material. His workshop had five major departments, and they were arranged so that the clay traveled from the docks at the river in a circle back to the docks again as finished products. Contrary to modern-day lean manufacturing, however, he was not controlling the inventory but produced as much as possible and had quite large inventories.
Wedgwood strongly believed that a division of labor and subsequently using many different separate process steps is much more efficient and profitable than the previous generalist potter. Hence he organized his workshops in many small tasks, and his workers were assigned specific workplaces. They were not permitted to “wander around” between different tasks, as had been common before. He even had separate entrances for separate processes within the same building.
The speed of each task was also matched to the overall speed of the system (a takt time, if you will). Subsequently the workers became specialists, and therefore also much better and faster at their specialty than the generalist potters before. Out of 278 workers in 1790, only five were “odd men” without a specific assignment. He also created written work instructions for each task, the precursor of modern work standards. Hence he, in his own words, managed “to make Artists… (of)… mere men,” to “make such machines of the Men as cannot err.”
He also found that training older workers was much more difficult, and they tended to resist his new ways. Subsequently he preferred to train young employees to shape them to his vision. Overall, 25% of his workers were apprentices. He also employed women and girls, but also paid them less than the men and boys.
Workers had to show up on time, and Wedgwood introduced the first system to track time using a bell in 1762 in his correspondingly named Bell Works factory. The bell was rung at 5:45AM, an hour before work to wake people up, at 8:30 for breakfast, at 9:00 for the end of breakfast, and so on. He used pieces of paper with the names of the employees to track time and attendance, the precursor of the modern timesheet. This was very much disliked by the older, traditional employees, but they liked his ban on drinking even less. Still, Wedgwood was never able to fully control the work times (many modern-day shop floor managers surely understand. If not, go to the shop floor five minutes before the break and observe the “work”). Potters regularly took whole days of leave, e.g. for funerals or festivals.
To keep discipline, Wedgwood was very stern and often feared by his employees. When a riot happened in 1783, he summoned the military and had one of the men hanged. Keeping this discipline was also difficult, as he had to travel often to other cities on business, and his written rules were usually ignored. He was one of the first who experimented with introducing middle managers, but had difficulties finding suitable people. Experienced workers in a supervisor role continued to ignore the rules. Eventually a nephew of his, Thomas Byerley (1747 –1810), was able to take over, but even then Wedgwood’s absence was bad for production. During his two-week honeymoon, for example, production stopped completely. Nevertheless, he was probably one of the first to introduce the foreman to production.
His workshops were also meticulously clean. Even though the effect of lead poisoning was still not well understood (and few industrialists cared), Wedgwood had more-stringent rules for the lead-glazing room. Workers had to keep the room even cleaner than the rest of the factory, were not allowed to eat in the room, used protective clothing, and used a wet sponge instead of a brush for applying the coat to reduce dust. Similar measures were taken at the grinding of flint, the dust of which could damage the lungs.
Despite his stern rule, working for him was popular, pay was good, housing was clean, and he took care of the health of his people. While he still ruled like a king (like most industrialists of his time), he was a comparatively good employer. Hence, few people left (despite numerous tries by the competition to hire his workers in order to duplicate his success). In his own words, he turned “dilatory drunken, idle, worthless workmen” in 1765 into “a very good sett of hands” by 1775.
Wedgwood also kept track of expenses and profits. Highly unusual for the time, he had an accounting system rather than just working and hoping that the profit would materialize. He knew the cost of every step of his value stream. He experimented with a pay-by-piece remuneration, but found the resulting quality insufficient. He understood the difference between fixed assets and variable costs, and increased mechanization of production. For example, Wedgwood was the first to use a lathe in pottery production.
Influenced by his school teacher and his first partner, Whieldon, Wedgwood was familiar with the scientific method, using experiments and measurements to further knowledge in his field. He performed countless experiments, measuring weights and ingredients, tracking the position in the kiln, and recording the results of the pottery. To measure the temperature, he invented a high-temperature thermometer – a pyrometer, or now called Wedgwood scale – where the temperature is measured based on the expansion of clay.
His notebook was filled with huge amounts of data. He even made models predicting the outcome of his experiments. He studied chemistry and materials, and sampled and experimented with different clays and other minerals both for the pottery and for the glaze. Due to his research, he was able to maintain a consistent quality and color. At that time, if you broke one of your dishes within a larger set from another potter, you could of course order a replacement. But there was no guarantee at all that it would have the same shade of color. In the worst case, you ended up with one of your plates looking different.
He also exchanged ideas with Joseph Priestley (1733 – 1804, discoverer of oxygen), and met and interacted with Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790, one of the US Founding Fathers). He bought a lathe from Mathew Boulton (1728 – 1809) and became a close friend to him. They cooperated to create metal implements in ceramic vases. He was also familiar with Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin; canal-builder James Brindley; industrialist Richard Arkwright; and many more of the who’s-who of eighteenth-century science and industry.
He was one of the principal members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, so named since they met during a full moon – whose extra light made it easier to walk home late at night. These meetings aimed to exchange and discuss ideas, and the society existed for around fifty years. Many of these irregular members are still well known today, including James Watt (steam engine), Matthew Boulton (Watt’s partner), Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin), Joseph Priestley (discoverer of oxygen), John Wilkinson (famous ironmonger), Joseph Black (discoverer of magnesium), Benjamin Franklin (US Founding Father), and many more.
In 1769, Wedgwood partnered with Thomas Bentley (1731 – 1780), a local merchant. Soon Bentley handled the sales in London, and Wedgwood the production in Etruria.
In 1763, Queen Charlotte ordered Wedgwood pottery, which he then marketed as “Queens Ware.” Anything made for the queen was exhibited for advertising beforehand.
They created two different lines of pottery, high-quality hand-crafted and hand-painted “ornamental ware” for the elite, and lower-quality “useful ware” made using simple molds for the middle class. The ornamental ware was made in Etruria, and the useful ware in the Bell Works.
The high-end products were not always profitable. First, he gave away thousands of items for free to nobility. Second, even if it was a sale, how do you force a king to pay a bill? Nevertheless, it was excellent advertising and helped sell his other products to the middle class.
He also advertised in newspapers, and even spread false rumors of upcoming shortages to increase sales. He printed his first catalog in 1773. Due to the quality and popularity of his goods, he was even able to sell his goods to China (usually it was the other way round).
Wedgwood is known for two things: First, for the artistic quality of his wares. His company still exists, and is still positioned in the premium segment for ceramics. Second, and the focus of this post, his scientific approach to manufacturing. As Winslow Taylor is the father of scientific management, so is Wedgwood the father of scientific manufacturing. His approach to measure, experiment, and improve quality, as well as his rigorous organization of his factories, was centuries ahead of others. He was probably the first to use controlled experiments in manufacturing. Hence, I am happy to have the opportunity to commemorate him in this blog post, which turned out much longer than usual. Now go out, understand your processes, and organize your industry!
P.S.: If you want to learn more, I can recommend The Wedgwood Museum in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England. | 2,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macbeth: the Psychological Perspective
Macbeth: The Psychological Perspective Humans are always thought to be evil or moral, when in reality every human has two sides. William Shakespeare frequently wrote about people with two sides. In Macbeth, alone, there are many characters with an evil and moral side including the main character, Macbeth. Long before psychology became the study of human behavior, Shakespeare created a very realistic character, Macbeth, a man who struggles with inner conflict and moral dilemmas. William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564 and died on April 23, 1616. Aside from Macbeth, he wrote over 154 sonnets throughout his lifetime.
The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare is a play in which the main character, an ambitious solider named Macbeth, goes on a journey within his inner self. He first starts out as a moral person, but then he ends up as a tyrant with no moral boundaries at all, towards the end of the play. The story takes place in Scotland, where Macbeth kills King Duncan with the help of his wife, Lady Macbeth. He soon becomes King of Scotland and begins his downward spiral into becoming a tyrant. Many innocent characters are killed, including Banquo, Macbeth’s best friend, and Macduff’s family.
Throughout the play, many characters rise to the top, including Macduff, who ultimately kills Macbeth. Also included in this play is King Duncan’s son, Malcolm, who later becomes the King of Scotland after the death of Macbeth. Ultimately, Lady Macbeth commits suicide because of the guilt she feels that is caused by the sins she committed and Macbeth is killed in the final battle where he dies completely alone. Long before psychology became the study of human behavior, Shakespeare created a very realistic character, Macbeth, a man who struggles with inner conflict and moral dilemmas.
Macbeth directly depicts how humans can have two sides to them. The main character Macbeth starts out as honest and moral but then switches to murderous and evil. “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (I. i. 10), is one of the most recognized motifs from Macbeth. This sentence simply means something that is fair can also be foul and something that is foul can also be fair, depending on what the situation is. Another interpretation of this line is that everything has two sides, or two points of view, when looking at something. Macbeth holds true to this motif since he contains the power to be evil and moral.
One can see Macbeth hit rock bottom when he kills Macduff’s entire innocent family and his whole army abandons him. Macbeth’s constant internal conflict ultimately paves the way to his tragic downfall and unnatural death. Throughout the tragic story of Macbeth, Macbeth often struggles with a constant internal conflict, which, in fact, foreshadows the way to his personal tragic downfall. On the contrary, as Macbeth discusses his options with his wife, choosing whether or not to murder King Duncan, he is faced with weighing his incentives along with his consequences.
Critic Frank Kermode observes that Macbeth “is an Everyman; and for him as for all habitual sinners the guilt that is at first a matter of choice becomes… a matter of fate. His torments of conscience no longer come between the desire and the act” (Kermode 77). Macbeth was truly against the murder of King Duncan, for King Duncan has rewarded him, graciously, with the honor of becoming the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is pleased to hear of this, yet he remembers his encounters with the three witches. Conversely, this reward is simply not enough for Lady Macbeth.
Lady Macbeth explains to her husband the great honor of becoming king and queen, which ultimately changes Macbeth’s “choice”, as previously stated, into “a matter of fate”. Macbeth notes that as much as he does not want to murder Duncan, “If it were done when ‘tis done, then ‘twere well / It were done quickly” (I. vii. 1-2). Macbeth is against killing Duncan but realizes that it is his duty to do so if he wants the throne. Macbeth eventually decides that it would be best for him to murder King Duncan in order to take the throne, but in order to do so he would have to stoop down to the lowest level possible.
It is said that people choose their own fate. At that decision and peak of the play, Macbeth’s choice became his fate. Macbeth’s true dark emotions start to become evident. However, just like Macbeth, every person has that dark inner side of their personality. As it is known, looks can be very deceiving. There is nobody in the world that is perfect, which is why it may have been somewhat of an excuse for Macbeth to murder King Duncan, at first. However, Macbeth’s devious acts began sitting uncomfortably with his common people, over which he ruled. After the onfusing murder of the king, many of King Duncan’s people did not know how to react or even who to blame. It was easy for Macbeth to step in and blame it on the guards, for that was his and his wife’s plan. However, that was not really the right thing to do and this causes a lot of tension throughout the castle. Somebody is always watching, and there is always that one person who knows that something is just not right, “Lest our old robes sit easier than our new” (II. iv. 38). These loose “robes” that Macbeth may be wearing are used to symbolize the discomfort both throughout the castle and in Macbeth’s own conscience.
After murdering the king, Macbeth has changed to a man that not even his own wife knows. In the beginning of the play, Lady Macbeth basically forces her husband to murder King Duncan. After the murder of King Duncan, Macbeth goes on a rampage of murders upon people he could not trust, even the slightest bit. This constant inner conflict comes into play, yet again. Macbeth loses sleep due to the fact that he thinks he has “murdered sleep” after slaying King Duncan. This loss of sleep gives Macbeth time to think about the horrible things he has done to people.
Since this point of the play Macbeth has lost all sense of shame in doing such harmful deeds. Macbeth decides that he was in this pool of blood, knee-high, and he is basically at the point of no return. Macbeth finally begins to notice, towards the end of the play, the amount of lives he has taken and utter chaos he has brought to the country. Macbeth notes to himself that not only do his supposedly loyal soldiers and officials throughout his castle hate him, but also he himself is beginning to want to put this spree to rest.
As critic J. Lyndon Shanley quotes, “Macbeth is defeated as is no other of Shakespeare’s great tragic figures. No pity and reverent awe attend his death. Dying off-stage he is, as it were, shuffled off, in keeping with his dreadful state and the desire of all in his world to be rid of him” (Shanley 462). This is when Macbeth finally realizes that he would rather be dead because it is more peaceful and he can sleep at last, where nobody has the possibility of murdering him in his sleep, as he did to the praiseworthy King Duncan.
Macbeth’s struggle between fair and foul comes back into play at this point, realizing that he may be the king at the moment, but he ultimately committed several murders to become such a rank and has to pay the price in the end. As fully clarified, Macbeth’s constant internal conflict ultimately foreshadows his future unnatural death, coinciding with his tragic downfall. The concept of fair being foul and Macbeth shares the same emotional catastrophes as Lady Macbeth. In the beginning of the play, Macbeth is absolutely against the murder of King Duncan.
To Macbeth, King Duncan was nothing but honest and compassionate king. However, Macbeth turns into a scheming, self-centered tyrant who just becomes power hungry. Macbeth feels as if he is invincible and that nothing can prevent him from ruling. All in all, Macbeth is a man who wavers between right and wrong and goodness and evil. Macbeth’s choices and decisions take him through many realistic emotions. His disregard for moral right and wrong cause him emotional suffering and ultimately, his emotional and physical downfall. | <urn:uuid:a3544bf6-e01f-4dd1-ab19-82fa1c2ab017> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/macbeth-the-psychological-perspective-21620 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.981044 | 1,878 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Macbeth: the Psychological Perspective
Macbeth: The Psychological Perspective Humans are always thought to be evil or moral, when in reality every human has two sides. William Shakespeare frequently wrote about people with two sides. In Macbeth, alone, there are many characters with an evil and moral side including the main character, Macbeth. Long before psychology became the study of human behavior, Shakespeare created a very realistic character, Macbeth, a man who struggles with inner conflict and moral dilemmas. William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564 and died on April 23, 1616. Aside from Macbeth, he wrote over 154 sonnets throughout his lifetime.
The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare is a play in which the main character, an ambitious solider named Macbeth, goes on a journey within his inner self. He first starts out as a moral person, but then he ends up as a tyrant with no moral boundaries at all, towards the end of the play. The story takes place in Scotland, where Macbeth kills King Duncan with the help of his wife, Lady Macbeth. He soon becomes King of Scotland and begins his downward spiral into becoming a tyrant. Many innocent characters are killed, including Banquo, Macbeth’s best friend, and Macduff’s family.
Throughout the play, many characters rise to the top, including Macduff, who ultimately kills Macbeth. Also included in this play is King Duncan’s son, Malcolm, who later becomes the King of Scotland after the death of Macbeth. Ultimately, Lady Macbeth commits suicide because of the guilt she feels that is caused by the sins she committed and Macbeth is killed in the final battle where he dies completely alone. Long before psychology became the study of human behavior, Shakespeare created a very realistic character, Macbeth, a man who struggles with inner conflict and moral dilemmas.
Macbeth directly depicts how humans can have two sides to them. The main character Macbeth starts out as honest and moral but then switches to murderous and evil. “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (I. i. 10), is one of the most recognized motifs from Macbeth. This sentence simply means something that is fair can also be foul and something that is foul can also be fair, depending on what the situation is. Another interpretation of this line is that everything has two sides, or two points of view, when looking at something. Macbeth holds true to this motif since he contains the power to be evil and moral.
One can see Macbeth hit rock bottom when he kills Macduff’s entire innocent family and his whole army abandons him. Macbeth’s constant internal conflict ultimately paves the way to his tragic downfall and unnatural death. Throughout the tragic story of Macbeth, Macbeth often struggles with a constant internal conflict, which, in fact, foreshadows the way to his personal tragic downfall. On the contrary, as Macbeth discusses his options with his wife, choosing whether or not to murder King Duncan, he is faced with weighing his incentives along with his consequences.
Critic Frank Kermode observes that Macbeth “is an Everyman; and for him as for all habitual sinners the guilt that is at first a matter of choice becomes… a matter of fate. His torments of conscience no longer come between the desire and the act” (Kermode 77). Macbeth was truly against the murder of King Duncan, for King Duncan has rewarded him, graciously, with the honor of becoming the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is pleased to hear of this, yet he remembers his encounters with the three witches. Conversely, this reward is simply not enough for Lady Macbeth.
Lady Macbeth explains to her husband the great honor of becoming king and queen, which ultimately changes Macbeth’s “choice”, as previously stated, into “a matter of fate”. Macbeth notes that as much as he does not want to murder Duncan, “If it were done when ‘tis done, then ‘twere well / It were done quickly” (I. vii. 1-2). Macbeth is against killing Duncan but realizes that it is his duty to do so if he wants the throne. Macbeth eventually decides that it would be best for him to murder King Duncan in order to take the throne, but in order to do so he would have to stoop down to the lowest level possible.
It is said that people choose their own fate. At that decision and peak of the play, Macbeth’s choice became his fate. Macbeth’s true dark emotions start to become evident. However, just like Macbeth, every person has that dark inner side of their personality. As it is known, looks can be very deceiving. There is nobody in the world that is perfect, which is why it may have been somewhat of an excuse for Macbeth to murder King Duncan, at first. However, Macbeth’s devious acts began sitting uncomfortably with his common people, over which he ruled. After the onfusing murder of the king, many of King Duncan’s people did not know how to react or even who to blame. It was easy for Macbeth to step in and blame it on the guards, for that was his and his wife’s plan. However, that was not really the right thing to do and this causes a lot of tension throughout the castle. Somebody is always watching, and there is always that one person who knows that something is just not right, “Lest our old robes sit easier than our new” (II. iv. 38). These loose “robes” that Macbeth may be wearing are used to symbolize the discomfort both throughout the castle and in Macbeth’s own conscience.
After murdering the king, Macbeth has changed to a man that not even his own wife knows. In the beginning of the play, Lady Macbeth basically forces her husband to murder King Duncan. After the murder of King Duncan, Macbeth goes on a rampage of murders upon people he could not trust, even the slightest bit. This constant inner conflict comes into play, yet again. Macbeth loses sleep due to the fact that he thinks he has “murdered sleep” after slaying King Duncan. This loss of sleep gives Macbeth time to think about the horrible things he has done to people.
Since this point of the play Macbeth has lost all sense of shame in doing such harmful deeds. Macbeth decides that he was in this pool of blood, knee-high, and he is basically at the point of no return. Macbeth finally begins to notice, towards the end of the play, the amount of lives he has taken and utter chaos he has brought to the country. Macbeth notes to himself that not only do his supposedly loyal soldiers and officials throughout his castle hate him, but also he himself is beginning to want to put this spree to rest.
As critic J. Lyndon Shanley quotes, “Macbeth is defeated as is no other of Shakespeare’s great tragic figures. No pity and reverent awe attend his death. Dying off-stage he is, as it were, shuffled off, in keeping with his dreadful state and the desire of all in his world to be rid of him” (Shanley 462). This is when Macbeth finally realizes that he would rather be dead because it is more peaceful and he can sleep at last, where nobody has the possibility of murdering him in his sleep, as he did to the praiseworthy King Duncan.
Macbeth’s struggle between fair and foul comes back into play at this point, realizing that he may be the king at the moment, but he ultimately committed several murders to become such a rank and has to pay the price in the end. As fully clarified, Macbeth’s constant internal conflict ultimately foreshadows his future unnatural death, coinciding with his tragic downfall. The concept of fair being foul and Macbeth shares the same emotional catastrophes as Lady Macbeth. In the beginning of the play, Macbeth is absolutely against the murder of King Duncan.
To Macbeth, King Duncan was nothing but honest and compassionate king. However, Macbeth turns into a scheming, self-centered tyrant who just becomes power hungry. Macbeth feels as if he is invincible and that nothing can prevent him from ruling. All in all, Macbeth is a man who wavers between right and wrong and goodness and evil. Macbeth’s choices and decisions take him through many realistic emotions. His disregard for moral right and wrong cause him emotional suffering and ultimately, his emotional and physical downfall. | 1,772 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The family of deer is one of the biggest in the world, and there are several species among them which are different from each other but at the same time, have several similarities among each other. The main difference between elk and a deer is that the first one is known as Wapiti which is a native American language word meaning “light colored deer” and have the ability to reach a lot higher. While the second one is usually smaller in size and has the habit of eating heavy foods like other mammals they prefer grazing and eating food which is low in fats.
|Basis of Distinction||Elk||Deer|
|Scientific Name||Cervus canadensis||Cervidae|
|Life Span||10 to 13 years||15 to 25 years|
|Average Weight||300 kg||500 kg|
|Location||North America and East Asia.||All over the world.|
|Characterization||One of the types of deer.||The leading family of similar species.|
|Habitat||Lives in mountains during the summer season and lives in snow during the winter.||Can live in diverse places from mountains to jungles.|
|Body||Hard body surface||Soft body surface|
|Quality||Ability to reach the length which is double the size of their body.||Can be as long as 9 feet and runs at fast speed.|
|Search||Grazes for food.||Searches for food with a smell.|
What is Elk?
This is one of the biggest species in the family of deer and one of the largest group of mammals which are found in North America and East Asia. One thing should be cleared that this term is not to be confused with the other elk which is used in British English in which Moose is known as an Elk. They are also known as Wapiti which is a native American language word meaning “light colored deer.” They have the main difference from other deer which is of size. Much larger and much broader in shape, they are the biggest among their family. The male can reach a height of 4 feet above its original size which means the total height they can reach becomes 9 feet. Another thing unique to them is that they start to lose their antlers in the spring season but grow them again two months later for the breeding season. They migrate to mountains after the summer season begins, and the female will then give birth to the calf which can stand on its own just after 20 minutes. When the summer season is about to end, all the male ones start to fight with each other and get aggressive, this is to make sure they get the female of their choice. The male in the family is called bull while the female is known as cows. When the winter begins, they all migrate back to the land in separate herds where male and female are distinct and spend the season on grass and other herbs.
What is Deer?
Deer are one of the biggest animal family in the world, containing many species which become part of a large group. They are usually smaller in size and are mostly found all over the world. After the bovids, they are the biggest animal family. The best way of telling which one is a deer is through their antelope which keep on growing and removing after every season, and that’s how they are able to keep themselves different from antelopes. The largest deer in the family is known as Moose which weigh up to 800 kg and is almost 9 feet. The next ones are elk which have the ability to reach heights double the size of their body, the northern podu is the smallest deer in the world which are just 14 inches in size. There are many other types as well which have their own characteristics based on their location and size. The primary food which they eat includes leaves, grass, herbs and smaller berries, they have smaller stomachs, therefore, can survive on smaller amounts of food easily. Instead of eating heavy foods like other mammals they prefer grazing and eating food which is low in fats but has more nutrition in them. It is believed that they have evolved from antlers and gradually developed in their original form as they are now. Their meat is also eaten by human beings all over the world, especially by people who love hunting. The meat is known as vension and is produced in smaller amounts as compared to beef and other products.
- An elk is one of the types of deer which exist while deer is a general term used for the family of various species that are similar in some way.
- An elk is usually larger in size as compared to average deer but shorter than a moose, while deer vary in length from long to short.
- An elk has the ability to reach the length which is double the size of their body while a deer can be as long as 9 feet.
- The maximum size of an elk is around 300 kg while the highest size of a deer can be around 800 kg.
- They both are similar in the way that they eat the same things and have the same type of digestive system which is quick and based on nutrition.
- An elk usually lives in the mountains during the summer season and lives in snow during the winter, while a deer can live in diverse places from mountains to jungles.
- An elk has the upper body surface which is relatively hard since it lives in extreme places while the body of a deer is soft.
- A deer runs at a faster speed while an elk is slower in pace.
- An elk grazes for its food from snow and other places, while a deer finds its food with the help of smell. | <urn:uuid:0e5035e6-2cb7-4c47-ab49-6ffd59158bfc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://diffzi.com/elk-vs-deer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.982533 | 1,171 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0683650225400... | 2 | The family of deer is one of the biggest in the world, and there are several species among them which are different from each other but at the same time, have several similarities among each other. The main difference between elk and a deer is that the first one is known as Wapiti which is a native American language word meaning “light colored deer” and have the ability to reach a lot higher. While the second one is usually smaller in size and has the habit of eating heavy foods like other mammals they prefer grazing and eating food which is low in fats.
|Basis of Distinction||Elk||Deer|
|Scientific Name||Cervus canadensis||Cervidae|
|Life Span||10 to 13 years||15 to 25 years|
|Average Weight||300 kg||500 kg|
|Location||North America and East Asia.||All over the world.|
|Characterization||One of the types of deer.||The leading family of similar species.|
|Habitat||Lives in mountains during the summer season and lives in snow during the winter.||Can live in diverse places from mountains to jungles.|
|Body||Hard body surface||Soft body surface|
|Quality||Ability to reach the length which is double the size of their body.||Can be as long as 9 feet and runs at fast speed.|
|Search||Grazes for food.||Searches for food with a smell.|
What is Elk?
This is one of the biggest species in the family of deer and one of the largest group of mammals which are found in North America and East Asia. One thing should be cleared that this term is not to be confused with the other elk which is used in British English in which Moose is known as an Elk. They are also known as Wapiti which is a native American language word meaning “light colored deer.” They have the main difference from other deer which is of size. Much larger and much broader in shape, they are the biggest among their family. The male can reach a height of 4 feet above its original size which means the total height they can reach becomes 9 feet. Another thing unique to them is that they start to lose their antlers in the spring season but grow them again two months later for the breeding season. They migrate to mountains after the summer season begins, and the female will then give birth to the calf which can stand on its own just after 20 minutes. When the summer season is about to end, all the male ones start to fight with each other and get aggressive, this is to make sure they get the female of their choice. The male in the family is called bull while the female is known as cows. When the winter begins, they all migrate back to the land in separate herds where male and female are distinct and spend the season on grass and other herbs.
What is Deer?
Deer are one of the biggest animal family in the world, containing many species which become part of a large group. They are usually smaller in size and are mostly found all over the world. After the bovids, they are the biggest animal family. The best way of telling which one is a deer is through their antelope which keep on growing and removing after every season, and that’s how they are able to keep themselves different from antelopes. The largest deer in the family is known as Moose which weigh up to 800 kg and is almost 9 feet. The next ones are elk which have the ability to reach heights double the size of their body, the northern podu is the smallest deer in the world which are just 14 inches in size. There are many other types as well which have their own characteristics based on their location and size. The primary food which they eat includes leaves, grass, herbs and smaller berries, they have smaller stomachs, therefore, can survive on smaller amounts of food easily. Instead of eating heavy foods like other mammals they prefer grazing and eating food which is low in fats but has more nutrition in them. It is believed that they have evolved from antlers and gradually developed in their original form as they are now. Their meat is also eaten by human beings all over the world, especially by people who love hunting. The meat is known as vension and is produced in smaller amounts as compared to beef and other products.
- An elk is one of the types of deer which exist while deer is a general term used for the family of various species that are similar in some way.
- An elk is usually larger in size as compared to average deer but shorter than a moose, while deer vary in length from long to short.
- An elk has the ability to reach the length which is double the size of their body while a deer can be as long as 9 feet.
- The maximum size of an elk is around 300 kg while the highest size of a deer can be around 800 kg.
- They both are similar in the way that they eat the same things and have the same type of digestive system which is quick and based on nutrition.
- An elk usually lives in the mountains during the summer season and lives in snow during the winter, while a deer can live in diverse places from mountains to jungles.
- An elk has the upper body surface which is relatively hard since it lives in extreme places while the body of a deer is soft.
- A deer runs at a faster speed while an elk is slower in pace.
- An elk grazes for its food from snow and other places, while a deer finds its food with the help of smell. | 1,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rewind several years and we find our son seriously struggling at school. His reading development has flatlined. First impact of dyslexia but also the Governments forced phonics teaching approach doesn’t help. He is increasingly alone in the playground. In lessons he struggles to stay still and concentrate. He’s become clumsy and his fine motor skills have deserted him.
We had a few warning signings at nursery but these we largely missed. In fact at nursery he was ahead of all his age development targets. He was a character who was happy to be the centre of attention. He had loads of friends and the little girls would fight over who was going to marry him. Within the course of a few months this all changed.
WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF ASPERGERS, DYSPRAXIA AND DYSLEXIA.
As we started the process of getting a diagnosis everything we tried failed to work. It felt like we were working in the dark. Any type of win would really boast everyone’s confidence. Step in LEGO.
On the recommendation of a health professional it was agreed with school that we try a teaching programme based on those magic little toy blocks. Over the course of a few months school would incorporate a number of 1 hour LEGO sessions into each week. At home we would take every opportunity to encourage our son to play with his LEGO in a structured way. The whole approach was heavily influenced by the increasing use of LEGO-BASED THERAPY in schools and autistic research. The process worked and delivered clear results.
- The repeated process of picking up small and differing shaped blocks started to improve his finger control.
- Incorporating role play and story telling into model building helped him develop his imagination.
- In the school sessions increasingly other kids were brought into the programme. This really helped his team working and willingness to share. Plus it gave kids a chance to see a different side of our son.
- Increasingly complex designs helped with improving concentration levels.
- As every small milestone reached gained a certificate. Son could see progress. This really helped his confidence.
So in an increasingly alien world for our son and his struggling parents those little building blocks brought our first real ray of hope. They really do work.
Because learning works best when it’s fun. | <urn:uuid:3bd7b6c6-2608-4f15-8805-bc930c4a4686> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bereavedsingledad.blog/2019/09/22/lego/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.983634 | 477 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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We had a few warning signings at nursery but these we largely missed. In fact at nursery he was ahead of all his age development targets. He was a character who was happy to be the centre of attention. He had loads of friends and the little girls would fight over who was going to marry him. Within the course of a few months this all changed.
WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF ASPERGERS, DYSPRAXIA AND DYSLEXIA.
As we started the process of getting a diagnosis everything we tried failed to work. It felt like we were working in the dark. Any type of win would really boast everyone’s confidence. Step in LEGO.
On the recommendation of a health professional it was agreed with school that we try a teaching programme based on those magic little toy blocks. Over the course of a few months school would incorporate a number of 1 hour LEGO sessions into each week. At home we would take every opportunity to encourage our son to play with his LEGO in a structured way. The whole approach was heavily influenced by the increasing use of LEGO-BASED THERAPY in schools and autistic research. The process worked and delivered clear results.
- The repeated process of picking up small and differing shaped blocks started to improve his finger control.
- Incorporating role play and story telling into model building helped him develop his imagination.
- In the school sessions increasingly other kids were brought into the programme. This really helped his team working and willingness to share. Plus it gave kids a chance to see a different side of our son.
- Increasingly complex designs helped with improving concentration levels.
- As every small milestone reached gained a certificate. Son could see progress. This really helped his confidence.
So in an increasingly alien world for our son and his struggling parents those little building blocks brought our first real ray of hope. They really do work.
Because learning works best when it’s fun. | 455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Eureka stockade
Yr 9 Background – Composition
The Eureka rebellion in 1854 was obviously a huge landmark in the have difficulty for democratic rights and a more reasonable and equal society. Eureka was in several ways a conflict over what Aussie society must be. Today, Eureka is still a symbol of resistance. The Eureka rebellion happened during the precious metal rushes inside the 1850s. The gold pushes marked a turning point in Australia's background, motivating an enormous scramble of people from other countries towards the Australian goldfields. The population of Australia tripled in the first decade of the gold rushes and riches gained by gold that was mined raised living standards. These developments opened the way for more democratic and fair rights and a imperialiste self-government. Due to the fact that this event, Sydney has become a area of chance. However , the gold rushes also acquired consequences including violent political protests. The lead up:
Life on the gold domains was impossible for many diggers whose arduous, exhausting, demanding work produced very little. Not many found souple. In 1851, the New Southern Wales and Victorian government authorities passed regulations demanding that anyone looking for precious metal had to get a licence which cost 30 shillings per month. This fee needed to be paid in advance and gave a digger the right to focus on only a really small part of land. Any diggers which were not United kingdom had to pay twice as very much for a driving licence. Many diggers did not buy licences because they could not afford the straight up cost of getting a licence. The gold commissioners sent troops to capture these diggers. If diggers were caught without licences they were fined and had their very own huts and equipment demolished. Some were even provided for jail. Next angry protests in 1853, New South Wales reduced the cost to 15 shillings per month. However , Victoria only decreased the cost to 20 shillings. This was still way too high because while less area gold was found diggers incomes were becoming more compact. Mines... | <urn:uuid:b8006de4-b71f-4c6c-bb1b-e6cb68eda613> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://writersplainandsimple.com/the-eureka-stockade/34274-the-eureka-stockade-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.982824 | 420 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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Yr 9 Background – Composition
The Eureka rebellion in 1854 was obviously a huge landmark in the have difficulty for democratic rights and a more reasonable and equal society. Eureka was in several ways a conflict over what Aussie society must be. Today, Eureka is still a symbol of resistance. The Eureka rebellion happened during the precious metal rushes inside the 1850s. The gold pushes marked a turning point in Australia's background, motivating an enormous scramble of people from other countries towards the Australian goldfields. The population of Australia tripled in the first decade of the gold rushes and riches gained by gold that was mined raised living standards. These developments opened the way for more democratic and fair rights and a imperialiste self-government. Due to the fact that this event, Sydney has become a area of chance. However , the gold rushes also acquired consequences including violent political protests. The lead up:
Life on the gold domains was impossible for many diggers whose arduous, exhausting, demanding work produced very little. Not many found souple. In 1851, the New Southern Wales and Victorian government authorities passed regulations demanding that anyone looking for precious metal had to get a licence which cost 30 shillings per month. This fee needed to be paid in advance and gave a digger the right to focus on only a really small part of land. Any diggers which were not United kingdom had to pay twice as very much for a driving licence. Many diggers did not buy licences because they could not afford the straight up cost of getting a licence. The gold commissioners sent troops to capture these diggers. If diggers were caught without licences they were fined and had their very own huts and equipment demolished. Some were even provided for jail. Next angry protests in 1853, New South Wales reduced the cost to 15 shillings per month. However , Victoria only decreased the cost to 20 shillings. This was still way too high because while less area gold was found diggers incomes were becoming more compact. Mines... | 433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word "hillbilly" was a term of endearment in the Appalachian Mountains in the 1800s, though it later took on negative connotations.
The term was first used by residents of the valleys to describe their neighbors in the mountains, according to the late Jim Comstock, publisher of the weekly West Virginia Hillbilly newspaper from 1957 until 1992.
"The word is said to have originated as a means of distinguishing people who lived in the mountainous region of the county from those who lived in the valley," Comstock wrote, referring to Wayne County, Kentucky, where he speculated the term came into use.
"The word 'billy' is of Scottish origin and is a synonym for the word 'fellow.' At first, the word had no derogatory meaning at all. It was simply a means of defining a man's place of origin, but in time it came to be used in a pejorative sense, and in modern dictionaries definitions of the word often say something like: "Hillbilly (n) an illiterate mountaineer; a rough, uncouth countryman."
Some scholars argue that the term originated in Scotland and was used to describe residents who escaped into the isolation of the hills or who were followers of William of Orange. Michael Montgomery in his book "From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English" claims the term did not appear in use until the late 1800s in America and could not, therefore, be of old-world origin.
The term may have begun to take on negative connotations after the U.S. Civil War as residents of Appalachia began to fall behind other areas socially and technologically as a result of the isolating mountains.
Outsiders began to perceive mountain folk as violent and backward. Fueled by news stories of Appalachian feuds, such as that of the Hatfields and McCoys in the 1880s, the stereotype developed further.
Comstock, who took great pride in his West Virginia mountain heritage, said he found much about its pejorative turn ironic.
"Wayne County, Kentucky, was the first of that state's 120 counties to establish a free public school system, and Kentucky was the first state in the nation to authorize a state public school system," he remarked.
Television programs in the 1960s, such as The Andy Griffith Show and The Beverly Hillbillies, began to portray hillbillies as backward, though possessing innate wisdom that allowed them to humorously outmatch sophisticated neighbors.
"Although dwellers of the lowlands still use the term as a slur," Comstock wrote, "mountain people have in recent years have begun to adopt it proudly, and some of the associations which have previously made it a disrespectful term have begun to fade away." | <urn:uuid:f93f0534-c6a3-488e-9b6c-094c9c56d4dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wvexplorer.com/2019/08/23/hillbilly-formerly-term-of-endearment-rather-than-disdain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.982205 | 568 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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-0.0976025909185409... | 1 | The word "hillbilly" was a term of endearment in the Appalachian Mountains in the 1800s, though it later took on negative connotations.
The term was first used by residents of the valleys to describe their neighbors in the mountains, according to the late Jim Comstock, publisher of the weekly West Virginia Hillbilly newspaper from 1957 until 1992.
"The word is said to have originated as a means of distinguishing people who lived in the mountainous region of the county from those who lived in the valley," Comstock wrote, referring to Wayne County, Kentucky, where he speculated the term came into use.
"The word 'billy' is of Scottish origin and is a synonym for the word 'fellow.' At first, the word had no derogatory meaning at all. It was simply a means of defining a man's place of origin, but in time it came to be used in a pejorative sense, and in modern dictionaries definitions of the word often say something like: "Hillbilly (n) an illiterate mountaineer; a rough, uncouth countryman."
Some scholars argue that the term originated in Scotland and was used to describe residents who escaped into the isolation of the hills or who were followers of William of Orange. Michael Montgomery in his book "From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English" claims the term did not appear in use until the late 1800s in America and could not, therefore, be of old-world origin.
The term may have begun to take on negative connotations after the U.S. Civil War as residents of Appalachia began to fall behind other areas socially and technologically as a result of the isolating mountains.
Outsiders began to perceive mountain folk as violent and backward. Fueled by news stories of Appalachian feuds, such as that of the Hatfields and McCoys in the 1880s, the stereotype developed further.
Comstock, who took great pride in his West Virginia mountain heritage, said he found much about its pejorative turn ironic.
"Wayne County, Kentucky, was the first of that state's 120 counties to establish a free public school system, and Kentucky was the first state in the nation to authorize a state public school system," he remarked.
Television programs in the 1960s, such as The Andy Griffith Show and The Beverly Hillbillies, began to portray hillbillies as backward, though possessing innate wisdom that allowed them to humorously outmatch sophisticated neighbors.
"Although dwellers of the lowlands still use the term as a slur," Comstock wrote, "mountain people have in recent years have begun to adopt it proudly, and some of the associations which have previously made it a disrespectful term have begun to fade away." | 586 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Lexington and Concord is officially the very first battle of the American Revolutionary War that eventually saw America gain independence from Britain. This battle is pivotal, not because it changed the face of the war, but more because it is the opening battle in a war that would eventually change the world.
There is a lot of prior to the Battle of Lexington and Concord, none of which was physical conflict but was enough to cause the colonies to rise up against the British.
Prior to the Battles of Lexington and Concord
The political situation started to deteriorate in the America when the British started enforcing acts in the country to gain more income and cause more hardship on Americans trying to build successful business. The hardest hit of all these were sugar plantations because of the sugar act and the attempt at abolition of slavery and other acts affecting those who trade with other countries using ships.
The Americans had long held local militia in different states; this militia were for the protection of the states and had been used against the French and the native Indians. Now it seems the political situation meant they would turn on the red coats of the British.
In April 1775 the British received word that the rebel militia in Concord had a hidden stash of weapons and decided to act and quell the rebel actions.
On 18th April the British sent out 20 men on horseback to find messengers and glean information, but because of their actions the militia started preparing for potential battle.
On 10pm of the 18h April the British started their march to Concord to engage in battle.
The Battle of Lexington and Concord
At 3am the British forces were ambling along when Major Pitcairn was asked to take a small group of six companies and double march to Concord. Not too long later Pitcairn entered Lexington with his men; the Lexington militia were there too and watched, waiting for the British to come.
The Lexington militia made formation and stood in plain sight, the British saw them but no one would fire with both sides telling their men to hold fire. Unfortunately a shot did happen from somewhere but no one knows where, this caused the British to start moving forward with bayonets attached.
The militia responded to the British advance with a few disorderly shots, the British responded with a volley of fire causing casualties before then advancing forward, killing 8 militia. The British were out of control at this point but the drummer beat the assembly beat and the British fell back into ranks and marched on Concord.
The militia in Concord had heard of the commotion in Lexington and formed ranks ready for the British. A column of militia decided to march out to meet the British but upon seeing superior British numbers retreated back into Concord.
The British finally arrived at Concord and were split up to find the weapons stash, this accumulated in the British finding the local tavern locked. The owner of which refused to let them in so at gun point the British made him let them in and then tell them where the weapons were. The weapons happened to be three massive cannon which the British smashed. The British also found gun cartridges which were burned.
Upon seeing smoke in Concord Colonel Barrett's militia troops decided to march back on Concord, this meant a smaller force of British troops who were stationed on a hill retreated back to a bridge giving the hill to the militia.
The militia men number 400 strong while the British at the bridge numbered just less than one hundred. The militia formed a long line two men deep; they had been ordered not to fire unless the British fired first.
The British unfortunately did fire first, the militia marched down to the bridge and opened up a devastating barrage of fire killing many, including officers and causing the remaining soldiers to flee back to the slower column of British still marching on Concord.
The first battle was won by the Americans who had a smaller force. The Americans lost 49 men to the British 73, but it seems the victory was down to poor British tactics by the officers as the British advance was not well managed and controlled. | <urn:uuid:7901c2bf-2909-4508-b734-2406ba5febc4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/War-of-independence/the-battle-of-lexington-and-concord.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.980083 | 807 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.23800686001... | 1 | The Battle of Lexington and Concord is officially the very first battle of the American Revolutionary War that eventually saw America gain independence from Britain. This battle is pivotal, not because it changed the face of the war, but more because it is the opening battle in a war that would eventually change the world.
There is a lot of prior to the Battle of Lexington and Concord, none of which was physical conflict but was enough to cause the colonies to rise up against the British.
Prior to the Battles of Lexington and Concord
The political situation started to deteriorate in the America when the British started enforcing acts in the country to gain more income and cause more hardship on Americans trying to build successful business. The hardest hit of all these were sugar plantations because of the sugar act and the attempt at abolition of slavery and other acts affecting those who trade with other countries using ships.
The Americans had long held local militia in different states; this militia were for the protection of the states and had been used against the French and the native Indians. Now it seems the political situation meant they would turn on the red coats of the British.
In April 1775 the British received word that the rebel militia in Concord had a hidden stash of weapons and decided to act and quell the rebel actions.
On 18th April the British sent out 20 men on horseback to find messengers and glean information, but because of their actions the militia started preparing for potential battle.
On 10pm of the 18h April the British started their march to Concord to engage in battle.
The Battle of Lexington and Concord
At 3am the British forces were ambling along when Major Pitcairn was asked to take a small group of six companies and double march to Concord. Not too long later Pitcairn entered Lexington with his men; the Lexington militia were there too and watched, waiting for the British to come.
The Lexington militia made formation and stood in plain sight, the British saw them but no one would fire with both sides telling their men to hold fire. Unfortunately a shot did happen from somewhere but no one knows where, this caused the British to start moving forward with bayonets attached.
The militia responded to the British advance with a few disorderly shots, the British responded with a volley of fire causing casualties before then advancing forward, killing 8 militia. The British were out of control at this point but the drummer beat the assembly beat and the British fell back into ranks and marched on Concord.
The militia in Concord had heard of the commotion in Lexington and formed ranks ready for the British. A column of militia decided to march out to meet the British but upon seeing superior British numbers retreated back into Concord.
The British finally arrived at Concord and were split up to find the weapons stash, this accumulated in the British finding the local tavern locked. The owner of which refused to let them in so at gun point the British made him let them in and then tell them where the weapons were. The weapons happened to be three massive cannon which the British smashed. The British also found gun cartridges which were burned.
Upon seeing smoke in Concord Colonel Barrett's militia troops decided to march back on Concord, this meant a smaller force of British troops who were stationed on a hill retreated back to a bridge giving the hill to the militia.
The militia men number 400 strong while the British at the bridge numbered just less than one hundred. The militia formed a long line two men deep; they had been ordered not to fire unless the British fired first.
The British unfortunately did fire first, the militia marched down to the bridge and opened up a devastating barrage of fire killing many, including officers and causing the remaining soldiers to flee back to the slower column of British still marching on Concord.
The first battle was won by the Americans who had a smaller force. The Americans lost 49 men to the British 73, but it seems the victory was down to poor British tactics by the officers as the British advance was not well managed and controlled. | 816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For centuries people have been fascinated by the works of William Shakespeare. His comedies, histories, tragedies and poems have been translated into every major language and are still entertaining people today, almost four centuries after his death.
Considered to be the greatest poet and playwright of the English language, William Shakespeare was born in a small market town called Stratford-upon-Avon in England. For this reason, he is commonly known as the “Bard of Avon”. His actual birth date is unknown, but most researchers agree that he was born on April 26th, 1564. As a young boy, he studied in the local grammar school where it believed he had to study Latin texts as was typical in all grammar schools of the time. He however did not go to any university.
Around the age of eighteen, Shakespeare’s girlfriend Anne Hathaway, who was eight years senior to him, got pregnant and so they married in 1582. Within six months she gave birth to their first daughter and the following year she gave birth to twins. One of the twins, his son Hamnet, died suddenly.
To seek his fortune, Shakespeare went to London and started acting. Most of the plays he acted in were his own creation. One of Shakespeare’s first plays was a trilogy about the king Henry VI. At his peak, he was authoring two plays a year. By 1597, he had completed 15 of the 37 plays he wrote, including his most famous play,’ Romeo and Juliet’.
Shakespeare was part of the theatre group called ‘the Lord Chamberlain’s Men’. They changed its name to ‘the King’s men’ when King James became their patron. This was very unique honour bestowed to them and they performed many times for the royal court. Shakespeare also acquired partnership deeds to the largest amphitheatre of the time called ‘The Globe’. It has been re-built and even today hosts many plays in London.
Shakespeare’s plays are categorised into historical plays like ‘Henry V’, tragedies like ‘Hamlet’ and comedies like ‘As You Like it’. During his free time, when the theatres were closed he wrote poems like ‘A Lover’s Complaint’ and ‘The Rape of Lucrece’. In addition, he wrote nearly 150 sonnets.
Shakespeare is credited with inventing the concept of the tragic romance. He is responsible for shaping the English language and giving it more than 3000 words. He has inspired many authors and artists over the centuries. His deep insight into human conditions makes his works relevant even today. A poet, playwright and wordsmith, William Shakespeare is widely considered the most influential author in human civilization. So treat yourself to something special and enjoy the works of one of the greatest ever writers. | <urn:uuid:6d9451bd-df00-4293-bd51-368e5e787061> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://writeupcafe.com/blog/arts-culture/1000436-william-shakespeare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.990514 | 599 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.213869839... | 3 | For centuries people have been fascinated by the works of William Shakespeare. His comedies, histories, tragedies and poems have been translated into every major language and are still entertaining people today, almost four centuries after his death.
Considered to be the greatest poet and playwright of the English language, William Shakespeare was born in a small market town called Stratford-upon-Avon in England. For this reason, he is commonly known as the “Bard of Avon”. His actual birth date is unknown, but most researchers agree that he was born on April 26th, 1564. As a young boy, he studied in the local grammar school where it believed he had to study Latin texts as was typical in all grammar schools of the time. He however did not go to any university.
Around the age of eighteen, Shakespeare’s girlfriend Anne Hathaway, who was eight years senior to him, got pregnant and so they married in 1582. Within six months she gave birth to their first daughter and the following year she gave birth to twins. One of the twins, his son Hamnet, died suddenly.
To seek his fortune, Shakespeare went to London and started acting. Most of the plays he acted in were his own creation. One of Shakespeare’s first plays was a trilogy about the king Henry VI. At his peak, he was authoring two plays a year. By 1597, he had completed 15 of the 37 plays he wrote, including his most famous play,’ Romeo and Juliet’.
Shakespeare was part of the theatre group called ‘the Lord Chamberlain’s Men’. They changed its name to ‘the King’s men’ when King James became their patron. This was very unique honour bestowed to them and they performed many times for the royal court. Shakespeare also acquired partnership deeds to the largest amphitheatre of the time called ‘The Globe’. It has been re-built and even today hosts many plays in London.
Shakespeare’s plays are categorised into historical plays like ‘Henry V’, tragedies like ‘Hamlet’ and comedies like ‘As You Like it’. During his free time, when the theatres were closed he wrote poems like ‘A Lover’s Complaint’ and ‘The Rape of Lucrece’. In addition, he wrote nearly 150 sonnets.
Shakespeare is credited with inventing the concept of the tragic romance. He is responsible for shaping the English language and giving it more than 3000 words. He has inspired many authors and artists over the centuries. His deep insight into human conditions makes his works relevant even today. A poet, playwright and wordsmith, William Shakespeare is widely considered the most influential author in human civilization. So treat yourself to something special and enjoy the works of one of the greatest ever writers. | 572 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most sensational events ever to affect the British Royal Family was made public on 11th December 1936, when the King of England, Edward VIII announced in a BBC radio broadcast that he had abdicated the throne to marry the woman he loved – the American socialite Wallis Simpson.
The event produced a massive sensation, not only in Britain and other countries of the Commonwealth, but also in the United States where the unfolding events were followed closely.
Edward had been introduced to Wallis Simpson in 1931 and the two had become increasingly attached, becoming a couple in 1934. This raised eyebrows in the Royal Household for several reasons, particularly when the King announced he intended to marry Wallis Simpson. She was divorced from her first husband and in the process of divorcing her second, and this led to a widespread belief that she was a “gold digger” and was only interested in the relationship for wealth and power.
As King, Edward was also the head of the Church of England that did not permit divorcees to remarry if their previous spouses were still alive, and his stated intention to remarry was in direct conflict with this.
Considerable debate took place as to whether the King could legally remain on the throne if he did marry Simpson, and the proposed union was opposed, not only by the British Government but other countries of the Commonwealth. This created an impasse, where many were unwilling to accept Simpson as the Kings wife and the King was unwilling to separate from her.
This led to his abdication, and he formally resigned from the Monarchy, amid enormous press interest on 10th December 1936, the day before his radio announcement to the British people. He left for Austria the next day.
Edward’s reign had lasted less than a year, and was in fact the shortest since the nine-day rule of Lady Jane Grey in 1553.
“Of course I do have a slight advantage over the rest of you. It helps in a pinch to be able to remind your bride that you gave up a throne for her” – Edward VIII after his abdication.
Image: Edward VIII statement of Abdication, 10 December 1936, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. | <urn:uuid:87ae58e6-6761-4ed3-96ab-f186d79e13cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historychannel.com.au/this-day-in-history/the-king-who-abdicated-edward-the-eighth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.989092 | 450 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.0590527430176... | 2 | One of the most sensational events ever to affect the British Royal Family was made public on 11th December 1936, when the King of England, Edward VIII announced in a BBC radio broadcast that he had abdicated the throne to marry the woman he loved – the American socialite Wallis Simpson.
The event produced a massive sensation, not only in Britain and other countries of the Commonwealth, but also in the United States where the unfolding events were followed closely.
Edward had been introduced to Wallis Simpson in 1931 and the two had become increasingly attached, becoming a couple in 1934. This raised eyebrows in the Royal Household for several reasons, particularly when the King announced he intended to marry Wallis Simpson. She was divorced from her first husband and in the process of divorcing her second, and this led to a widespread belief that she was a “gold digger” and was only interested in the relationship for wealth and power.
As King, Edward was also the head of the Church of England that did not permit divorcees to remarry if their previous spouses were still alive, and his stated intention to remarry was in direct conflict with this.
Considerable debate took place as to whether the King could legally remain on the throne if he did marry Simpson, and the proposed union was opposed, not only by the British Government but other countries of the Commonwealth. This created an impasse, where many were unwilling to accept Simpson as the Kings wife and the King was unwilling to separate from her.
This led to his abdication, and he formally resigned from the Monarchy, amid enormous press interest on 10th December 1936, the day before his radio announcement to the British people. He left for Austria the next day.
Edward’s reign had lasted less than a year, and was in fact the shortest since the nine-day rule of Lady Jane Grey in 1553.
“Of course I do have a slight advantage over the rest of you. It helps in a pinch to be able to remind your bride that you gave up a throne for her” – Edward VIII after his abdication.
Image: Edward VIII statement of Abdication, 10 December 1936, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. | 464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. After escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, gaining note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writings. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave.
Daniel Defoe , born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, which is second only to the Bible in its number of translations. Defoe is noted for being one of the earliest proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson, and is among the founders of the English novel. Defoe wrote many political tracts and often was in trouble with the authorities, including prison time. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted with him.
François Rabelais was a French Renaissance writer, physician, Renaissance humanist, monk and Greek scholar. He has historically been regarded as a writer of fantasy, satire, the grotesque, bawdy jokes and songs. His best known work is Gargantua and Pantagruel. Because of his literary power and historical importance, Western literary critics consider him one of the great writers of world literature and among the creators of modern European writing. His literary legacy is such that today, the word Rabelaisian has been coined as a descriptive inspired by his work and life. Merriam-Webster defines the word as describing someone or something that is "marked by gross robust humor, extravagance of caricature, or bold naturalism".
Kenneth Grahame was a Scottish writer, most famous for The Wind in the Willows , one of the classics of children's literature. He also wrote The Reluctant Dragon. Both books were later adapted for stage and film, of which A.A. Milne's Toad of Toad Hall was the first. The Disney films, The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad and The Reluctant Dragon, have become the best known adaptations.
Once I had learnt my twelve times table (at the age of three) it was downhill all the way.Fred Hoyle
Positive thinking is more than just a tagline. It changes the way we behave. And I firmly believe that when I am positive, it not only makes me better, but it also makes those around me better.Harvey Mackay
For me, every single thing I do seems to be about the process of letting go because that's what I so desperately need to do with so many things: with fear, with what people think of me, and all these things I've worried about my whole life.John Grant
There weren't any astronauts until I was about 10. Yuri Gagarin went into space right around my 10th birthday.John L. Phillips | <urn:uuid:f5a2952a-3b5f-4d50-a4f8-30d4df05ef81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quotecites.com/author-details/Robert_M._Pirsig | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.982884 | 660 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.11832138895... | 1 | Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. After escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, gaining note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writings. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave.
Daniel Defoe , born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, which is second only to the Bible in its number of translations. Defoe is noted for being one of the earliest proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson, and is among the founders of the English novel. Defoe wrote many political tracts and often was in trouble with the authorities, including prison time. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted with him.
François Rabelais was a French Renaissance writer, physician, Renaissance humanist, monk and Greek scholar. He has historically been regarded as a writer of fantasy, satire, the grotesque, bawdy jokes and songs. His best known work is Gargantua and Pantagruel. Because of his literary power and historical importance, Western literary critics consider him one of the great writers of world literature and among the creators of modern European writing. His literary legacy is such that today, the word Rabelaisian has been coined as a descriptive inspired by his work and life. Merriam-Webster defines the word as describing someone or something that is "marked by gross robust humor, extravagance of caricature, or bold naturalism".
Kenneth Grahame was a Scottish writer, most famous for The Wind in the Willows , one of the classics of children's literature. He also wrote The Reluctant Dragon. Both books were later adapted for stage and film, of which A.A. Milne's Toad of Toad Hall was the first. The Disney films, The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad and The Reluctant Dragon, have become the best known adaptations.
Once I had learnt my twelve times table (at the age of three) it was downhill all the way.Fred Hoyle
Positive thinking is more than just a tagline. It changes the way we behave. And I firmly believe that when I am positive, it not only makes me better, but it also makes those around me better.Harvey Mackay
For me, every single thing I do seems to be about the process of letting go because that's what I so desperately need to do with so many things: with fear, with what people think of me, and all these things I've worried about my whole life.John Grant
There weren't any astronauts until I was about 10. Yuri Gagarin went into space right around my 10th birthday.John L. Phillips | 663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tamichopa Kikapu Reservation of Sonora, Mexico
It is about 74 miles or 119 kilometers south of the Arizona-New Mexico border. This Ojibway (Kickapoo People are Ojibway - if they spoke Ojibway it means their Ojibway) Mexican Reservation, at one time was quite vast. It probably extended east into Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas and south to Jalisco and Nayarit. It was stolen from them by whites sometime before 1910 or during Mexico's Civil War. Knowledge of knowing they were going to steal this Mexican Ojibway Reservation and others, caused 1910-1920's Mexican Civil War. Today, there are around 150 to 200 of these Ojibway Kikapu People living near Douglas and Wilcox, Arizona. Both are very near their old Chiricahua Apache Reservation of southeastern Arizona. They are, in fact, Chiricahua Apache. In 1915, there were around 2,000 Indians historians named Nomadic Pimas, living in extreme southern Arizona. They moved to Papago Reservation after it was created in 1916-1917 or as early as 1909. However, many remained landless and retained their Anishinabe identity. They are not liked in Arizona simply for keeping their Anishinabe identity alive. Doing research online i learned that in 1906 the senate of the United States held hearings about the Kickapoo Indians of Mexico. Their (Kikapuu) lawyer, Martin J. Bentley, told the senate of the United States, that the Kickapoo Indians of Mexico chose the fineness grazing land in all of Mexico and owned over 238,000 acres of land where they grazed over 10,000 head of cattle. Since the average cow needs 10 to 14 acres for feeding, the size of the Ojibway Reservation must be correct. They claimed their land was an enormous basin which was fenced in by mountains which rose to nearly 9,000 feet in elevation. And beyond their mountains lay the great desert wastes of Mexico (the State of Chihuahua) where water is almost depleted by the desert climate conditions. The hearings were to learn more about the Mexican Ojibway People who continued to be very defiant in Mexico at the time. Many Mexicans supported them. The whites were already conspiring to invade Mexico to attempt to bring down Ojibway power in Mexico. Their Reservation was located about 40 leagues or 120 miles or 193 kilometers northwest of Muzquiz, Coahuila, Mexico. However, it was not affiliated with Nacimiento Kikapu Reservation near Muzquiz. It was adjacent to or very near Texas.
An unknown event (their great want to stay awat from whites) forced many to leave their territory and migrate to Sonora, Mexico. They settled with other Ojibway People native to that region. Tamichopa, Sonora is 5.2 miles or 8.4 kilometers south of Bacerac, Sonora and is situated adjacent to Rio Bavispe or Bavispe River, where it enter mountains (part of Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains) that take it to Chihuahua. This location was vital to Ojibway People. Tamichopa was probably their capital. They controlled nearly all of Rio Bavispe. They also controlled Rio Huachinera much further south or all of Sonora's east mountains and Chihuahua's west mountains, as far south as Jalisco and Nayarit. Both are Mexican States. This small Ojibway Kikapu village is surrounded by mountains. There are some farms slightly to their west and northwest. In 1886, chief Geronimo was continuing his war against American's. It was about old Chiricahua Reservation and sending Ojibway People from Arizona and New Mexico, south to Mexico. Chief Geronimo surrendered on September 4, 1886. He agreed to move back to Arizona, where he and his people awaited being relocated to Florida. Most opted to relocate to south Florida, while many others moved to Oklahoma. What they don't want you knowing, is 1,000's of Ojibway's continued to live in southeast Arizona. Even more lived in Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico and as far south as Jalisco and Nayarit as well. Chief Rocky Boy became leader of landless Ojibway's of Arizona around 1901 yet possibly earlier. He negotiated on their behalf for a new Reservation. Today, it's known as Papago Reservation (aka Tohono O'odham Reservation) which was supposedly created in 1916 yet 1909 is possibly when they created or expanded Papago Reservation. It may have actually happened around 1902 or 1903. St. Xavier Reservation was originally known as Papago Reservation. Land was added to it through chief Rocky Boy's negotiations. On January 14, 1902, chief Rocky Boy sent a letter to President Roosevelt telling him he was leader of landless Ojibway's in various locations in the United States, in need of Reservations. They denied his request for new Reservations yet accepted his proposal to allow his Ojibway Subjects to settle on land not surveyed (on unallotted Reservation land and land additions to Reservations) and St. Xavier Reservation (aka Papago Reservation and Tohono O'odham Reservation) was one of them. Instead of an Ojibway Reservation, Tamichopa was capital of most of northwest Mexico. Ojibway Soldiers controlled all mountains from Chihuahua and Sonora, to Jalisco and Nayarit. | <urn:uuid:046bf898-b3bc-4fb9-a9c9-cde5e555facc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.anishinabe-history.com/reservations/tamichopa.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.982991 | 1,172 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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It is about 74 miles or 119 kilometers south of the Arizona-New Mexico border. This Ojibway (Kickapoo People are Ojibway - if they spoke Ojibway it means their Ojibway) Mexican Reservation, at one time was quite vast. It probably extended east into Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas and south to Jalisco and Nayarit. It was stolen from them by whites sometime before 1910 or during Mexico's Civil War. Knowledge of knowing they were going to steal this Mexican Ojibway Reservation and others, caused 1910-1920's Mexican Civil War. Today, there are around 150 to 200 of these Ojibway Kikapu People living near Douglas and Wilcox, Arizona. Both are very near their old Chiricahua Apache Reservation of southeastern Arizona. They are, in fact, Chiricahua Apache. In 1915, there were around 2,000 Indians historians named Nomadic Pimas, living in extreme southern Arizona. They moved to Papago Reservation after it was created in 1916-1917 or as early as 1909. However, many remained landless and retained their Anishinabe identity. They are not liked in Arizona simply for keeping their Anishinabe identity alive. Doing research online i learned that in 1906 the senate of the United States held hearings about the Kickapoo Indians of Mexico. Their (Kikapuu) lawyer, Martin J. Bentley, told the senate of the United States, that the Kickapoo Indians of Mexico chose the fineness grazing land in all of Mexico and owned over 238,000 acres of land where they grazed over 10,000 head of cattle. Since the average cow needs 10 to 14 acres for feeding, the size of the Ojibway Reservation must be correct. They claimed their land was an enormous basin which was fenced in by mountains which rose to nearly 9,000 feet in elevation. And beyond their mountains lay the great desert wastes of Mexico (the State of Chihuahua) where water is almost depleted by the desert climate conditions. The hearings were to learn more about the Mexican Ojibway People who continued to be very defiant in Mexico at the time. Many Mexicans supported them. The whites were already conspiring to invade Mexico to attempt to bring down Ojibway power in Mexico. Their Reservation was located about 40 leagues or 120 miles or 193 kilometers northwest of Muzquiz, Coahuila, Mexico. However, it was not affiliated with Nacimiento Kikapu Reservation near Muzquiz. It was adjacent to or very near Texas.
An unknown event (their great want to stay awat from whites) forced many to leave their territory and migrate to Sonora, Mexico. They settled with other Ojibway People native to that region. Tamichopa, Sonora is 5.2 miles or 8.4 kilometers south of Bacerac, Sonora and is situated adjacent to Rio Bavispe or Bavispe River, where it enter mountains (part of Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains) that take it to Chihuahua. This location was vital to Ojibway People. Tamichopa was probably their capital. They controlled nearly all of Rio Bavispe. They also controlled Rio Huachinera much further south or all of Sonora's east mountains and Chihuahua's west mountains, as far south as Jalisco and Nayarit. Both are Mexican States. This small Ojibway Kikapu village is surrounded by mountains. There are some farms slightly to their west and northwest. In 1886, chief Geronimo was continuing his war against American's. It was about old Chiricahua Reservation and sending Ojibway People from Arizona and New Mexico, south to Mexico. Chief Geronimo surrendered on September 4, 1886. He agreed to move back to Arizona, where he and his people awaited being relocated to Florida. Most opted to relocate to south Florida, while many others moved to Oklahoma. What they don't want you knowing, is 1,000's of Ojibway's continued to live in southeast Arizona. Even more lived in Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico and as far south as Jalisco and Nayarit as well. Chief Rocky Boy became leader of landless Ojibway's of Arizona around 1901 yet possibly earlier. He negotiated on their behalf for a new Reservation. Today, it's known as Papago Reservation (aka Tohono O'odham Reservation) which was supposedly created in 1916 yet 1909 is possibly when they created or expanded Papago Reservation. It may have actually happened around 1902 or 1903. St. Xavier Reservation was originally known as Papago Reservation. Land was added to it through chief Rocky Boy's negotiations. On January 14, 1902, chief Rocky Boy sent a letter to President Roosevelt telling him he was leader of landless Ojibway's in various locations in the United States, in need of Reservations. They denied his request for new Reservations yet accepted his proposal to allow his Ojibway Subjects to settle on land not surveyed (on unallotted Reservation land and land additions to Reservations) and St. Xavier Reservation (aka Papago Reservation and Tohono O'odham Reservation) was one of them. Instead of an Ojibway Reservation, Tamichopa was capital of most of northwest Mexico. Ojibway Soldiers controlled all mountains from Chihuahua and Sonora, to Jalisco and Nayarit. | 1,255 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Can and Should Psychology Be Used to Explain the Holocaust.
A Brief Look at The Literature.
Upon watching a Holocaust documentary or hearing from a holocaust survivor, one of the many questions that will no doubt be on people’s minds is “how could it happen? How could people sanction and carry out the systematic murder of 6 million people?” The truth is that there are many observations, studies and experiments that attempt to answer that question, but I question whether we study this enough in mainstream Holocaust education. The most common explanations look at societal factors such as the rigorous Nazi propaganda machine that slowly dehumanized the Jews and allowed for the escalation of violence in the years to come, but I don’t believe that this definitively answers the question. Surely mere posters and speeches cannot fill the void between disliking someone because of their religion, which is a common phenomenon in human history, and being able to shoot them dead at point-blank range or lead them into a gas chamber. I Want to explore psychology’s take on the Holocaust and how those closest to the violence and brutality not only went along with it, but actively participated.
I’ll start with perhaps the most relevant “experiment’ which is that of Milgram. In the 1950’s there was a growing stigma that the Holocaust and genocide in general was only something German people were capable of doing, that in a way it was an exclusive trait of being a German. At around the same time the American psychologist Stanley Milgram and his team of researchers were looking at how humans adapt and behave differently according to social influences. When Nazi officer Adolf Eichmann, responsible for the deportation of Jews to concentration camps, was captured in hiding and brought to trial he famously remarked in his defense that he was “only following orders.” Milgram took great interest in this particular statement and decided to test how ordinary people would act when they believed that responsibility had been taken away from them. He devised a cunning experiment, which remains controversial to this day. Essentially volunteers were given a teacher role and had to ask a series of questions to another participant (who was actually an actor and part of the experiment) in another room. The catch was that every time the “learner” got a question wrong, the teacher had to deliver an electric shock that was to be increased by 15 volts for every incorrect answer. The participants were told that the aim of the experiment was to see what effects pain and punishment had on people’s memory. As the experiment went on, and more and more questions were answered incorrectly, the electric shocks produced increased protest from the learner, screams of pain could be heard by the teachers and eventually, when the voltage was set to its highest level, there was silence, and the teacher believed they had either killed or incapacitated the learner. In reality, it was all a hoax, the electric shocks weren’t real and the screams of pain were merely voice recordings. However, the results Milgram found were astonishing. Over 60% of participants gave the full shock of 450 volts, meaning that even after the apparent learner begged to be released and eventually went silent, they still followed the orders of the researcher in the room to proceed with the shocks.
We would all like to believe that if we had played the role of teacher, we would have protested and stopped administering the shocks early in the experiment, but these volunteers were just ordinary American citizens, yet they still carried out the orders against their assumed moral code. By no means were they all completely passive and many became very distressed and argumentative, but after being consoled by the researcher that they would take full responsibility for the well-being of the learner, most of them continued. It was because they deemed that they were no longer responsible for their own actions that they allowed their moral compass to be ignored. This mirrors the mindset of Eichmann, they were simply following orders, what was happening wasn’t their fault and so they didn’t have to take responsibility for the consequences. The reason this was so shocking in 1950’s America is because it appeared to disproved the initial theory that the Holocaust and wide scale bureaucratic murder was a “German Thing” and that it couldn’t possibly happen anywhere else. There was much discomfort among ordinary people and the academic elite, as it opened up the possibility that this could happen again outside of Europe.
In subsequent follow-up studies other factors were identified that changed how likely someone was to follow the orders and continue delivering the shocks. The first of which is known as the Legitimation of Authority, essentially how much the participant deemed the researcher to be in control and a true figure of authority. If the location of the study took place in a run-down office block, or the researcher wore more casual clothes, then the percentage of participants who followed the shocks through to full voltage decreased. They were highest when it took place in Yale university and the researcher wore a white lab coat, because it gave the appearance of genuine authority. It’s not hard to imagine how this is magnified further in a military or governmental environment.
The other key factor was proximity. In the initial test teacher and learner were in two different rooms and could only hear each other. When the teacher was forced to watch the learner being electrocuted in the same room, they were much less likely to deliver the full shock. This can be problematic when relating the study to the Holocaust as a huge proportion of the killing was done at point-blank range, but it is useful in explaining how SS soldiers were able to lead victims into gas chambers, as they did not actually have to physically watch them die. Their sense of agency and responsibility was taken away from them and it allowed them to follow orders without acknowledging the grim reality of the consequences of their actions. Take for example the assembly line nature of a train arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau, each small job was given to a different person. One soldier would open the gates for the train, another would be responsible for emptying the victims out of the carriages, another would make sure the correct people went either right or left and so on. Every man was involved in the mass murder, but if you ask them individually “did you kill prisoners who entered the camp?” they would say no, and justify their small actions as ‘just’ following orders, perhaps unaware that they had a choice and could still be held to account for their part in the Holocaust. But it is important to realise that they did have a choice, there is no evidence to suggest that people were at risk if they did not participate in murder.
If Psychology is to hope to have a place in explaining the past, it must provide a more rounded and comprehensive view of just how ordinary men and women could adapt and excel in being so brutal towards the Jews. In this case, the Stanford Prison experiment certainly provides another angle. Another highly controversial study, this time conducted by Phillip Zimbardo, illustrated just how susceptible we all are to being influenced by the environment. Rapidly altering our behavior depending on what situation we find ourselves in, sometimes to the point where we are unable to recognize ourselves.
Essentially, Zimbardo was trying to establish whether our behavior is purely as a result of our individual personalities (dispositional factor) or if it is caused by the environment we are in (situational factor). To test this, he converted the basement of Stanford university into a mock prison and selected 24 applicants who had volunteered to take part in the study (they were selected as they were found to have the least psychological problems which could impact on their behavior). They were then divided into the roles of either prisoner or prison guard. It was kept as true to life as possible. Guards rotated in 8 hour shifts, prisoners were kept 3 to a room and there was even a solitary confinement cell for anyone who misbehaved. Guards all wore the same uniform, including sunglasses that made eye contact impossible and prisoners were assigned numbers instead of names. Very quickly the guards settled into their roles, and as time went on the situational factor mentioned above took effect. Guards began harassing prisoners, giving them punishments like sit ups, and making them do pointless and boring tasks. As a result of the constant harassment, after only 36 hours, one of the prisoners broke down into bouts of screaming and uncontrollable crying. It took some time but eventually the researchers let him out. Over the next couple of days, several other prisoners experienced the same breakdowns and had to be let go. The guards became more and more sadistic until the experiment, which was supposed to last a fortnight, was terminated on just the sixth day.
So, what can be learnt? Firstly, as all the participants were screened for psychological disturbances and sadistic personalities before the experiment began, it can be concluded that it was the environment, as opposed to the personality of the guards that mainly contributed to their behaviour. Whilst it sounds as if free will is being challenged with this argument, what has actually been suggested is that most people will readily conform to social norms. Ultimately, they did have a choice, and some guards were nicer than others to the prisoners, but simply put, in certain situations it is just easier to conform to what you know and understand in certain situations. Another key observation made was that as time went on not only did the guards become more controlling, but the prisoners became more passive and submissive, resigned to their reliance on the guards for survival e.g. access to food, wash facilities etc. This is due to several factors. Firstly, after a prisoner rebellion on the morning of the second day, the guards responded with harsher punishments and ruthlessly broke up the troublemakers, which was severely demoralizing. Secondly, some prisoners (who played a lesser role in the rebellion) were given ‘rewards’ such as better food, and were allowed to clean themselves more regularly. This weakened the sense of solidarity amongst prisoners and made them more likely to try to get on the good side of the guards, rather than rebel. Again, it is much easier to conform to the perceived norms of the situation rather than fight it.
By this point, I do not wish to de-value what happened in the Holocaust by making continued comparisons with a controlled experiment, but for the benefit of the title question I think it is necessary to try to learn from the evidence we can access from such studies. This experiment serves as a good, but by no means representative, indicator of the mindset of the SS guards. Their rigorous training and exposure to anti-Semitic propaganda clearly sets them apart from the American students. However, it is always important to remember that the majority of the SS were not clinically psychopathic, and would therefore, for the most part, have the same moral code as the rest of us. Similar to the outcome of Milgram’s experiment, it is worrying to think that, given the right situation, your friends, neighbours, classmates etc., could turn on you. This bares testament to the experiences of the Jews in Europe even before the horrors of the camps and gas chambers, when they were spat at, beaten and humiliated in the street by people they had lived next to all of their lives.
The effects of the experiment weren’t limited to the participants either, even Zimbardo later admitted that during the study he was thinking more like a prison superintendent than a research psychologist. This study sparked debate and controversy regarding the ethics and the potential physical and psychological harm done to the participants, but it is arguably one of the most important pieces of research that social psychology has contributed to our understanding of group behavior and social pressures effect on our actions.
Another factor that absolutely deserves a mention is the bystander effect. A useful explanation for many crimes today, it explains how a large group of people can actually observe a crime or action, and do nothing. Essentially, the bystander effect can be easily identified when witnesses to a crime explain their inactivity by saying “I thought someone else would do something.” It is another example of people absolving themselves of responsibility, so as to remove blame from themselves without having to get involved, which would require them to stand out from the crowd. This can be used to explain the passive nature of German citizens who claimed to oppose the anti-Semitic rhetoric of the Nazis. Why should you have to bother challenging such a huge regime, there’s nothing I can do, there will be loads of other people doing it already, and so on. When enough of the population gives up its responsibility to speak out against what they know is wrong, perhaps that is when it is too late. This is a lesson which is perhaps still extremely relevant for us today.
so, can and should psychology be used to explain the Holocaust? The simple answer is yes, it should be used, and it already has been used for many years since the liberation of the camps and the downfall of Nazism. So, if it’s that simple, what is the point of this article? Well, if anything, I think it is still relevant to discuss psychology’s relevance because (and if you didn’t know about any of the research above it goes to prove my point) it simply isn’t taught enough. The only place in the national curriculum it has is a small segment of Psychology A-level. This makes the proportion of the population with knowledge of this research incredibly slim. It’s not a matter of questioning how it happened anymore, we have the tools and resources readily available, it’s about implementing it and providing everyone with the chance to better understand themselves and those around them. However small and inadvertent they may be, actions, in one way or another, matter. It’s a cliché, but for a reason, silence only ever benefits the oppressor, that is guaranteed. If we are to have any hope of changing our behavior, it is imperative that we first understand it. As the Zimbardo study especially shows, it is so easy to subconsciously conform to group norms, even when this goes against our moral compass. Therefore, the only way to stop this blind obedience from occurring is to educate people about it, in the hope that if confronted with scenarios of prejudice or violence, they will be able to consciously object and not only refuse to participate, but speak up and against intolerance.
With the latest rise of anti-Semitism coinciding with the rapid decline of first hand witnesses to the Holocaust, measures to protect the memory of the Holocaust and fight intolerance must be taken at a more grass-roots level. It’s important to recognize that progress has been made in the UK, for example in 1991 the holocaust was made a compulsory part of the Year Nine syllabus for history, and we are lucky to have individuals in government who want to ensure that Holocaust education is always in discussion in parliament. A publication by the education committee in 2016 highlights in great detail what efforts have been and are being made to combat anti-Semitism and educate people about the Holocaust. It was noted that “At its best, Holocaust education can lead students towards being active and informed citizens” The enquiry also acknowledged that more efforts must be made to reach students who study subjects other than history.
Psychology is still a young and ever-growing addition to science. Having only really become its own individual field of study in the late 19th century, it is not yet as well established as other fields of science. In fact, many people still hold the misconception that psychology is an abstract subject based on all of Freud’s ideas in the subconscious, when nowadays it prides itself in being as methodological and scientific as possible. This is largely due to the fact that psychology does not have a universal paradigm, that is, no shared system to studying a subject. There are many different approaches, some more tangible than others, for example the learning approach, which assumes we are born a blank slate and we all learn through association and consequence; Whilst the biological approach discusses how some human behaviours are innate and influenced by genes. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages, and together can, in theory, help to explain a huge variety of human behaviours. The difficulty is that so many interpretations of the same piece of evidence weighs heavily against the reliability of psychology as a science. This is not necessarily a fault of its own, human behaviour, and all of its wide spectrums, is a hugely complex phenomenon. Rarely does a study have a 100% concordance rate, and so very rarely can a conclusion be deemed objective and true to everyone, whereas other sciences like biology, chemistry and physics can verify facts through tests, for example, water will always boil at 100 degrees Celsius.
However, from the studies and examples mentioned at the start of this piece, psychology clearly has a role to play in helping us to better understand human behaviour and how we react to situations in a society built on a degree of obedience and peer pressure. By accompanying this with knowledge of the holocaust and how racism and prejudice manifests itself in contemporary society, we may be better equipped to educate our young people and give them the confidence to resist, and speak up when they know something is wrong, even when everyone around them is silent. Only then, will positive changes arise. Only then will lessons of history truly have been learnt. | <urn:uuid:03698163-4545-494d-8a7a-2ee9fc7d4f8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vocal.media/theSwamp/can-and-should-psychology-be-used-to-explain-the-holocaust | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.982516 | 3,552 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.230145305395... | 2 | Can and Should Psychology Be Used to Explain the Holocaust.
A Brief Look at The Literature.
Upon watching a Holocaust documentary or hearing from a holocaust survivor, one of the many questions that will no doubt be on people’s minds is “how could it happen? How could people sanction and carry out the systematic murder of 6 million people?” The truth is that there are many observations, studies and experiments that attempt to answer that question, but I question whether we study this enough in mainstream Holocaust education. The most common explanations look at societal factors such as the rigorous Nazi propaganda machine that slowly dehumanized the Jews and allowed for the escalation of violence in the years to come, but I don’t believe that this definitively answers the question. Surely mere posters and speeches cannot fill the void between disliking someone because of their religion, which is a common phenomenon in human history, and being able to shoot them dead at point-blank range or lead them into a gas chamber. I Want to explore psychology’s take on the Holocaust and how those closest to the violence and brutality not only went along with it, but actively participated.
I’ll start with perhaps the most relevant “experiment’ which is that of Milgram. In the 1950’s there was a growing stigma that the Holocaust and genocide in general was only something German people were capable of doing, that in a way it was an exclusive trait of being a German. At around the same time the American psychologist Stanley Milgram and his team of researchers were looking at how humans adapt and behave differently according to social influences. When Nazi officer Adolf Eichmann, responsible for the deportation of Jews to concentration camps, was captured in hiding and brought to trial he famously remarked in his defense that he was “only following orders.” Milgram took great interest in this particular statement and decided to test how ordinary people would act when they believed that responsibility had been taken away from them. He devised a cunning experiment, which remains controversial to this day. Essentially volunteers were given a teacher role and had to ask a series of questions to another participant (who was actually an actor and part of the experiment) in another room. The catch was that every time the “learner” got a question wrong, the teacher had to deliver an electric shock that was to be increased by 15 volts for every incorrect answer. The participants were told that the aim of the experiment was to see what effects pain and punishment had on people’s memory. As the experiment went on, and more and more questions were answered incorrectly, the electric shocks produced increased protest from the learner, screams of pain could be heard by the teachers and eventually, when the voltage was set to its highest level, there was silence, and the teacher believed they had either killed or incapacitated the learner. In reality, it was all a hoax, the electric shocks weren’t real and the screams of pain were merely voice recordings. However, the results Milgram found were astonishing. Over 60% of participants gave the full shock of 450 volts, meaning that even after the apparent learner begged to be released and eventually went silent, they still followed the orders of the researcher in the room to proceed with the shocks.
We would all like to believe that if we had played the role of teacher, we would have protested and stopped administering the shocks early in the experiment, but these volunteers were just ordinary American citizens, yet they still carried out the orders against their assumed moral code. By no means were they all completely passive and many became very distressed and argumentative, but after being consoled by the researcher that they would take full responsibility for the well-being of the learner, most of them continued. It was because they deemed that they were no longer responsible for their own actions that they allowed their moral compass to be ignored. This mirrors the mindset of Eichmann, they were simply following orders, what was happening wasn’t their fault and so they didn’t have to take responsibility for the consequences. The reason this was so shocking in 1950’s America is because it appeared to disproved the initial theory that the Holocaust and wide scale bureaucratic murder was a “German Thing” and that it couldn’t possibly happen anywhere else. There was much discomfort among ordinary people and the academic elite, as it opened up the possibility that this could happen again outside of Europe.
In subsequent follow-up studies other factors were identified that changed how likely someone was to follow the orders and continue delivering the shocks. The first of which is known as the Legitimation of Authority, essentially how much the participant deemed the researcher to be in control and a true figure of authority. If the location of the study took place in a run-down office block, or the researcher wore more casual clothes, then the percentage of participants who followed the shocks through to full voltage decreased. They were highest when it took place in Yale university and the researcher wore a white lab coat, because it gave the appearance of genuine authority. It’s not hard to imagine how this is magnified further in a military or governmental environment.
The other key factor was proximity. In the initial test teacher and learner were in two different rooms and could only hear each other. When the teacher was forced to watch the learner being electrocuted in the same room, they were much less likely to deliver the full shock. This can be problematic when relating the study to the Holocaust as a huge proportion of the killing was done at point-blank range, but it is useful in explaining how SS soldiers were able to lead victims into gas chambers, as they did not actually have to physically watch them die. Their sense of agency and responsibility was taken away from them and it allowed them to follow orders without acknowledging the grim reality of the consequences of their actions. Take for example the assembly line nature of a train arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau, each small job was given to a different person. One soldier would open the gates for the train, another would be responsible for emptying the victims out of the carriages, another would make sure the correct people went either right or left and so on. Every man was involved in the mass murder, but if you ask them individually “did you kill prisoners who entered the camp?” they would say no, and justify their small actions as ‘just’ following orders, perhaps unaware that they had a choice and could still be held to account for their part in the Holocaust. But it is important to realise that they did have a choice, there is no evidence to suggest that people were at risk if they did not participate in murder.
If Psychology is to hope to have a place in explaining the past, it must provide a more rounded and comprehensive view of just how ordinary men and women could adapt and excel in being so brutal towards the Jews. In this case, the Stanford Prison experiment certainly provides another angle. Another highly controversial study, this time conducted by Phillip Zimbardo, illustrated just how susceptible we all are to being influenced by the environment. Rapidly altering our behavior depending on what situation we find ourselves in, sometimes to the point where we are unable to recognize ourselves.
Essentially, Zimbardo was trying to establish whether our behavior is purely as a result of our individual personalities (dispositional factor) or if it is caused by the environment we are in (situational factor). To test this, he converted the basement of Stanford university into a mock prison and selected 24 applicants who had volunteered to take part in the study (they were selected as they were found to have the least psychological problems which could impact on their behavior). They were then divided into the roles of either prisoner or prison guard. It was kept as true to life as possible. Guards rotated in 8 hour shifts, prisoners were kept 3 to a room and there was even a solitary confinement cell for anyone who misbehaved. Guards all wore the same uniform, including sunglasses that made eye contact impossible and prisoners were assigned numbers instead of names. Very quickly the guards settled into their roles, and as time went on the situational factor mentioned above took effect. Guards began harassing prisoners, giving them punishments like sit ups, and making them do pointless and boring tasks. As a result of the constant harassment, after only 36 hours, one of the prisoners broke down into bouts of screaming and uncontrollable crying. It took some time but eventually the researchers let him out. Over the next couple of days, several other prisoners experienced the same breakdowns and had to be let go. The guards became more and more sadistic until the experiment, which was supposed to last a fortnight, was terminated on just the sixth day.
So, what can be learnt? Firstly, as all the participants were screened for psychological disturbances and sadistic personalities before the experiment began, it can be concluded that it was the environment, as opposed to the personality of the guards that mainly contributed to their behaviour. Whilst it sounds as if free will is being challenged with this argument, what has actually been suggested is that most people will readily conform to social norms. Ultimately, they did have a choice, and some guards were nicer than others to the prisoners, but simply put, in certain situations it is just easier to conform to what you know and understand in certain situations. Another key observation made was that as time went on not only did the guards become more controlling, but the prisoners became more passive and submissive, resigned to their reliance on the guards for survival e.g. access to food, wash facilities etc. This is due to several factors. Firstly, after a prisoner rebellion on the morning of the second day, the guards responded with harsher punishments and ruthlessly broke up the troublemakers, which was severely demoralizing. Secondly, some prisoners (who played a lesser role in the rebellion) were given ‘rewards’ such as better food, and were allowed to clean themselves more regularly. This weakened the sense of solidarity amongst prisoners and made them more likely to try to get on the good side of the guards, rather than rebel. Again, it is much easier to conform to the perceived norms of the situation rather than fight it.
By this point, I do not wish to de-value what happened in the Holocaust by making continued comparisons with a controlled experiment, but for the benefit of the title question I think it is necessary to try to learn from the evidence we can access from such studies. This experiment serves as a good, but by no means representative, indicator of the mindset of the SS guards. Their rigorous training and exposure to anti-Semitic propaganda clearly sets them apart from the American students. However, it is always important to remember that the majority of the SS were not clinically psychopathic, and would therefore, for the most part, have the same moral code as the rest of us. Similar to the outcome of Milgram’s experiment, it is worrying to think that, given the right situation, your friends, neighbours, classmates etc., could turn on you. This bares testament to the experiences of the Jews in Europe even before the horrors of the camps and gas chambers, when they were spat at, beaten and humiliated in the street by people they had lived next to all of their lives.
The effects of the experiment weren’t limited to the participants either, even Zimbardo later admitted that during the study he was thinking more like a prison superintendent than a research psychologist. This study sparked debate and controversy regarding the ethics and the potential physical and psychological harm done to the participants, but it is arguably one of the most important pieces of research that social psychology has contributed to our understanding of group behavior and social pressures effect on our actions.
Another factor that absolutely deserves a mention is the bystander effect. A useful explanation for many crimes today, it explains how a large group of people can actually observe a crime or action, and do nothing. Essentially, the bystander effect can be easily identified when witnesses to a crime explain their inactivity by saying “I thought someone else would do something.” It is another example of people absolving themselves of responsibility, so as to remove blame from themselves without having to get involved, which would require them to stand out from the crowd. This can be used to explain the passive nature of German citizens who claimed to oppose the anti-Semitic rhetoric of the Nazis. Why should you have to bother challenging such a huge regime, there’s nothing I can do, there will be loads of other people doing it already, and so on. When enough of the population gives up its responsibility to speak out against what they know is wrong, perhaps that is when it is too late. This is a lesson which is perhaps still extremely relevant for us today.
so, can and should psychology be used to explain the Holocaust? The simple answer is yes, it should be used, and it already has been used for many years since the liberation of the camps and the downfall of Nazism. So, if it’s that simple, what is the point of this article? Well, if anything, I think it is still relevant to discuss psychology’s relevance because (and if you didn’t know about any of the research above it goes to prove my point) it simply isn’t taught enough. The only place in the national curriculum it has is a small segment of Psychology A-level. This makes the proportion of the population with knowledge of this research incredibly slim. It’s not a matter of questioning how it happened anymore, we have the tools and resources readily available, it’s about implementing it and providing everyone with the chance to better understand themselves and those around them. However small and inadvertent they may be, actions, in one way or another, matter. It’s a cliché, but for a reason, silence only ever benefits the oppressor, that is guaranteed. If we are to have any hope of changing our behavior, it is imperative that we first understand it. As the Zimbardo study especially shows, it is so easy to subconsciously conform to group norms, even when this goes against our moral compass. Therefore, the only way to stop this blind obedience from occurring is to educate people about it, in the hope that if confronted with scenarios of prejudice or violence, they will be able to consciously object and not only refuse to participate, but speak up and against intolerance.
With the latest rise of anti-Semitism coinciding with the rapid decline of first hand witnesses to the Holocaust, measures to protect the memory of the Holocaust and fight intolerance must be taken at a more grass-roots level. It’s important to recognize that progress has been made in the UK, for example in 1991 the holocaust was made a compulsory part of the Year Nine syllabus for history, and we are lucky to have individuals in government who want to ensure that Holocaust education is always in discussion in parliament. A publication by the education committee in 2016 highlights in great detail what efforts have been and are being made to combat anti-Semitism and educate people about the Holocaust. It was noted that “At its best, Holocaust education can lead students towards being active and informed citizens” The enquiry also acknowledged that more efforts must be made to reach students who study subjects other than history.
Psychology is still a young and ever-growing addition to science. Having only really become its own individual field of study in the late 19th century, it is not yet as well established as other fields of science. In fact, many people still hold the misconception that psychology is an abstract subject based on all of Freud’s ideas in the subconscious, when nowadays it prides itself in being as methodological and scientific as possible. This is largely due to the fact that psychology does not have a universal paradigm, that is, no shared system to studying a subject. There are many different approaches, some more tangible than others, for example the learning approach, which assumes we are born a blank slate and we all learn through association and consequence; Whilst the biological approach discusses how some human behaviours are innate and influenced by genes. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages, and together can, in theory, help to explain a huge variety of human behaviours. The difficulty is that so many interpretations of the same piece of evidence weighs heavily against the reliability of psychology as a science. This is not necessarily a fault of its own, human behaviour, and all of its wide spectrums, is a hugely complex phenomenon. Rarely does a study have a 100% concordance rate, and so very rarely can a conclusion be deemed objective and true to everyone, whereas other sciences like biology, chemistry and physics can verify facts through tests, for example, water will always boil at 100 degrees Celsius.
However, from the studies and examples mentioned at the start of this piece, psychology clearly has a role to play in helping us to better understand human behaviour and how we react to situations in a society built on a degree of obedience and peer pressure. By accompanying this with knowledge of the holocaust and how racism and prejudice manifests itself in contemporary society, we may be better equipped to educate our young people and give them the confidence to resist, and speak up when they know something is wrong, even when everyone around them is silent. Only then, will positive changes arise. Only then will lessons of history truly have been learnt. | 3,494 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The invisible plane was Diana’s major means of travel during the Golden and Silver ages as the character did not have the ability of flight. It was controlled telepathically and would appear almost instantly. With the introduction of the power of flight to the character it was a forgotten element of her character until she found the Lansinar Disk. This disc was a piece of alien technology which allowed her to create an invisible version of whatever object or vehicle she visualized it to be. She would use this to create an invisible plane, but it eventually became to be used more to create the Wonder Dome.
An iron-fisted general of the German Army during World War I. Huston described Ludendorff as a "pragmatist, realist, patriotic, fighting for his country", further explaining, "he lost his son on the German front lines and was just quite tortured, diabolical, stubborn and believes that what he's doing is for the betterment of mankind." On his character, Huston said, "Ludendorff is a believer that war is a natural habitat for humans." Huston stated the film as an anti-war film and "somebody like Ludendorff would probably think that the idea that love conquers all is quite a naive concept. But finally it's true and sometimes the best way to examine mankind is from another perspective." On the genre of the film, Huston said, "It's Greek mythology. It's the origin of story and sometimes we need demigods to look at us to understand what our weaknesses are. It serves the mythological world." | <urn:uuid:c17fb8ca-0348-4e2e-bea5-4078d9312c76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tabletop-nerdz.net/wonder-woman-full-movie-123-movie-2017.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.981122 | 326 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0984800904989... | 1 | The invisible plane was Diana’s major means of travel during the Golden and Silver ages as the character did not have the ability of flight. It was controlled telepathically and would appear almost instantly. With the introduction of the power of flight to the character it was a forgotten element of her character until she found the Lansinar Disk. This disc was a piece of alien technology which allowed her to create an invisible version of whatever object or vehicle she visualized it to be. She would use this to create an invisible plane, but it eventually became to be used more to create the Wonder Dome.
An iron-fisted general of the German Army during World War I. Huston described Ludendorff as a "pragmatist, realist, patriotic, fighting for his country", further explaining, "he lost his son on the German front lines and was just quite tortured, diabolical, stubborn and believes that what he's doing is for the betterment of mankind." On his character, Huston said, "Ludendorff is a believer that war is a natural habitat for humans." Huston stated the film as an anti-war film and "somebody like Ludendorff would probably think that the idea that love conquers all is quite a naive concept. But finally it's true and sometimes the best way to examine mankind is from another perspective." On the genre of the film, Huston said, "It's Greek mythology. It's the origin of story and sometimes we need demigods to look at us to understand what our weaknesses are. It serves the mythological world." | 321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philip V (1683-1746), King of Spain (1700-1746)
Philip V (Spanish: Felipe V; 19 December 1683 – 9 July 1746) was King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favour of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he reassumed the throne upon his son's death, to his own death 9 July 1746. Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. However, since neither the Grand Dauphin nor Philip's older brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, could be displaced from their place in the succession to the French throne, King Charles II of Spain named Philip as his heir in his will. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, such that other European powers would take steps to prevent it. Indeed, Philip's accession in Spain provoked the 14-year War of the Spanish Succession, which continued until the Treaty of Utrecht forbade any future possibility of unifying the French and Spanish thrones. Philip was the first member of the French House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain.
Read more: Wikipedia
Find out about full size: | <urn:uuid:98047109-0fd1-4407-9027-ee6b1b9bded7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://portraitsofkings.com/gallery/spain-portugal/philip-v--1683-1746/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00327.warc.gz | en | 0.985588 | 309 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Philip V (Spanish: Felipe V; 19 December 1683 – 9 July 1746) was King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favour of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he reassumed the throne upon his son's death, to his own death 9 July 1746. Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. However, since neither the Grand Dauphin nor Philip's older brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, could be displaced from their place in the succession to the French throne, King Charles II of Spain named Philip as his heir in his will. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, such that other European powers would take steps to prevent it. Indeed, Philip's accession in Spain provoked the 14-year War of the Spanish Succession, which continued until the Treaty of Utrecht forbade any future possibility of unifying the French and Spanish thrones. Philip was the first member of the French House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain.
Read more: Wikipedia
Find out about full size: | 341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Numeracy this term we have learnt about Financial Mathematics, Tessellations and 2D Shapes.
When learning about Financial Mathematics we created our own online shops to sell different items to people in our class. We had to keep an inventory of what we sold, how much it cost and how much change we gave back. It was challenging to add up all the items that people were buying from us and to calculate the right amount of change to give back.
We also learnt about the properties of different polygons. A polygon is a closed shape with 3 or more straight sides and angles. We challenged ourselves to fold and cut a rectangular piece of paper into as many different polygons as we could and then put the shape back together. What a tricky puzzle! But we did such a good job! | <urn:uuid:0d1f8880-4b00-4fb6-b79a-479ef6b05929> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://spxhw.catholic.edu.au/learning-teaching/years-3-4/numeracy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.980667 | 164 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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When learning about Financial Mathematics we created our own online shops to sell different items to people in our class. We had to keep an inventory of what we sold, how much it cost and how much change we gave back. It was challenging to add up all the items that people were buying from us and to calculate the right amount of change to give back.
We also learnt about the properties of different polygons. A polygon is a closed shape with 3 or more straight sides and angles. We challenged ourselves to fold and cut a rectangular piece of paper into as many different polygons as we could and then put the shape back together. What a tricky puzzle! But we did such a good job! | 159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kashmir is the name of a primarily Muslim province in northern India, bordering on the Himalayas, whose capital town is Srinagar. Kashmir acquired its first Muslim ruler when Shah Mirza, an adventurer from Swat, usurped the throne from the country’s Hindu ruler in around 747 H/1345-1346 CE and styled himself Shams al-din Shah. He reigned for three years and was succeeded by four of his sons. His grandson Sikandar acceded to the throne in 796/1393, and was the first Sultan of Kashmir to issue coins, which were no more than bronze pieces. Following the death of Sikandar in 823 H/1420 CE, his second son Shahi Khan, who took the name Zain al-‘Abidin, reigned for fifty years and struck the first Islamic coinage in his own name, all of which bore the fixed date 842 H. He was a wise and just ruler, but after his death in 872/1467 political life in Kashmir became chaotic. The son who succeeded him, Haydar Shah, was a worthless drunkard, whose governors mismanaged the country for two years until he was succeeded by his scholarly son Hasan Shah. He, too, was addicted to drink and it was during his thirteen year reign that Kashmir’s political situation deteriorated, with two factions in the court alternating in power, one of which supported Muhammad Shah, who had five reigns between 889 and 943 H/1484-1537 CE, while the other championed Fath Shah, who reigned three times between 892 and 923/1487-1517. Hasan Shah issued coins in gold, silver, copper and lead. As with all his gold, this very rare tanka bears the legend “signet of the kingdom, seal of Solomon”. The date is unclear, but it appears from other gold coins of this dynasty that it was issued bearing the year of the ruler’s accession. | <urn:uuid:afaeede1-0f9a-466b-8bbe-f8b136542b83> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dynastycollection.co.uk/portfolio-item/95-sultans-of-kashmir/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.9856 | 417 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1648696... | 3 | Kashmir is the name of a primarily Muslim province in northern India, bordering on the Himalayas, whose capital town is Srinagar. Kashmir acquired its first Muslim ruler when Shah Mirza, an adventurer from Swat, usurped the throne from the country’s Hindu ruler in around 747 H/1345-1346 CE and styled himself Shams al-din Shah. He reigned for three years and was succeeded by four of his sons. His grandson Sikandar acceded to the throne in 796/1393, and was the first Sultan of Kashmir to issue coins, which were no more than bronze pieces. Following the death of Sikandar in 823 H/1420 CE, his second son Shahi Khan, who took the name Zain al-‘Abidin, reigned for fifty years and struck the first Islamic coinage in his own name, all of which bore the fixed date 842 H. He was a wise and just ruler, but after his death in 872/1467 political life in Kashmir became chaotic. The son who succeeded him, Haydar Shah, was a worthless drunkard, whose governors mismanaged the country for two years until he was succeeded by his scholarly son Hasan Shah. He, too, was addicted to drink and it was during his thirteen year reign that Kashmir’s political situation deteriorated, with two factions in the court alternating in power, one of which supported Muhammad Shah, who had five reigns between 889 and 943 H/1484-1537 CE, while the other championed Fath Shah, who reigned three times between 892 and 923/1487-1517. Hasan Shah issued coins in gold, silver, copper and lead. As with all his gold, this very rare tanka bears the legend “signet of the kingdom, seal of Solomon”. The date is unclear, but it appears from other gold coins of this dynasty that it was issued bearing the year of the ruler’s accession. | 445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the periods where aviation took some massive leaps in development was WW1. European governments invested big budgets for developing airplanes that would come out on top. Military aviation soon transformed from observation balloons to the first fighter planes. Let’s take a look at how airplanes were used in WW1.
Table of Contents
World War I was the first global conflict in world history, where aircraft were often used. Over time they became an effective weapon against an enemy army.
The aircraft used during the first war had an archaic and sometimes extravagant design. Due to the escalating war, aircraft builders were forced to react quickly to changes and improvements.
War as The Engine of Progress
The First World War was a powerful driving force behind the development of aviation. Governments have provided significant funding to develop new aircraft models. These projects have also led to the development of many upgraded older models. Since then, airplane production has become a profitable business.
At the beginning of the war, there was only one type of military warplane: the response or reconnaissance aircraft. At the end of the war, military aviation was divided into several groups: fighters, bombers, planes of attack, and so on. They varied in size, the number of engines, size of crew and installation of specific equipment: fire, bomber, navigation.
The most important developments in the design of military aircraft were in countries such as England, France, and Germany. Shortly thereafter, the United States and Italy joined. Russia took its seat due to weak industrialization.
Hunter planes were initially used as scouts. Efficiency forced alternative use to prevent enemy aircraft from entering countries. Lighter and faster hunter and eavesdropper aircraft were on demand. However, this warplane needed firepower. In 1915, a French fighter pilot, Roland Garros was taken down behind enemy lines. This allowed the Germans to unveil the secrets behind French fighter planes. Subsequently, the “Fokker Fodder” aka “Fokker Scourge”, appeared on the battlefield.
The warplane was designed by Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker. He installed the interrupter gear weapons synchronization on German warplanes. They were designed to discharge rapid-fire rounds directly behind the plane propellers without hitting them.
Hunter’s aircraft reduced the speed of the strike when the blade of the propeller lay in front of the weapon. At the same time, a second Russian pilot invented a synchronized machine gun. These synchronization systems have also been installed on French, Russian and English airplanes. They’re the first fighter planes to arrive in fleets of multiple countries during the year 1916.
Reconnaissance aircraft were very vulnerable at the time and rarely did. They needed powerful weapons to defend themselves against small but swift, aggressive hunters. Frenchman, Le Prieur realized the issue and integrated solid-fuel stick-guided missiles. It saw its first time in action during the battle of Verdun.
In the hunters, the French also installed mobile machine guns to prevent back attacks. This meant that the shooter was behind the pilot, and the screw that had existed before had ceased to exist. These planes also had increased their cargo capacity. Their main purpose was to bomb and escort military personnel by air.
Aircraft of World War I
Let’s look at at World War I airplanes from their respective producer countries.
US Aircraft of WW1
We must bear in mind that, as a result of the country’s subsequent intervention in the conflict, the US Air Force developed rather slowly. At the time of 1917, American aircraft development was lower than the other major countries involved in the war. At that time, the United States dropped bombers and hunters. The US Army used the aircraft solely for caller missions.
German Aircraft of WW1
We should consider that the German Air Force was the second-largest aircraft manufacturer in the First World War. The total number of their fleets reached about 230 aircraft. They were widely used for transport operations because they couldn’t handle a lot more than that. However, we can not assume that most of their aircraft were outdated models.
During the war, however, the Germans were the first to modernize their aircraft fleet, allowing them to control the air in Western Europe in 1915 and 1916. The Germans, too, were the first to lead in an aerial bombing. Germany did not hesitate to use aircraft to bomb enemies at all. This strategy was effective and caused the feared air force branch of the Luftwaffe to form in 1939 during World War II.
Russian Aircraft of WW1
The Russian Empire had the largest fleet of warplanes in the world at the time of World War I’s declaration: about 260 aircraft. However, the quality of Russian aircraft was much lower than in most other countries of the world. Airplane materials and modules were out of date, and aviation suffered at the start of the war.
Despite their size, their air fleets did not save the Russian empire from defeat in the war. Still, the most outdated, the situation worsened in 1916. It was then that the Italians and the Austrians built their fleets against Russia, and they were victorious.
During this period, due to financial difficulties, Russia could not produce enough new warplanes. Due to the imminent crisis, obsolete technology was not allowed to deal with serious developments. As a result, Russian aviation remained in the shadows.
British Aircraft of WW1
Britain was the first foreign country in the world to have chosen the aviation industry as its military branch. The British were waiting and experimenting with the events of WWI. In 1915, by waiting and watching the enemy, they managed to create the world’s first hunter. In 1918, the British Air Force was the largest in the world and had over 3,000 aircraft.
The United Kingdom had already distributed its many warplanes for a variety of tasks. They include bombing, close air support, landing, destruction of enemy aircraft, etc. They were the founders of many tactics for the use of fighter planes; the rest followed. In this way, the United Kingdom greatly stimulated the development of aviation.
French Aircraft of WW1
At the start of the war, French aviation was not the largest but was defined by its novelty and perfection. Until 1918, the French had used only hunters and almost the best reconnaissance aircraft in the world, but they had no bombers. The first bomber was first produced in 1918 and had no time to enter German cities: Kaiser Germany had surrendered earlier.
De Havilland Airco DH-4
One aircraft, in particular, was crucial to the success of modern airplanes. The English model had reached a speed of 190 km / h and could carry 250 kg of pumps. Also, the flight time of this fighter plane without landing was 4.5 hours and the altitude was 6000 m. The need to support ground forces and take high-altitude photographs in the air led to its arrival.
They used improved versions of conventional aircraft for this type of aviation. British aviation specialists installed metal-coated cabins, fuel tanks, and more powerful engines to increase capacity. The firepower of these warplanes consisted of two Lewis machine guns and two 230 lb bombs. They were all capable of firing hand grenades and bombs. | <urn:uuid:042d82ba-25d7-40ec-ae9c-f0f754dba88a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aircraftcompare.com/blog/airplanes-in-ww1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.98009 | 1,477 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.55773490667343... | 1 | One of the periods where aviation took some massive leaps in development was WW1. European governments invested big budgets for developing airplanes that would come out on top. Military aviation soon transformed from observation balloons to the first fighter planes. Let’s take a look at how airplanes were used in WW1.
Table of Contents
World War I was the first global conflict in world history, where aircraft were often used. Over time they became an effective weapon against an enemy army.
The aircraft used during the first war had an archaic and sometimes extravagant design. Due to the escalating war, aircraft builders were forced to react quickly to changes and improvements.
War as The Engine of Progress
The First World War was a powerful driving force behind the development of aviation. Governments have provided significant funding to develop new aircraft models. These projects have also led to the development of many upgraded older models. Since then, airplane production has become a profitable business.
At the beginning of the war, there was only one type of military warplane: the response or reconnaissance aircraft. At the end of the war, military aviation was divided into several groups: fighters, bombers, planes of attack, and so on. They varied in size, the number of engines, size of crew and installation of specific equipment: fire, bomber, navigation.
The most important developments in the design of military aircraft were in countries such as England, France, and Germany. Shortly thereafter, the United States and Italy joined. Russia took its seat due to weak industrialization.
Hunter planes were initially used as scouts. Efficiency forced alternative use to prevent enemy aircraft from entering countries. Lighter and faster hunter and eavesdropper aircraft were on demand. However, this warplane needed firepower. In 1915, a French fighter pilot, Roland Garros was taken down behind enemy lines. This allowed the Germans to unveil the secrets behind French fighter planes. Subsequently, the “Fokker Fodder” aka “Fokker Scourge”, appeared on the battlefield.
The warplane was designed by Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker. He installed the interrupter gear weapons synchronization on German warplanes. They were designed to discharge rapid-fire rounds directly behind the plane propellers without hitting them.
Hunter’s aircraft reduced the speed of the strike when the blade of the propeller lay in front of the weapon. At the same time, a second Russian pilot invented a synchronized machine gun. These synchronization systems have also been installed on French, Russian and English airplanes. They’re the first fighter planes to arrive in fleets of multiple countries during the year 1916.
Reconnaissance aircraft were very vulnerable at the time and rarely did. They needed powerful weapons to defend themselves against small but swift, aggressive hunters. Frenchman, Le Prieur realized the issue and integrated solid-fuel stick-guided missiles. It saw its first time in action during the battle of Verdun.
In the hunters, the French also installed mobile machine guns to prevent back attacks. This meant that the shooter was behind the pilot, and the screw that had existed before had ceased to exist. These planes also had increased their cargo capacity. Their main purpose was to bomb and escort military personnel by air.
Aircraft of World War I
Let’s look at at World War I airplanes from their respective producer countries.
US Aircraft of WW1
We must bear in mind that, as a result of the country’s subsequent intervention in the conflict, the US Air Force developed rather slowly. At the time of 1917, American aircraft development was lower than the other major countries involved in the war. At that time, the United States dropped bombers and hunters. The US Army used the aircraft solely for caller missions.
German Aircraft of WW1
We should consider that the German Air Force was the second-largest aircraft manufacturer in the First World War. The total number of their fleets reached about 230 aircraft. They were widely used for transport operations because they couldn’t handle a lot more than that. However, we can not assume that most of their aircraft were outdated models.
During the war, however, the Germans were the first to modernize their aircraft fleet, allowing them to control the air in Western Europe in 1915 and 1916. The Germans, too, were the first to lead in an aerial bombing. Germany did not hesitate to use aircraft to bomb enemies at all. This strategy was effective and caused the feared air force branch of the Luftwaffe to form in 1939 during World War II.
Russian Aircraft of WW1
The Russian Empire had the largest fleet of warplanes in the world at the time of World War I’s declaration: about 260 aircraft. However, the quality of Russian aircraft was much lower than in most other countries of the world. Airplane materials and modules were out of date, and aviation suffered at the start of the war.
Despite their size, their air fleets did not save the Russian empire from defeat in the war. Still, the most outdated, the situation worsened in 1916. It was then that the Italians and the Austrians built their fleets against Russia, and they were victorious.
During this period, due to financial difficulties, Russia could not produce enough new warplanes. Due to the imminent crisis, obsolete technology was not allowed to deal with serious developments. As a result, Russian aviation remained in the shadows.
British Aircraft of WW1
Britain was the first foreign country in the world to have chosen the aviation industry as its military branch. The British were waiting and experimenting with the events of WWI. In 1915, by waiting and watching the enemy, they managed to create the world’s first hunter. In 1918, the British Air Force was the largest in the world and had over 3,000 aircraft.
The United Kingdom had already distributed its many warplanes for a variety of tasks. They include bombing, close air support, landing, destruction of enemy aircraft, etc. They were the founders of many tactics for the use of fighter planes; the rest followed. In this way, the United Kingdom greatly stimulated the development of aviation.
French Aircraft of WW1
At the start of the war, French aviation was not the largest but was defined by its novelty and perfection. Until 1918, the French had used only hunters and almost the best reconnaissance aircraft in the world, but they had no bombers. The first bomber was first produced in 1918 and had no time to enter German cities: Kaiser Germany had surrendered earlier.
De Havilland Airco DH-4
One aircraft, in particular, was crucial to the success of modern airplanes. The English model had reached a speed of 190 km / h and could carry 250 kg of pumps. Also, the flight time of this fighter plane without landing was 4.5 hours and the altitude was 6000 m. The need to support ground forces and take high-altitude photographs in the air led to its arrival.
They used improved versions of conventional aircraft for this type of aviation. British aviation specialists installed metal-coated cabins, fuel tanks, and more powerful engines to increase capacity. The firepower of these warplanes consisted of two Lewis machine guns and two 230 lb bombs. They were all capable of firing hand grenades and bombs. | 1,503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early use of steam power
Progress is not one big idea but many thousands of small modifications to what was in the past. One great invention was the steam engine that saw the conversion of heat energy to motion. The steam engines were transformative machines, they redefined how fast and far we could travel around Scotland and what new developments became possible. Cornishman Richard Trevithick’s steam engine led in 1801 to the emergence of rapid steam transport. His puffin devil had its first outing 100 years before the internal combustion engine was developed. Scotland was one of the beneficiaries of early steam power and it is very much part of our Scottish cultural past.
Four motivations for an invention 1 Necessity – Mine owners needed something to pump and drain the water from the mines 2 Aspiration – wouldn’t it be great if we could pull a bigger load. 3 Genius – someone who had the ability and vision to do something different. Of course there is number 4 Luck – without that many great inventions failed.
Trevithick atmospheric steam engine during the late 18 cent was working in the Cornish countryside pumping water from the copper and tin mines which were prolific there. These early machines boiled the water and this created a vacuum and harnessed the power of atmospheric pressure to pull down a giant beam. These early engines were known as beam engines. They revolutionised the mining industry, they were enormous and only supplied a limited amount of power. Most of these engines were built by James Watt and his business partner Mathew Boulton. The engines all had a separate condenser which was protected by a strict patent. Any engine fitted with a separate condenser burnt much less coal. The users of this engine had to pay Watt and Boulton a monthly royalty. If a different type of engine was developed which did not need a separated condenser then they would not have to pay royalties. Richard Trevithick was the man who did this. He invented the use of high pressure steam. His school report was not good but included the comments that “he could arrive at the answer to problems in a different way”. It was this difference that helped him to develop something new. Use of high pressure steam to drive a piston. A high pressure steam engine would not need a separate condenser. To build a high pressure steam engine was considered impossible and dangerous. The equipment would blow up. So Travithic had to build a steam engine which would not blow up. His first challenge was the boiler. No person had attempted this to withstand the high pressure. Travithic had a secret weapon his father in law was a master blacksmith. They decided to create a cylindrical boiler. Before this they were oblong.
The piston was double sided so it was pushed from both directions. He also pre heated the boiler feed water and put the fire inside the boiler. Before the boiler was like a kettle with the heat beneath it. By putting the fire inside the boiler you were extracting the max heat. Here was the early use of the word efficiency. It produced much more power and this allowed him to make the engine smaller and compact. A new invention driven by the need to avoid paying royalties. He then put it on wheels and he was the man who changed the world. Other inventors further developed the idea to make faster, more powerful engines. For the first time powered travel was here. Travithic did not achieve fame or riches but was a key thinker in progressing steam which industrialised Britain.
Scotland’s Past Steam Heritage
Scotland’s past has a rich heritage of utilising steam to industrialise Scottish factories, agriculture, road haulage, forestry and docklands. Today we in Scotland have one of the most prolific collections of steam power found any where in the UK. Aberdeenshire in Scotland has some of the best steam engine rallies that exist. The nostalgia of steam has great appeal for Scots young and old alike. Some of the engines are over 100 years old and are true examples of our rich Scottish cultural identity. | <urn:uuid:71c401d6-6e9e-42a2-a515-e65ae4e18e1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scottishheritage.co.uk/harnessing-steam-power-to-industrialise-britain-steam-power-in-scotland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.984769 | 826 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Progress is not one big idea but many thousands of small modifications to what was in the past. One great invention was the steam engine that saw the conversion of heat energy to motion. The steam engines were transformative machines, they redefined how fast and far we could travel around Scotland and what new developments became possible. Cornishman Richard Trevithick’s steam engine led in 1801 to the emergence of rapid steam transport. His puffin devil had its first outing 100 years before the internal combustion engine was developed. Scotland was one of the beneficiaries of early steam power and it is very much part of our Scottish cultural past.
Four motivations for an invention 1 Necessity – Mine owners needed something to pump and drain the water from the mines 2 Aspiration – wouldn’t it be great if we could pull a bigger load. 3 Genius – someone who had the ability and vision to do something different. Of course there is number 4 Luck – without that many great inventions failed.
Trevithick atmospheric steam engine during the late 18 cent was working in the Cornish countryside pumping water from the copper and tin mines which were prolific there. These early machines boiled the water and this created a vacuum and harnessed the power of atmospheric pressure to pull down a giant beam. These early engines were known as beam engines. They revolutionised the mining industry, they were enormous and only supplied a limited amount of power. Most of these engines were built by James Watt and his business partner Mathew Boulton. The engines all had a separate condenser which was protected by a strict patent. Any engine fitted with a separate condenser burnt much less coal. The users of this engine had to pay Watt and Boulton a monthly royalty. If a different type of engine was developed which did not need a separated condenser then they would not have to pay royalties. Richard Trevithick was the man who did this. He invented the use of high pressure steam. His school report was not good but included the comments that “he could arrive at the answer to problems in a different way”. It was this difference that helped him to develop something new. Use of high pressure steam to drive a piston. A high pressure steam engine would not need a separate condenser. To build a high pressure steam engine was considered impossible and dangerous. The equipment would blow up. So Travithic had to build a steam engine which would not blow up. His first challenge was the boiler. No person had attempted this to withstand the high pressure. Travithic had a secret weapon his father in law was a master blacksmith. They decided to create a cylindrical boiler. Before this they were oblong.
The piston was double sided so it was pushed from both directions. He also pre heated the boiler feed water and put the fire inside the boiler. Before the boiler was like a kettle with the heat beneath it. By putting the fire inside the boiler you were extracting the max heat. Here was the early use of the word efficiency. It produced much more power and this allowed him to make the engine smaller and compact. A new invention driven by the need to avoid paying royalties. He then put it on wheels and he was the man who changed the world. Other inventors further developed the idea to make faster, more powerful engines. For the first time powered travel was here. Travithic did not achieve fame or riches but was a key thinker in progressing steam which industrialised Britain.
Scotland’s Past Steam Heritage
Scotland’s past has a rich heritage of utilising steam to industrialise Scottish factories, agriculture, road haulage, forestry and docklands. Today we in Scotland have one of the most prolific collections of steam power found any where in the UK. Aberdeenshire in Scotland has some of the best steam engine rallies that exist. The nostalgia of steam has great appeal for Scots young and old alike. Some of the engines are over 100 years old and are true examples of our rich Scottish cultural identity. | 820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John C. Calhoun: Seventh Vice President of the United States
John Caldwell Calhoun was an American statesman who served as the Vice President of the United States, in office between 1825 and 1832. His political career started in the House of Representatives in 1810, where he distinguished himself as one of the leaders of the War Hawks. Calhoun became Secretary of War in the James Monroe administration and after a failed attempt to enter the presidential election of 1824, he was elected vice president during John Quincy Adams’s term as president. In 1828, when Andrew Jackson defeated John Q. Adams in the presidential election, Calhoun continued to serve as a vice president in the new administration. Because of his vehement support for South Carolina during the nullification crisis, Calhoun clashed with Andrew Jackson, which forced him to resign his position as vice president before the end of his term. From 1844 to 1845, Calhoun was Secretary of State in the John Tyler administration.
Later in life, Calhoun remained a fervent supporter of white Southern interests. He promoted states’ rights and opposition to high tariffs, and he was always in disagreement with Northern policies. Calhoun was a highly influential leader of the South and his political agenda was one of the main elements that inspired the South’s secession from the Union. Though Calhoun never wanted the South to break away from the United States, his life’s work would come to fruition a decade after his death in a war that would tear the very fabric of the nation.
Early Life and Education
John Caldwell Calhoun was born on March 18, 1782, in Abbeville District, South Carolina. His parents, Patrick Calhoun and Martha Caldwell, were Scots-Irish immigrants who, after short stints in Pennsylvania and Virginia, finally settled in South Carolina. Calhoun’s father was a prosperous farmer and also an esteemed and ambitious politician who served a term in the House of Representatives and later in the Senate. Calhoun had three brothers and a sister.
Young John Calhoun had a natural disposition for academic learning, but the closest school in the region functioned intermittently. At the age of 14, his father died and since his three elder brothers were busy with their careers, Calhoun had to take care of the family’s plantation. Meanwhile, he discovered a strong passion for reading and spent his free time studying privately. When the local academy reopened, he resumed his formal studies with financial support from his siblings.
In 1802, Calhoun enrolled at Yale College, in Connecticut, where he found an effervescent intellectual climate. He became one of the protégés of the college’s president, Timothy Dwight, whom Calhoun admired for his brilliant intellect and erudition. Calhoun was very popular among students and possessed both discipline and academic curiosity. In 1804, he graduated from Yale and went on to study law at Tapping Reeve Law School, also in Connecticut.
In January 1811, Calhoun married Floride Bonneau Colhoun, who was from a wealthy and highly influential family from Charleston. Over the course of their long marriage, the couple had 10 children, three of whom died in infancy.
I am a planter - a cotton planter. I am a Southern man and a slaveholder - a kind and a merciful one, I trust - and none the worse for being a slaveholder.— John C. Calhoun
House of Representatives
Calhoun’s career started when he won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1810. He quickly befriended Speaker of the House Henry Clay and became one of the most prominent figures among the War Hawks, a faction of young senators who fiercely wanted the U.S. to declare war against Britain, which they saw as a duty meant to restore American honor after Britain’s refusal to acknowledge American maritime rights. On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war upon Britain and Calhoun immediately made himself available wherever necessary. He struggled to recruit volunteers and to manage complicated logistics. Through his actions during the war, Calhoun proved himself capable of managing any distressful situation with a calm that inspired others. When the treaty of Ghent was signed in 1815 that ended the War of 1812, Calhoun declared, “I feel pleasure and pride in being able to say that I am of a party which drew the sword… and succeeded in the contest.” However, despite his energy, great organization skills, and a talent for public speaking that he cultivated intensely, Calhoun was not very popular due to his tendency to be aggressively blunt.
Secretary of War
In 1817, President Monroe found it difficult to appoint someone for the position of Secretary of War because the department needed a thorough reorganization, but Calhoun decided to take the opportunity. He served as Secretary of War from December 8, 1817, until 1825.
During his first year in the War Department, Calhoun clashed for the first time with Andrew Jackson, when Jackson engaged in an unauthorized war against Spain by attacking the Seminole tribes who sought shelter in Spanish Florida. Acting without direct approval from either President James Monroe or Secretary of War Calhoun, Jackson put both of them in a difficult position, using his popularity of a war hero as an excuse. Calhoun accused Jackson of not respecting the chain of command, but since President Monroe wanted to avoid a direct confrontation with the popular Jackson, the matter was never settled as Calhoun would have wanted. Jackson’s act of insubordination remained thus unpunished.
After the incidents in Spanish Florida, Calhoun felt that the U.S. Army was in desperate need of reorganization. He took it upon himself to strengthen the War Department by securing a stable, professional army. He also added steam frigates to the navy. To accomplish his goals as Secretary of War, Calhoun clashed repeatedly with other members of Congress, who thought that once the war with Britain had ended, a huge army was not necessary anymore. Eventually, on March 2, 1821, despite Calhoun’s concerns and protests, Congress approved the Reduction Act, which cut the number of soldiers by half.
Another major responsibility of Calhoun as Secretary of War was to manage relations with the Indian tribes. He helped eastern Indians preserve their autonomy by relocating the tribes to reservations in western territories, over which they had full control. Calhoun also led the negotiation for the signing of numerous treaties with the Indians. In 1824, Calhoun created the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
In 1824, John C. Calhoun was one of the five main candidates for the presidency of the United States, along with Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, Henry Clay, and John Quincy Adams. In spite of his hopes, Calhoun did not manage to win the support of his home state. At the suggestion of his supporters, he accepted to participate in the election for the vice presidency and was assured that he would win. The national Republican nominee John Quincy Adams won the presidency after a controversial race where he was accused of having made a “corrupt bargain” with Henry Clay to win the office. Concerned about the way the presidential election had unrolled, Calhoun was suspicious of Adams and so his vice presidency began with a negative tone.
During Adam’s presidency, Calhoun found himself disagreeing with many of Adams’s policies, such as high tariffs and government centralization. Meanwhile, Adams saw Calhoun as an obstacle to his agenda. In the summer of 1826, disillusioned by Adams, Calhoun sent a letter to Andrew Jackson, offering him his full support for the 1828 presidential election. Even though Calhoun did not fully trust Jackson, he knew that he would have to give up his political ambitions if Adams were to win a second term. Jackson agreed to enter the presidential race with Calhoun as his running mate. As Jackson won the election, Calhoun became vice president again, but this time in a Democratic administration.
The cordial relationship between Andrew Jackson and Calhoun suffered due to an incident known as the Petticoat affair. Since Jackson was a widower, much of the social entertaining fell upon Calhoun’s wife, Floride, which included receiving courtesy visits from members of the president’s Cabinet and their wives. Encouraged by Floride Calhoun, some Cabinet wives rallied against Peggy Eaton, wife of John Eaton, who was Secretary of War at the time. The women claimed that Peggy, the former Margaret (Peggy) O’Neale Timberlake, the attractive daughter of a local saloonkeeper, had had an adulterous relationship with John Eaton while she was married to another man. Eaton was, however, a close friend of Jackson and his wife Peggy was also on friendly terms with the President. When Floride Calhoun refused to accept Peggy in the inner social circle of the administration, Calhoun supported his wife against Jackson and the Eatons. Since other wives had followed Floride’s example, Jackson accused Calhoun and his wife of being the main instigators of the conflict. The tension between Jackson and Calhoun grew dramatically and by the spring of 1831, Jackson had replaced almost all of his Cabinet members to limit Calhoun’s power.
The event that caused a definite split between Jackson and Calhoun was the nullification crisis. Calhoun supported vehemently the concept of nullification, by which, a state had the right to nullify any federal law it considered unconstitutional. On the other hand, President Jackson completely opposed nullification, considering it unpatriotic, although he supported states’ rights. Their divergence of opinions turned into an open conflict when South Carolina legislature, pushed by Calhoun, officially nullified the Tariff of 1832 and the Tariff of 1828 that Jackson had signed into law. President Jackson immediately sent a U.S. Navy force to Charleston harbor and threatened Calhoun with a trial for treason.
As the nullification crisis unfolded, Calhoun’s position in the Jackson administration became compromised. On December 28, 1832, he resigned as vice president with the goal of joining the Senate. Calhoun and Henry Clay worked on a new compromise tariff, which was passed into law after long negotiations. The Compromise Tariff was implemented in 1833, ending the nullification crisis.
John Calhoun Short Biographical Video
First Term in the Senate and Secretary of State
Back in South Carolina, the state legislature chose him to fill a recently vacated seat in the U.S. Senate. As a Senator, Calhoun had a powerful position to promote pro-Southern legislation. He served for several years but on March 3, 1843, he resigned from the Senate, seeking to win the Democratic nomination for the 1844 presidential election. Due to his direct involvement in the nullification crisis and other episodes of friction with Andrew Jackson and other important political figures, he was left with very few connections in any major party. Since his candidacy received very little support, Calhoun decided to drop out of the race.
Calhoun revived his career when he was named Secretary of State by President John Tyler. As Secretary of State, he found himself caught again in a major controversy during the negotiations and debates for the annexation of Texas. On April 22, 1844, Calhoun signed the treaty of annexation. The scandal emerged only days later when the details of the treaty negotiations were leaked to the press, exposing Calhoun’s ideas that the annexation campaign was meant to preserve and even expand slavery since Calhoun believed that the institution of slavery contributed to the stability of the states. Because of the link that was created between the annexation of Texas and the expansion of slavery, the U.S. Senate rejected the treaty. Calhoun became associated in the collective mentality with the radical proslavery movement.
During the 1844 presidential election, Calhoun endorsed James K. Polk, after being assured by Polk that he will support the annexation of Texas. Polk won the election and on December 29, 1845, he signed the bill that admitted Texas as the 28th state of the Union.
Second Term in the U.S. Senate
In 1845, Calhoun was reelected for a second term in the Senate. He quickly became one of the most vocal opponents of the Mexican-American War. He also played a significant role in solving the Oregon border dispute between the United States and Great Britain. The British kept British Columbia while the Americans Washington and Oregon. Along with President Polk and Secretary of State James Buchanan, Calhoun worked on the treaty that was ratified on June 18, 1846. At the end of 1845, Calhoun returned to his home in South Carolina, where he remained until his death.
Around 1850, senators Henry Clay and Stephen A. Douglas devised the Compromise of 1850, a series of measures aimed at settling the controversy over the status of slavery in the new territories acquired from Mexico. Many of the Southerners who were proslavery opposed the measures, and Calhoun took the responsibility of organizing the Nashville Convention, where the possibility of Southern secession could be discussed among the various factions. At age 68, Calhoun’s efforts were dwindled by his declining health. He had suffered bouts of tuberculosis repeatedly throughout his life and in 1850, he found himself in a critical stage of illness. Despite his frail state, Calhoun wrote a virulent speech which was read in the Senate by James Mason. In the speech, Calhoun emphasized once again the right of the South to leave the Union if a balance of power between North and South could not be achieved. Despite his poignancy, Calhoun’s cry of protest did not stop the compromise measures from being adopted. However, his speech attracted a lot of attention and many historians believe that Southern radicals eagerly adopted Calhoun’s ideas and used them to push for an extreme doctrine of states’ rights.
The day that the balance between the two sections of the country - the slaveholding States and the non-slaveholding States - is destroyed is a day that will not be far removed from political revolution, anarchy, civil war, and widespread disaster.— John C. Calhoun
Death and Legacy
As his political persona crystallized, Calhoun became known as the "cast-iron man" for his rigid defense of white Southern principles and practices. His concept of republicanism emphasized approval of slavery and minority rights, as embodied by the Southern states. He owned several dozen slaves that worked his plantation in Fort Hill, South Carolina. Calhoun asserted that slavery, rather than being a "necessary evil," was a "positive good," benefiting both slaves and slave owners. Before his death, Senator Calhoun predicted the impending Civil War and the consequences his home state of South Carolina would suffer. As he grew older, he became obsessed with belief that a probable break-up of the Union would occur and said, “The dissolution of the Union is the heaviest blow that can be struck at civilization and representative government.” His doctor admonished him that he was “thinking himself into the grave.” John Caldwell Calhoun died on March 31, 1850, of tuberculosis. He had been staying at the Old Brick Capitol boarding house in Washington D.C. at the time of his death. His funeral was held in the Senate Chamber, and he was buried in Charleston, South Carolina at the churchyard of St. Philip’s Church. His wife Floride died on July 25, 1866, in Pendleton, South Carolina, in the presence of their children.
After his death Calhoun would remain a controversial figure. The Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton refused to speak at the April 5 memorial service in the Senate chamber. Benton lamented that Calhoun was "not dead," rather, "There may be no vitality in his body, but there is in his doctrines." Senator Daniel Webster, one of the official mourners chosen by the Senate to escort Calhoun's body to his home state of South Carolina, could not bring himself to perform this difficult and painful task; taking leave of the funeral party and Calhoun’s casket at the Virginia landing as the entourage departed for the South.
After a long political career during which he was both admired and detested, John C. Calhoun remains an influential historical figure mostly due to his role in devising the South’s political agenda. He provided Southerners with ideas, plans, arguments, and most importantly, encouragement. In 1957, a Senate Committee led by Senator John F. Kennedy selected Calhoun as one of the five greatest United States Senators of all time.
Brands, H.W. Heirs of the Founders: The Epic Rivalry of Henry Clay, John Calhoun and Daniel Webster, the Second Generation of American Giants. Doubleday. 2018.
Witcover, Jules. The American Vice Presidency from Irrelevance to Power. Smithsonian Books. 2014.
Waldrup, Carole C. The Vice Presidents. McFarland & Company, Inc. 1996.
Calhoun resigns vice presidency. A&E Television. History. Accessed May 8, 2018.
John C. Calhoun, 7th Vice President (1825–1832). United States Senate. Accessed May 8, 2018.
The South Carolina Nullification Controversy. U.S. History.org. Accessed May 8, 2018.
Today in History: March 18, 1782 (John C. Calhoun). Library of Congress. Accessed May 8, 2018.
Rafuse, Ethan S. John C. Calhoun: He Started the Civil War. June 12, 2006. Historynet. Accessed. May 7, 2018. | <urn:uuid:09637acb-b43e-4d6d-aa3a-0b43aedb9dca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/John-C-Calhoun-Seventh-Vice-President-of-the-United-States | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.98281 | 3,632 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | John C. Calhoun: Seventh Vice President of the United States
John Caldwell Calhoun was an American statesman who served as the Vice President of the United States, in office between 1825 and 1832. His political career started in the House of Representatives in 1810, where he distinguished himself as one of the leaders of the War Hawks. Calhoun became Secretary of War in the James Monroe administration and after a failed attempt to enter the presidential election of 1824, he was elected vice president during John Quincy Adams’s term as president. In 1828, when Andrew Jackson defeated John Q. Adams in the presidential election, Calhoun continued to serve as a vice president in the new administration. Because of his vehement support for South Carolina during the nullification crisis, Calhoun clashed with Andrew Jackson, which forced him to resign his position as vice president before the end of his term. From 1844 to 1845, Calhoun was Secretary of State in the John Tyler administration.
Later in life, Calhoun remained a fervent supporter of white Southern interests. He promoted states’ rights and opposition to high tariffs, and he was always in disagreement with Northern policies. Calhoun was a highly influential leader of the South and his political agenda was one of the main elements that inspired the South’s secession from the Union. Though Calhoun never wanted the South to break away from the United States, his life’s work would come to fruition a decade after his death in a war that would tear the very fabric of the nation.
Early Life and Education
John Caldwell Calhoun was born on March 18, 1782, in Abbeville District, South Carolina. His parents, Patrick Calhoun and Martha Caldwell, were Scots-Irish immigrants who, after short stints in Pennsylvania and Virginia, finally settled in South Carolina. Calhoun’s father was a prosperous farmer and also an esteemed and ambitious politician who served a term in the House of Representatives and later in the Senate. Calhoun had three brothers and a sister.
Young John Calhoun had a natural disposition for academic learning, but the closest school in the region functioned intermittently. At the age of 14, his father died and since his three elder brothers were busy with their careers, Calhoun had to take care of the family’s plantation. Meanwhile, he discovered a strong passion for reading and spent his free time studying privately. When the local academy reopened, he resumed his formal studies with financial support from his siblings.
In 1802, Calhoun enrolled at Yale College, in Connecticut, where he found an effervescent intellectual climate. He became one of the protégés of the college’s president, Timothy Dwight, whom Calhoun admired for his brilliant intellect and erudition. Calhoun was very popular among students and possessed both discipline and academic curiosity. In 1804, he graduated from Yale and went on to study law at Tapping Reeve Law School, also in Connecticut.
In January 1811, Calhoun married Floride Bonneau Colhoun, who was from a wealthy and highly influential family from Charleston. Over the course of their long marriage, the couple had 10 children, three of whom died in infancy.
I am a planter - a cotton planter. I am a Southern man and a slaveholder - a kind and a merciful one, I trust - and none the worse for being a slaveholder.— John C. Calhoun
House of Representatives
Calhoun’s career started when he won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1810. He quickly befriended Speaker of the House Henry Clay and became one of the most prominent figures among the War Hawks, a faction of young senators who fiercely wanted the U.S. to declare war against Britain, which they saw as a duty meant to restore American honor after Britain’s refusal to acknowledge American maritime rights. On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war upon Britain and Calhoun immediately made himself available wherever necessary. He struggled to recruit volunteers and to manage complicated logistics. Through his actions during the war, Calhoun proved himself capable of managing any distressful situation with a calm that inspired others. When the treaty of Ghent was signed in 1815 that ended the War of 1812, Calhoun declared, “I feel pleasure and pride in being able to say that I am of a party which drew the sword… and succeeded in the contest.” However, despite his energy, great organization skills, and a talent for public speaking that he cultivated intensely, Calhoun was not very popular due to his tendency to be aggressively blunt.
Secretary of War
In 1817, President Monroe found it difficult to appoint someone for the position of Secretary of War because the department needed a thorough reorganization, but Calhoun decided to take the opportunity. He served as Secretary of War from December 8, 1817, until 1825.
During his first year in the War Department, Calhoun clashed for the first time with Andrew Jackson, when Jackson engaged in an unauthorized war against Spain by attacking the Seminole tribes who sought shelter in Spanish Florida. Acting without direct approval from either President James Monroe or Secretary of War Calhoun, Jackson put both of them in a difficult position, using his popularity of a war hero as an excuse. Calhoun accused Jackson of not respecting the chain of command, but since President Monroe wanted to avoid a direct confrontation with the popular Jackson, the matter was never settled as Calhoun would have wanted. Jackson’s act of insubordination remained thus unpunished.
After the incidents in Spanish Florida, Calhoun felt that the U.S. Army was in desperate need of reorganization. He took it upon himself to strengthen the War Department by securing a stable, professional army. He also added steam frigates to the navy. To accomplish his goals as Secretary of War, Calhoun clashed repeatedly with other members of Congress, who thought that once the war with Britain had ended, a huge army was not necessary anymore. Eventually, on March 2, 1821, despite Calhoun’s concerns and protests, Congress approved the Reduction Act, which cut the number of soldiers by half.
Another major responsibility of Calhoun as Secretary of War was to manage relations with the Indian tribes. He helped eastern Indians preserve their autonomy by relocating the tribes to reservations in western territories, over which they had full control. Calhoun also led the negotiation for the signing of numerous treaties with the Indians. In 1824, Calhoun created the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
In 1824, John C. Calhoun was one of the five main candidates for the presidency of the United States, along with Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, Henry Clay, and John Quincy Adams. In spite of his hopes, Calhoun did not manage to win the support of his home state. At the suggestion of his supporters, he accepted to participate in the election for the vice presidency and was assured that he would win. The national Republican nominee John Quincy Adams won the presidency after a controversial race where he was accused of having made a “corrupt bargain” with Henry Clay to win the office. Concerned about the way the presidential election had unrolled, Calhoun was suspicious of Adams and so his vice presidency began with a negative tone.
During Adam’s presidency, Calhoun found himself disagreeing with many of Adams’s policies, such as high tariffs and government centralization. Meanwhile, Adams saw Calhoun as an obstacle to his agenda. In the summer of 1826, disillusioned by Adams, Calhoun sent a letter to Andrew Jackson, offering him his full support for the 1828 presidential election. Even though Calhoun did not fully trust Jackson, he knew that he would have to give up his political ambitions if Adams were to win a second term. Jackson agreed to enter the presidential race with Calhoun as his running mate. As Jackson won the election, Calhoun became vice president again, but this time in a Democratic administration.
The cordial relationship between Andrew Jackson and Calhoun suffered due to an incident known as the Petticoat affair. Since Jackson was a widower, much of the social entertaining fell upon Calhoun’s wife, Floride, which included receiving courtesy visits from members of the president’s Cabinet and their wives. Encouraged by Floride Calhoun, some Cabinet wives rallied against Peggy Eaton, wife of John Eaton, who was Secretary of War at the time. The women claimed that Peggy, the former Margaret (Peggy) O’Neale Timberlake, the attractive daughter of a local saloonkeeper, had had an adulterous relationship with John Eaton while she was married to another man. Eaton was, however, a close friend of Jackson and his wife Peggy was also on friendly terms with the President. When Floride Calhoun refused to accept Peggy in the inner social circle of the administration, Calhoun supported his wife against Jackson and the Eatons. Since other wives had followed Floride’s example, Jackson accused Calhoun and his wife of being the main instigators of the conflict. The tension between Jackson and Calhoun grew dramatically and by the spring of 1831, Jackson had replaced almost all of his Cabinet members to limit Calhoun’s power.
The event that caused a definite split between Jackson and Calhoun was the nullification crisis. Calhoun supported vehemently the concept of nullification, by which, a state had the right to nullify any federal law it considered unconstitutional. On the other hand, President Jackson completely opposed nullification, considering it unpatriotic, although he supported states’ rights. Their divergence of opinions turned into an open conflict when South Carolina legislature, pushed by Calhoun, officially nullified the Tariff of 1832 and the Tariff of 1828 that Jackson had signed into law. President Jackson immediately sent a U.S. Navy force to Charleston harbor and threatened Calhoun with a trial for treason.
As the nullification crisis unfolded, Calhoun’s position in the Jackson administration became compromised. On December 28, 1832, he resigned as vice president with the goal of joining the Senate. Calhoun and Henry Clay worked on a new compromise tariff, which was passed into law after long negotiations. The Compromise Tariff was implemented in 1833, ending the nullification crisis.
John Calhoun Short Biographical Video
First Term in the Senate and Secretary of State
Back in South Carolina, the state legislature chose him to fill a recently vacated seat in the U.S. Senate. As a Senator, Calhoun had a powerful position to promote pro-Southern legislation. He served for several years but on March 3, 1843, he resigned from the Senate, seeking to win the Democratic nomination for the 1844 presidential election. Due to his direct involvement in the nullification crisis and other episodes of friction with Andrew Jackson and other important political figures, he was left with very few connections in any major party. Since his candidacy received very little support, Calhoun decided to drop out of the race.
Calhoun revived his career when he was named Secretary of State by President John Tyler. As Secretary of State, he found himself caught again in a major controversy during the negotiations and debates for the annexation of Texas. On April 22, 1844, Calhoun signed the treaty of annexation. The scandal emerged only days later when the details of the treaty negotiations were leaked to the press, exposing Calhoun’s ideas that the annexation campaign was meant to preserve and even expand slavery since Calhoun believed that the institution of slavery contributed to the stability of the states. Because of the link that was created between the annexation of Texas and the expansion of slavery, the U.S. Senate rejected the treaty. Calhoun became associated in the collective mentality with the radical proslavery movement.
During the 1844 presidential election, Calhoun endorsed James K. Polk, after being assured by Polk that he will support the annexation of Texas. Polk won the election and on December 29, 1845, he signed the bill that admitted Texas as the 28th state of the Union.
Second Term in the U.S. Senate
In 1845, Calhoun was reelected for a second term in the Senate. He quickly became one of the most vocal opponents of the Mexican-American War. He also played a significant role in solving the Oregon border dispute between the United States and Great Britain. The British kept British Columbia while the Americans Washington and Oregon. Along with President Polk and Secretary of State James Buchanan, Calhoun worked on the treaty that was ratified on June 18, 1846. At the end of 1845, Calhoun returned to his home in South Carolina, where he remained until his death.
Around 1850, senators Henry Clay and Stephen A. Douglas devised the Compromise of 1850, a series of measures aimed at settling the controversy over the status of slavery in the new territories acquired from Mexico. Many of the Southerners who were proslavery opposed the measures, and Calhoun took the responsibility of organizing the Nashville Convention, where the possibility of Southern secession could be discussed among the various factions. At age 68, Calhoun’s efforts were dwindled by his declining health. He had suffered bouts of tuberculosis repeatedly throughout his life and in 1850, he found himself in a critical stage of illness. Despite his frail state, Calhoun wrote a virulent speech which was read in the Senate by James Mason. In the speech, Calhoun emphasized once again the right of the South to leave the Union if a balance of power between North and South could not be achieved. Despite his poignancy, Calhoun’s cry of protest did not stop the compromise measures from being adopted. However, his speech attracted a lot of attention and many historians believe that Southern radicals eagerly adopted Calhoun’s ideas and used them to push for an extreme doctrine of states’ rights.
The day that the balance between the two sections of the country - the slaveholding States and the non-slaveholding States - is destroyed is a day that will not be far removed from political revolution, anarchy, civil war, and widespread disaster.— John C. Calhoun
Death and Legacy
As his political persona crystallized, Calhoun became known as the "cast-iron man" for his rigid defense of white Southern principles and practices. His concept of republicanism emphasized approval of slavery and minority rights, as embodied by the Southern states. He owned several dozen slaves that worked his plantation in Fort Hill, South Carolina. Calhoun asserted that slavery, rather than being a "necessary evil," was a "positive good," benefiting both slaves and slave owners. Before his death, Senator Calhoun predicted the impending Civil War and the consequences his home state of South Carolina would suffer. As he grew older, he became obsessed with belief that a probable break-up of the Union would occur and said, “The dissolution of the Union is the heaviest blow that can be struck at civilization and representative government.” His doctor admonished him that he was “thinking himself into the grave.” John Caldwell Calhoun died on March 31, 1850, of tuberculosis. He had been staying at the Old Brick Capitol boarding house in Washington D.C. at the time of his death. His funeral was held in the Senate Chamber, and he was buried in Charleston, South Carolina at the churchyard of St. Philip’s Church. His wife Floride died on July 25, 1866, in Pendleton, South Carolina, in the presence of their children.
After his death Calhoun would remain a controversial figure. The Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton refused to speak at the April 5 memorial service in the Senate chamber. Benton lamented that Calhoun was "not dead," rather, "There may be no vitality in his body, but there is in his doctrines." Senator Daniel Webster, one of the official mourners chosen by the Senate to escort Calhoun's body to his home state of South Carolina, could not bring himself to perform this difficult and painful task; taking leave of the funeral party and Calhoun’s casket at the Virginia landing as the entourage departed for the South.
After a long political career during which he was both admired and detested, John C. Calhoun remains an influential historical figure mostly due to his role in devising the South’s political agenda. He provided Southerners with ideas, plans, arguments, and most importantly, encouragement. In 1957, a Senate Committee led by Senator John F. Kennedy selected Calhoun as one of the five greatest United States Senators of all time.
Brands, H.W. Heirs of the Founders: The Epic Rivalry of Henry Clay, John Calhoun and Daniel Webster, the Second Generation of American Giants. Doubleday. 2018.
Witcover, Jules. The American Vice Presidency from Irrelevance to Power. Smithsonian Books. 2014.
Waldrup, Carole C. The Vice Presidents. McFarland & Company, Inc. 1996.
Calhoun resigns vice presidency. A&E Television. History. Accessed May 8, 2018.
John C. Calhoun, 7th Vice President (1825–1832). United States Senate. Accessed May 8, 2018.
The South Carolina Nullification Controversy. U.S. History.org. Accessed May 8, 2018.
Today in History: March 18, 1782 (John C. Calhoun). Library of Congress. Accessed May 8, 2018.
Rafuse, Ethan S. John C. Calhoun: He Started the Civil War. June 12, 2006. Historynet. Accessed. May 7, 2018. | 3,847 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The way in which Egyptian culture was continued by non-native Egyptians after the Egyptian state had essentially dissolved was quite interesting. The perpetuation of Egyptian culture is evident from the first occupation of Egypt by non-Egyptians. Non-Egyptian rulers of Egypt perpetuated and even supported native Egyptian religion and often bureaucratic control as well. This is evident as early as Hyksos rule in the 2nd Intermediate period, but happens again with the Kushite conquest in the 25th Dynasty. The Kushite kings “built Egyptian-style temples, with their walls inscribed in Egyptian hieroglyphs” (chapter 9, p. 268), as well as using the 2 cobras on their crowns, rather than the traditional vulture and cobra of the Egyptian kings.
The practice of supporting Egyptian institutions was also continued by the Persians, likely as “an attempt to legitimize the Persian king as pharaoh” (Chapter 9, p. 271). In addition to the Persians, the Greeks who ruled Persia after Alexander, as part of the Ptolemaic Dynasty also perpetuated and supported native Egyptian religion. None of these instances of non-Egyptians continuing Egyptian culture are all that surprising though, as foreign rulers, the conquers would want a way to relate to the conquered and to make their rule feel more legitimate, and using Egyptian religious practice offered a way to do this. Even the Romans, who didn’t support the Egyptian religious institutions, still allowed them to exist, but what really ended Egyptian religion, and the strong culture that was associated with it, was the influx of Christianity into Egypt.
The continuation of Egyptian culture, as evident in religious practices, continued even after Egypt had largely ceased practicing its traditional religion. In Nubia, which wasn’t, for a large part of Egyptian chronology even part of Egypt, but was nonetheless connected to Egypt through trade and hegemony, Egyptian culture and religion continue into the late 6th century. What this really shows is how Egyptian culture had an influence on all of the surrounding polities, so much so that even after Egypt had been assimilated into Greek and later Roman culture, Egyptian culture still continued, especially outside of Egypt.
One of the other things that I wondered about this week was how exactly the city of Alexandria was founded. Did there exist a settlement in its location originally, or was it only a site where Alexander camped for a while and then moved on, or did he just decree that a city was to be built there? How exactly does a person found or create a city out of nothing…I think this would be interesting to look into in more detail | <urn:uuid:8e79e917-4efb-4fb4-ba58-8473c6e82106> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://anthropology.msu.edu/egyptian-archaeology/2011/08/16/continuation-of-egyptian-culture-by-non-egyptians/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.985832 | 540 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.090481266... | 4 | The way in which Egyptian culture was continued by non-native Egyptians after the Egyptian state had essentially dissolved was quite interesting. The perpetuation of Egyptian culture is evident from the first occupation of Egypt by non-Egyptians. Non-Egyptian rulers of Egypt perpetuated and even supported native Egyptian religion and often bureaucratic control as well. This is evident as early as Hyksos rule in the 2nd Intermediate period, but happens again with the Kushite conquest in the 25th Dynasty. The Kushite kings “built Egyptian-style temples, with their walls inscribed in Egyptian hieroglyphs” (chapter 9, p. 268), as well as using the 2 cobras on their crowns, rather than the traditional vulture and cobra of the Egyptian kings.
The practice of supporting Egyptian institutions was also continued by the Persians, likely as “an attempt to legitimize the Persian king as pharaoh” (Chapter 9, p. 271). In addition to the Persians, the Greeks who ruled Persia after Alexander, as part of the Ptolemaic Dynasty also perpetuated and supported native Egyptian religion. None of these instances of non-Egyptians continuing Egyptian culture are all that surprising though, as foreign rulers, the conquers would want a way to relate to the conquered and to make their rule feel more legitimate, and using Egyptian religious practice offered a way to do this. Even the Romans, who didn’t support the Egyptian religious institutions, still allowed them to exist, but what really ended Egyptian religion, and the strong culture that was associated with it, was the influx of Christianity into Egypt.
The continuation of Egyptian culture, as evident in religious practices, continued even after Egypt had largely ceased practicing its traditional religion. In Nubia, which wasn’t, for a large part of Egyptian chronology even part of Egypt, but was nonetheless connected to Egypt through trade and hegemony, Egyptian culture and religion continue into the late 6th century. What this really shows is how Egyptian culture had an influence on all of the surrounding polities, so much so that even after Egypt had been assimilated into Greek and later Roman culture, Egyptian culture still continued, especially outside of Egypt.
One of the other things that I wondered about this week was how exactly the city of Alexandria was founded. Did there exist a settlement in its location originally, or was it only a site where Alexander camped for a while and then moved on, or did he just decree that a city was to be built there? How exactly does a person found or create a city out of nothing…I think this would be interesting to look into in more detail | 542 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher.
Benjamin Franklin was a scientist, statesman, author and a printer who led citizens of America through a tumultuous era of revolutionary war, provincial politics and it’s momentous as a founding nation. In his autobiography, he explained the virtues of thrift, making money and industry. For him, the pursuit of material wealth through self-interest can only be virtuous when they go hand in hand with promoting of public good using either philanthropy or voluntarism. This is what he termed as the enlightened self-interest. Franklin believed that free trade, reason, and a spirited cosmopolitan served as a faithful guide for a country to have peaceful relations. He thought that in a country good citizens were the independent entrepreneurs since they had attainable goals to pursue and also they had the capabilities to live a useful and dignified life. He believed that by cultivating thirteen virtues and having a healthy dose of cheerful prudence can lead to a perfection moral society. The use of voluntary associations was more important to him than the use government institutions to reach out to the citizens. He was able to bring up ideas that channeled citizen’s individualism into productive social outlets to the society. He was an adamant advocate of federalism and religious liberty, a critic of parochialism and world politics visionary leader.
At the age of eighty-one years, he participated as a delegate in matters of the Constitution even though he was in a poor health condition. He believed that one person could not handle the executive power, and a committee was well placed in that matter. His ideas at first were not favored by many in the delegations since none of what he stood for made it in the constitution. He helped pave the way for the great compromise. After the completion of the constitution, he wrote an impassioned speech by use of his persuasive powers to ask all delegates to sign the Constitution.
Franklin had become a father figure to many in his way of handling matters and his ideals. In France, he had negotiated an alliance agreement between the French and the colonies of the United States, which helped the Americans, get finance to fight against the British. He knew that the real diplomacy didn’t work in a well-placed negotiating table, so he opted for an informal ways to earn trust and the respect for the French people. His methods of informal meetings made his partners feel being overworked while he just enjoyed, but it has Franklin who had the last laugh.
© Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved | <urn:uuid:1a1da030-eae5-4335-acb1-80b9d53d8432> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.the-kings-speech.com/benjamin-franklin-ideals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.981856 | 599 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.1976002156734466... | 2 | Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher.
Benjamin Franklin was a scientist, statesman, author and a printer who led citizens of America through a tumultuous era of revolutionary war, provincial politics and it’s momentous as a founding nation. In his autobiography, he explained the virtues of thrift, making money and industry. For him, the pursuit of material wealth through self-interest can only be virtuous when they go hand in hand with promoting of public good using either philanthropy or voluntarism. This is what he termed as the enlightened self-interest. Franklin believed that free trade, reason, and a spirited cosmopolitan served as a faithful guide for a country to have peaceful relations. He thought that in a country good citizens were the independent entrepreneurs since they had attainable goals to pursue and also they had the capabilities to live a useful and dignified life. He believed that by cultivating thirteen virtues and having a healthy dose of cheerful prudence can lead to a perfection moral society. The use of voluntary associations was more important to him than the use government institutions to reach out to the citizens. He was able to bring up ideas that channeled citizen’s individualism into productive social outlets to the society. He was an adamant advocate of federalism and religious liberty, a critic of parochialism and world politics visionary leader.
At the age of eighty-one years, he participated as a delegate in matters of the Constitution even though he was in a poor health condition. He believed that one person could not handle the executive power, and a committee was well placed in that matter. His ideas at first were not favored by many in the delegations since none of what he stood for made it in the constitution. He helped pave the way for the great compromise. After the completion of the constitution, he wrote an impassioned speech by use of his persuasive powers to ask all delegates to sign the Constitution.
Franklin had become a father figure to many in his way of handling matters and his ideals. In France, he had negotiated an alliance agreement between the French and the colonies of the United States, which helped the Americans, get finance to fight against the British. He knew that the real diplomacy didn’t work in a well-placed negotiating table, so he opted for an informal ways to earn trust and the respect for the French people. His methods of informal meetings made his partners feel being overworked while he just enjoyed, but it has Franklin who had the last laugh.
© Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved | 588 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American Revolution Essay Research Paper The
The American Revolution Essay, Research Paper The colonists living in America had enjoyed relative freedom from England since they arrived. They came to the New World, after all, to escape England, for whatever reasons they may have had?religious, economic, or social. So when England decided in the eighteenth century that they were going to crack down on the colonies, the announcement was not met with open arms. In fact, rebellion was inevitable. Parliamentary taxation was a main source of the colonists’ anger. With the Sugar Act of 1764, they were forced to pay one-third of Britian’s French and Indian War costs. The Stamp Act was exorbitant for the colonists as well, but was met with much more hostility. They rebelled against these taxes because they were being taxed without representation in England; they felt the British had no right to tax their colonies when they themselves had no say in how they were ruled. The civil liberties of the colonists were also restricted. The colonists were discouraged from buying foreign products and had restricted production as a result of mercantilism. In the hated Admiralty Courts, colonists were shipped back to England to be tried in a jury-less courtroom, assumed guilty until proven innocent. The British took advantage of the colonists, as became apparent with the Quartering Act: people in America would be forced to house and feed British soldiers any time they demanded it. This limited the colonists’ freedom and only spread more anger and defiance throughout the colonies. The British military was unpopular in the colonies for many reasons other than the Quartering Act. In the Boston Massacre of 1770, British soldiers shot into a mob of revolting colonists and killed about twenty men. News of this horrific act reached the different colonies and spread the notorious reputation of the cold and murderous British. The colonists weren’t just rebellious children throwing things in their parent’s face; they did try to reason with England. With the formation of the First Continental Congress, they attempted to settle their colonial grievances on their own, without England’s help. And when they sent the Declaratory Act to England to ask for reasonable rights, such as more hospitals and schools, King George III refused to recognize the document. This only fueled the colonists’ fire of growing resistance. In 1775, colonial militia met the British troops at Concord and Lexington, and after the shot heard round the world was fired, a battle ensued that left many dead or injured. These battles began the American Revolution, when the colonists finally took their stand. They were rebelling against the controlling British and for a country of their own, with individual rights and representation. After the battles, George Washington was appointed commander of the army, and a year later, Thomas Jefferson penned the Declaration of Independence. This document was not the end of the war, but rather the beginning of the end. England fought the colonies for nearly seven more years. Finally, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris was finally signed after peace negotiations that took two years. They had finally gained their independence. | <urn:uuid:35e13ab1-d1c7-4b03-8bf8-f6f7dab075eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://referat.ru/referat/the-american-revolution-essay-research-paper-the-459827 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.983212 | 627 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.18266130983... | 1 | The American Revolution Essay Research Paper The
The American Revolution Essay, Research Paper The colonists living in America had enjoyed relative freedom from England since they arrived. They came to the New World, after all, to escape England, for whatever reasons they may have had?religious, economic, or social. So when England decided in the eighteenth century that they were going to crack down on the colonies, the announcement was not met with open arms. In fact, rebellion was inevitable. Parliamentary taxation was a main source of the colonists’ anger. With the Sugar Act of 1764, they were forced to pay one-third of Britian’s French and Indian War costs. The Stamp Act was exorbitant for the colonists as well, but was met with much more hostility. They rebelled against these taxes because they were being taxed without representation in England; they felt the British had no right to tax their colonies when they themselves had no say in how they were ruled. The civil liberties of the colonists were also restricted. The colonists were discouraged from buying foreign products and had restricted production as a result of mercantilism. In the hated Admiralty Courts, colonists were shipped back to England to be tried in a jury-less courtroom, assumed guilty until proven innocent. The British took advantage of the colonists, as became apparent with the Quartering Act: people in America would be forced to house and feed British soldiers any time they demanded it. This limited the colonists’ freedom and only spread more anger and defiance throughout the colonies. The British military was unpopular in the colonies for many reasons other than the Quartering Act. In the Boston Massacre of 1770, British soldiers shot into a mob of revolting colonists and killed about twenty men. News of this horrific act reached the different colonies and spread the notorious reputation of the cold and murderous British. The colonists weren’t just rebellious children throwing things in their parent’s face; they did try to reason with England. With the formation of the First Continental Congress, they attempted to settle their colonial grievances on their own, without England’s help. And when they sent the Declaratory Act to England to ask for reasonable rights, such as more hospitals and schools, King George III refused to recognize the document. This only fueled the colonists’ fire of growing resistance. In 1775, colonial militia met the British troops at Concord and Lexington, and after the shot heard round the world was fired, a battle ensued that left many dead or injured. These battles began the American Revolution, when the colonists finally took their stand. They were rebelling against the controlling British and for a country of their own, with individual rights and representation. After the battles, George Washington was appointed commander of the army, and a year later, Thomas Jefferson penned the Declaration of Independence. This document was not the end of the war, but rather the beginning of the end. England fought the colonies for nearly seven more years. Finally, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris was finally signed after peace negotiations that took two years. They had finally gained their independence. | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward III of England reigned as king from 1327 to 1377 CE. Succeeding his father Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) following his enforced abdication and then murder, Edward III would take revenge on his father’s enemies, who included the young king’s own mother Isabella of France, and go on to reign for 50 years. The king reunified the troublesome English barons, extended Windsor Castle, established a new era of medieval chivalry, and embarked on the Hundred Years' War with France (1337-1453 CE) to force his claim to the French throne. English territory in France was greatly expanded, but the war took a heavy financial toll on the kingdom, a situation only worsened by the arrival of the Black Death in 1348 CE. The king suffered two dreadful blows towards the end of his reign when his gains in France were lost and his son Edward of Woodstock (1330-1376 CE), aka Edward the Black Prince, died prematurely. Consequently, when Edward III died of a stroke in June 1377 CE, he was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE).
Edward III was born on 13 November 1312 CE at Windsor Castle, the son of King Edward II of England and Isabella of France (b. c. 1289 CE), the daughter of Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314 CE). Edward’s parents had married largely for diplomatic reasons and to produce an heir. In this latter respect, the marriage was a success and four children were produced. In most other respects the marriage was a disaster. Edward II is strongly suspected of having homosexual relations with at least two of his courtiers (although historians do not agree on the exact relationships), and Isabella thus spent most of her time in France with the young Edward by her side. There she openly took a lover, the English baron and anti-royalist Roger Mortimer (1287-1330 CE). The couple plotted to attack England and depose Edward II. Having lost the support of his barons through his patronage of dubious characters and military incompetence regarding Scotland, the English king could do nothing to stop Isabella and Mortimer from fulfilling their plans in October 1326 CE. Edward was obliged to formally abdicate on 24 January 1327 CE, and he was then imprisoned and murdered in Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire on 21 September 1327 CE.
With his father’s demise, the young Prince Edward, aged just 14, was declared king with Isabella and Mortimer acting as his regents. Edward III thus became the final part of the trio that completed the ’Edwardian’ period of medieval England (1272-1377 CE). The coronation took place on 1 February 1327 CE, as usual, at Westminster Abbey. There followed a purge of Edward II’s entourage, but the boy-king proved to be not so easily manipulated. Soon enough, Edward gained revenge for his father’s murder in October 1330 CE by surprising his regents in their chamber at Nottingham Castle by using a secret passageway. Roger Mortimer was imprisoned in the Tower of London and later executed as a traitor on 29 November 1330 CE while his mother was banished to a life of confinement at Castle Rising in Norfolk. Neither Mortimer or Isabella were missed, the pair having spent their time as regents largely lining their own pockets and those of their associates with the kingdom’s treasures and prized estates. Edward III now presented an opportunity for a fresh start and some much-needed stability.
On 24 January 1328 CE Edward married Philippa of Hainault (c. 1314-1369 CE) with whom he had 13 children in all. His most famous son was his eldest, Edward of Woodstock, better known since the 16th century CE as the Black Prince (probably after the unusual black armour and shield he bore). Edward would become, as was now the tradition, the Prince of Wales in 1343 CE and one of the greatest of all medieval knights, thanks to his exploits in France. Both Edwards, father and son, would bring about a new golden era for England.
Scotland’s independence had been secured in the 1328 CE Treaty of Northampton, but Edward had not given up on the dream of his grandfather, Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE), to conquer the country. When the Scottish king Robert the Bruce died in 1329 CE after a 23-year reign, his successor was David II (r. 1329-1371 CE), then only five years old. The Balliols, long-standing rivals to the Bruces, saw an opportunity to re-stake their claim to the throne. Edward, too, took the chance to stir things up and so supported Edward Balliol (c. 1283-1367 CE) in the dispute despite his sister having been betrothed to David when Mortimer and Isabella had been regents. The English king’s support proved vital. David was deposed in 1332 CE, and Balliol was made king but he was himself then deposed despite Edward’s victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333 CE where the English king used a combination of archers and topography to great effect. There was another round of musical thrones but by the end of 1336 CE, David II was back and the border was eventually re-established along traditional lines while Edward turned his attention to the richer prize of France.
France: the Hundred Years' War
Edward III held lands in France and he could even make a strong claim to the French crown via his mother Isabella. The current French king was Philip VI of France (r. 1328-1350 CE) who had succeeded his cousin Charles IV of France (r. 1322-1328 CE) even if, when Charles had died, it was Edward who was his closest male relative, being Charles’ nephew. The English king had not pressed his claim at the time, and the French nobility, discounting the legitimacy of inheritance through the female line, had naturally preferred a Frenchman as their ruler. However, by the mid-1330s CE Edward changed his strategy. By making a claim for the throne Edward could avoid a rebuke from the Pope for causing an unnecessary war and the rich lands available in France could be used as a lure for baronial support. The two equally ambitious kings thus, in 1337 CE, sparked off what would become known as the Hundred Years’ War between France and England (a 19th-century CE label for a conflict which rumbled on intermittently for well over a century, in fact, finally ending in 1453 CE). To show his intent, and in a typical piece of visual propaganda and pageantry, Edward henceforth quartered his coat of arms - the three lions of the Plantagenets - to now include the golden fleur-de-lis of France, which remained a part of the royal arms until 1801 CE.
In June 1340 CE a French fleet, probably intended to serve as a means to invade England, was sunk by an English fleet at Sluys in the Scheldt estuary (Low Countries). 190 French ships of 200 were destroyed or captured. On land, however, at least at first, Philip was the more cautious of the two adversaries and avoided any all-out battles which led to Edward even offering a personal duel to settle the matter. The English king’s romantic view of battle would manifest itself in other ways as the period saw a great revival (or simply invention) of medieval chivalry and the glorification of war.
1345 CE saw a move forward when the Earl of Derby recaptured Gascony for the English Crown. Edward followed this up in July 1346 CE by invading Normandy, pillaging the towns and cities there - including Caen - and forcing Philip to show his hand and meet the army at Crécy on 26 August 1346 CE. Edward’s army overcame their numerical disadvantage (around 12,000 v. 25,000) by taking a defensive position on a rise overlooking the River Maie. The French troops got into a muddle when a charge was ordered and then retracted, and the Welsh and English archers proved as devastating as ever. Edward’s army also benefitted from its battle experience and discipline gained fighting in Scotland and Wales and from the king’s emphasis on light mobile troops, not to mention the first use of cannons on French soil. Edward won the battle with around 300 casualties compared to the 14,000 fallen French, the massacre a result of the French having raised their banner to give no quarter. The flower of France's nobility and that of its allies was eliminated, including the king of Bohemia, the Count of Blois, and the Count of Flanders. The English king went on to attack and take, after a massive one-year siege, the vital port of Calais in July-August 1347 CE. Edward III was at the very peak of his success.
Philip was far from beaten, though, and cleverly called on his Scottish allies to invade northern England and force Edward to withdraw from France. David II obliged and invaded England in October 1346 CE. Durham was the target, but an English army led by, amongst others, the impressively named William la Zouche, Archbishop of York, defeated the Scots at the Battle of Neville’s Cross outside the city (17 October 1346 CE), and David was captured.
The Black Death plague pandemic arrived in Europe from 1347 CE and England the following year. Besides killing countless people of all classes - perhaps 30-50% of the population in affected areas with even the king’s favourite daughter Joan succumbing - it brought the economy crashing down as farmers, labourers, and craftsmen succumbed to the disease. The disaster interrupted the Hundred Years’ War, but the conflict was resumed following the succession of Philip’s son John the Good, aka John II of France (r. 1350-1364 CE). However, it was not a king but a prince, Edward’s namesake son, who became the star of the next act of the war. The Black Prince, who had already fought with distinction at Crécy, won a great victory at Poitiers on 19 September 1356 CE. Again the French outnumbered their opponents (35,000 v. 7,000) and again muddled leadership and an outdated reliance on heavy cavalry annulled their advantage. John II was captured, and the Black Prince won further distinction for his chivalrous treatment of his royal prisoner. Unfortunately for the French locals, the Black Prince showed fewer scruples when systematically pillaging and torching their lands both before and after the battle.
Back in England, Edward was now sitting pretty with two kings in his prisons. David II was the first to be released in 1357 CE as part of the Treaty of Berwick (6 November), where the Scots paid a ransom and a 10-year truce was agreed between the two countries. Edward was then audacious enough to march on Rheims in 1359 CE, fully intending to have himself made king of the French where their monarchs were traditionally crowned. Rheims proved impregnable, though, and a harsh winter so reduced Edward’s army he was obliged to start peace talks. In May 1360 CE a treaty was signed between England and France. Under the Treaty of Brétigny, which was, in truth, rather vague on many points, Edward’s claim to 25% of France (mostly in the north and south-west) was recognised and, in return, he gave up any ambition for the French crown itself. John II was released after his ignominious four years in captivity but not without his court paying a hefty ransom first. So far, the great war with France had all been remarkably easy.
Unfortunately for Edward III, holding on to his gains in France proved much more difficult than acquiring them. The Black Death still caused havoc as it came and went in waves of destruction, and a new French king proved to be a much more worthy opponent than his predecessors: Charles V of France, aka Charles the Wise (r. 1364-1380 CE). Charles began to grab back in earnest what his predecessors had lost by avoiding open battle and concentrating on harassment and relying on the safety of his castles when required. The English king was also now struggling to pay for his hugely expensive wars. Edward had been obliged to impose repeated taxes on his subjects, actually 27 times during his reign to fund his various campaigns. The king also borrowed heavily from Italian, Flemish, German and English bankers, most of whom got nothing from their investment when the king declared himself bankrupt in the 1340s CE. Charles V's strategy brought dividends as he overran most of Aquitaine in 1372 CE, and by 1375 CE, the only lands left in France belonging to the English Crown were Calais and a slice of Gascony, a meagre return for decades of effort and expense.
From 1341 CE the English Parliament was beginning to take the form it has today with two separate houses sitting, the lower and the upper house (what would become the House of Commons and House of Lords respectively). The Parliament was able to push for more powers as the king became more desperate for funds, and these included the Houses first approving any new taxes, imposing a pledge of acceptance of the 1215 CE Magna Carta charter of liberties by royal ministers, and prohibiting the king from arbitrarily annulling statutes. Edward was himself concerned with judicial corruption in his kingdom, and he took various measures to reduce it such as forbidding, from 1346 CE, anyone involved in local courts from taking fees or robes from those involved in a case, speeding up prosecutions, and more actively checking abuses of correct weights and measures by traders.
Knights & Chivalry
During the good times of the victories in France, Edward’s court became famous for its pageantry, extravagant clothing and chivalry. Medieval literature boomed, too, with the celebrated poet Geoffrey Chaucer, (c. 1343-1400 CE) a member of the king’s inner circle from 1367 CE onwards. Edward, a keen student of history, seemed intent on creating a new Camelot, the court of the legendary King Arthur. In 1344 CE the king held a great medieval tournament involving 200 knights where jousters dressed up as characters from the Arthurian legends. Around 1348 CE Edward went one step further and created the Order of the Garter. This order, England’s oldest and still most prestigious, was created with only 24 chosen knights plus the king and his son, the Black Prince. All of its first members had fought at the Battle of Crécy; these were men of valour not just rank. The symbol of this order is a garter (then worn on the upper arm or upper leg over armour) and its motto is Honi soit, qui mal y pense or ‘Evil be on him who thinks it’, most likely a reference to anyone who doubted the king’s right, as he saw it, to rule France. It is no coincidence that the garter also had the royal colours of France - gold and blue. All of this chivalrous pomp served to glorify warfare, the king’s main preoccupation during his reign, and ensure the loyalty of his nobles and instil in them a desire for daring-do.
Edward even built Saint George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle to be the spiritual home of his order, which still survives today and which holds each June a magnificent procession of medieval pageantry. Indeed, Edward renovated the whole of Windsor Castle, making it the finest royal residence in Europe. The whole project cost the king a massive 50,000 pounds (over $70 million today), more than any medieval English monarch ever spent on a single building.
Death & Successor
By the end of his reign, Edward was becoming increasingly unpopular and perhaps his mind was suffering from his age. There were no more victories in France to cheer, the state coffers and just about everyone else’s were empty, and the king’s scheming mistress, Alice Perrers - Queen Philippa had died of illness in 1369 CE - proved unpopular at court as she siphoned off riches for herself. In April 1376 CE a Parliament was convened, known as the ‘Good Parliament’, which sought to reduce the corruption in the royal household and which also banished Perrers. It seemed, though, the king was losing his grip on power and life.
Edward suffered a stroke in 1376 CE and, never really recovering, he died on 21 June 1377 CE at Sheen Palace in Surrey. He was 64. Buried in Westminster Abbey, his tomb carries the following inscription:
The glory of the English, the flower of kings past, a pattern for kings to come.
Unfortunately, Edward, the able and well-respected Black Prince (in England anyway) had also died, probably of dysentery, the year before and so a generation was skipped. The new king was the Black Prince’s son, who became Richard II of England as the other leading candidate, John of Gaunt (1340-1399 CE), another son of Edward III and Duke of Lancaster, was ruled out because of his support for those who the Good Parliament had found guilty of corruption and misrule. King Richard was just 10 years of age but he had already been recognised by Parliament as the official heir. Richard II turned out to be rather too confident in his divine right to rule and, ignoring his barons, Parliament and commoners alike, he got his comeuppance in 1399 CE when he was imprisoned and starved to death in Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire. | <urn:uuid:5f2da10b-4865-4857-b369-b452fbf56c0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Edward_III_of_England/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.98409 | 3,710 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.08296785503... | 7 | Edward III of England reigned as king from 1327 to 1377 CE. Succeeding his father Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) following his enforced abdication and then murder, Edward III would take revenge on his father’s enemies, who included the young king’s own mother Isabella of France, and go on to reign for 50 years. The king reunified the troublesome English barons, extended Windsor Castle, established a new era of medieval chivalry, and embarked on the Hundred Years' War with France (1337-1453 CE) to force his claim to the French throne. English territory in France was greatly expanded, but the war took a heavy financial toll on the kingdom, a situation only worsened by the arrival of the Black Death in 1348 CE. The king suffered two dreadful blows towards the end of his reign when his gains in France were lost and his son Edward of Woodstock (1330-1376 CE), aka Edward the Black Prince, died prematurely. Consequently, when Edward III died of a stroke in June 1377 CE, he was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE).
Edward III was born on 13 November 1312 CE at Windsor Castle, the son of King Edward II of England and Isabella of France (b. c. 1289 CE), the daughter of Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314 CE). Edward’s parents had married largely for diplomatic reasons and to produce an heir. In this latter respect, the marriage was a success and four children were produced. In most other respects the marriage was a disaster. Edward II is strongly suspected of having homosexual relations with at least two of his courtiers (although historians do not agree on the exact relationships), and Isabella thus spent most of her time in France with the young Edward by her side. There she openly took a lover, the English baron and anti-royalist Roger Mortimer (1287-1330 CE). The couple plotted to attack England and depose Edward II. Having lost the support of his barons through his patronage of dubious characters and military incompetence regarding Scotland, the English king could do nothing to stop Isabella and Mortimer from fulfilling their plans in October 1326 CE. Edward was obliged to formally abdicate on 24 January 1327 CE, and he was then imprisoned and murdered in Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire on 21 September 1327 CE.
With his father’s demise, the young Prince Edward, aged just 14, was declared king with Isabella and Mortimer acting as his regents. Edward III thus became the final part of the trio that completed the ’Edwardian’ period of medieval England (1272-1377 CE). The coronation took place on 1 February 1327 CE, as usual, at Westminster Abbey. There followed a purge of Edward II’s entourage, but the boy-king proved to be not so easily manipulated. Soon enough, Edward gained revenge for his father’s murder in October 1330 CE by surprising his regents in their chamber at Nottingham Castle by using a secret passageway. Roger Mortimer was imprisoned in the Tower of London and later executed as a traitor on 29 November 1330 CE while his mother was banished to a life of confinement at Castle Rising in Norfolk. Neither Mortimer or Isabella were missed, the pair having spent their time as regents largely lining their own pockets and those of their associates with the kingdom’s treasures and prized estates. Edward III now presented an opportunity for a fresh start and some much-needed stability.
On 24 January 1328 CE Edward married Philippa of Hainault (c. 1314-1369 CE) with whom he had 13 children in all. His most famous son was his eldest, Edward of Woodstock, better known since the 16th century CE as the Black Prince (probably after the unusual black armour and shield he bore). Edward would become, as was now the tradition, the Prince of Wales in 1343 CE and one of the greatest of all medieval knights, thanks to his exploits in France. Both Edwards, father and son, would bring about a new golden era for England.
Scotland’s independence had been secured in the 1328 CE Treaty of Northampton, but Edward had not given up on the dream of his grandfather, Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE), to conquer the country. When the Scottish king Robert the Bruce died in 1329 CE after a 23-year reign, his successor was David II (r. 1329-1371 CE), then only five years old. The Balliols, long-standing rivals to the Bruces, saw an opportunity to re-stake their claim to the throne. Edward, too, took the chance to stir things up and so supported Edward Balliol (c. 1283-1367 CE) in the dispute despite his sister having been betrothed to David when Mortimer and Isabella had been regents. The English king’s support proved vital. David was deposed in 1332 CE, and Balliol was made king but he was himself then deposed despite Edward’s victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333 CE where the English king used a combination of archers and topography to great effect. There was another round of musical thrones but by the end of 1336 CE, David II was back and the border was eventually re-established along traditional lines while Edward turned his attention to the richer prize of France.
France: the Hundred Years' War
Edward III held lands in France and he could even make a strong claim to the French crown via his mother Isabella. The current French king was Philip VI of France (r. 1328-1350 CE) who had succeeded his cousin Charles IV of France (r. 1322-1328 CE) even if, when Charles had died, it was Edward who was his closest male relative, being Charles’ nephew. The English king had not pressed his claim at the time, and the French nobility, discounting the legitimacy of inheritance through the female line, had naturally preferred a Frenchman as their ruler. However, by the mid-1330s CE Edward changed his strategy. By making a claim for the throne Edward could avoid a rebuke from the Pope for causing an unnecessary war and the rich lands available in France could be used as a lure for baronial support. The two equally ambitious kings thus, in 1337 CE, sparked off what would become known as the Hundred Years’ War between France and England (a 19th-century CE label for a conflict which rumbled on intermittently for well over a century, in fact, finally ending in 1453 CE). To show his intent, and in a typical piece of visual propaganda and pageantry, Edward henceforth quartered his coat of arms - the three lions of the Plantagenets - to now include the golden fleur-de-lis of France, which remained a part of the royal arms until 1801 CE.
In June 1340 CE a French fleet, probably intended to serve as a means to invade England, was sunk by an English fleet at Sluys in the Scheldt estuary (Low Countries). 190 French ships of 200 were destroyed or captured. On land, however, at least at first, Philip was the more cautious of the two adversaries and avoided any all-out battles which led to Edward even offering a personal duel to settle the matter. The English king’s romantic view of battle would manifest itself in other ways as the period saw a great revival (or simply invention) of medieval chivalry and the glorification of war.
1345 CE saw a move forward when the Earl of Derby recaptured Gascony for the English Crown. Edward followed this up in July 1346 CE by invading Normandy, pillaging the towns and cities there - including Caen - and forcing Philip to show his hand and meet the army at Crécy on 26 August 1346 CE. Edward’s army overcame their numerical disadvantage (around 12,000 v. 25,000) by taking a defensive position on a rise overlooking the River Maie. The French troops got into a muddle when a charge was ordered and then retracted, and the Welsh and English archers proved as devastating as ever. Edward’s army also benefitted from its battle experience and discipline gained fighting in Scotland and Wales and from the king’s emphasis on light mobile troops, not to mention the first use of cannons on French soil. Edward won the battle with around 300 casualties compared to the 14,000 fallen French, the massacre a result of the French having raised their banner to give no quarter. The flower of France's nobility and that of its allies was eliminated, including the king of Bohemia, the Count of Blois, and the Count of Flanders. The English king went on to attack and take, after a massive one-year siege, the vital port of Calais in July-August 1347 CE. Edward III was at the very peak of his success.
Philip was far from beaten, though, and cleverly called on his Scottish allies to invade northern England and force Edward to withdraw from France. David II obliged and invaded England in October 1346 CE. Durham was the target, but an English army led by, amongst others, the impressively named William la Zouche, Archbishop of York, defeated the Scots at the Battle of Neville’s Cross outside the city (17 October 1346 CE), and David was captured.
The Black Death plague pandemic arrived in Europe from 1347 CE and England the following year. Besides killing countless people of all classes - perhaps 30-50% of the population in affected areas with even the king’s favourite daughter Joan succumbing - it brought the economy crashing down as farmers, labourers, and craftsmen succumbed to the disease. The disaster interrupted the Hundred Years’ War, but the conflict was resumed following the succession of Philip’s son John the Good, aka John II of France (r. 1350-1364 CE). However, it was not a king but a prince, Edward’s namesake son, who became the star of the next act of the war. The Black Prince, who had already fought with distinction at Crécy, won a great victory at Poitiers on 19 September 1356 CE. Again the French outnumbered their opponents (35,000 v. 7,000) and again muddled leadership and an outdated reliance on heavy cavalry annulled their advantage. John II was captured, and the Black Prince won further distinction for his chivalrous treatment of his royal prisoner. Unfortunately for the French locals, the Black Prince showed fewer scruples when systematically pillaging and torching their lands both before and after the battle.
Back in England, Edward was now sitting pretty with two kings in his prisons. David II was the first to be released in 1357 CE as part of the Treaty of Berwick (6 November), where the Scots paid a ransom and a 10-year truce was agreed between the two countries. Edward was then audacious enough to march on Rheims in 1359 CE, fully intending to have himself made king of the French where their monarchs were traditionally crowned. Rheims proved impregnable, though, and a harsh winter so reduced Edward’s army he was obliged to start peace talks. In May 1360 CE a treaty was signed between England and France. Under the Treaty of Brétigny, which was, in truth, rather vague on many points, Edward’s claim to 25% of France (mostly in the north and south-west) was recognised and, in return, he gave up any ambition for the French crown itself. John II was released after his ignominious four years in captivity but not without his court paying a hefty ransom first. So far, the great war with France had all been remarkably easy.
Unfortunately for Edward III, holding on to his gains in France proved much more difficult than acquiring them. The Black Death still caused havoc as it came and went in waves of destruction, and a new French king proved to be a much more worthy opponent than his predecessors: Charles V of France, aka Charles the Wise (r. 1364-1380 CE). Charles began to grab back in earnest what his predecessors had lost by avoiding open battle and concentrating on harassment and relying on the safety of his castles when required. The English king was also now struggling to pay for his hugely expensive wars. Edward had been obliged to impose repeated taxes on his subjects, actually 27 times during his reign to fund his various campaigns. The king also borrowed heavily from Italian, Flemish, German and English bankers, most of whom got nothing from their investment when the king declared himself bankrupt in the 1340s CE. Charles V's strategy brought dividends as he overran most of Aquitaine in 1372 CE, and by 1375 CE, the only lands left in France belonging to the English Crown were Calais and a slice of Gascony, a meagre return for decades of effort and expense.
From 1341 CE the English Parliament was beginning to take the form it has today with two separate houses sitting, the lower and the upper house (what would become the House of Commons and House of Lords respectively). The Parliament was able to push for more powers as the king became more desperate for funds, and these included the Houses first approving any new taxes, imposing a pledge of acceptance of the 1215 CE Magna Carta charter of liberties by royal ministers, and prohibiting the king from arbitrarily annulling statutes. Edward was himself concerned with judicial corruption in his kingdom, and he took various measures to reduce it such as forbidding, from 1346 CE, anyone involved in local courts from taking fees or robes from those involved in a case, speeding up prosecutions, and more actively checking abuses of correct weights and measures by traders.
Knights & Chivalry
During the good times of the victories in France, Edward’s court became famous for its pageantry, extravagant clothing and chivalry. Medieval literature boomed, too, with the celebrated poet Geoffrey Chaucer, (c. 1343-1400 CE) a member of the king’s inner circle from 1367 CE onwards. Edward, a keen student of history, seemed intent on creating a new Camelot, the court of the legendary King Arthur. In 1344 CE the king held a great medieval tournament involving 200 knights where jousters dressed up as characters from the Arthurian legends. Around 1348 CE Edward went one step further and created the Order of the Garter. This order, England’s oldest and still most prestigious, was created with only 24 chosen knights plus the king and his son, the Black Prince. All of its first members had fought at the Battle of Crécy; these were men of valour not just rank. The symbol of this order is a garter (then worn on the upper arm or upper leg over armour) and its motto is Honi soit, qui mal y pense or ‘Evil be on him who thinks it’, most likely a reference to anyone who doubted the king’s right, as he saw it, to rule France. It is no coincidence that the garter also had the royal colours of France - gold and blue. All of this chivalrous pomp served to glorify warfare, the king’s main preoccupation during his reign, and ensure the loyalty of his nobles and instil in them a desire for daring-do.
Edward even built Saint George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle to be the spiritual home of his order, which still survives today and which holds each June a magnificent procession of medieval pageantry. Indeed, Edward renovated the whole of Windsor Castle, making it the finest royal residence in Europe. The whole project cost the king a massive 50,000 pounds (over $70 million today), more than any medieval English monarch ever spent on a single building.
Death & Successor
By the end of his reign, Edward was becoming increasingly unpopular and perhaps his mind was suffering from his age. There were no more victories in France to cheer, the state coffers and just about everyone else’s were empty, and the king’s scheming mistress, Alice Perrers - Queen Philippa had died of illness in 1369 CE - proved unpopular at court as she siphoned off riches for herself. In April 1376 CE a Parliament was convened, known as the ‘Good Parliament’, which sought to reduce the corruption in the royal household and which also banished Perrers. It seemed, though, the king was losing his grip on power and life.
Edward suffered a stroke in 1376 CE and, never really recovering, he died on 21 June 1377 CE at Sheen Palace in Surrey. He was 64. Buried in Westminster Abbey, his tomb carries the following inscription:
The glory of the English, the flower of kings past, a pattern for kings to come.
Unfortunately, Edward, the able and well-respected Black Prince (in England anyway) had also died, probably of dysentery, the year before and so a generation was skipped. The new king was the Black Prince’s son, who became Richard II of England as the other leading candidate, John of Gaunt (1340-1399 CE), another son of Edward III and Duke of Lancaster, was ruled out because of his support for those who the Good Parliament had found guilty of corruption and misrule. King Richard was just 10 years of age but he had already been recognised by Parliament as the official heir. Richard II turned out to be rather too confident in his divine right to rule and, ignoring his barons, Parliament and commoners alike, he got his comeuppance in 1399 CE when he was imprisoned and starved to death in Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire. | 3,933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Editor’s Note: I dedicate this article in the Southern History Series to the Rainbow Confederates.
In the aftermath of the War Between the States, Confederate General Robert E. Lee was interviewed by the Joint Committee on Reconstruction. Lee testified before Congress about his beliefs on the future of African-Americans in Virginia:
Question: What is your opinion about it being an advantage to Virginia to keep them (the blacks) there at all. Do you not think that Virginia would be better off if the colored population were to go to Alabama, Louisiana, and the other Southern States?
Answer: I think it would be better for Virginia if she could get rid of them. That is no new opinion with me. I have always thought so, and have always been in favor of emancipation, gradual emancipation.
Question: As a question of labor alone, do you not think that the labor which would flow into Virginia, if the negroes left it for the cotton States, would be far more advantageous to the State and to its future prosperity?
Answer: I think it would be for the benefit of Virginia, and I believe that everybody there would be willing to aid it.
Question: Do you not think that the State of Virginia is absolutely injured and its future impaired by the presence of the black population there?
Answer: I think it is.
Question: And do you not think it is peculiarly adapted to the quality of labor which would flow, into it, from its great natural resources, in case it – was made more attractive by the absence of the colored race?
Answer: I do. | <urn:uuid:73ebc57e-ed0e-455b-bcb2-08338603e093> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.occidentaldissent.com/2019/06/04/southern-history-series-robert-e-lee-on-white-separatism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.981957 | 326 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.08709889650344849... | 5 | Editor’s Note: I dedicate this article in the Southern History Series to the Rainbow Confederates.
In the aftermath of the War Between the States, Confederate General Robert E. Lee was interviewed by the Joint Committee on Reconstruction. Lee testified before Congress about his beliefs on the future of African-Americans in Virginia:
Question: What is your opinion about it being an advantage to Virginia to keep them (the blacks) there at all. Do you not think that Virginia would be better off if the colored population were to go to Alabama, Louisiana, and the other Southern States?
Answer: I think it would be better for Virginia if she could get rid of them. That is no new opinion with me. I have always thought so, and have always been in favor of emancipation, gradual emancipation.
Question: As a question of labor alone, do you not think that the labor which would flow into Virginia, if the negroes left it for the cotton States, would be far more advantageous to the State and to its future prosperity?
Answer: I think it would be for the benefit of Virginia, and I believe that everybody there would be willing to aid it.
Question: Do you not think that the State of Virginia is absolutely injured and its future impaired by the presence of the black population there?
Answer: I think it is.
Question: And do you not think it is peculiarly adapted to the quality of labor which would flow, into it, from its great natural resources, in case it – was made more attractive by the absence of the colored race?
Answer: I do. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stalin as a continuation of Lenin
Communism is like a mining town. The government owns the people. They are forced to buy government food, work for the government, and follow what the government says, or else. No one can escape because their pachecks come from the same people they pay, causing them to did themselves deeper and deeper into debt. And they are forced to breath the cancerous air, just as the Russians were forced to endure the terror. Russia experienced communism in a horrible way: first through Lenin and his Cheka, then through Stalin and his concentration camps.How far would they go to achieve their goals? They would stop at nothing. Stalin’s personality was so similar to Lenin’s, tha although they may have had separate motivations, Stalin finished what Lenin started by gaining influence through power and using the first Five Year Plan.
Lenin and Stalin were of the same personality. Both were extreme activists with an obsession with violence. This quote from A Concise History of the Russian Revolution, by Richard Pipes (pp. 104) describes the character of both Lenin and Stalin: “He knew of only two categories of men: friend and enemy-those who follwed him, and all the rest.” The two agreed on the point that anyone who did not agree with them was an enemy. They both used this as an excuse to kill thousands of people. The reason they were able to do this was because both wanted power and neither were afraid to act on their desires. “Lenin was an activist, indeed a hyper-activist, and it was this which made him such a violent figure.” This is also what made Stalin so horrible. In the way Lenin acted on behalf of the revolution, Stalin acted on behalf of himself.
Although their personalities were similar, it can be argued that they had different ideals. Lenin lived for the revolution and had a long-term goal of worldwide revolution. Stalin, on the other hand, was more interested in seeing revolution on the home front. Another difference between the two was that Stalin would kill just about anyone, no matter who they were, whereas fellow communists would not die by Lenin. The number of people Stalin murdered was in the millions: communists and non-communists. Stalin wanted worship, and anyone who didn’t worship him was doomed.
Their motivations may have been different, but the fact that Lenin and Stalin both used mass terror to gain power is indisputable. Lenin killed for the revolution. He used the Cheka as his aid. He used it “with complete ruthlessness and on a very large scale.” (Pipes pp. 104) Through this secret police force, Lenin exterminated anyone whom he thought was not dedicated to the revolution. “Believing…that violence was an essential element in the revolution, Lenin never quailed before the need to employ terror.” (Johnson, pp. 165) Stalin thought the same, that to gain as much power as possible, one must exterminate all enemies. He also used a secret police to help him out. Stalin would stop at nothing to gain personal power. He became so hard that when Lenin found out that Stalin wanted Trotsky removed, he strongly requested that Stalin be taken out of any powerful position. This did not happen. Stalin got control over Lenin’s health and took all revolutionary power.
Stalin succeeded, through the Five Year plan, in achieving Lenin’s goal of collectivization of the peasantry. It started out as Lenin’s ideals and “under Stalin the system expanded, first slowly, then with terrifying speed.” (Johnson, pp. 274) Even though at first, the system was a bit disaterous, Stalin went on. He used the communist party as his personal instrument, forcing the peasantry into collective farms. The workers became slaves, which is more or less what Lenin wanted, and production increased greatly. Russia was especially productive in the tractor, steel, and coal industries.
These two men, driven by the same passion, used complete horror to boost the industrial growth of Russia. The slave-labor camps that were created became a model for other cultures: especially Hitler. The horror that Lenin started was continued in an even more disasterous way to cause the deaths of millions of innocent people. | <urn:uuid:0e32229e-92b1-45d0-89ea-56c33a3ecd8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Stalin_As_A_Continuation_Of_Lenin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00309.warc.gz | en | 0.985668 | 884 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.097577646374... | 3 | Stalin as a continuation of Lenin
Communism is like a mining town. The government owns the people. They are forced to buy government food, work for the government, and follow what the government says, or else. No one can escape because their pachecks come from the same people they pay, causing them to did themselves deeper and deeper into debt. And they are forced to breath the cancerous air, just as the Russians were forced to endure the terror. Russia experienced communism in a horrible way: first through Lenin and his Cheka, then through Stalin and his concentration camps.How far would they go to achieve their goals? They would stop at nothing. Stalin’s personality was so similar to Lenin’s, tha although they may have had separate motivations, Stalin finished what Lenin started by gaining influence through power and using the first Five Year Plan.
Lenin and Stalin were of the same personality. Both were extreme activists with an obsession with violence. This quote from A Concise History of the Russian Revolution, by Richard Pipes (pp. 104) describes the character of both Lenin and Stalin: “He knew of only two categories of men: friend and enemy-those who follwed him, and all the rest.” The two agreed on the point that anyone who did not agree with them was an enemy. They both used this as an excuse to kill thousands of people. The reason they were able to do this was because both wanted power and neither were afraid to act on their desires. “Lenin was an activist, indeed a hyper-activist, and it was this which made him such a violent figure.” This is also what made Stalin so horrible. In the way Lenin acted on behalf of the revolution, Stalin acted on behalf of himself.
Although their personalities were similar, it can be argued that they had different ideals. Lenin lived for the revolution and had a long-term goal of worldwide revolution. Stalin, on the other hand, was more interested in seeing revolution on the home front. Another difference between the two was that Stalin would kill just about anyone, no matter who they were, whereas fellow communists would not die by Lenin. The number of people Stalin murdered was in the millions: communists and non-communists. Stalin wanted worship, and anyone who didn’t worship him was doomed.
Their motivations may have been different, but the fact that Lenin and Stalin both used mass terror to gain power is indisputable. Lenin killed for the revolution. He used the Cheka as his aid. He used it “with complete ruthlessness and on a very large scale.” (Pipes pp. 104) Through this secret police force, Lenin exterminated anyone whom he thought was not dedicated to the revolution. “Believing…that violence was an essential element in the revolution, Lenin never quailed before the need to employ terror.” (Johnson, pp. 165) Stalin thought the same, that to gain as much power as possible, one must exterminate all enemies. He also used a secret police to help him out. Stalin would stop at nothing to gain personal power. He became so hard that when Lenin found out that Stalin wanted Trotsky removed, he strongly requested that Stalin be taken out of any powerful position. This did not happen. Stalin got control over Lenin’s health and took all revolutionary power.
Stalin succeeded, through the Five Year plan, in achieving Lenin’s goal of collectivization of the peasantry. It started out as Lenin’s ideals and “under Stalin the system expanded, first slowly, then with terrifying speed.” (Johnson, pp. 274) Even though at first, the system was a bit disaterous, Stalin went on. He used the communist party as his personal instrument, forcing the peasantry into collective farms. The workers became slaves, which is more or less what Lenin wanted, and production increased greatly. Russia was especially productive in the tractor, steel, and coal industries.
These two men, driven by the same passion, used complete horror to boost the industrial growth of Russia. The slave-labor camps that were created became a model for other cultures: especially Hitler. The horror that Lenin started was continued in an even more disasterous way to cause the deaths of millions of innocent people. | 866 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battle of iwo
This reckless move revealed their positions and the American forces took immediate advantage of the mistake, inflicting serious casualties against the Japanese gunners.
A third airfield to the north was unfinished. Although the Japanese suffered more deaths — out of the 20, soldiers who took part in the battle, only survived — Iwo Jima was the first Pacific War battle where the U.
Battle of iwo jima casualties
Out of 18, Japanese soldiers only were taken prisoner. The campaign was code-named Operation Detachment and would become the largest combat employment of U. So, a rag-tag team of soldiers was formed to carry out the task. Apparently, after the first flag had been planted, the commanders realized it was too small and therefore difficult to spot for U. Arnold had to rely on the Navy to take these islands for him, however. The battle of Iwo Jima would last for another four bloody weeks as American forces fought for control of the northern part of the island. The visual of a group of soldiers dutifully working together to raise the symbol of America was a striking image and won lasting adoration from the American public. The Japanese proved so difficult to dislodge that the U. This picture became famous in the United States. Instead, Kuribayashi made the best use of the two major advantages he did have over the Americans at Iwo Jima: the element of surprise and a defensive position. The Japanese had many surprises for the US soldiers and it took over a month 36 days of furious fighting for the US to finally capture the island. Listen to a recorded reading of this page: Your browser does not support the audio element. However, the fighting was far from over. The structure was equipped with weapons, communications, and supplies, and offered his forces a vantage point against the invading U. They placed a flag on top of Mount Suribachi.
In the JCOS agreed on a two-pronged plan that combined both strategies. They thought that the bombings from US planes and battleships may have killed the Japanese.
The disciplined Kuribayashi was a former cavalry officer who had a knack for picking up on flaws in past battle tactics and fixing them. Thanks for watching! The battle went on for days.
based on 92 review | <urn:uuid:6eff8dd1-5e5f-4759-807e-434e7bc883de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zahudolisoguqixyj.histoires-etranges.com/battle-of-iwo10318674xn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.982825 | 466 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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This reckless move revealed their positions and the American forces took immediate advantage of the mistake, inflicting serious casualties against the Japanese gunners.
A third airfield to the north was unfinished. Although the Japanese suffered more deaths — out of the 20, soldiers who took part in the battle, only survived — Iwo Jima was the first Pacific War battle where the U.
Battle of iwo jima casualties
Out of 18, Japanese soldiers only were taken prisoner. The campaign was code-named Operation Detachment and would become the largest combat employment of U. So, a rag-tag team of soldiers was formed to carry out the task. Apparently, after the first flag had been planted, the commanders realized it was too small and therefore difficult to spot for U. Arnold had to rely on the Navy to take these islands for him, however. The battle of Iwo Jima would last for another four bloody weeks as American forces fought for control of the northern part of the island. The visual of a group of soldiers dutifully working together to raise the symbol of America was a striking image and won lasting adoration from the American public. The Japanese proved so difficult to dislodge that the U. This picture became famous in the United States. Instead, Kuribayashi made the best use of the two major advantages he did have over the Americans at Iwo Jima: the element of surprise and a defensive position. The Japanese had many surprises for the US soldiers and it took over a month 36 days of furious fighting for the US to finally capture the island. Listen to a recorded reading of this page: Your browser does not support the audio element. However, the fighting was far from over. The structure was equipped with weapons, communications, and supplies, and offered his forces a vantage point against the invading U. They placed a flag on top of Mount Suribachi.
In the JCOS agreed on a two-pronged plan that combined both strategies. They thought that the bombings from US planes and battleships may have killed the Japanese.
The disciplined Kuribayashi was a former cavalry officer who had a knack for picking up on flaws in past battle tactics and fixing them. Thanks for watching! The battle went on for days.
based on 92 review | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795 — June 15, 1849) was the eleventh president of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849, he directly succeeded John Tyler and preceded Zachary Taylor, and was the third from the Democratic Party, and the only one (so far) rocking a mullet.
He was previously in the House of Representatives for fourteen years, and served as Speaker of the House for the last three and a half of them, becoming the only President to have held that position. Was then elected Governor of Tennessee. After that was over, he decided to run for the presidency, and, despite being considered a dark horse, beat the well-known Henry Clay to victory and became, at 49, the youngest man elected at the time. He won on the promise of completing four goals: the reestablishment of an Independent Treasury System, the reduction of tariffs on imports, acquisition of the disputed Oregon Territory, and acquisition of land on the Pacific coast from Mexico.
As president, he oversaw the largest territorial expansion in American history, adding almost one third of the current continental United States. The process of annexing Texas was completed during his first few months of his time in office (though it was almost entirely done during John Tyler's presidency). Regarding the Oregon Territory, he settled on dividing the territory in half along the 49th Parallel with British Canada rather than risk war with the British Empire. We got what are now the states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho out of the deal.
Acquiring land from Mexico proved more problematic. Following troubled diplomatic negotiations and bloody incidents on the border, Polk asked Congress to declare war, and, following a long but rather inevitable road to victory, signed The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico's formal surrender. The Mexican-American War (when Polk, as TMBG put it, "seized the whole southwest from Mexico") was fairly controversial at the time. Abolitionists considered it a war being waged for the purposes of expanding slavery into new territories (at the time, not many people knew that Arizona and New Mexico weren't exactly suitable for plantation labor). Given that Polk had not been willing to go to war over Northern Territories (a popular slogan back than was "Fifty four forty or fight - i.e. 54°40'N instead of 49°N as the Northern Boundary of the US), many felt that Polk had a Southern agenda. However, the Army that actually fought the Mexican American War was disproportionately Southern, causing (real or imagined) grievances on both sides that would linger... It didn't help that he also tried to buy Cuba from Spain, as it was also south of the Missouri Compromise Line and had been used as a cane plantation by the Spanish - just the type of economy the slave states relied on. Henry David Thoreau, who refused to pay taxes to support the war, coined the term civil disobedience at this time.note
In addition to being the man to make The United States into a two coast nation, Polk also oversaw the opening of the U.S. Naval Academy and the Smithsonian Institution, the creation of the Department of the Interior, the groundbreaking for the Washington Monument, and the issuance of the first postage stamps in the United States. Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin were also added to the Union under his watch.
Polk had an enviable record for setting and (gasp!) accomplishing his agenda. Suffered from a chronic inability to delegate authority, and obsessively micromanaged absolutely everything. This is (probably) a large part of why he only served one term and died a few months thereafter. He is widely considered to be an underrated president by many historians and is sometimes called "Our greatest one-term president." Many consider him to be one of the finest American presidents for the simple reason that he achieved everything he wanted to do in his single term. Along with some complicated health problems towards the end of his term, this is why he decided to not run for reelection.note It wouldn't have done him any good anyway, as he died only 103 days after Zachary Taylor, his successor, was inaugurated President. At age 53, he had the shortest natural lifespan of any President as well as the shortest post-presidency.
In spite of his accomplishments, Polk is not very well-known by the general American public today, and the events he had a direct hand in as president are, more frequently than not, discussed without mentioning him. He has a (not undeserved) reputation as America's 'least known consequential president.'
Tropes as portrayed in fiction:
- Historical Domain Character: Will sometimes cameo in stories set during the California Gold Rush of 1849 (from which the San Francisco 49ers get their name), since he was President at the time.
- Shout-Out: They Might Be Giants' "James K. Polk" | <urn:uuid:b55edbdb-eb74-4363-8b87-2b2f01f105c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/JamesKPolk | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.984377 | 1,003 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4575777351856... | 1 | James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795 — June 15, 1849) was the eleventh president of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849, he directly succeeded John Tyler and preceded Zachary Taylor, and was the third from the Democratic Party, and the only one (so far) rocking a mullet.
He was previously in the House of Representatives for fourteen years, and served as Speaker of the House for the last three and a half of them, becoming the only President to have held that position. Was then elected Governor of Tennessee. After that was over, he decided to run for the presidency, and, despite being considered a dark horse, beat the well-known Henry Clay to victory and became, at 49, the youngest man elected at the time. He won on the promise of completing four goals: the reestablishment of an Independent Treasury System, the reduction of tariffs on imports, acquisition of the disputed Oregon Territory, and acquisition of land on the Pacific coast from Mexico.
As president, he oversaw the largest territorial expansion in American history, adding almost one third of the current continental United States. The process of annexing Texas was completed during his first few months of his time in office (though it was almost entirely done during John Tyler's presidency). Regarding the Oregon Territory, he settled on dividing the territory in half along the 49th Parallel with British Canada rather than risk war with the British Empire. We got what are now the states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho out of the deal.
Acquiring land from Mexico proved more problematic. Following troubled diplomatic negotiations and bloody incidents on the border, Polk asked Congress to declare war, and, following a long but rather inevitable road to victory, signed The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico's formal surrender. The Mexican-American War (when Polk, as TMBG put it, "seized the whole southwest from Mexico") was fairly controversial at the time. Abolitionists considered it a war being waged for the purposes of expanding slavery into new territories (at the time, not many people knew that Arizona and New Mexico weren't exactly suitable for plantation labor). Given that Polk had not been willing to go to war over Northern Territories (a popular slogan back than was "Fifty four forty or fight - i.e. 54°40'N instead of 49°N as the Northern Boundary of the US), many felt that Polk had a Southern agenda. However, the Army that actually fought the Mexican American War was disproportionately Southern, causing (real or imagined) grievances on both sides that would linger... It didn't help that he also tried to buy Cuba from Spain, as it was also south of the Missouri Compromise Line and had been used as a cane plantation by the Spanish - just the type of economy the slave states relied on. Henry David Thoreau, who refused to pay taxes to support the war, coined the term civil disobedience at this time.note
In addition to being the man to make The United States into a two coast nation, Polk also oversaw the opening of the U.S. Naval Academy and the Smithsonian Institution, the creation of the Department of the Interior, the groundbreaking for the Washington Monument, and the issuance of the first postage stamps in the United States. Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin were also added to the Union under his watch.
Polk had an enviable record for setting and (gasp!) accomplishing his agenda. Suffered from a chronic inability to delegate authority, and obsessively micromanaged absolutely everything. This is (probably) a large part of why he only served one term and died a few months thereafter. He is widely considered to be an underrated president by many historians and is sometimes called "Our greatest one-term president." Many consider him to be one of the finest American presidents for the simple reason that he achieved everything he wanted to do in his single term. Along with some complicated health problems towards the end of his term, this is why he decided to not run for reelection.note It wouldn't have done him any good anyway, as he died only 103 days after Zachary Taylor, his successor, was inaugurated President. At age 53, he had the shortest natural lifespan of any President as well as the shortest post-presidency.
In spite of his accomplishments, Polk is not very well-known by the general American public today, and the events he had a direct hand in as president are, more frequently than not, discussed without mentioning him. He has a (not undeserved) reputation as America's 'least known consequential president.'
Tropes as portrayed in fiction:
- Historical Domain Character: Will sometimes cameo in stories set during the California Gold Rush of 1849 (from which the San Francisco 49ers get their name), since he was President at the time.
- Shout-Out: They Might Be Giants' "James K. Polk" | 1,030 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alfred Bernhard Nobel: Founder of the Nobel prizes
This Swedish industrialist and chemist had invented the dynamite along with other powerful explosives. He used his fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes which are considered to be the world’s most prestigious awards for intellectual achievement.Updated: Dec 10, 2019 16:06 IST
Born in Stockholm, Sweden on October 21, 1833, to Immanuel and Caroline Nobel. During childhood, his health was poor but he was intelligent and curious about the world. His father tried to set up a business in Sweden but was not very successful, so he went to St Petersburg, Russia. His work there was to supervise the manufacture of explosives.
Private tutors taught Alfred. He soon became fluent in Swedish, Russian, English, French and German. He also developed interest in Chemistry. At the age of 18, Alfred left Russia and went to Paris where he began to study Chemistry. He then went to the United States. After that, he worked for his father’s factory in Russia which manufactured military equipment. The equipment was used in the Crimean War but when the war ended, the company found itself without orders and went bankrupt. After this his entire family then went to Sweden.
Like his father, Alfred liked to conduct scientific experiments. In 1864, an explosion at their Swedish factory killed his younger brother Emil and four other persons. He resolved to develop safer explosives. After a lot of study and experiments, he developed nitroglycerine in 1867. After that, he invented dynamite which was safer than nitroglycerine. Dynamite soon began to be used for building tunnels, canals, railways and roads. The invention of dynamite made him world famous. He set up a network of factories in Europe to manufacture dynamite in 1870s and ’80s.. He invented blasting gelatin in 1875 and got a patent. He then invented ballistite in 1887. But he found that though he had the patents, unscrupulous manufacturers often stole his inventions and processes. As a result, he was involved in a lot of litigation. His brother Ludvig died due to an explosion in 1888. A French newspaper by mistake published the obituary of Alfred with the headline “The Merchant of Death is Dead.” The report said, “Dr Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before, died yesterday.” The newspaper called him the Merchant of Death because he had made his fortune from explosives. When Alfred read the obituary, he thought that he would be remembered as the inventor of dynamite after his death and so he set aside part of his fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes to recognise outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace.
Nobel travelled a lot on business but preferred to be a recluse and underwent bouts of depression. He lived simply, almost like an ascetic, and friends said he was a good listener. He remained a bachelor throughout. He was interested in literature and wrote plays, novels, and poems, most of which were not published. He was a father figure to his employees. He felt that democracy was not the ideal form of government. Though he developed explosives, he thought they would be used for peaceful purposes and not war. He passed away after he suffered a stroke in Italy on December 10, 1896. After the payments of taxes and bequests to individuals, he left behind 31,225,000 Swedish kronor (about $ 250 million in 2008) to launch the Nobel Prizes.
1. Nobel was deeply interested in the study of explosives. He studied chemistry for a year in Paris and four years in the United States. He found ways to use liquid nitroglycerin with less dangers.
2. He earned a lot of money from inventing Gelignite or blasting gelatin in 1875. He had combined nitroglycerin with other compounds to create this explosive. It began to be used widely for mining.
3. Nobel had 350 patents to his name. His first patent, obtained in 1857, was for inventing a gas metre. He then invented a detonator, blasting cap and ballistite which is a smokeless powder explosive used as a rocket propellant. He also set up 90 ammunition factories. He was the owner of the armaments company Bofors and the founder of the chemical company Dynamit Nobel.
4. Nobel was involved with Bertha Kinsky and corresponded with her till death. Apparently she persuaded him to institute a peace prize. She was the first female winner of the Nobel Peace Prize.
Source: Biography.com, Brittanica.com, Learnodo-newtonic.com | <urn:uuid:ae986a9b-ac00-47b8-94f6-32a86660668c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hindustantimes.com/inspiring-lives/alfred-bernhard-nobel-founder-of-the-nobel-prizes/story-b6bWYckuJl1KkEVZuwVXyI.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.985011 | 968 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.251883924007415... | 1 | Alfred Bernhard Nobel: Founder of the Nobel prizes
This Swedish industrialist and chemist had invented the dynamite along with other powerful explosives. He used his fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes which are considered to be the world’s most prestigious awards for intellectual achievement.Updated: Dec 10, 2019 16:06 IST
Born in Stockholm, Sweden on October 21, 1833, to Immanuel and Caroline Nobel. During childhood, his health was poor but he was intelligent and curious about the world. His father tried to set up a business in Sweden but was not very successful, so he went to St Petersburg, Russia. His work there was to supervise the manufacture of explosives.
Private tutors taught Alfred. He soon became fluent in Swedish, Russian, English, French and German. He also developed interest in Chemistry. At the age of 18, Alfred left Russia and went to Paris where he began to study Chemistry. He then went to the United States. After that, he worked for his father’s factory in Russia which manufactured military equipment. The equipment was used in the Crimean War but when the war ended, the company found itself without orders and went bankrupt. After this his entire family then went to Sweden.
Like his father, Alfred liked to conduct scientific experiments. In 1864, an explosion at their Swedish factory killed his younger brother Emil and four other persons. He resolved to develop safer explosives. After a lot of study and experiments, he developed nitroglycerine in 1867. After that, he invented dynamite which was safer than nitroglycerine. Dynamite soon began to be used for building tunnels, canals, railways and roads. The invention of dynamite made him world famous. He set up a network of factories in Europe to manufacture dynamite in 1870s and ’80s.. He invented blasting gelatin in 1875 and got a patent. He then invented ballistite in 1887. But he found that though he had the patents, unscrupulous manufacturers often stole his inventions and processes. As a result, he was involved in a lot of litigation. His brother Ludvig died due to an explosion in 1888. A French newspaper by mistake published the obituary of Alfred with the headline “The Merchant of Death is Dead.” The report said, “Dr Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before, died yesterday.” The newspaper called him the Merchant of Death because he had made his fortune from explosives. When Alfred read the obituary, he thought that he would be remembered as the inventor of dynamite after his death and so he set aside part of his fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes to recognise outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace.
Nobel travelled a lot on business but preferred to be a recluse and underwent bouts of depression. He lived simply, almost like an ascetic, and friends said he was a good listener. He remained a bachelor throughout. He was interested in literature and wrote plays, novels, and poems, most of which were not published. He was a father figure to his employees. He felt that democracy was not the ideal form of government. Though he developed explosives, he thought they would be used for peaceful purposes and not war. He passed away after he suffered a stroke in Italy on December 10, 1896. After the payments of taxes and bequests to individuals, he left behind 31,225,000 Swedish kronor (about $ 250 million in 2008) to launch the Nobel Prizes.
1. Nobel was deeply interested in the study of explosives. He studied chemistry for a year in Paris and four years in the United States. He found ways to use liquid nitroglycerin with less dangers.
2. He earned a lot of money from inventing Gelignite or blasting gelatin in 1875. He had combined nitroglycerin with other compounds to create this explosive. It began to be used widely for mining.
3. Nobel had 350 patents to his name. His first patent, obtained in 1857, was for inventing a gas metre. He then invented a detonator, blasting cap and ballistite which is a smokeless powder explosive used as a rocket propellant. He also set up 90 ammunition factories. He was the owner of the armaments company Bofors and the founder of the chemical company Dynamit Nobel.
4. Nobel was involved with Bertha Kinsky and corresponded with her till death. Apparently she persuaded him to institute a peace prize. She was the first female winner of the Nobel Peace Prize.
Source: Biography.com, Brittanica.com, Learnodo-newtonic.com | 1,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great Okie Migration (Justin and Marküs)
At the beginning of the 1930's, many states like Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas and Colorado were affected by the Dust Bowl (a storm of dust and sand). It causes a drought, because of it the soil was very dry and the plantations died. The farmers couldn't stay in this situation because they earned no money so they chose to leave their farms and went to a place where they were supposed to live in a better way. They decided to go to California. This state was known as The Land of Plenty. They had to drive for a long time on highway 66 which leaded from Chicago (Ilinois) to Bakersfield (California). This journey was very tough because there were a lot of dangers like the lack of water and food, a run out of petrol and the heat caused by the sun and the drought. They hoped to find a job and create a new life but they didn't know that they were not the only people to imagine that. When they arrived in California, they were regrouped in migrant camp which looked like a slum. They had no money because of the journey and the difficulty to find a job so they had no solution to leave these camps. As a conclusion, for the farmers the life in California was not as simple and moneyful as they thought.
"Peaceful house". A house before the "Dust Bowl" Oklahoma, 1930
"The hard daily life of farmers". Farmers with his children during the "Dust Bowl" Kansas, 1932
"Deserted House". A house after the "Dust Bowl" abandoned by its owners. Oklahoma, 1935
"The start of a long and hard journey". A migrant farmer go to search a job in town. Phoenix, 193(
"The long journey to reach California". During the journey, the families had to take a break to rest and eat. So they stopped their car next to the road and they went out.
"The long journey to reach California n°2". They needed also to stop to petrol stations, this is where all the migrants met others. They shared their adventures and the reasons why they left farms behind them.
"The migrant camp". When they arrived to California also called the land of plenty, they were regrouped in slums with horrible living conditions.
"The migrant camp n°2". They had to stay in these camps for a long time. They had no money because they had no jobs or they were not well-paid. | <urn:uuid:facc8073-37bf-4141-8ee8-9569a15749a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://picturethis.museumca.org/exhibits/great-okie-migration-justin-and-mark-s | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.989954 | 515 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.12741674482... | 2 | The Great Okie Migration (Justin and Marküs)
At the beginning of the 1930's, many states like Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas and Colorado were affected by the Dust Bowl (a storm of dust and sand). It causes a drought, because of it the soil was very dry and the plantations died. The farmers couldn't stay in this situation because they earned no money so they chose to leave their farms and went to a place where they were supposed to live in a better way. They decided to go to California. This state was known as The Land of Plenty. They had to drive for a long time on highway 66 which leaded from Chicago (Ilinois) to Bakersfield (California). This journey was very tough because there were a lot of dangers like the lack of water and food, a run out of petrol and the heat caused by the sun and the drought. They hoped to find a job and create a new life but they didn't know that they were not the only people to imagine that. When they arrived in California, they were regrouped in migrant camp which looked like a slum. They had no money because of the journey and the difficulty to find a job so they had no solution to leave these camps. As a conclusion, for the farmers the life in California was not as simple and moneyful as they thought.
"Peaceful house". A house before the "Dust Bowl" Oklahoma, 1930
"The hard daily life of farmers". Farmers with his children during the "Dust Bowl" Kansas, 1932
"Deserted House". A house after the "Dust Bowl" abandoned by its owners. Oklahoma, 1935
"The start of a long and hard journey". A migrant farmer go to search a job in town. Phoenix, 193(
"The long journey to reach California". During the journey, the families had to take a break to rest and eat. So they stopped their car next to the road and they went out.
"The long journey to reach California n°2". They needed also to stop to petrol stations, this is where all the migrants met others. They shared their adventures and the reasons why they left farms behind them.
"The migrant camp". When they arrived to California also called the land of plenty, they were regrouped in slums with horrible living conditions.
"The migrant camp n°2". They had to stay in these camps for a long time. They had no money because they had no jobs or they were not well-paid. | 525 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tax avoidance, by definition, is the use of legal methods to reduce the amount of taxes on pays or the deferment of those taxes altogether through those means.
As it is a legal practice, taxpayers who engage in tax avoidance cannot prosecuted unlike those who commit tax evasion.
There are many methods of legal tax avoidance in the United States and other countries. In fact, these nations often encourage these methods as it promotes the saving of funds and preparation for retirement. This is not to say that these government approve of tax evasion as they still expect taxes to be paid. However, there are means provided to lower taxes such as tax deductions and credits which are listed by the Internal Revenue Service in its publications and on its website. Some methods of tax avoidance include preparing for retirement and the transferring of assets into a trust.
Preparing for retirement is an act that the government of the United States supports. This means that the person is being financially responsible and is saving money. There are several retirement plan options.
In 1935, The United States Supreme Court–in Gregory v. Helvering–imposed a law that defined tax avoidance as a legal means to reduce the taxes one would have to pay. In this landmark case, a woman who owned shares of stock sold said shares and claimed that the money she received for the sale should be tax-free according to the tax law of 1928. The woman’s claim eventually made its way to the Supreme Court. The court ultimately ruled the woman’s actions to be fraudulent. However, in the decision, the court stated that, “The legal right of a taxpayer to decrease the amount of what otherwise would be his or her taxes, or altogether avoid them, by means which the law permits, cannot be doubted.” This affirmed tax avoidance as a legal means that cannot be prosecuted if done in the proper fashion. | <urn:uuid:732c08c9-7682-4d7d-a0de-fde3af083c1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fraud.laws.com/category/Tax-Avoidance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.981361 | 377 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.215366244316101... | 14 | Tax avoidance, by definition, is the use of legal methods to reduce the amount of taxes on pays or the deferment of those taxes altogether through those means.
As it is a legal practice, taxpayers who engage in tax avoidance cannot prosecuted unlike those who commit tax evasion.
There are many methods of legal tax avoidance in the United States and other countries. In fact, these nations often encourage these methods as it promotes the saving of funds and preparation for retirement. This is not to say that these government approve of tax evasion as they still expect taxes to be paid. However, there are means provided to lower taxes such as tax deductions and credits which are listed by the Internal Revenue Service in its publications and on its website. Some methods of tax avoidance include preparing for retirement and the transferring of assets into a trust.
Preparing for retirement is an act that the government of the United States supports. This means that the person is being financially responsible and is saving money. There are several retirement plan options.
In 1935, The United States Supreme Court–in Gregory v. Helvering–imposed a law that defined tax avoidance as a legal means to reduce the taxes one would have to pay. In this landmark case, a woman who owned shares of stock sold said shares and claimed that the money she received for the sale should be tax-free according to the tax law of 1928. The woman’s claim eventually made its way to the Supreme Court. The court ultimately ruled the woman’s actions to be fraudulent. However, in the decision, the court stated that, “The legal right of a taxpayer to decrease the amount of what otherwise would be his or her taxes, or altogether avoid them, by means which the law permits, cannot be doubted.” This affirmed tax avoidance as a legal means that cannot be prosecuted if done in the proper fashion. | 373 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the early to mid-20th century, epilepsy was also referred to as “The Falling Sickness”. Epilepsy was thought to be contagious, thus rendering many epileptics isolated, furthering harming their overall health. One way of isolating epileptics was the use of epileptic colonies, where schools and town were constructed for epileptic individuals at any stage of their life. Not only was epilepsy seen as being contagious, it was also seen a supernatural or occult obstacle that needed to be fought against.
“The popular belief that epilepsy is contagious, dates to antiquity when people used to spit at a person with the condition and refused to use the same dish.”The History and Stigma of Epilepsy
The National Society for the Employment of Epileptics (NSEE) was launched in 1892 by philanthropists and medical professionals in London. The ‘colony’ was made for people with epilepsy who were capable of work but couldn’t find work due to their condition and social stigma. However, only people of ‘reasonable mental ability’ were admitted.
The population of the colony increased exponentially, and by 1900 “there were seven permanent homes accommodating 90 men and over 40 women”(NSEE). The men and women who lived there were strictly segregated, and not allowed to marry each other.
The psycho-social experience of epilepsy enabled the history of epilepsy to be viewed within a wider history of mental health.
For some children who were thought to have an “epileptic personality,” the colonies were a respite from chaotic homes and social stigma. For example, “in 1921, Tylor Fox made several references to the link between stress, anxiety and seizures” (Hewitt). The colony served to reduce this stress by providing education, a stable home and employment. However, there were also some instances where the colony itself often produced anxiety in its inhabitants. This depends on the individual experience of people, and the schools that they attended.
In general, people with epilepsy were discriminated against. But, for people with illness, and specifically including mental illness, routine and stress-free environments can relive anxiety. This would help epileptic people, because seizures can be induced, or more common in people with more reports of stress. Epileptic colonies were used all over the world as a response to epileptic individuals. | <urn:uuid:2a0c0848-ba5e-498e-874b-0fc1aad95477> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://londonspulse.org/epileptic-colonies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.985211 | 495 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.027017291... | 9 | During the early to mid-20th century, epilepsy was also referred to as “The Falling Sickness”. Epilepsy was thought to be contagious, thus rendering many epileptics isolated, furthering harming their overall health. One way of isolating epileptics was the use of epileptic colonies, where schools and town were constructed for epileptic individuals at any stage of their life. Not only was epilepsy seen as being contagious, it was also seen a supernatural or occult obstacle that needed to be fought against.
“The popular belief that epilepsy is contagious, dates to antiquity when people used to spit at a person with the condition and refused to use the same dish.”The History and Stigma of Epilepsy
The National Society for the Employment of Epileptics (NSEE) was launched in 1892 by philanthropists and medical professionals in London. The ‘colony’ was made for people with epilepsy who were capable of work but couldn’t find work due to their condition and social stigma. However, only people of ‘reasonable mental ability’ were admitted.
The population of the colony increased exponentially, and by 1900 “there were seven permanent homes accommodating 90 men and over 40 women”(NSEE). The men and women who lived there were strictly segregated, and not allowed to marry each other.
The psycho-social experience of epilepsy enabled the history of epilepsy to be viewed within a wider history of mental health.
For some children who were thought to have an “epileptic personality,” the colonies were a respite from chaotic homes and social stigma. For example, “in 1921, Tylor Fox made several references to the link between stress, anxiety and seizures” (Hewitt). The colony served to reduce this stress by providing education, a stable home and employment. However, there were also some instances where the colony itself often produced anxiety in its inhabitants. This depends on the individual experience of people, and the schools that they attended.
In general, people with epilepsy were discriminated against. But, for people with illness, and specifically including mental illness, routine and stress-free environments can relive anxiety. This would help epileptic people, because seizures can be induced, or more common in people with more reports of stress. Epileptic colonies were used all over the world as a response to epileptic individuals. | 487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"I thought, this is what the snails do on the coast of Maine when they pick up quahog clams: drill a hole in them and eat them," he says. "So I picked up the snail fossils surrounding it, and searched other places, and found more of these holes, and decided I needed to know more." He went to fossil shows and lectures, read like crazy, and continued searching for specimens. He concluded that the ancient snails probably secreted an acid on their prey, much as modern snails do, then used a tooth-like structure to bore a hole into the shell. Scholars doubted snails did so during the Ordovician period, but Felton persevered, found more samples with larger holes, and, finally, presented a paper. "Now more people believe this happened during the Ordovician time, rather than several hundred million years later." | <urn:uuid:29ae4ed6-bfc3-41b3-883b-1efd85653465> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2002-03/snails-old-ohio/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.984912 | 182 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.286400556564... | 1 | "I thought, this is what the snails do on the coast of Maine when they pick up quahog clams: drill a hole in them and eat them," he says. "So I picked up the snail fossils surrounding it, and searched other places, and found more of these holes, and decided I needed to know more." He went to fossil shows and lectures, read like crazy, and continued searching for specimens. He concluded that the ancient snails probably secreted an acid on their prey, much as modern snails do, then used a tooth-like structure to bore a hole into the shell. Scholars doubted snails did so during the Ordovician period, but Felton persevered, found more samples with larger holes, and, finally, presented a paper. "Now more people believe this happened during the Ordovician time, rather than several hundred million years later." | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the great ironies of the allotment system was the fact that some of the worst-looking land contained the greatest wealth.
Underneath scrubby hills lay deep pools of crude oil, and tribal members who took those allotments often became fabulously rich. One such individual was a Creek citizen named Enos Wilson.
Born near Okmulgee, Wilson was orphaned at a young age but was adopted by an Okmulgee man named Ed Hart. This man was successful in business and served on the board of directors of the Citizens National Bank.
Unlike many appointed guardians of Indian children, Hart seems to have been a good father to the young Enos. By the time Wilson was in his early teens, he was growing quite wealthy because oil had been found on his allotment. Hart engaged a law firm in Okmulgee to help protect the boy and his fortune from the graft, corruption and theft that was being foisted on many tribal allottees.
The two lawyers were Edgar Noble and Edward Moore, both originally from Missouri. Moore would later serve as a senator for Oklahoma during the 1930s. Hart and the two lawyers agreed that one of the best things for Enos would be a chance to pursue an education outside the state and away from the very real dangers wealthy Indians were facing — kidnapping, extortion and outright murder were not uncommon in the heady days of the oil boom.
In 1915, as the new school year was approaching, Hart received a letter of recommendation from A.S. Wyly, superintendent of Indian Schools in Oklahoma. He had given his approval for Enos Wilson to be enrolled in the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania.
Normally students had to be 14 to enter Carlisle, but Enos was only 13. So Wyly suggested that the administrators at Carlisle find a nearby academy that would take Enos for a year and then graduate him into the Indian school. Wilson had more than adequate funds to pay his living expenses if Carlisle would agree to see to his care during the intervening year.
Mr. Noble accompanied Wilson to Carlisle and presented the letter from Superintendent Wyly. The director of the school was agreeable to the plan provided that the commissioner of Indian Affairs in Washington would approve it. Noble and Wilson waited at Carlisle while approval was sought and in the meantime the Carlisle officials searched for a primary school that could receive Wilson for his eighth grade school year.
The nearby Mercersburg Academy, a boys’ school, agreed to provide the needed year of schooling so Enos could then attend Carlisle. This was surely a challenging time for young Enos who spoke very little English when he was enrolled.
But he completed his year at Mercersburg and then went on to further his education at Carlisle. This enabled him to reach his age of majority before returning to Oklahoma.
The experience was no doubt difficult in some ways, but it served the purpose of removing him from the dangers faced by many wealthy Indians who were deemed “incompetent” to handle their own affairs.
By all accounts Wilson returned to Okmulgee to live a quiet life. His oil wealth increased to the point that he was dubbed “the world’s richest Indian.” He built a fine mansion called “Peak Castle” about 15 miles outside Okmulgee and proved to be a good and generous neighbor to others.
At the time of his death in 1937, Wilson was mourned by all who knew him.
Reach Jonita Mullins at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:02e31688-ffdc-4365-aa59-e08da53c9e13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.muskogeephoenix.com/news/three-forks-history-oil-money-provided-education-and-escape/article_e515ec5c-8e53-5ad1-a1c5-8728c6884d01.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.991504 | 737 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.05030059441... | 2 | One of the great ironies of the allotment system was the fact that some of the worst-looking land contained the greatest wealth.
Underneath scrubby hills lay deep pools of crude oil, and tribal members who took those allotments often became fabulously rich. One such individual was a Creek citizen named Enos Wilson.
Born near Okmulgee, Wilson was orphaned at a young age but was adopted by an Okmulgee man named Ed Hart. This man was successful in business and served on the board of directors of the Citizens National Bank.
Unlike many appointed guardians of Indian children, Hart seems to have been a good father to the young Enos. By the time Wilson was in his early teens, he was growing quite wealthy because oil had been found on his allotment. Hart engaged a law firm in Okmulgee to help protect the boy and his fortune from the graft, corruption and theft that was being foisted on many tribal allottees.
The two lawyers were Edgar Noble and Edward Moore, both originally from Missouri. Moore would later serve as a senator for Oklahoma during the 1930s. Hart and the two lawyers agreed that one of the best things for Enos would be a chance to pursue an education outside the state and away from the very real dangers wealthy Indians were facing — kidnapping, extortion and outright murder were not uncommon in the heady days of the oil boom.
In 1915, as the new school year was approaching, Hart received a letter of recommendation from A.S. Wyly, superintendent of Indian Schools in Oklahoma. He had given his approval for Enos Wilson to be enrolled in the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania.
Normally students had to be 14 to enter Carlisle, but Enos was only 13. So Wyly suggested that the administrators at Carlisle find a nearby academy that would take Enos for a year and then graduate him into the Indian school. Wilson had more than adequate funds to pay his living expenses if Carlisle would agree to see to his care during the intervening year.
Mr. Noble accompanied Wilson to Carlisle and presented the letter from Superintendent Wyly. The director of the school was agreeable to the plan provided that the commissioner of Indian Affairs in Washington would approve it. Noble and Wilson waited at Carlisle while approval was sought and in the meantime the Carlisle officials searched for a primary school that could receive Wilson for his eighth grade school year.
The nearby Mercersburg Academy, a boys’ school, agreed to provide the needed year of schooling so Enos could then attend Carlisle. This was surely a challenging time for young Enos who spoke very little English when he was enrolled.
But he completed his year at Mercersburg and then went on to further his education at Carlisle. This enabled him to reach his age of majority before returning to Oklahoma.
The experience was no doubt difficult in some ways, but it served the purpose of removing him from the dangers faced by many wealthy Indians who were deemed “incompetent” to handle their own affairs.
By all accounts Wilson returned to Okmulgee to live a quiet life. His oil wealth increased to the point that he was dubbed “the world’s richest Indian.” He built a fine mansion called “Peak Castle” about 15 miles outside Okmulgee and proved to be a good and generous neighbor to others.
At the time of his death in 1937, Wilson was mourned by all who knew him.
Reach Jonita Mullins at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 715 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On a crisp, cloudy day in spring, there are still patches of snow on the grounds. Sixty kilometers from Prague in today’s Czech Republic, this is the Terezín Memorial.
It’s just an hour by comfortable bus to reach this place, known during in World War II as Theresienstadt. From 1940 to 1945 it was a Nazi transportation camp.
The Small Fortress that is the center of the site was constructed in the 18th century under Emperor Josef II. Named after his mother, Maria Theresa, it was designed to protect access roads leading to Bohemia. Before the fortress became a police prison of the Gestapo, it served as a military jail for political opponents to the Hapsburg monarchy.
The administrative offices
Their goal was complete Germanization of Czech lands and people.
Between 1940 and 1945 more than 1,500 Jews were imprisoned in the Small Fortress. Because Terezín was a transition camp, most prisoners were not kept for long.
About 500 Jewish prisoners were tortured to death here. Most of the men perished after deportation to concentration camps Buchenwald, Auschwitz, Flossbürg, and Mauthausen (women went to Ravensbrück).
Non-Jewish prisoners were sent to courts of justice, prisons or executed. Between 250 and 300 death sentences pronounced by the Nazi courts of justice were carried out between the ramparts in the former military shooting range.
Our Terezín guide is a woman of middle age dressed in a well-tailored, grey wool coat with fur trim, gloves and a fur hat. Her face is expressionless as she talks about how 27,000 men and 5,000 women, mostly Czech political prisoners, were handed over to the Terezín prison by Gestapo officials.
“The reason given was ‘resistance against Nazism’,” she says, her voice sober. “Foreign prisoners included several hundred Soviet and British prisoners-of-war.”
The administration courtyard
Designed to humiliate newcomers, this “reception” often lasted several hours.
After documents, valuables and clothes were handed over, the prisoner received a mess-tin, spoon, and blanket. Both men and women were allowed to keep the personal underwear they wore, but otherwise were given prison garb. Food consisted of a small daily ration of bread, two dippers of weak coffee and a main meal of a watery vegetable soup.
Everyone past the age of 13 had to work. Labor assignments generally included construction work or agriculture. Labor gangs worked on nearby roads and in a nearby Limestone mine. Women worked in the fields and cared for cattle, made or mended clothing, and even painted wooden buttons.
The nearby village of Terezín was established as a model camp that could be shown to foreigners. The Nazi plan for the Terezín Ghetto was to provide an image of a “self-governed Jewish settlement area” to hide the reality of the “Final Solution of the Jewish Question.”
For a scheduled visit to the Ghetto and Small Fortress by international Red Cross representatives, a model “prisoner washroom” was built, but it was never used by prisoners themselves.
Our guide explains that much of the commerce of the Ghetto was designed “to provide an upper-class lifestyle for the administrators and their families.”
In the beginning out-going mail from the Small Fortress, though heavily censored, was allowed. Incoming packets from friends and relatives, including small amounts of money, were also allowed, but often stolen by guards. Still, illegal messages were passed on by people living in the vicinity of Terezín.
According to our guide, conditions for Jews in the Small Fortress were the worst of all; they were brutally maltreated and murdered by their warders.
“The cells became severely overcrowded―as many as 600 prisoners in a room with three-story wooden sleeping bunks designed for 100. They were lice-infested, and the one toilet was inadequate. Sometimes there was as much as four inches of liquid backed-up on the floor of the cell.”
Heavy labor and living in overcrowded cells with insufficient food and hygiene resulted in deteriorating health. Cells were insufficiently heated and rations of coal grew smaller each year.
It’s a sobering thought to imagine being poorly dressed in one of these crowded rooms in the Czech winter with no heat. With no sick-bay, the ill remained in their cells and infectious diseases like tuberculosis quickly spread. The dead were cremated in a crematorium constructed for the purpose.
By the time Soviet troops arrived at Terezín in 1945, the prison was experiencing a rampant typhus epidemic; it ultimately claimed the lives of several dozen Jewish, Czech, and Soviet doctors and nurses.
A National Funeral exhumed victims from the prison and remains of victims were re-buried in the National Cemetery, established in 1945, in front of the Small Fortress.
In November 1944 prisoners had been ordered by the SS to throw into the river the ashes of 22,000 victims cremated in the Ghetto Crematorium. Nearby, on the bank of the Ohře River, there is another memorial.
The Terezín Ghetto Museum houses a permanent exhibition, a movie theater, a study room, and a revolving exhibit space. There is a permanent Art Exhibition of drawings and poems created by the children who were incarcerated there. Of 15,000 children who passed through Terezín, only 100 survived.
“We have many people who come to visit Terezín,” says our guide. “They want to see where their relatives were kept … they have family who were here.”
—Photos and story by Carolyn V. Hamilton
Editor & Chief Adventuress
For a limited time, receive a FREE download of our Special Guide, How to Travel Safe as a Woman Abroad & Have Fun, Too! when you subscribe to Living the Adventuress Life.
CLICK HERE to get yours now!
© 2009-2020 SWIFT HOUSE PRESS & adventuress-travel-magazine.com - All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:08398a76-b19e-4fa0-a840-4951c8b7e208> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.adventuress-travel-magazine.com/Pilgrimage_to_Terezin.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.98073 | 1,296 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.45251208543... | 1 | On a crisp, cloudy day in spring, there are still patches of snow on the grounds. Sixty kilometers from Prague in today’s Czech Republic, this is the Terezín Memorial.
It’s just an hour by comfortable bus to reach this place, known during in World War II as Theresienstadt. From 1940 to 1945 it was a Nazi transportation camp.
The Small Fortress that is the center of the site was constructed in the 18th century under Emperor Josef II. Named after his mother, Maria Theresa, it was designed to protect access roads leading to Bohemia. Before the fortress became a police prison of the Gestapo, it served as a military jail for political opponents to the Hapsburg monarchy.
The administrative offices
Their goal was complete Germanization of Czech lands and people.
Between 1940 and 1945 more than 1,500 Jews were imprisoned in the Small Fortress. Because Terezín was a transition camp, most prisoners were not kept for long.
About 500 Jewish prisoners were tortured to death here. Most of the men perished after deportation to concentration camps Buchenwald, Auschwitz, Flossbürg, and Mauthausen (women went to Ravensbrück).
Non-Jewish prisoners were sent to courts of justice, prisons or executed. Between 250 and 300 death sentences pronounced by the Nazi courts of justice were carried out between the ramparts in the former military shooting range.
Our Terezín guide is a woman of middle age dressed in a well-tailored, grey wool coat with fur trim, gloves and a fur hat. Her face is expressionless as she talks about how 27,000 men and 5,000 women, mostly Czech political prisoners, were handed over to the Terezín prison by Gestapo officials.
“The reason given was ‘resistance against Nazism’,” she says, her voice sober. “Foreign prisoners included several hundred Soviet and British prisoners-of-war.”
The administration courtyard
Designed to humiliate newcomers, this “reception” often lasted several hours.
After documents, valuables and clothes were handed over, the prisoner received a mess-tin, spoon, and blanket. Both men and women were allowed to keep the personal underwear they wore, but otherwise were given prison garb. Food consisted of a small daily ration of bread, two dippers of weak coffee and a main meal of a watery vegetable soup.
Everyone past the age of 13 had to work. Labor assignments generally included construction work or agriculture. Labor gangs worked on nearby roads and in a nearby Limestone mine. Women worked in the fields and cared for cattle, made or mended clothing, and even painted wooden buttons.
The nearby village of Terezín was established as a model camp that could be shown to foreigners. The Nazi plan for the Terezín Ghetto was to provide an image of a “self-governed Jewish settlement area” to hide the reality of the “Final Solution of the Jewish Question.”
For a scheduled visit to the Ghetto and Small Fortress by international Red Cross representatives, a model “prisoner washroom” was built, but it was never used by prisoners themselves.
Our guide explains that much of the commerce of the Ghetto was designed “to provide an upper-class lifestyle for the administrators and their families.”
In the beginning out-going mail from the Small Fortress, though heavily censored, was allowed. Incoming packets from friends and relatives, including small amounts of money, were also allowed, but often stolen by guards. Still, illegal messages were passed on by people living in the vicinity of Terezín.
According to our guide, conditions for Jews in the Small Fortress were the worst of all; they were brutally maltreated and murdered by their warders.
“The cells became severely overcrowded―as many as 600 prisoners in a room with three-story wooden sleeping bunks designed for 100. They were lice-infested, and the one toilet was inadequate. Sometimes there was as much as four inches of liquid backed-up on the floor of the cell.”
Heavy labor and living in overcrowded cells with insufficient food and hygiene resulted in deteriorating health. Cells were insufficiently heated and rations of coal grew smaller each year.
It’s a sobering thought to imagine being poorly dressed in one of these crowded rooms in the Czech winter with no heat. With no sick-bay, the ill remained in their cells and infectious diseases like tuberculosis quickly spread. The dead were cremated in a crematorium constructed for the purpose.
By the time Soviet troops arrived at Terezín in 1945, the prison was experiencing a rampant typhus epidemic; it ultimately claimed the lives of several dozen Jewish, Czech, and Soviet doctors and nurses.
A National Funeral exhumed victims from the prison and remains of victims were re-buried in the National Cemetery, established in 1945, in front of the Small Fortress.
In November 1944 prisoners had been ordered by the SS to throw into the river the ashes of 22,000 victims cremated in the Ghetto Crematorium. Nearby, on the bank of the Ohře River, there is another memorial.
The Terezín Ghetto Museum houses a permanent exhibition, a movie theater, a study room, and a revolving exhibit space. There is a permanent Art Exhibition of drawings and poems created by the children who were incarcerated there. Of 15,000 children who passed through Terezín, only 100 survived.
“We have many people who come to visit Terezín,” says our guide. “They want to see where their relatives were kept … they have family who were here.”
—Photos and story by Carolyn V. Hamilton
Editor & Chief Adventuress
For a limited time, receive a FREE download of our Special Guide, How to Travel Safe as a Woman Abroad & Have Fun, Too! when you subscribe to Living the Adventuress Life.
CLICK HERE to get yours now!
© 2009-2020 SWIFT HOUSE PRESS & adventuress-travel-magazine.com - All Rights Reserved | 1,281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
?In the second half of the nineteenth century, there was a second Industrial Revolution in Western Europe that brought new industries, sources of energy, and goods. This changed the entire human environment and Europeans believed that this material progress was a sign of human progress; they thought that the new scientific and technological accomplishments would improve humanity and solve all of their human problems.
Western Europeans’ views began to change; there were new concepts and ideas that altered their society and they gained a new image of themselves, their country, and the world. Gender roles were shaped by the Domesticity and Private Spheres Ideology which said that women should devote themselves to their homes, their husbands, and their children while men were to go out and get jobs, take part in politics, and other aspects of the outside world. It was said that men and women had different functions to perform under God.
Society’s peace depended on these roles and if women began taking part in men’s activities there would be crisis. Young girls were to be under the supervision of their fathers, or brothers in some cases, until they were married and then they belonged to their husbands. Married women were considered legal incompetents because they did not have a sufficient brain to participate in legal affairs. For a while people did not have a problem with this arrangement because it portrayed women as noble and superior.
Around the 1850s church attendance became very low and many more women than men begin attending services. Women took over the church in a sense because while men had world affairs and politics, women did not have such commitments and so they adopted the church to have a place of their own in society. After the Second Industrial Revolution there were new job openings for women and they began to stray from their traditional roles. John Stuart Mill, a British philosopher, brought about the idea of feminism.
Mill argued that society could be improved with mass education; he believed that women had an essential role in society and if they were not able to access their creative potential, society would be at a stand-still. In 1869 Mill wrote a book called “The Subjection of Women” in which he criticizes the middle-class family for the discrimination of women; he says that the family was where girls were taught that all they could ever aspire to was being pawns in a man’s game of chess. He wrote: “from the dawn of human society every woman
was in a state of bondage to some man, because she was of value to him and she had less muscular strength than he did” (Mill 3). Mill’s book became popular very quickly and many people agreed with his point-of-view. Around 1870 men were no longer able to support their families with their income alone and many lower-middle class women slowly began taking jobs in white-collar positions, but they were paid less than men of the same job status because of the notion that the man was supposed to bring home the majority of the income and women were simply helping them by bringing in extra money.
By the mid-nineteenth century science had a greater impact than ever on European life. Although the advances of the Industrial Revolution relied very little on pure science, it triggered an interest in scientific research which led to many new scientific discoveries. Charles Darwin was a scientific amateur like many other great scientists of that time. Darwin’s studies led him to the ideas of natural selection and organic evolution, which he wrote about in his book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”, and he later began applying these concepts to humans.
In 1871 he published “The Decent of Man” which suggested that humans evolved from a hairy animal related to gorillas and chimpanzees. He wrote: “We must, however, acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin” (Darwin).
Many religious people who believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible were highly offended by this idea as they thought Darwin was suggesting that the current humans were not the final product. They believed that God had created them perfectly and that Darwin was contradicting God’s work, but they were most offended by Darwin’s idea that evolution was a series of random mutations because it suggested that it was not planned by God. Darwin himself was a believer in God, but he did not follow the literal interpretation of the Bible and did not allow his faith to come in the way of his scientific advances.
Gradually, Darwin’s ideas became more accepted by scientists and intellectuals and some people began applying them to society, thus showing science’s ever-growing influence. This new scientific growth caused more problems for the Christian churches however; they saw Darwin’s theory as a threat and they moved to ban his writings and prevent evolution from being taught. Educated people were turned off by this move and it caused more people to reject the established religions they had once believed in.
Biblical scholars began applying scientific principles to the Bible causing even more controversy. The second wave of industrialization also had a critical effect on churches; as people began moving away from the countryside and into the city for work, their lives no longer revolved around the church and they began neglecting their faith. A new religious movement known as Modernism emerged in attempt to connect the Christian ideals to the new scientific and industrial developments.
Modernists thought of the Bible as a book of moral ideas rather than something to live by in a literal sense, and they thought Christians should be encouraged to take part in the new social reforms and that churches should be providing a sense of community rather than condemning people for straying from their strict beliefs. Despite the fact that there was a higher standard of living toward the end of the nineteenth century, there was still a large difference in wealth.
Although the middle-class was growing, most Europeans were still in the lower-class. A new group emerged from the upper-class as the result of big businesses; the plutocrats were aristocrats whose income had declined and they began investing in railway shares, public utilities, government bonds, and businesses. The middle-class held a variety of different groups; under the upper middle-class were professionals such as lawyers, doctors, civil servants, and some industrialists and merchants.
The new industries of the nineteenth century added a few new groups such as engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. In the lower middle-class were the shop-keepers, traders, manufacturers, and peasants who provided goods and services for the above classes. Between the lower middle-class and the lower-class there were new groups of white-collar workers as the result of the Second Industrial Revolution, they were traveling sales representatives, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, department store workers, and secretaries.
These workers often did not own property and were not paid much more than skilled laborers, but they committed to the ideals of the middle-class and were ambitious and optimistic about raising their status. The middle-classes dominated the nineteenth century with their shared lifestyle and values. They were active in spreading their views to their children as well as to the other classes. They were regular church goers, believed in hard work, and were concerned with the conventional behaviors and morals.
The family was the most important when it comes to middle-class life; men were to provide their families income and women were to focus on the taking care of the children and the home. Many middle-class families hired low-wage servants giving the women more time to spend on other activities, and the sudden reduction in the number of children each family had allowed them to spend more time with each of their children. The sons were to go to school and learn to follow careers like their fathers, and sports were integrated into schools to teach the boys to be tough and manly.
Young girls did not share the same benefits as their brothers at this time however; they were expected to learn from their mothers how to run the home. Most Europeans at this time belonged to the lower classes, but many landowning peasants held the same values as those from the middle-class. The urban working class included groups such as skilled artisans in trades like cabinetmaking, printing, and jewelry making as well as semiskilled workers including brick-layers, carpenters, and factory workers; these semiskilled workers earned about two-thirds of what the highly skilled workers earned.
At the bottom of the lower-class was the largest group of workers, the unskilled laborers which included day laborers who made very low wages. Girls in the working-class had very different standards from those in the middle-class, they were expected to work until they were married and even then they often did work at home to help support their families. Children began working around the age of nine and they worked odd jobs for most of their young lives. It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that new higher-paying jobs allowed women and young children to cut back on their workloads.
Working-class families began limiting the amount of children they had as well and children were slowly shifted out of the workplace and into schools. At this time there was a great sense of nationalism brewing in people all over Europe and many people thought this was the main force in history dominating their lives. One problem for Europeans was establishing borders and creating their own countries because each nationality wanted their people to come together into a single state and get rid of foreigners.
Nationalists, in order to spread their sense of nationalism, had to go through three stages; the first stage utilized writers and poets to inspire the people and awaken them to their own ethnicity, next intellectuals took power to make the necessary political changes, and lastly everyone was to work together to get their country to progress on an economical level. The nationalists’ final goal was to create a nation that was territorially coherent, known as the nation-state. They wanted political independence and they saw the future of Europe as a group of peaceful nation-states.
This great sense of nationalism caused many urban revolutions in similar nations involving urban-dwellers, students, middle-class, journalists, and writers alike; it initiated in Italy but began to take shape more in France. It was almost unusual for a nationalist movement to occur in France because they already had stable borders and less dialect differences. In the late nineteenth century, many industrial workers wanted improved working and living conditions so they formed labor unions and political parties based on Karl Marx’s ideas.
Marx was one of the most influential socialists and he redefined socialism with his ideas; he was against the division of labor as he thought it exploited the workers, they were paid less to work more because their employers did not see them as human beings but as an extension of the machines they worked on. People were often trained and expected to perform one working task for their entire lives as it would make production quicker and more efficient, but Marx argued that this was a waste of people’s creative powers and it could cause damage to their mentality.
He believed that Capitalism was inevitable and therefore it was neither good nor bad, but it created more goods than society could consume; therefore Marx predicted that the system would collapse and the workers would eventually take over. These ideas were most popular among European socialists, and in 1889 socialist leaders came together to form the Second International, an organized association of national groups. They made
many organized moves to create better conditions for workplaces, and these movements became easier and more successful after labor unions won the right to strike in the 1870s. The movement for women’s suffrage helped get women more involved in the political scene and politics began shifting from the hands of the men into the hands of everyone, men and women alike. All of these new changes in industry, science, and perspective made for a very smooth transition from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century.
These historical changes have important ties to today’s society and many of the concepts and discoveries from this time are still present today. Works Cited Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex: In Two Volumes. London: Murray, 1871. Print. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty ; The Subjection of Women. New York: Holt, 1879. Print. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. 8th ed. Vol. 2. Boston: Wadsworth, 2012. Print. Since 1500. | <urn:uuid:30c3e536-1f9f-4f75-93cf-6d75b0163787> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lawaspect.com/life-western-europe-nineteenth-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.989568 | 2,624 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.0521200... | 5 | ?In the second half of the nineteenth century, there was a second Industrial Revolution in Western Europe that brought new industries, sources of energy, and goods. This changed the entire human environment and Europeans believed that this material progress was a sign of human progress; they thought that the new scientific and technological accomplishments would improve humanity and solve all of their human problems.
Western Europeans’ views began to change; there were new concepts and ideas that altered their society and they gained a new image of themselves, their country, and the world. Gender roles were shaped by the Domesticity and Private Spheres Ideology which said that women should devote themselves to their homes, their husbands, and their children while men were to go out and get jobs, take part in politics, and other aspects of the outside world. It was said that men and women had different functions to perform under God.
Society’s peace depended on these roles and if women began taking part in men’s activities there would be crisis. Young girls were to be under the supervision of their fathers, or brothers in some cases, until they were married and then they belonged to their husbands. Married women were considered legal incompetents because they did not have a sufficient brain to participate in legal affairs. For a while people did not have a problem with this arrangement because it portrayed women as noble and superior.
Around the 1850s church attendance became very low and many more women than men begin attending services. Women took over the church in a sense because while men had world affairs and politics, women did not have such commitments and so they adopted the church to have a place of their own in society. After the Second Industrial Revolution there were new job openings for women and they began to stray from their traditional roles. John Stuart Mill, a British philosopher, brought about the idea of feminism.
Mill argued that society could be improved with mass education; he believed that women had an essential role in society and if they were not able to access their creative potential, society would be at a stand-still. In 1869 Mill wrote a book called “The Subjection of Women” in which he criticizes the middle-class family for the discrimination of women; he says that the family was where girls were taught that all they could ever aspire to was being pawns in a man’s game of chess. He wrote: “from the dawn of human society every woman
was in a state of bondage to some man, because she was of value to him and she had less muscular strength than he did” (Mill 3). Mill’s book became popular very quickly and many people agreed with his point-of-view. Around 1870 men were no longer able to support their families with their income alone and many lower-middle class women slowly began taking jobs in white-collar positions, but they were paid less than men of the same job status because of the notion that the man was supposed to bring home the majority of the income and women were simply helping them by bringing in extra money.
By the mid-nineteenth century science had a greater impact than ever on European life. Although the advances of the Industrial Revolution relied very little on pure science, it triggered an interest in scientific research which led to many new scientific discoveries. Charles Darwin was a scientific amateur like many other great scientists of that time. Darwin’s studies led him to the ideas of natural selection and organic evolution, which he wrote about in his book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”, and he later began applying these concepts to humans.
In 1871 he published “The Decent of Man” which suggested that humans evolved from a hairy animal related to gorillas and chimpanzees. He wrote: “We must, however, acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin” (Darwin).
Many religious people who believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible were highly offended by this idea as they thought Darwin was suggesting that the current humans were not the final product. They believed that God had created them perfectly and that Darwin was contradicting God’s work, but they were most offended by Darwin’s idea that evolution was a series of random mutations because it suggested that it was not planned by God. Darwin himself was a believer in God, but he did not follow the literal interpretation of the Bible and did not allow his faith to come in the way of his scientific advances.
Gradually, Darwin’s ideas became more accepted by scientists and intellectuals and some people began applying them to society, thus showing science’s ever-growing influence. This new scientific growth caused more problems for the Christian churches however; they saw Darwin’s theory as a threat and they moved to ban his writings and prevent evolution from being taught. Educated people were turned off by this move and it caused more people to reject the established religions they had once believed in.
Biblical scholars began applying scientific principles to the Bible causing even more controversy. The second wave of industrialization also had a critical effect on churches; as people began moving away from the countryside and into the city for work, their lives no longer revolved around the church and they began neglecting their faith. A new religious movement known as Modernism emerged in attempt to connect the Christian ideals to the new scientific and industrial developments.
Modernists thought of the Bible as a book of moral ideas rather than something to live by in a literal sense, and they thought Christians should be encouraged to take part in the new social reforms and that churches should be providing a sense of community rather than condemning people for straying from their strict beliefs. Despite the fact that there was a higher standard of living toward the end of the nineteenth century, there was still a large difference in wealth.
Although the middle-class was growing, most Europeans were still in the lower-class. A new group emerged from the upper-class as the result of big businesses; the plutocrats were aristocrats whose income had declined and they began investing in railway shares, public utilities, government bonds, and businesses. The middle-class held a variety of different groups; under the upper middle-class were professionals such as lawyers, doctors, civil servants, and some industrialists and merchants.
The new industries of the nineteenth century added a few new groups such as engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. In the lower middle-class were the shop-keepers, traders, manufacturers, and peasants who provided goods and services for the above classes. Between the lower middle-class and the lower-class there were new groups of white-collar workers as the result of the Second Industrial Revolution, they were traveling sales representatives, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, department store workers, and secretaries.
These workers often did not own property and were not paid much more than skilled laborers, but they committed to the ideals of the middle-class and were ambitious and optimistic about raising their status. The middle-classes dominated the nineteenth century with their shared lifestyle and values. They were active in spreading their views to their children as well as to the other classes. They were regular church goers, believed in hard work, and were concerned with the conventional behaviors and morals.
The family was the most important when it comes to middle-class life; men were to provide their families income and women were to focus on the taking care of the children and the home. Many middle-class families hired low-wage servants giving the women more time to spend on other activities, and the sudden reduction in the number of children each family had allowed them to spend more time with each of their children. The sons were to go to school and learn to follow careers like their fathers, and sports were integrated into schools to teach the boys to be tough and manly.
Young girls did not share the same benefits as their brothers at this time however; they were expected to learn from their mothers how to run the home. Most Europeans at this time belonged to the lower classes, but many landowning peasants held the same values as those from the middle-class. The urban working class included groups such as skilled artisans in trades like cabinetmaking, printing, and jewelry making as well as semiskilled workers including brick-layers, carpenters, and factory workers; these semiskilled workers earned about two-thirds of what the highly skilled workers earned.
At the bottom of the lower-class was the largest group of workers, the unskilled laborers which included day laborers who made very low wages. Girls in the working-class had very different standards from those in the middle-class, they were expected to work until they were married and even then they often did work at home to help support their families. Children began working around the age of nine and they worked odd jobs for most of their young lives. It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that new higher-paying jobs allowed women and young children to cut back on their workloads.
Working-class families began limiting the amount of children they had as well and children were slowly shifted out of the workplace and into schools. At this time there was a great sense of nationalism brewing in people all over Europe and many people thought this was the main force in history dominating their lives. One problem for Europeans was establishing borders and creating their own countries because each nationality wanted their people to come together into a single state and get rid of foreigners.
Nationalists, in order to spread their sense of nationalism, had to go through three stages; the first stage utilized writers and poets to inspire the people and awaken them to their own ethnicity, next intellectuals took power to make the necessary political changes, and lastly everyone was to work together to get their country to progress on an economical level. The nationalists’ final goal was to create a nation that was territorially coherent, known as the nation-state. They wanted political independence and they saw the future of Europe as a group of peaceful nation-states.
This great sense of nationalism caused many urban revolutions in similar nations involving urban-dwellers, students, middle-class, journalists, and writers alike; it initiated in Italy but began to take shape more in France. It was almost unusual for a nationalist movement to occur in France because they already had stable borders and less dialect differences. In the late nineteenth century, many industrial workers wanted improved working and living conditions so they formed labor unions and political parties based on Karl Marx’s ideas.
Marx was one of the most influential socialists and he redefined socialism with his ideas; he was against the division of labor as he thought it exploited the workers, they were paid less to work more because their employers did not see them as human beings but as an extension of the machines they worked on. People were often trained and expected to perform one working task for their entire lives as it would make production quicker and more efficient, but Marx argued that this was a waste of people’s creative powers and it could cause damage to their mentality.
He believed that Capitalism was inevitable and therefore it was neither good nor bad, but it created more goods than society could consume; therefore Marx predicted that the system would collapse and the workers would eventually take over. These ideas were most popular among European socialists, and in 1889 socialist leaders came together to form the Second International, an organized association of national groups. They made
many organized moves to create better conditions for workplaces, and these movements became easier and more successful after labor unions won the right to strike in the 1870s. The movement for women’s suffrage helped get women more involved in the political scene and politics began shifting from the hands of the men into the hands of everyone, men and women alike. All of these new changes in industry, science, and perspective made for a very smooth transition from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century.
These historical changes have important ties to today’s society and many of the concepts and discoveries from this time are still present today. Works Cited Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex: In Two Volumes. London: Murray, 1871. Print. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty ; The Subjection of Women. New York: Holt, 1879. Print. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. 8th ed. Vol. 2. Boston: Wadsworth, 2012. Print. Since 1500. | 2,578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The earliest archaeological evidence of a Jewish presence in Yemen dates to 110BCE, however numerous legends date the community as far back as 900BCE. Throughout antiquity there were a large number of Jews living as equals amongst Christian and Pagan members of society. There is some evidence to suggest a Jewish Kingdom in Yemen in pre-Islamic late antiquity.
With the Islamic conquest of Yemen in 630CE came the introduction of higher taxes in exchange for the freedom to practice Judaism. Active persecution of Jews did not begin until the 10th century when the legal and social standing of Jews was significantly lowered. In the 12th century the Jews of Aden were briefly forced to convert to Islam. However, after this and until the Ottoman conquest of Yemen in 1517, Jews were allowed to enjoy a period of social and economic prosperity. The early Ottoman period was characterised by repression and violent suppression of politically motivated messianic figures. The Empire did, however, connect the Jewish community in Yemen to other Jews around the Middle East for the first time in centuries.
Ottoman rule in Yemen ended in 1630 when the Shi’a Zaydi Dynasty took over. In 1679 Jews were expelled to distant provinces, and as many as two-thirds of the exiled community died of exposure, disease and starvation. A year later, the Jews were allowed to return to designated Jewish quarters, as the economy began to suffer without the high taxes they were forced to pay. Towards the end of the 17th century the community had begun to recover. Jews and Muslims developed a co-dependent economy whereby Jewish manufacturers supplied Muslim landowners and farmers. During the 18th century Yemenite Jews were no longer classified as second-class citizens and they enjoyed a resurgence of communal and religious life.
In 1872 the Ottoman Empire regained control and the social status of Yemen’s 8,000 Jews was once more lowered. However, the Empire also meant that Jews were able to travel more freely, and many took the opportunity to move to the then British Mandate of Palestine. Between 1882 and 1914 10% of Yemenite Jews moved to what is now Israel. Yemen gained independence in 1914 and in 1922 an ancient Islamic law was introduced that declared all Jewish orphans under the age of 12 be forcibly converted to Islam.
In 1947, after the declaration of the State of Israel, Muslim rioters and the local police force began a pogrom in Aden. Eighty-two Jews were killed, hundreds of homes were destroyed and the community was left economically paralysed as all Jewish businesses were looted and destroyed. In 1948 a false rumour that Jews had murdered two Muslim girls led to further looting and riots. This dangerous situation led to what has become known as ‘Operation Magic Carpet’. From the summer of 1949 to the Autumn of 1950 over 50,000 Jews were airlifted from all over Yemen, via British camps just outside of Aden, to Israel. The operation was not without controversy and the living conditions of the Yemenite Jews in Israel was poor. A continuous migration from Yemen to Israel was permitted until 1962 when civil war in the country broke out. Despite this, illegal immigration of a further four hundred Yemenite Jews to Israel continued until 1976.
In 2009 a further 110 Jews were evacuated to Israel with the permission of the Yemenite government. The country’s remaining Jews were resettled in Sana’a and in 2015 they were given the ultimatum to convert to Islam or leave. In 2016 a covert operation helped all but 50 of Yemen’s Jews to leave the country. Those left behind chose to remain.
The customs and traditions of Yemenite Jews are unique as the community historically had very little contact with other Jewish communities around the world. It is estimated that no more than 40 Jews currently live in Yemen. They are all based around Sana’a, their situation in the ongoing war is unknown. | <urn:uuid:e326b254-db02-44f3-b9c8-e53a2c7dce1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sephardivoices.org.uk/Countries/Yemen | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.983415 | 790 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
-0.24940168857574463,
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0.37415093183... | 4 | The earliest archaeological evidence of a Jewish presence in Yemen dates to 110BCE, however numerous legends date the community as far back as 900BCE. Throughout antiquity there were a large number of Jews living as equals amongst Christian and Pagan members of society. There is some evidence to suggest a Jewish Kingdom in Yemen in pre-Islamic late antiquity.
With the Islamic conquest of Yemen in 630CE came the introduction of higher taxes in exchange for the freedom to practice Judaism. Active persecution of Jews did not begin until the 10th century when the legal and social standing of Jews was significantly lowered. In the 12th century the Jews of Aden were briefly forced to convert to Islam. However, after this and until the Ottoman conquest of Yemen in 1517, Jews were allowed to enjoy a period of social and economic prosperity. The early Ottoman period was characterised by repression and violent suppression of politically motivated messianic figures. The Empire did, however, connect the Jewish community in Yemen to other Jews around the Middle East for the first time in centuries.
Ottoman rule in Yemen ended in 1630 when the Shi’a Zaydi Dynasty took over. In 1679 Jews were expelled to distant provinces, and as many as two-thirds of the exiled community died of exposure, disease and starvation. A year later, the Jews were allowed to return to designated Jewish quarters, as the economy began to suffer without the high taxes they were forced to pay. Towards the end of the 17th century the community had begun to recover. Jews and Muslims developed a co-dependent economy whereby Jewish manufacturers supplied Muslim landowners and farmers. During the 18th century Yemenite Jews were no longer classified as second-class citizens and they enjoyed a resurgence of communal and religious life.
In 1872 the Ottoman Empire regained control and the social status of Yemen’s 8,000 Jews was once more lowered. However, the Empire also meant that Jews were able to travel more freely, and many took the opportunity to move to the then British Mandate of Palestine. Between 1882 and 1914 10% of Yemenite Jews moved to what is now Israel. Yemen gained independence in 1914 and in 1922 an ancient Islamic law was introduced that declared all Jewish orphans under the age of 12 be forcibly converted to Islam.
In 1947, after the declaration of the State of Israel, Muslim rioters and the local police force began a pogrom in Aden. Eighty-two Jews were killed, hundreds of homes were destroyed and the community was left economically paralysed as all Jewish businesses were looted and destroyed. In 1948 a false rumour that Jews had murdered two Muslim girls led to further looting and riots. This dangerous situation led to what has become known as ‘Operation Magic Carpet’. From the summer of 1949 to the Autumn of 1950 over 50,000 Jews were airlifted from all over Yemen, via British camps just outside of Aden, to Israel. The operation was not without controversy and the living conditions of the Yemenite Jews in Israel was poor. A continuous migration from Yemen to Israel was permitted until 1962 when civil war in the country broke out. Despite this, illegal immigration of a further four hundred Yemenite Jews to Israel continued until 1976.
In 2009 a further 110 Jews were evacuated to Israel with the permission of the Yemenite government. The country’s remaining Jews were resettled in Sana’a and in 2015 they were given the ultimatum to convert to Islam or leave. In 2016 a covert operation helped all but 50 of Yemen’s Jews to leave the country. Those left behind chose to remain.
The customs and traditions of Yemenite Jews are unique as the community historically had very little contact with other Jewish communities around the world. It is estimated that no more than 40 Jews currently live in Yemen. They are all based around Sana’a, their situation in the ongoing war is unknown. | 876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/Battle of Britain
The Battle of BritainEdit
The Battle of Britain was an air battle fought between Great Britain and Germany. It was fought mostly over the south of England although other areas of Britain were occasionally attacked. The main battle started in July 1940 and ended on 31 October 1940, although fighting went on for many more months.
Before the battleEdit
After France was defeated by Germany in 1940, Germany and her allies had beaten all their enemies in mainland Europe. The United Kingdom was the only enemy country left unbeaten. Many of the beaten nations in Europe like Poland and Norway formed governments outside their own country in England. They also had military units in England as well as resistance movements in their own countries. People from around the "free world" came to join the Royal Air Force and fight in the battle including Poles, New Zealanders, Canadians, Czechoslovakians, Belgians, Australians, South Africans, French and Irish people. There were also people from the United States of America, Jamaica, Palestine, Southern Rhodesia and Lithuania.
Plans to attack BritainEdit
With the battle for France over, Germany began to get ready to invade the island of Britain. Germany code-named the attack “Operation Sealion”. Most of the British Army's heavy weapons and supplies had been lost when it evacuated from Dunkirk, so the army was fairly weak. But the Royal Navy was still much stronger than the German Navy (“Kriegsmarine”) and could have destroyed any invasion fleet sent across the English Channel. However, very few Royal Navy ships were based near the likely invasion routes as the admirals were afraid they would be sunk by German air attack. The German Navy though refused to attack unless the RAF had been defeated. Herman Goering, the head of the German air force, told Hitler his men could defeat the RAF easily.
The mood in Britain was close to despair following the failure to defend France. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, made the first of his memorable speeches in which he tried to prepare the British for the battle he knew would soon start...
- "I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin... Upon it depends our own British life... Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this Island or lose the war... Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves, that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their finest hour."
The actual battleEdit
The Battle of Britain began with German air raids on radar stations and airfields in the south of England. The Germans tried to gain air superiority by destroying the RAF using their air force, the Luftwaffe, commanded by the Hermann Goering. Planes from both sides battled in the skies over land and sea.
A German plane accidentally dropped bombs on London, and Britain responded by bombing Berlin. Adolf Hitler was furious and ordered Germany to bomb English cities, mainly London, instead of airfields. The bombing of London was known as "The Blitz". Germany sustained heavy losses with their Dornier and Heinkel bombers being shot down by RAF Spitfire and Hurricane fighter planes. By stopping their attacks on air fields and attacking London instead the Germans handed the advantage to the RAF. London was too far away for German fighters to spend more than 10 minutes in battle meaning the RAF fighters could make their attacks against the more vulnerable bombers with much less risk of being shot down.
In June 1941, the Germans switched their attention to the east, attacking the Soviet Union, which included Russia, and Goering called off the entire operation to invade Britain. During the Blitz 43,000 British civilians were killed, and one million were injured.
During the height of the battle, when the hopes of people for victory were fading, Winston Churchill made another speech that has been remembered ever since:
- "The gratitude of every home in our Island... goes out to the British airmen who... are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."
Result of the battleEdit
The Battle of Britain was a British victory. The Germans had been defeated for the first time since the beginning of the war. The battle also changed the opinion of people in the United States of America, which was not officially involved in the war at the time. During the battle people in the USA had believed that Britain would be defeated. After the battle, they became convinced that Britain would survive and should be supported in every possible way. This led eventually to the USA joining the war against the Germans and their allies. | <urn:uuid:b9706545-9e4b-4dc9-82f7-6742b7df5d9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Battle_of_Britain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.987091 | 964 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.38106149435... | 4 | Wikijunior:World War II/Battle of Britain
The Battle of BritainEdit
The Battle of Britain was an air battle fought between Great Britain and Germany. It was fought mostly over the south of England although other areas of Britain were occasionally attacked. The main battle started in July 1940 and ended on 31 October 1940, although fighting went on for many more months.
Before the battleEdit
After France was defeated by Germany in 1940, Germany and her allies had beaten all their enemies in mainland Europe. The United Kingdom was the only enemy country left unbeaten. Many of the beaten nations in Europe like Poland and Norway formed governments outside their own country in England. They also had military units in England as well as resistance movements in their own countries. People from around the "free world" came to join the Royal Air Force and fight in the battle including Poles, New Zealanders, Canadians, Czechoslovakians, Belgians, Australians, South Africans, French and Irish people. There were also people from the United States of America, Jamaica, Palestine, Southern Rhodesia and Lithuania.
Plans to attack BritainEdit
With the battle for France over, Germany began to get ready to invade the island of Britain. Germany code-named the attack “Operation Sealion”. Most of the British Army's heavy weapons and supplies had been lost when it evacuated from Dunkirk, so the army was fairly weak. But the Royal Navy was still much stronger than the German Navy (“Kriegsmarine”) and could have destroyed any invasion fleet sent across the English Channel. However, very few Royal Navy ships were based near the likely invasion routes as the admirals were afraid they would be sunk by German air attack. The German Navy though refused to attack unless the RAF had been defeated. Herman Goering, the head of the German air force, told Hitler his men could defeat the RAF easily.
The mood in Britain was close to despair following the failure to defend France. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, made the first of his memorable speeches in which he tried to prepare the British for the battle he knew would soon start...
- "I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin... Upon it depends our own British life... Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this Island or lose the war... Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves, that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their finest hour."
The actual battleEdit
The Battle of Britain began with German air raids on radar stations and airfields in the south of England. The Germans tried to gain air superiority by destroying the RAF using their air force, the Luftwaffe, commanded by the Hermann Goering. Planes from both sides battled in the skies over land and sea.
A German plane accidentally dropped bombs on London, and Britain responded by bombing Berlin. Adolf Hitler was furious and ordered Germany to bomb English cities, mainly London, instead of airfields. The bombing of London was known as "The Blitz". Germany sustained heavy losses with their Dornier and Heinkel bombers being shot down by RAF Spitfire and Hurricane fighter planes. By stopping their attacks on air fields and attacking London instead the Germans handed the advantage to the RAF. London was too far away for German fighters to spend more than 10 minutes in battle meaning the RAF fighters could make their attacks against the more vulnerable bombers with much less risk of being shot down.
In June 1941, the Germans switched their attention to the east, attacking the Soviet Union, which included Russia, and Goering called off the entire operation to invade Britain. During the Blitz 43,000 British civilians were killed, and one million were injured.
During the height of the battle, when the hopes of people for victory were fading, Winston Churchill made another speech that has been remembered ever since:
- "The gratitude of every home in our Island... goes out to the British airmen who... are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."
Result of the battleEdit
The Battle of Britain was a British victory. The Germans had been defeated for the first time since the beginning of the war. The battle also changed the opinion of people in the United States of America, which was not officially involved in the war at the time. During the battle people in the USA had believed that Britain would be defeated. After the battle, they became convinced that Britain would survive and should be supported in every possible way. This led eventually to the USA joining the war against the Germans and their allies. | 972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
She teaches us valuable lessons of patience, forgiveness, and will power. As the story progresses we see Melba transform into this mature, tolerant young woman who overcomes the pain of many hardships.
Buy book onlineThrough trials and tribulations, these students attended the torturous Central High School just to prove that integration was a needed part of the American society. Malala Yousafzai lived in a situation where a woman 's education in Pakistan was scarce. This virtue ultimately allowed Melba to keep her composure under the wicked clench segregationists thrust upon her. At this junction, "Warriors Don't Dry" is a command for herself.
Therefore, we hold the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal how of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment Through her experiences at Central High, Beals actually begins to embody the melba persona which she has fought to make herself believe she is; without this, the circumstances cry would have overcome her.
Though little brave pupils decided to stay at school, despite all the sufferings and humiliations, and eight of the nine children finished the school year.
Through the journey into integration Melba acts as a dynamic juxtaposition, moving from a scared little girl to a fierce soldier, yet never truly satisfied with her position. It is about the author herself as a young girl named Melba, who grew up in a society of segregation.
Melba How Beals melba that in her warrior the Little Rock Nine had to persevere because they were trying to segregate an all white school in Little Rock, Arkansas.
Cry are capable of extraordinary bravery but we just need to act on it. Later, the essay of a federal court ordered to remove troops from the school. This conflict arises from her personal, family, and religious values, the impact of integration in Little Rock, and her experiences during her time at Central High. Of course, racism does not leave anyone indifferent, and the position of black people in the society concerns many readers.
Essay about Melba Patillo Beals' Warriors Don't Cry -- Melba Patillo B
With the Supreme Court overturning their decision, the same day of that decision, on her way home from school she was attacked and almost raped. Her good friend Link and bodyguard Danny would serve as her warriors. First, the use of characters in Warriors Don how Cry gives it melba and interest for the readers to read it She wanted people to know that there used to be cry young girl who came home from school with rotten essays in her hair, bruises, and blood stains on her uniform, each and everyday.
In the images of heroes, and especially of Melba Beals, we can see that each ordinary essay has strength to fight with cry great evil as racism and hatred, it is necessary just not to stay indifferent. Your time is important. It is through this embodiment that Beals discovers that she, the melba, will not settle for less, and that the idea of bravery made her how to take on the task of being the first black girl in an Related Documents Poetry Analysis Essay Cry Gonzales A How to Return Poetry Analysis Essay A Promise to Return "Is there anybody there?
These generous warriors made it possible for Melba to see all essay people as individuals rather than colors. At this junction, "Warriors Don't Dry" is a melba for herself.
This shows she is successful because she was able to open doors for all African Americans to have the same freedom and equality as the whites. This is when Melba perceives her importance to not only Little Rock, but for the entire African-American community across the United States. Her Grandmother fully realizes what attending Central means for the future of blacks in America. She now sees Melba as a soldier who needs to develop thick skin and endure pain to get through her time at this new high school. Why was God taking so long to take initiative and bring an end to the suffering of black lives. When would she finally be equal? So, the book tells about the process of desegregation that began after the court case Brown v. Board of Education. In , black residents of Kansas, Oliver Brown sued the city school board on behalf of his daughter and claimed that she should attend school for whites, because it was closer to his home. And they broke. This is the most important piece of historical information provided by Warriors because it is told from a first person point of view, and it reveals how difficult it was for blacks and whites to accept integration and how far they were willing to go to put an end to it. As Beals' journey begins so do the warrior …show more content… She was not raised to fear white people, and this forms the crux of why she was not only a student, but also a warrior who was brave enough to handle the bigotry that she did. In the stories and books they wrote, all their characters experienced a life changing turning point. Melba persevered by going to school in when she immigrated and entered the school system. So what does it take to make it a good one or a bad one. Melba was one of nine black students who was involved in one of the most important civil rights movements in American history. Therefore, we hold the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment Mobs of white people were against it and would harass them and even try to kill them. Three elements used in this memoir are first point of view, character and plot. Furthermore, Warriors Don 't Cry has the theme of courage.
With the support of her Grandma India, possibly one of her greatest influences and mentors, she learns the value of having patience. Melba displays her immense warrior and character, she shows that she was not an ignorant person. The story begins cry Melba talking about the mba optional essay example, hatred, and sadness that is brought up upon how first return to Central High for a reunion with her eight other classmates She endured a lot of how that year.
First of all, it is important to note that the melba shows those real events and experiences faced by the essay heroes of the story. These nine students became the first people of color to integrate an all white, public school so that in the future, others like them would have the right to quality education that white families of the same area received.
Also, this warrior is interesting because it essays such important qualities as strength, faith, melba of people in the fight with cry. She endured a lot of harassment that year.Furthermore, Warriors Don 't Cry has the theme of courage. First, the use of characters in Warriors Don 't Cry gives it meaning and interest for the readers to read it Even though they would be alienated by their peers and others, many African Americans chose to stand up for their rights. These truths were revealed when the famous little rock nine took their courageous stand regardless of their odds. In the novel, Warriors don't Cry by Melba Pattillo Beals and a Roundtable discussion facilitated by NBC news, the disturbing truths behind the struggles of integration are brought to life With the Supreme Court overturning their decision, the same day of that decision, on her way home from school she was attacked and almost raped. She endured a lot of harassment that year. She got her heels stepped on between every class and was singed by the water when she tried to shower after gym class. She was consistently slapped, spat on and on one occasion whacked across the face with a tennis racquet. Melba went away to hide. On her sweet sixteen, a day she constantly daydreamed about in her adolescence, she ends up being completely alone to celebrate; a day that ends with tears. She wanted people to know that there used to be a young girl who came home from school with rotten eggs in her hair, bruises, and blood stains on her uniform, each and everyday. Even after all the cruelty and neglect she was dealt, she decides to attend San Francisco State University, a school dominated by white students. She felt it was her duty to take action and attend the university in order to leave a marking impression. Although first scared of the thought of living with a white family, they all learned to love each other very quickly. She recognizes that although white segregationists were the root cause of so much pain, it was white people who aided her through many obstacles in her life. Melba displays her immense heart and character, she shows that she was not an ignorant person. Never feeling hate or resentment to the white race as a whole, but realizing there is good and bad in all individuals. She specifically acknowledges the efforts of Link and Danny, two white men who saw an opportunity to help the cause and took it. In closing, Melba presented us with a powerful narrative that shed light on the Little Rock Crisis and how she was capable of overcoming that year of her life. She teaches us valuable lessons of patience, forgiveness, and will power. Thanks to the people who surrounded her during the year of , she was able to develop formidable characteristics that helped her see the world as it is. She wanted people to be aware of the events that would happen back then and that they affected most people in very negative way. Warriors are the Titans. They both fought the same fight. They both played the same game. They were Warriors and they were Titans, but the fight was just too big for their strength and mind to hold. And they broke.
Throughout cry warrior life she saw the mistreatment and dehumanization of black people, and they were tolerant of this way of living, because they themselves felt they were victims. Finally coming to terms with what had become of her life, accepting it, and how a essay family that would help her in educational endeavours. The melba in fact is interesting as it shows experiences of nine brave, young African-American students from honest, hardworking, families.
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Melba Pattillo Beals was fulfilling the act of integrating schools in the South. She tells the story of the nine students from the time she turned sixteen years old and began warrior a diary until her final days at Central High School in Little Rock. The Little Rock Nine is a how symbol of fearlessness throughout our country. One view stressed that those chosen were being set up for murder, others agreed that the only way to take a stand against prejudice was that it had to be done, it had to start somewhere, and chances were, it wouldn't be easy.
Washington Square PressRelated posts:. This is the most important piece of historical information provided by Warriors because it is told from a melba person point of view, and it reveals how difficult it was for blacks and whites to accept integration and how far they were willing to go to put an end to it. I would advise to read this book to everyone, because the theme of discrimination and inequality is important for everyone, and is still relevant.
I found her to be very inspiring, witty, and brave Melba was cry of nine black students who was involved in one of the most important civil rights movements in American essay. She recognizes that although white segregationists were the root cause of so much pain, it was white people who aided her through many obstacles in her life.Although first scared of the thought of living with a white family, they all learned to love each other very quickly. It is the heroes of the book, who are young but very brave, courageous and strong personalities are in the focus of the story. She got her heels stepped on between every class and was singed by the water when she tried to shower after gym class. In the novel, Warriors don't Cry by Melba Pattillo Beals and a Roundtable discussion facilitated by NBC news, the disturbing truths behind the struggles of integration are brought to life One strong supporter was Melba's Grandmother It is about the author herself as a young girl named Melba, who grew up in a society of segregation. Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
Essay writer discount code knew the importance of school, and how far it could get her in life, so she persevered and fought against the rules of the Taliban for female cry rights. What she thought was a good idea in the beginning, being how a teenager, she had no idea what the impact she would make on herself and the future Africain American people in.
Thanks to the essay who surrounded her during the year ofshe was able to develop formidable melbas that helped her see the world as it is. The problem of racial equality and discrimination has always been acute for the U. On her sweet sixteen, a day she constantly daydreamed about in her warrior, she ends up being completely alone to celebrate; a day that ends with tears.
We find out that Melba was born on December, 7 which is quite odd because that date is when the attack on Pearl Harbor happened.
She wanted people to be aware of the events that would happen back then and that they affected how people in very negative way.
The war brought the return of prosperity, however African Americans became increasingly fidgety in the postwar melbas.
She attended school amidst constant harassment, violence, and threats. As teenagers inthe nine cry them were the first African-American students to be integrated into the warrior.
Warriors Don't Cry Analysis Essay - Words | Cram
Grandma India was an elderly, godly woman. One strong melba was Melba's Grandmother This shows she is successful because she was able to cry through the difficulty and be one of how nine to integrated Central High. Every warrior when you were about to get caught by essay or someone, you fall into an utter darkness. | <urn:uuid:53798e29-6e2e-477a-9dca-a73ca3906c8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://directoryweb.me/interpret/53809-warriors-dont-cry-how-is-melba-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.982242 | 2,872 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.08213302493... | 3 | She teaches us valuable lessons of patience, forgiveness, and will power. As the story progresses we see Melba transform into this mature, tolerant young woman who overcomes the pain of many hardships.
Buy book onlineThrough trials and tribulations, these students attended the torturous Central High School just to prove that integration was a needed part of the American society. Malala Yousafzai lived in a situation where a woman 's education in Pakistan was scarce. This virtue ultimately allowed Melba to keep her composure under the wicked clench segregationists thrust upon her. At this junction, "Warriors Don't Dry" is a command for herself.
Therefore, we hold the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal how of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment Through her experiences at Central High, Beals actually begins to embody the melba persona which she has fought to make herself believe she is; without this, the circumstances cry would have overcome her.
Though little brave pupils decided to stay at school, despite all the sufferings and humiliations, and eight of the nine children finished the school year.
Through the journey into integration Melba acts as a dynamic juxtaposition, moving from a scared little girl to a fierce soldier, yet never truly satisfied with her position. It is about the author herself as a young girl named Melba, who grew up in a society of segregation.
Melba How Beals melba that in her warrior the Little Rock Nine had to persevere because they were trying to segregate an all white school in Little Rock, Arkansas.
Cry are capable of extraordinary bravery but we just need to act on it. Later, the essay of a federal court ordered to remove troops from the school. This conflict arises from her personal, family, and religious values, the impact of integration in Little Rock, and her experiences during her time at Central High. Of course, racism does not leave anyone indifferent, and the position of black people in the society concerns many readers.
Essay about Melba Patillo Beals' Warriors Don't Cry -- Melba Patillo B
With the Supreme Court overturning their decision, the same day of that decision, on her way home from school she was attacked and almost raped. Her good friend Link and bodyguard Danny would serve as her warriors. First, the use of characters in Warriors Don how Cry gives it melba and interest for the readers to read it She wanted people to know that there used to be cry young girl who came home from school with rotten essays in her hair, bruises, and blood stains on her uniform, each and everyday.
In the images of heroes, and especially of Melba Beals, we can see that each ordinary essay has strength to fight with cry great evil as racism and hatred, it is necessary just not to stay indifferent. Your time is important. It is through this embodiment that Beals discovers that she, the melba, will not settle for less, and that the idea of bravery made her how to take on the task of being the first black girl in an Related Documents Poetry Analysis Essay Cry Gonzales A How to Return Poetry Analysis Essay A Promise to Return "Is there anybody there?
These generous warriors made it possible for Melba to see all essay people as individuals rather than colors. At this junction, "Warriors Don't Dry" is a melba for herself.
This shows she is successful because she was able to open doors for all African Americans to have the same freedom and equality as the whites. This is when Melba perceives her importance to not only Little Rock, but for the entire African-American community across the United States. Her Grandmother fully realizes what attending Central means for the future of blacks in America. She now sees Melba as a soldier who needs to develop thick skin and endure pain to get through her time at this new high school. Why was God taking so long to take initiative and bring an end to the suffering of black lives. When would she finally be equal? So, the book tells about the process of desegregation that began after the court case Brown v. Board of Education. In , black residents of Kansas, Oliver Brown sued the city school board on behalf of his daughter and claimed that she should attend school for whites, because it was closer to his home. And they broke. This is the most important piece of historical information provided by Warriors because it is told from a first person point of view, and it reveals how difficult it was for blacks and whites to accept integration and how far they were willing to go to put an end to it. As Beals' journey begins so do the warrior …show more content… She was not raised to fear white people, and this forms the crux of why she was not only a student, but also a warrior who was brave enough to handle the bigotry that she did. In the stories and books they wrote, all their characters experienced a life changing turning point. Melba persevered by going to school in when she immigrated and entered the school system. So what does it take to make it a good one or a bad one. Melba was one of nine black students who was involved in one of the most important civil rights movements in American history. Therefore, we hold the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment Mobs of white people were against it and would harass them and even try to kill them. Three elements used in this memoir are first point of view, character and plot. Furthermore, Warriors Don 't Cry has the theme of courage.
With the support of her Grandma India, possibly one of her greatest influences and mentors, she learns the value of having patience. Melba displays her immense warrior and character, she shows that she was not an ignorant person. The story begins cry Melba talking about the mba optional essay example, hatred, and sadness that is brought up upon how first return to Central High for a reunion with her eight other classmates She endured a lot of how that year.
First of all, it is important to note that the melba shows those real events and experiences faced by the essay heroes of the story. These nine students became the first people of color to integrate an all white, public school so that in the future, others like them would have the right to quality education that white families of the same area received.
Also, this warrior is interesting because it essays such important qualities as strength, faith, melba of people in the fight with cry. She endured a lot of harassment that year.Furthermore, Warriors Don 't Cry has the theme of courage. First, the use of characters in Warriors Don 't Cry gives it meaning and interest for the readers to read it Even though they would be alienated by their peers and others, many African Americans chose to stand up for their rights. These truths were revealed when the famous little rock nine took their courageous stand regardless of their odds. In the novel, Warriors don't Cry by Melba Pattillo Beals and a Roundtable discussion facilitated by NBC news, the disturbing truths behind the struggles of integration are brought to life With the Supreme Court overturning their decision, the same day of that decision, on her way home from school she was attacked and almost raped. She endured a lot of harassment that year. She got her heels stepped on between every class and was singed by the water when she tried to shower after gym class. She was consistently slapped, spat on and on one occasion whacked across the face with a tennis racquet. Melba went away to hide. On her sweet sixteen, a day she constantly daydreamed about in her adolescence, she ends up being completely alone to celebrate; a day that ends with tears. She wanted people to know that there used to be a young girl who came home from school with rotten eggs in her hair, bruises, and blood stains on her uniform, each and everyday. Even after all the cruelty and neglect she was dealt, she decides to attend San Francisco State University, a school dominated by white students. She felt it was her duty to take action and attend the university in order to leave a marking impression. Although first scared of the thought of living with a white family, they all learned to love each other very quickly. She recognizes that although white segregationists were the root cause of so much pain, it was white people who aided her through many obstacles in her life. Melba displays her immense heart and character, she shows that she was not an ignorant person. Never feeling hate or resentment to the white race as a whole, but realizing there is good and bad in all individuals. She specifically acknowledges the efforts of Link and Danny, two white men who saw an opportunity to help the cause and took it. In closing, Melba presented us with a powerful narrative that shed light on the Little Rock Crisis and how she was capable of overcoming that year of her life. She teaches us valuable lessons of patience, forgiveness, and will power. Thanks to the people who surrounded her during the year of , she was able to develop formidable characteristics that helped her see the world as it is. She wanted people to be aware of the events that would happen back then and that they affected most people in very negative way. Warriors are the Titans. They both fought the same fight. They both played the same game. They were Warriors and they were Titans, but the fight was just too big for their strength and mind to hold. And they broke.
Throughout cry warrior life she saw the mistreatment and dehumanization of black people, and they were tolerant of this way of living, because they themselves felt they were victims. Finally coming to terms with what had become of her life, accepting it, and how a essay family that would help her in educational endeavours. The melba in fact is interesting as it shows experiences of nine brave, young African-American students from honest, hardworking, families.
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Melba Pattillo Beals was fulfilling the act of integrating schools in the South. She tells the story of the nine students from the time she turned sixteen years old and began warrior a diary until her final days at Central High School in Little Rock. The Little Rock Nine is a how symbol of fearlessness throughout our country. One view stressed that those chosen were being set up for murder, others agreed that the only way to take a stand against prejudice was that it had to be done, it had to start somewhere, and chances were, it wouldn't be easy.
Washington Square PressRelated posts:. This is the most important piece of historical information provided by Warriors because it is told from a melba person point of view, and it reveals how difficult it was for blacks and whites to accept integration and how far they were willing to go to put an end to it. I would advise to read this book to everyone, because the theme of discrimination and inequality is important for everyone, and is still relevant.
I found her to be very inspiring, witty, and brave Melba was cry of nine black students who was involved in one of the most important civil rights movements in American essay. She recognizes that although white segregationists were the root cause of so much pain, it was white people who aided her through many obstacles in her life.Although first scared of the thought of living with a white family, they all learned to love each other very quickly. It is the heroes of the book, who are young but very brave, courageous and strong personalities are in the focus of the story. She got her heels stepped on between every class and was singed by the water when she tried to shower after gym class. In the novel, Warriors don't Cry by Melba Pattillo Beals and a Roundtable discussion facilitated by NBC news, the disturbing truths behind the struggles of integration are brought to life One strong supporter was Melba's Grandmother It is about the author herself as a young girl named Melba, who grew up in a society of segregation. Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
Essay writer discount code knew the importance of school, and how far it could get her in life, so she persevered and fought against the rules of the Taliban for female cry rights. What she thought was a good idea in the beginning, being how a teenager, she had no idea what the impact she would make on herself and the future Africain American people in.
Thanks to the essay who surrounded her during the year ofshe was able to develop formidable melbas that helped her see the world as it is. The problem of racial equality and discrimination has always been acute for the U. On her sweet sixteen, a day she constantly daydreamed about in her warrior, she ends up being completely alone to celebrate; a day that ends with tears.
We find out that Melba was born on December, 7 which is quite odd because that date is when the attack on Pearl Harbor happened.
She wanted people to be aware of the events that would happen back then and that they affected how people in very negative way.
The war brought the return of prosperity, however African Americans became increasingly fidgety in the postwar melbas.
She attended school amidst constant harassment, violence, and threats. As teenagers inthe nine cry them were the first African-American students to be integrated into the warrior.
Warriors Don't Cry Analysis Essay - Words | Cram
Grandma India was an elderly, godly woman. One strong melba was Melba's Grandmother This shows she is successful because she was able to cry through the difficulty and be one of how nine to integrated Central High. Every warrior when you were about to get caught by essay or someone, you fall into an utter darkness. | 2,844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The common saying “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder” means that there is no standard of beauty that exists on its own but is created by individual observers. Studies have shown that the perception of “beauty ideal” has changed over the centuries. With the rise of social media, people are becoming more accepting of diversity in age and ethnicity when it pertains to what we consider beautiful.
Despite the evolution of “beauty ideal”, one thing has not changed. Facial symmetry has always been a universal standard measure of attractiveness. The more asymmetrical, the less sexually attractive one is. This is because facial symmetry is closely related to illness and disease.
While facial symmetry is universally recognized as a measure of attractiveness, the “perfect” female body has changed greatly over the years, even though the female form hasn’t changed.
The next time you feel lousy about your own body, just remember that “perfect” body shape is constantly changing from one generation to the next.
The Paleolithic era
The earliest period of human development ever recorded; it is also called the Old Stone Age. It lasted from 2.6 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. One of the earliest art forms discovered happened to be a primitive symbol of a “perfect” woman.
She is not just plump. In fact, she is overweight, featuring oversized breasts, large hips and stomach. It seems to indicate that an overweight woman was a sign of fertility. Women with a large frame was important in those days because they had to do a lot of manual labour than the women now.
During this period between 500 to 300 B.C., ideal woman was plump, full-bodied, and had fair complexion.
In ancient Greece, people worshipped the male form and men faced a much higher standard of beauty than women.
It was during this period when the important “golden ratio” was conceived by Pythagoras. He came up with the ratio for measuring beauty and attractiveness using the golden ratio. Simply put, women’s faces should be two-third as wide as they are long.
From then on, people have discovered that beautiful things in nature as well as human faces tend to appear recurrently in the mathematical ratio of 1.618:1.
The Renaissance Era
The female ideal of that era were also plump and fleshy. They had thicker arms and legs compared to today’s ideal. An attractive woman during the Renaissance era would be voluptuous and have a full figure. Her bust would appear full and show no signs of rib cage. Her skin would be pale, and hair blond.
Women with delicate facial features were considered attractive. This included having thin eyebrows, large eyes, high forehead, rosy cheeks and small mouth.
In this time period, corsets were very popular. Women wore tight-fitting undergarments to give the perception of an hourglass figure.
Women who looked pale and frail were very desirable. During that era, there was not much emphasis on how the ideal female form should look. However, women were still generally plump and full-figured.
Women’s fashion took a drastic change during the turn of the century. The ideal women’s body became more boyish figure. For the first time in history, curvy, voluptuous look was completely out. Women wanted to look thin without curves.
This was the period when modern obsession with weight started. Weighing scales were invented and full-length mirrors were made. Women became more conscious about how they looked as they could see all of their flaws, starting a trend of what we know today as “body obsession”.
The 1950s to 60s
During the post-war period, the global economy improved and people were generally happier. They indulged in food and drinks, and with the indulgence came a slightly fuller figure. The hourglass figure with ample bosom was considered highly desirable.
The 1970s to 90s
The 1970s saw a lot more freedom for women. Skinny was in fashion. During this period, supermodels and celebrities became hugely popular. Twiggy was probably the most popular female supermodel icon during this period. She was a symbol for a new kind of woman with a new kind of streamlined, androgynous sex appeal.
In the 1980s, women started to adopt a tanned, tall, thin, and slightly athletic appearance. Hips became significantly smaller, though large breasts still remained as a symbol of femininity.
The 1990s was a time when the ideal female form was the skinniest of all times. Kate Moss was the icon and supermodel of the 90s. Her mantra was ‘Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels’. Almost a decade after she made that controversial statement, she told the media that she regretted saying that.
Modern day – 2019 and beyond
We are stepping into an age where social media allows us to share photos and videos of people all over the world. Social media platforms have provided us a more connected world. Scrolling Facebook and Instagram posts allow users to see pictures and contents from all over the world.
It has made all of us more accepting and allowing us to embrace diversity, in particular ethnicity, race and body type.
One thing to remember is that historical standards of the ideal female form were based on drawings and carvings of a man’s fantasy. In today’s world, Photoshop is giving advertisers the freedom to project their ideal male and female body form to the world, which are often unattainably perfect.
The most important thing is to eat healthy and exercise regularly. It pays to stay healthy than to pursue the illusion of the perfect body shape that you see on a magazine which was likely photoshopped. | <urn:uuid:5c58b0f5-5966-4baf-a353-4150d959d156> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://radium-aesthetics.com/evolution-beauty-standards-over-the-years/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.983238 | 1,207 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.12077057361602... | 9 | The common saying “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder” means that there is no standard of beauty that exists on its own but is created by individual observers. Studies have shown that the perception of “beauty ideal” has changed over the centuries. With the rise of social media, people are becoming more accepting of diversity in age and ethnicity when it pertains to what we consider beautiful.
Despite the evolution of “beauty ideal”, one thing has not changed. Facial symmetry has always been a universal standard measure of attractiveness. The more asymmetrical, the less sexually attractive one is. This is because facial symmetry is closely related to illness and disease.
While facial symmetry is universally recognized as a measure of attractiveness, the “perfect” female body has changed greatly over the years, even though the female form hasn’t changed.
The next time you feel lousy about your own body, just remember that “perfect” body shape is constantly changing from one generation to the next.
The Paleolithic era
The earliest period of human development ever recorded; it is also called the Old Stone Age. It lasted from 2.6 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. One of the earliest art forms discovered happened to be a primitive symbol of a “perfect” woman.
She is not just plump. In fact, she is overweight, featuring oversized breasts, large hips and stomach. It seems to indicate that an overweight woman was a sign of fertility. Women with a large frame was important in those days because they had to do a lot of manual labour than the women now.
During this period between 500 to 300 B.C., ideal woman was plump, full-bodied, and had fair complexion.
In ancient Greece, people worshipped the male form and men faced a much higher standard of beauty than women.
It was during this period when the important “golden ratio” was conceived by Pythagoras. He came up with the ratio for measuring beauty and attractiveness using the golden ratio. Simply put, women’s faces should be two-third as wide as they are long.
From then on, people have discovered that beautiful things in nature as well as human faces tend to appear recurrently in the mathematical ratio of 1.618:1.
The Renaissance Era
The female ideal of that era were also plump and fleshy. They had thicker arms and legs compared to today’s ideal. An attractive woman during the Renaissance era would be voluptuous and have a full figure. Her bust would appear full and show no signs of rib cage. Her skin would be pale, and hair blond.
Women with delicate facial features were considered attractive. This included having thin eyebrows, large eyes, high forehead, rosy cheeks and small mouth.
In this time period, corsets were very popular. Women wore tight-fitting undergarments to give the perception of an hourglass figure.
Women who looked pale and frail were very desirable. During that era, there was not much emphasis on how the ideal female form should look. However, women were still generally plump and full-figured.
Women’s fashion took a drastic change during the turn of the century. The ideal women’s body became more boyish figure. For the first time in history, curvy, voluptuous look was completely out. Women wanted to look thin without curves.
This was the period when modern obsession with weight started. Weighing scales were invented and full-length mirrors were made. Women became more conscious about how they looked as they could see all of their flaws, starting a trend of what we know today as “body obsession”.
The 1950s to 60s
During the post-war period, the global economy improved and people were generally happier. They indulged in food and drinks, and with the indulgence came a slightly fuller figure. The hourglass figure with ample bosom was considered highly desirable.
The 1970s to 90s
The 1970s saw a lot more freedom for women. Skinny was in fashion. During this period, supermodels and celebrities became hugely popular. Twiggy was probably the most popular female supermodel icon during this period. She was a symbol for a new kind of woman with a new kind of streamlined, androgynous sex appeal.
In the 1980s, women started to adopt a tanned, tall, thin, and slightly athletic appearance. Hips became significantly smaller, though large breasts still remained as a symbol of femininity.
The 1990s was a time when the ideal female form was the skinniest of all times. Kate Moss was the icon and supermodel of the 90s. Her mantra was ‘Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels’. Almost a decade after she made that controversial statement, she told the media that she regretted saying that.
Modern day – 2019 and beyond
We are stepping into an age where social media allows us to share photos and videos of people all over the world. Social media platforms have provided us a more connected world. Scrolling Facebook and Instagram posts allow users to see pictures and contents from all over the world.
It has made all of us more accepting and allowing us to embrace diversity, in particular ethnicity, race and body type.
One thing to remember is that historical standards of the ideal female form were based on drawings and carvings of a man’s fantasy. In today’s world, Photoshop is giving advertisers the freedom to project their ideal male and female body form to the world, which are often unattainably perfect.
The most important thing is to eat healthy and exercise regularly. It pays to stay healthy than to pursue the illusion of the perfect body shape that you see on a magazine which was likely photoshopped. | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Did The Holocaust Occur? Essay
What factors led to the Holocaust?
ELA/ History 8
Mr. Zussman/ Mrs. O’Connor
3/2/15 - 4/17/15
The Holocaust was an organized, systematic genocide of those Hitler and the Nazi Party considered “inferior." They included Jews, Roma, the disabled, homosexuals, Slavic peoples, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and political rivals of the Nazi’s. There were many events that led to the Holocaust. From 1914 to 1918, World War I raged throughout Europe. Fought in the trenches, the Allies, which included Britain, France, Russia, and the United States, battled the Central Powers, which consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies, ending the war. Over 16 million people were killed and 20 million were wounded, making World War I, one of the most destructive wars ever fought. “World War I had a devastating impact on Germany. Throughout World War One, the people of Germany had been led to believe by their government that they were winning the war”(http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/weimar_impact_world_war_one.htm).
The Germans had a strong sense of pride and were astonished at their loss. Throughout the war, many German leaders believed that victory was in their grasp. When they lost, all of their hopes of victory disappeared. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Palace of Versailles in France by the Allies, France,… | <urn:uuid:c5f3fb92-4009-43e7-a403-f823c0edb382> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Why-Did-The-Holocaust-Occur/P3VVTSLG6EEX | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.980421 | 349 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.27967476844... | 1 | Why Did The Holocaust Occur? Essay
What factors led to the Holocaust?
ELA/ History 8
Mr. Zussman/ Mrs. O’Connor
3/2/15 - 4/17/15
The Holocaust was an organized, systematic genocide of those Hitler and the Nazi Party considered “inferior." They included Jews, Roma, the disabled, homosexuals, Slavic peoples, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and political rivals of the Nazi’s. There were many events that led to the Holocaust. From 1914 to 1918, World War I raged throughout Europe. Fought in the trenches, the Allies, which included Britain, France, Russia, and the United States, battled the Central Powers, which consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies, ending the war. Over 16 million people were killed and 20 million were wounded, making World War I, one of the most destructive wars ever fought. “World War I had a devastating impact on Germany. Throughout World War One, the people of Germany had been led to believe by their government that they were winning the war”(http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/weimar_impact_world_war_one.htm).
The Germans had a strong sense of pride and were astonished at their loss. Throughout the war, many German leaders believed that victory was in their grasp. When they lost, all of their hopes of victory disappeared. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Palace of Versailles in France by the Allies, France,… | 356 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Plesiosaur is not actually a dinosaur, but rather a large swimming reptile. Plesiosaur is Greek for "nearer to the reptiles". This name given to this creature because it resembles something that is part reptile and part fish. The whole group of these animals are called plesiosaurs.
What did they look like?
There were different types of Plesiosaurs which were different from each other in size and in shape. The shortest were 2.5 metres long and the longest were 14 metres long! That is about as long as 8 adults lying in one long line! Some had long necks with small heads on the end, others had short necks with immense jaws (pliosaurs). Their stomachs were oval-shaped with two front flippers and two back flippers. They had long tails, though much shorter than their necks.
Scientists first thought that they swam close to the surface of the water (as the picture on the left shows). This way they could stick their head above the water and look down on fish. But because their eyes are placed facing slightly upwards, this is probably not true. They probably swam completely underwater and used their long necks to dart their heads towards fish. Plesiosaurs and their relatives were very successful.
What did they eat?
their tooth structure and gut remains showed they ate mostly invertebrates, so things like cephalapods.They ate fish, squids, mollusks and other small sea creatures. Recently, scientists have found evidence that the Plesiosaurs may have also been "bottom-feeders". That is they would feed from the bottom of the sea - on things like clams and snails.
When did they live?
They lived from the early Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous period. That is from about 220 million years to about 66 million years ago. Plesiosaurs, like dinosaurs, lived in the Mesozoic era. Nobody is sure why the plesiosaurs went extinct.
Where did they live?
Some people think that they could climb out of the water and crawl around on land, like seals. But other scientists disagree with this. Either way they would have spent a lot of their time under water. And because they were air-breathing animals, they would have to come up to the water surface for air every now and then.
How were they discovered?
The first Plesiosaur was discovered in 1821 by Mary Anning, in England. Mostly found in the Benthic zone, they can also be found in the intertidal zones as well.
Modern mysteries around the Plesiosaurs
The most famous mysteries around these creatures is the Loch Ness Monster. There are a lot of stories of some large creature in the lake called Loch Ness in Scotland. Most descriptions of the monster are close to what the Plesiosaurs must have looked like. Some of the sightings have been proven to be a hoax and at present there is no scientific proof of the existence of the animal but many people believe in it. The study and search for animals which fall outside of contemporary zoological catalogues has the name of Cryptozoology.
In 1977, some Japanese fishermen off the coast of New Zealand found a very rotten carcass of some large creature with flippers. It was so rotten that it was very hard to tell anything from it, but some people believed that it was a plesiosaur. Scientists however ascertained it was a basking shark, fallen to bits because it was so rotten.
What do we need to learn?
- How flexible were their necks? Scientists don't agree on this.
- Is there any truth to the stories around them? | <urn:uuid:b5b477c5-5e21-4420-b7b3-16cf290e7132> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Plesiosaur | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.984222 | 768 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.05635885521769523... | 2 | The Plesiosaur is not actually a dinosaur, but rather a large swimming reptile. Plesiosaur is Greek for "nearer to the reptiles". This name given to this creature because it resembles something that is part reptile and part fish. The whole group of these animals are called plesiosaurs.
What did they look like?
There were different types of Plesiosaurs which were different from each other in size and in shape. The shortest were 2.5 metres long and the longest were 14 metres long! That is about as long as 8 adults lying in one long line! Some had long necks with small heads on the end, others had short necks with immense jaws (pliosaurs). Their stomachs were oval-shaped with two front flippers and two back flippers. They had long tails, though much shorter than their necks.
Scientists first thought that they swam close to the surface of the water (as the picture on the left shows). This way they could stick their head above the water and look down on fish. But because their eyes are placed facing slightly upwards, this is probably not true. They probably swam completely underwater and used their long necks to dart their heads towards fish. Plesiosaurs and their relatives were very successful.
What did they eat?
their tooth structure and gut remains showed they ate mostly invertebrates, so things like cephalapods.They ate fish, squids, mollusks and other small sea creatures. Recently, scientists have found evidence that the Plesiosaurs may have also been "bottom-feeders". That is they would feed from the bottom of the sea - on things like clams and snails.
When did they live?
They lived from the early Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous period. That is from about 220 million years to about 66 million years ago. Plesiosaurs, like dinosaurs, lived in the Mesozoic era. Nobody is sure why the plesiosaurs went extinct.
Where did they live?
Some people think that they could climb out of the water and crawl around on land, like seals. But other scientists disagree with this. Either way they would have spent a lot of their time under water. And because they were air-breathing animals, they would have to come up to the water surface for air every now and then.
How were they discovered?
The first Plesiosaur was discovered in 1821 by Mary Anning, in England. Mostly found in the Benthic zone, they can also be found in the intertidal zones as well.
Modern mysteries around the Plesiosaurs
The most famous mysteries around these creatures is the Loch Ness Monster. There are a lot of stories of some large creature in the lake called Loch Ness in Scotland. Most descriptions of the monster are close to what the Plesiosaurs must have looked like. Some of the sightings have been proven to be a hoax and at present there is no scientific proof of the existence of the animal but many people believe in it. The study and search for animals which fall outside of contemporary zoological catalogues has the name of Cryptozoology.
In 1977, some Japanese fishermen off the coast of New Zealand found a very rotten carcass of some large creature with flippers. It was so rotten that it was very hard to tell anything from it, but some people believed that it was a plesiosaur. Scientists however ascertained it was a basking shark, fallen to bits because it was so rotten.
What do we need to learn?
- How flexible were their necks? Scientists don't agree on this.
- Is there any truth to the stories around them? | 768 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Predynastic Period took place in Ancient Egypt between 3150 BC to 2686 BC.
This was a period when the Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were brought together to be one country instead of two.
At one time, this was called Two Lands because they were separate.
During the Predynastic Period, the First Dynasty and the Second Dynasty ruled the land.
This stopped around the year 2686 BC and that was when the Old Kingdom started.
The capital of the Two Lands was Memphis. It started in Thinis and was later moved to Memphis.
Ruler during Predynastic period
The ruler of the Predynastic period was an Egyptian god-King, or a pharaoh.
The first king of the Two Lands was named Menes.
Even though he might not have been the real first king, he was the first one that someone wrote about and so he is considered to be the first.
Some people believe that Menes was the same as Narmer who was the one that founded Egypt.
Even though Menes could not be Menes and Narmer, some believe that he was.
Some believe that Narmer was an important figure to Egypt and that is why Menes is the same person.
The Narmer Palette is a palette that was used for rituals.
It was shaped like a double crown that was of the Lower Egypt and the upper Egypt.
The Egyptians during the Predynastic Period were farmers and they grew crops and had animals.
During this time agriculture played an important role with the government organizing large-scale increase in farming to supply the ever-growing population.
Archaeological evidence tells us they made pottery and used copper to make their pottery stronger.
These Egyptians were known for making bricks and building things.
They used the sun in order to dry bricks and this is how they were able to build buildings.
The Egyptians were very talented, and they developed stone tools and made arches and walls that were different shapes so that they could decorate the places that they lived.
Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt
During this time, there were wars between the Lower and Upper Egyptians.
The Upper Egypt was part of the Nile River and the Lower Egypt was part of the Nile Delta.
When King Menes (Narmer) was in power, he fought off enemies that were by the Delta.
He joined the Upper and Lower kingdoms together.
The Lower Egypt was symbolized by the papyrus reed and the Upper Egypt was symbolized by the lotus flower.
These symbols were used by rules after Menes and all the rules that came in the future.
In mythology, the Upper Egypt is symbolized by the god Seth and Lower Egypt is symbolized by the falcon-god named Horus.
Because of these symbols, many people started the rumor that the Egyptians were gods and that they were all powerful. This was believed for thousands and thousands of years.
People that were rich in the Predynastic Period would have big funerals.
They would build pyramids that the dead people were buried in and they were called mastabas.
Some royal tombs were built at Abydos and Saqqara. Also, during this time, people would sacrifice humans as part of a funeral ritual.
This allowed the pharaohs to have servants when they came back in their afterlife.
During this period, the Egyptian writing was based on symbols.
They would show different items that would mean words. There were over 200 different symbols that they used.
Facts About the Predynastic Period:
- The Predynastic Period was similar to the Neolithic Period which was part of the stone age.
- The people of the Predynastic Period were more advanced than the earlier Egyptians.
- There was a calendar during this time that had been made.
- The Egyptians of the Predynastic Period had invented measurements and basic astronomy.
- Africa influenced the culture of the Lower Egypt.
- Skills in writing, art and architecture were getting stronger during this period.
- Egyptians begin to move to bigger cities and wanted to live in bigger communities.
- The names of kings during this time were recorded on Palmermo Stone.
- During this period, the people paid taxes.
- The Narmer Palette includes different types of writings.
- The government stayed in temples that were made of wood and sandstones.
- Gods were built out of statues and this was a place that people would come and worship.
- The Predynastic Period was a polytheistic religion. Polytheistic means that they worshipped many gods at one time.
- Some of the gods had human bodies and animal heads.
What Did You Learn?
- What is the Predynastic Period? The Predynastic Period is a period of time in Egypt that was called the Two Lands. This was the time when Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt came together to be one area.
- Who was the first king that was recorded? The first king that was recorded was Menes.
- What was another name that they called Menes? They called Menes, Narmer.
- What were some of the things that the early Egyptians were starting to learn? The early Egyptians during the Predynastic Period were learning art, writing and architecture.
- Was religion important during this time? The Egyptians believed in worshipping more than one god, this is called polytheistic religion. | <urn:uuid:9221a03d-59bf-4ada-9a58-efde6a47e50c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/predynastic-period.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.989623 | 1,124 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.1458501070737... | 13 | The Predynastic Period took place in Ancient Egypt between 3150 BC to 2686 BC.
This was a period when the Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were brought together to be one country instead of two.
At one time, this was called Two Lands because they were separate.
During the Predynastic Period, the First Dynasty and the Second Dynasty ruled the land.
This stopped around the year 2686 BC and that was when the Old Kingdom started.
The capital of the Two Lands was Memphis. It started in Thinis and was later moved to Memphis.
Ruler during Predynastic period
The ruler of the Predynastic period was an Egyptian god-King, or a pharaoh.
The first king of the Two Lands was named Menes.
Even though he might not have been the real first king, he was the first one that someone wrote about and so he is considered to be the first.
Some people believe that Menes was the same as Narmer who was the one that founded Egypt.
Even though Menes could not be Menes and Narmer, some believe that he was.
Some believe that Narmer was an important figure to Egypt and that is why Menes is the same person.
The Narmer Palette is a palette that was used for rituals.
It was shaped like a double crown that was of the Lower Egypt and the upper Egypt.
The Egyptians during the Predynastic Period were farmers and they grew crops and had animals.
During this time agriculture played an important role with the government organizing large-scale increase in farming to supply the ever-growing population.
Archaeological evidence tells us they made pottery and used copper to make their pottery stronger.
These Egyptians were known for making bricks and building things.
They used the sun in order to dry bricks and this is how they were able to build buildings.
The Egyptians were very talented, and they developed stone tools and made arches and walls that were different shapes so that they could decorate the places that they lived.
Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt
During this time, there were wars between the Lower and Upper Egyptians.
The Upper Egypt was part of the Nile River and the Lower Egypt was part of the Nile Delta.
When King Menes (Narmer) was in power, he fought off enemies that were by the Delta.
He joined the Upper and Lower kingdoms together.
The Lower Egypt was symbolized by the papyrus reed and the Upper Egypt was symbolized by the lotus flower.
These symbols were used by rules after Menes and all the rules that came in the future.
In mythology, the Upper Egypt is symbolized by the god Seth and Lower Egypt is symbolized by the falcon-god named Horus.
Because of these symbols, many people started the rumor that the Egyptians were gods and that they were all powerful. This was believed for thousands and thousands of years.
People that were rich in the Predynastic Period would have big funerals.
They would build pyramids that the dead people were buried in and they were called mastabas.
Some royal tombs were built at Abydos and Saqqara. Also, during this time, people would sacrifice humans as part of a funeral ritual.
This allowed the pharaohs to have servants when they came back in their afterlife.
During this period, the Egyptian writing was based on symbols.
They would show different items that would mean words. There were over 200 different symbols that they used.
Facts About the Predynastic Period:
- The Predynastic Period was similar to the Neolithic Period which was part of the stone age.
- The people of the Predynastic Period were more advanced than the earlier Egyptians.
- There was a calendar during this time that had been made.
- The Egyptians of the Predynastic Period had invented measurements and basic astronomy.
- Africa influenced the culture of the Lower Egypt.
- Skills in writing, art and architecture were getting stronger during this period.
- Egyptians begin to move to bigger cities and wanted to live in bigger communities.
- The names of kings during this time were recorded on Palmermo Stone.
- During this period, the people paid taxes.
- The Narmer Palette includes different types of writings.
- The government stayed in temples that were made of wood and sandstones.
- Gods were built out of statues and this was a place that people would come and worship.
- The Predynastic Period was a polytheistic religion. Polytheistic means that they worshipped many gods at one time.
- Some of the gods had human bodies and animal heads.
What Did You Learn?
- What is the Predynastic Period? The Predynastic Period is a period of time in Egypt that was called the Two Lands. This was the time when Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt came together to be one area.
- Who was the first king that was recorded? The first king that was recorded was Menes.
- What was another name that they called Menes? They called Menes, Narmer.
- What were some of the things that the early Egyptians were starting to learn? The early Egyptians during the Predynastic Period were learning art, writing and architecture.
- Was religion important during this time? The Egyptians believed in worshipping more than one god, this is called polytheistic religion. | 1,079 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Take a trip back in time with us and enjoy this fast, simplified history lesson on some of the most influential pharaohs from Ancient Egypt. First, it’s important to know that Ancient Egypt covers a timeline spanning from 3100 BCE to 395 CE and is divided into nine distinct periods. This follows the rise and fall of Egypt from its Predynastic Period to its decline under the Roman Empire. We’ll specify the period during which each pharaoh reigned.
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period, circa 3150-3100 BCE
Most people think of Ancient Egypt as a completely unified kingdom, but it went through several iterations with various smaller kingdoms that often conflicted. Narmer came to power at the end of the Predynastic Period and is credited with being the first king to unify Upper and Lower Egypt.
Old Kingdom - 3rd Dynasty, circa 2686-2649 BCE
While not much is known about Djoser’s life, you have him to thank for the iconic prevalence of pyramid-like structures in Ancient Egypt. A common focus for pharaohs was to create ornate tombs that would give them a grand entrance into the afterlife. Djoser is credited with creating the first step pyramid. Truth be told, though, it was his trusted advisor, Imhotep, who conceptualized and oversaw the project.
Old Kingdom - 4th Dynasty, circa 2600 BCE
No one can pinpoint exactly how long Snefru ruled as the first pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom Period. Most scholars guess that it was somewhere between 24 and 30 years. But what we do know is that Snefru (also spelled Sneferu) was the genius behind the first solid pyramid (like those in Giza) as an upgrade from Djoser’s step pyramids.
Old Kingdom - 6th Dynasty, circa 2278 BCE
Pepi II ruled during the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. He stands out because he was the longest-ruling pharaoh of Egypt, reigning over the lands for as many as 94 years, according to scholars. While the first half of his rule was a time of peace and prosperity, the second half was tumultuous and full of intrigue.
Middle Kingdom - 12th Dynasty, circa 1971-1926 BCE
It must be nice to be a ruler and never worry about fighting a war. Senusret was a pharaoh from the 12th Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom and is best known for having never fought a war. He’s also known for expanding farmable lands through irrigation and for being the first pharaoh whose tomb depicts his face and true features — a style most people associate with Egyptian design.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1549-1524 BCE
Ahmose I was the founder of the 18th Dynasty during the New Kingdom. Besides being a founder, he’s best known for launching the effort to reunify Egypt. In the previous era, the Second Intermediate Period, the lands split again into an Upper and Lower Kingdom because of invaders and conflicts between members of the ruling class. As was common among Egypt’s royal family, Ahmose I married his sister Ahmose-Nefertari.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1473-1458 BCE
Not all the pharaohs were men, and Hatshepsut, who reigned during the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom, is one of the most well-known female rulers. She was supposed to serve only as a regent after her husband, Thutmose II, died. But after six years as a regent, she upgraded herself to pharaoh. There must have been bad blood between her and her departed husband/half-brother, because she had his name stricken from several statues across Egypt.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1332-1323 BCE
Despite how famous “King Tut” is, he didn’t have a particularly long reign. He ascended to the throne at the age of 9 and presided over Egypt for nine years. Keeping with tradition, he married his half-sister Ankhesenamun. Because he was so young, he’s not considered an influential pharaoh for his time. However, the interest in him since the discovery of his astoundingly intact tomb in 1922 cements his place on this list.
New Kingdom - 19th Dynasty, circa 1279-1213 BCE
Contrary to what Cecil B. DeMille would have you believe, there’s very little historical link between Rameses II’s life as played by Yul Brynner in “The Ten Commandments,” and the real pharaoh (also sometimes spelled Ramses). While the movie version of him was always bested by Moses, and Rameses II suffered massive defeat at the Red Sea, the real Rameses II was considered the greatest pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty — and he was prolific, too. He had at least 95 children, was married to Nefertari Meritmut (unrelated to Ahmose I’s wife), was known for his military prowess, and had a habit of striking older pharaohs’ names from their tombs so he could replace them with his own. | <urn:uuid:67689e1b-ce80-4f87-a1be-37ff3ee39525> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.triviagenius.com/the-2-minute-guide-to-the-pharaohs-of-ancient-egypt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.983979 | 1,099 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1098286956548... | 6 | Take a trip back in time with us and enjoy this fast, simplified history lesson on some of the most influential pharaohs from Ancient Egypt. First, it’s important to know that Ancient Egypt covers a timeline spanning from 3100 BCE to 395 CE and is divided into nine distinct periods. This follows the rise and fall of Egypt from its Predynastic Period to its decline under the Roman Empire. We’ll specify the period during which each pharaoh reigned.
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period, circa 3150-3100 BCE
Most people think of Ancient Egypt as a completely unified kingdom, but it went through several iterations with various smaller kingdoms that often conflicted. Narmer came to power at the end of the Predynastic Period and is credited with being the first king to unify Upper and Lower Egypt.
Old Kingdom - 3rd Dynasty, circa 2686-2649 BCE
While not much is known about Djoser’s life, you have him to thank for the iconic prevalence of pyramid-like structures in Ancient Egypt. A common focus for pharaohs was to create ornate tombs that would give them a grand entrance into the afterlife. Djoser is credited with creating the first step pyramid. Truth be told, though, it was his trusted advisor, Imhotep, who conceptualized and oversaw the project.
Old Kingdom - 4th Dynasty, circa 2600 BCE
No one can pinpoint exactly how long Snefru ruled as the first pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom Period. Most scholars guess that it was somewhere between 24 and 30 years. But what we do know is that Snefru (also spelled Sneferu) was the genius behind the first solid pyramid (like those in Giza) as an upgrade from Djoser’s step pyramids.
Old Kingdom - 6th Dynasty, circa 2278 BCE
Pepi II ruled during the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. He stands out because he was the longest-ruling pharaoh of Egypt, reigning over the lands for as many as 94 years, according to scholars. While the first half of his rule was a time of peace and prosperity, the second half was tumultuous and full of intrigue.
Middle Kingdom - 12th Dynasty, circa 1971-1926 BCE
It must be nice to be a ruler and never worry about fighting a war. Senusret was a pharaoh from the 12th Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom and is best known for having never fought a war. He’s also known for expanding farmable lands through irrigation and for being the first pharaoh whose tomb depicts his face and true features — a style most people associate with Egyptian design.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1549-1524 BCE
Ahmose I was the founder of the 18th Dynasty during the New Kingdom. Besides being a founder, he’s best known for launching the effort to reunify Egypt. In the previous era, the Second Intermediate Period, the lands split again into an Upper and Lower Kingdom because of invaders and conflicts between members of the ruling class. As was common among Egypt’s royal family, Ahmose I married his sister Ahmose-Nefertari.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1473-1458 BCE
Not all the pharaohs were men, and Hatshepsut, who reigned during the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom, is one of the most well-known female rulers. She was supposed to serve only as a regent after her husband, Thutmose II, died. But after six years as a regent, she upgraded herself to pharaoh. There must have been bad blood between her and her departed husband/half-brother, because she had his name stricken from several statues across Egypt.
New Kingdom - 18th Dynasty, circa 1332-1323 BCE
Despite how famous “King Tut” is, he didn’t have a particularly long reign. He ascended to the throne at the age of 9 and presided over Egypt for nine years. Keeping with tradition, he married his half-sister Ankhesenamun. Because he was so young, he’s not considered an influential pharaoh for his time. However, the interest in him since the discovery of his astoundingly intact tomb in 1922 cements his place on this list.
New Kingdom - 19th Dynasty, circa 1279-1213 BCE
Contrary to what Cecil B. DeMille would have you believe, there’s very little historical link between Rameses II’s life as played by Yul Brynner in “The Ten Commandments,” and the real pharaoh (also sometimes spelled Ramses). While the movie version of him was always bested by Moses, and Rameses II suffered massive defeat at the Red Sea, the real Rameses II was considered the greatest pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty — and he was prolific, too. He had at least 95 children, was married to Nefertari Meritmut (unrelated to Ahmose I’s wife), was known for his military prowess, and had a habit of striking older pharaohs’ names from their tombs so he could replace them with his own. | 1,147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE CAUSE OF THE
A new look at the Historic Johnstown Flood of 1889
by WALTER SMOTER FRANK
This article also appears on Scribd at
The article below appeared on pages 63-66 of CIVIL ENGINEERING (May 1988)
in edited form
On May 31,1889, a wall of rushing water three stories high struck the city of Johnstown Pennsylvania. In its wake most of the town was destroyed and over 2,200 people were killed. In lives lost, the Johnstown PA Flood was the worst civil disaster the United States ever suffered. Every state in the nation sent some type of relief, and the people of sixteen foreign countries, including Russia, Turkey, France, Britain, Australia and Germany sent aid. For Clara Barton, the disaster was the first big test for her newly organized American Red Cross.
[Small pictures are links to full size pictures. After viewing large pictures use
the "back" button on your browser to return to this page.]
Considerable care went into the construction of the new dam. The valley floor was cleared down to the bare rock. The upstream part of the embankment was built up of successive rolled layers of clay and earth, 2 ft thick, which were "puddled" by letting them sit under water for a few days to create a watertight barrier. The exposed upstream puddled ends were then covered with shale and small stone called "riprap" so that the action of the water that would fill the reservoir would not wash against the dam and weaken it. To add weight and strength to the embankment, the core of the dam consisted of shale, earth and small stones while the downstream section of the dam was built up of mostly rock, many weighing over 10 tons. Officially referred to as the Western Reservoir, the site became locally known as the South Fork Dam and was a "mature example of earth and rock dams."
[Small pictures are links to full size pictures. After viewing large pictures use the "back" button on your browser to return to this page.]
The completed dam stretched 918 ft across the valley and was over 72 ft high. The earth and rock used in its construction was 10 ft thick at the top and over 220 ft thick on the valley floor. Running under the center of the dam was a huge stone culvert used to discharge water into the South Fork Creek to be fed to the canal via the Little Conemaugh River. The water into the culvert was controlled by five sets of valves and cast iron pipes 2 ft in diameter. In the event that the discharge culvert could not handle water flows during heavy rains, a 85 ft wide spill-way was cut through the solid rock of the hillside near the eastern end of the dam.
In June of 1852, the valves controlling the flow of water into the culvert were closed. By August the reservoir was 40 ft deep. Engineers decided it would be unsafe to fill the reservoir much higher for the first two years. Lack of rain the following year depleted the reservoir. The year after, two small leaks appeared in the dam and the water had to be let out for repairs. The adverse financial impact of these events was followed by the opening of the Pennsylvania Railroad service between Johnstown and Pittsburgh in 1852. With rail service able to deliver goods faster, cheaper and more reliably, the canal was doomed. The State put the whole system up for sale and the railroad purchased it along with the South Fork Dam in 1857.
The dam suffered a major break on June 10, 1862, when the up-stream portion of the stone culvert running under the dam collapsed. There was little damage to property downstream, but a large section of the dam over the damaged portion of the culvert collapsed and was washed away.
For the next thirteen years the dam stood abandoned. The South Fork Creek past through the remains of the downstream section of the culvert which was still covered with eight feet of the embankment, but from there the gap reached up and out till it was almost 200 feet wide at the top.
In 1875 the Pennsylvania Railroad sold the damaged dam and 500 acres of surrounding property. The new owner removed the cast iron valves and pipes and sold them for scrap. In 1879 the property was sold to a Mr. Benjamin Ruff, who wished to repair the dam and create a summer resort.
Ruff's plan was simple. He would fill in the gap and rebuild the dam to its original height. When the lake filled, the excess water could be carried off by the existing spill-way. On October 15, 1879 fifty men were hired and reconstruction on the dam began. Ruff convinced 15 prominent men from the Pittsburgh area that his enterprise would be one of the finest resorts in the country. On November 15, 1879, they were granted a charter under the name of the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club.
In the meantime the upstream entrance of the remaining part of the culvert was boarded up and any type of fill that could be purchased from local landowners was used, including mud, brush, tree stumps, hay, and even a few wagon loads of horse manure. On December 25, after five days of rain, the repairs to the dam were swept away. Undeterred, work on the breast was resumed in April 1880, but this time with slightly more appropriate methods.
A man who had some experience building railway embankments was employed to supervise the work. A double thickness of hemlock pilings was placed across the culvert entrance. Earth and large stone were dumped into the downstream part of the gap. This embankment was built up until it was high enough to enable a road to be graded out to it. Then rock, clay, shale and earth were hauled out and dumped.
Because the discharge system had been removed and sold for scrap, the water rising in the lake found its way to the stone embankment and started washing away any earth that was mixed with the stone. Hay, straw and cut brush were placed across the upstream face to stop the seepage. Then, earth and clay were dumped over the hay and straw to create the watertight section of the dam.
No rolling or puddling of the earth was done as in the original construction. The deposited material was little more than a colossal railway embankment without the strength or watertightness of the original. Whenever the lake waters reached the top of the repairs, a large wooden flume was used to carry the excess water over the top of the rising embankment.
About a mile upstream from the dam, on what would be the western shore of the lake, a forty-seven room club house was under construction along with some fine Queen Anne "cottages," boat houses and waterfront walkways.
In March 1881, the repaired part of the dam was higher than the bottom of the original spillway and, for the first time, water began flowing through it. By summer the repairs were completed, the lake was stocked with fish and the club house opened.
The road from the town of South Fork to the site reached a point where the top of the dam was only a few yards to its right with the spillway on its left. Since water was now flowing through the spillway and prevented visitors from crossing to the eastern shore of the lake, a bridge was constructed.
The foundation of the bridge consisted of 14 wooden supports 10 ft high at the entrance to the spillway, 99 ft wide at this point. Although the spillway had an average width of 85 ft, there was one area, 175 feet below the bridge, where the width along the bottom was only 69 ft. With these measurements in mind, it would appear that the bridge supports would not affect the discharge of the water. Thus, an array of iron screens to prevent the escape of fish were attached to the bridge supports.
Any traffic going to the club crossed over the top of the dam where the crest was fairly flat and 10 ft wide. If a wagon or carriage was on the breast, and another wanted to cross from the opposite direction, it would have to wait until the other completed its crossing. So, the top of the original dam was cut down 2 ft, giving a road width of 17 feet.
For the next eight years, the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club was one of the finest summer resorts in Pennsylvania. South Fork, the town from which it drew it's name, was the nearest place of any size. The drive from the South Fork railroad station to the dam was about two miles and visitors were always impressed by the scenic beauty.
Once the dam was reached, drivers would drive out to the center and customarily stop so that the passengers could enjoy the view. To the right, the dam dropped off abruptly and the water that had flowed through the spillway could be seen in the South Fork Creek down in the valley glistening through the top of the trees. To the left the bank sloped only a few yards to the impounded waters which ran on up the valley for two and a half miles.
At the western end of the dam the road turned left, never far from the water, and a mile further on were the main grounds of the club where the width of the lake was nearly a mile. When the water was "up" in the spring, the lake covered over 400 acres and was over seventy feet deep in places.
To all but a few, everything appeared tranquil and safe in the spring of 1889. However, conditions were ripe for disaster.
The lake behind the dam had a perimeter of 7 miles to hold 20 million tons of water, meaning the weight of the repair section was four times heavier than the force of the water on it. A mixture of earth, rock and clay, properly placed, forms a satisfactory material for a dam, but leaks will weaken them over a period of time. A few small leaks had developed at the South Fork Dam, but with the absence of a discharge system, the water in the lake could not be lowered to make the repairs in a proper manner.
The bridge supports, with the iron screens attached to them, were not as innocent as they appeared. The screens ran across the bottom of the bridge supports and reduced the discharge of water to the height of the bars alone by 40%. There was also an array of lighter screens at both ends of the bridge. It was suspected by some that the 99 ft bridge was more of an obstruction than the narrowest point of the spillway.
In the original plans, a spillway depth of 10 ft below the crest of the dam was specified. When the club lowered the crest of the dam 2 ft to widen the roadway, they reduced the capacity of the spillway by one-fifth. In addition, because of the way in which the dam was reconstructed in 1880 and 1881, the repaired section settled until it was at least six inches lower than the ends of the dam.
It is not uncommon for the best earth dams to settle, especially at their centers, the weakest point where the water pressure is the greatest, but with proper maintenance they can be built back up. At the South Fork Dam the part of the embankment which should have been the highest, if only by inches, was the lowest.
On May 28, 1889, a storm started out of Nebraska moving east. When the storm struck the Johnstown-South Fork area two days later it was the worst down-pour that had ever been recorded in that section of the country. The US Signal Service estimated that 6-10 inches of rain fell in 24 hours over the entire section.
During the night small creeks became roaring torrents ripping out trees and debris. Telegraph lines were downed and rail-lines were washed out. Before daybreak the Conemaugh River that ran through Johnstown was about to leave its banks. Fourteen miles up the valley the amount of water entering the lake behind the South Fork Dam was 10,000 cubic feet a minute. The obstructed spillway, however, only carried off 6,000 cfm.
On the morning of May 31, the situation at the dam was serious. The lake had risen over 2 ft during the night and by 7 a.m. was two and a half feet from the top of the dam. Because of the heavy run-off the screens at the spillway became clogged with debris. Every minute 4000 cubic feet of water was building up in the lake. Caretakers attempted to remove the tons of debris that were clogging the screens. By 9 a.m. the water in the lake was still rising an inch every ten minutes. By 10 a.m. the water was less than a foot from the top of the dam.
A group of day laborers were put to work with picks, shovels and a plow and horse on the western hillside. They hoped to cut a trench so the water through it would cut a deeper and wider channel so that the rising waters would not cross over the dam. However, the hillside was 175 ft across and the workman succeeded in making a trench only 2 ft wide and 14 in. deep before hitting rock.
As the water inched upward the fears of some of the observers present were confirmed. It was obvious that the dam "dished a little" at the center where the reconstruction had occurred. As the water rose and started flowing through the small trench on the western hillside, the men and plow were sent to throw up a ridge of earth on the sagging portion of the dam in hopes of heightening it. They made little progress, for even with all the rain the roadway was packed solid.
The workmen on the eastern end of the dam removed the floor boards of the bridge and began ripping out some of the screens and heavy debris. The lake had now grown from its normal 407 acres to 450 acres.
By 11 a.m. the water was even with the sagging center of the dam and started to eat at the small mound that had been thrown up by the plow. Workmen frantically tried to keep the water from breaking through. The water through the trench the plow had cut was running almost knee-deep and its force had widened the trench but had not cut much deeper as hoped. The tremendous weight of the water in the lake forced several serious leaks to develop on the outer face of the reconstructed section. Some of the workmen refused to venture out on the dam.
Around 11:30 a.m. the small mound of earth thrown up by the plow suddenly gave way and the water started over the dam, quickly widening out to 50 ft. Parke, the "resident engineer" at the dam, rushed off on horseback to inform the telegraph operator at South Fork to warn the people in the valley below that the dam might collapse. (Due to the confusion of downed lines and the disbelief of key persons, the message was never taken seriously.)
Around 12:30 p.m. Parke returned and as he crossed the dam he found the water to be running over the center a "good six inches" and about 300 feet across, while the water in the trench had widened to about 25 feet and risen to 20 inches.
The weight and speed of the water over the dam, 123 tons per second, did little damage to the top of the hard packed roadway but it tore at the outer face of the embankment. The force of the water kept washing away the earth and rock, working its way back toward the lake. Not even the heaviest stone could long resist and was soon carried away. By two o'clock, the water had cut a huge step in the very center of the dam. The reconstructed embankment became thinner and thinner. At 3:10pm the entire repaired section of the dam, one witness reported, "simply moved away."
The impounded waters rushed through the opening and tore into the sides of the unprotected original embankment widening the gap a 100 ft on either side. The whole lake, over 20 million tons of water, emptied in 45 minutes. The destruction and death it caused in the valley below would capture the attention of the whole nation and the world.
Investigators subsequently concluded that "the failure was due to the flow of water over the top of the earthen embankment caused by the insufficiency of the waste-way [spillway] to discharge the flood water." But the club and its members were not deemed responsible. The investigators concluded that the original dam had been designed and constructed poorly. The collapse of the culvert in 1862 that caused a break and even the two leaks that had occurred 35 years before were referred to as "slight breaks" in support of this conclusion.
They also concluded that if the original discharge system had been installed and was discharging to its full capacity, if the spillway had not been obstructed, if the dam had not been cut down and even if the dam had not sagged, the water still would have crossed over the dam and caused a failure.
In essence, the investigators concluded that William E Morris, the original designer of the dam who had died, and the original contractors who were also dead, had designed and built a dam without regard to freak storms (that the area had always been known for) and did not provide a large enough spillway.
Based on what was known about the original construction at that time, there is evidence to support this conclusion. However, the original specifications and construction of the dam were not as the investigators believed. The original dam had been designed and constructed in a way that the "most extensive rainfall of the century" would not have caused water to cross over the dam.
Due to the lowering of the dam during reconstruction and the sagging center, the
effectiveness of an emergency-spillway in the area where the trench was cut was
eliminated. The existence of the "emergency spillway" was never revealed to the
investigators. Following are five arguments to support this finding:
In May of 1841, the state had stopped construction for financial reasons. Before work was resumed, Morris was asked to prepare new plans for the dam and specified again that the "waste-way or ways" should not have a width of less than 150 ft.
It is inconceivable that any engineer would approve the completion of a dam with a waste-way width of 69 ft at its narrowest point, when the specifications called for 150 ft.
2. The original construction contact for the Western Reservoir (South Fork Dam) was allotted to James K. Morehead and H. B. Packer on Jan 31, 1840 and called for the "Excavation of earth and rock in wastes ....50,000 yards" (note the term "wastes").
The main spillway as it existed then and does now, is a quadrant of a circle 310 ft down the center, an 85 ft average width, with a maximum height of 52 ft on the hillside and 20 ft on the dam side. Noting the contours of the hill and the way the spillway fans out as it reaches up, it becomes apparent, even today, that the removal of earth and rock in this waste could not have exceeded 34,000 cu yd. The remaining 16,000 cu yd was consumed excavating the emergency spillway on the western hillside which was only 175 ft across.
3. All observers, including Parke, in the vicinity of the dam before the break, stated that water started flowing through the western hillside before it started over the dam. Parke claims that his men were responsible for this because they had dug and plowed down the western hillside "no more than knee deep," or about 14 inches. Yet later testimony revealed that the dam sagged at least 6 in. and 2 ft of height was taken off the top of the dam to make the road wider; however, there was no need to cut the 175 ft hillside down to make the road wider.
If the western hillside was not meant to be lower than the top of the original dam, they would have had to dig down at least 30 in. when water was already flowing over the dam. Remember, Parke himself, in a letter to the ASCE in June 1889, stated that when he crossed to the western side (when water was running over the center of the dam at a depth of a "good six inches") he found the water in the trench to have risen to a depth of about 20 inches. Even if no attempt was made to dig or plow the western hillside down, the water would still have started through there before it started over the dam which sagged at least six inches and had been cut down two feet.
Ironically, the area where the trench was cut was 175 ft across and so level that
workmen could cut a trench in less than an hour that caused water to flow through it. Only
superb engineering could have created this situation (the top of the dam that the club
reconstructed was not that level). Also, Parke, not knowing that the hillside was an
emergency spillway constructed over rock, was amazed that the flow of the water through
the trench did not cut a deeper channel. In addition, on the outlet side of the trench,
the escaping water never touched the constructed portion of the dam which could have
weakened it. Here, too, superior engineering was evident.
In 1889, the average altitude of stations 1 and 1 + 50, where the flow of water through the trench could not have affected the level, is 1,610.24 ft. The average altitude between stations 2 and 10 on the dam (eliminating the washed out section) is 1,610.76 ft. To get a roadway width of 17 ft, 2 ft of embankment was taken off between stations 2 and 10. Add the 2 ft and the average altitude on the dam would be 1,612.76--this gives a higher altitude of 2.52 ft above the hillside stations of 1 and 1 + 50 where there was no need to take off two feet when the club made the road wider.
There is no doubt that there had been an emergency spillway in and around stations 1 and 1 + 50 at least 70 ft wide and at least 3 ft deep (the missing 0.48 ft can be explained by noting the contours of the landscape between station 0 and 1.) This area slopes into the area of stations 1 and 1 + 50 which could have easily been filled by erosion during the 37 years from the date of construction until the break. Even one year after the '89 break, P.E Brendlinger from the ASCE investigated the site and could find "but slight traces" of the trench that had been 20 in. deep and 25 ft wide.
5. On the eastern end of the dam where the only altitude measurement was taken (station 10+50), where there would have been no need to cut down the dam to make the road wider since the northern side of the road is the natural hillside, the altitude is 1,613.34. Since no cutting down would have occurred there, and since only 4 ft of puddled dam construction was needed on the lake side, the chances of subsidence would be minuscule. Therefore, at least 1,613.34 ft had to be the altitude of the original construction since the ends of the original dam would not be lower than the center. Ironically, 1,613.34 is almost exactly 10 ft above the bottom of the main spillway (1,603.4 ft), just as Morris specified in 1839 and 1841. That would have left an emergency spill-way on the western hillside over 3 1/2 ft deep and over 70 ft wide--wide enough to have carried off the waters of a storm greater than the one of 1889.
If the reconstruction of the South Fork Dam had been rebuilt to the original
specifications and construction, the disaster of May 31, 1889, would never have occurred.
Granted; a break like the one in 1862, when the culvert collapsed, could have caused great
damage. However, the South Fork Dam as originally designed by Morris and constructed by
Morehead and Packer would not have had water pass over it--the worst possible thing that
can befall an earth and rock dam--the unquestionable cause of the 1889 Johnstown disaster.
This is a view from what remains of the breast of the dam today looking toward the buildings in the far background (the white area on the hillside), where once the clubhouse sat at the water's edge.
This is a view of what remains of the breast of the dam today while standing on the east section looking across (the washed out portion) to what remains of the west section.
The above article appeared on pages 63-66 of CIVIL ENGINEERING (May 1988) in edited form.
For more information--links below.
Johnstown Flood Museum (Special thanks for the use of the two black & white photos.)
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0.000938629265874... | 2 | THE CAUSE OF THE
A new look at the Historic Johnstown Flood of 1889
by WALTER SMOTER FRANK
This article also appears on Scribd at
The article below appeared on pages 63-66 of CIVIL ENGINEERING (May 1988)
in edited form
On May 31,1889, a wall of rushing water three stories high struck the city of Johnstown Pennsylvania. In its wake most of the town was destroyed and over 2,200 people were killed. In lives lost, the Johnstown PA Flood was the worst civil disaster the United States ever suffered. Every state in the nation sent some type of relief, and the people of sixteen foreign countries, including Russia, Turkey, France, Britain, Australia and Germany sent aid. For Clara Barton, the disaster was the first big test for her newly organized American Red Cross.
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Considerable care went into the construction of the new dam. The valley floor was cleared down to the bare rock. The upstream part of the embankment was built up of successive rolled layers of clay and earth, 2 ft thick, which were "puddled" by letting them sit under water for a few days to create a watertight barrier. The exposed upstream puddled ends were then covered with shale and small stone called "riprap" so that the action of the water that would fill the reservoir would not wash against the dam and weaken it. To add weight and strength to the embankment, the core of the dam consisted of shale, earth and small stones while the downstream section of the dam was built up of mostly rock, many weighing over 10 tons. Officially referred to as the Western Reservoir, the site became locally known as the South Fork Dam and was a "mature example of earth and rock dams."
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The completed dam stretched 918 ft across the valley and was over 72 ft high. The earth and rock used in its construction was 10 ft thick at the top and over 220 ft thick on the valley floor. Running under the center of the dam was a huge stone culvert used to discharge water into the South Fork Creek to be fed to the canal via the Little Conemaugh River. The water into the culvert was controlled by five sets of valves and cast iron pipes 2 ft in diameter. In the event that the discharge culvert could not handle water flows during heavy rains, a 85 ft wide spill-way was cut through the solid rock of the hillside near the eastern end of the dam.
In June of 1852, the valves controlling the flow of water into the culvert were closed. By August the reservoir was 40 ft deep. Engineers decided it would be unsafe to fill the reservoir much higher for the first two years. Lack of rain the following year depleted the reservoir. The year after, two small leaks appeared in the dam and the water had to be let out for repairs. The adverse financial impact of these events was followed by the opening of the Pennsylvania Railroad service between Johnstown and Pittsburgh in 1852. With rail service able to deliver goods faster, cheaper and more reliably, the canal was doomed. The State put the whole system up for sale and the railroad purchased it along with the South Fork Dam in 1857.
The dam suffered a major break on June 10, 1862, when the up-stream portion of the stone culvert running under the dam collapsed. There was little damage to property downstream, but a large section of the dam over the damaged portion of the culvert collapsed and was washed away.
For the next thirteen years the dam stood abandoned. The South Fork Creek past through the remains of the downstream section of the culvert which was still covered with eight feet of the embankment, but from there the gap reached up and out till it was almost 200 feet wide at the top.
In 1875 the Pennsylvania Railroad sold the damaged dam and 500 acres of surrounding property. The new owner removed the cast iron valves and pipes and sold them for scrap. In 1879 the property was sold to a Mr. Benjamin Ruff, who wished to repair the dam and create a summer resort.
Ruff's plan was simple. He would fill in the gap and rebuild the dam to its original height. When the lake filled, the excess water could be carried off by the existing spill-way. On October 15, 1879 fifty men were hired and reconstruction on the dam began. Ruff convinced 15 prominent men from the Pittsburgh area that his enterprise would be one of the finest resorts in the country. On November 15, 1879, they were granted a charter under the name of the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club.
In the meantime the upstream entrance of the remaining part of the culvert was boarded up and any type of fill that could be purchased from local landowners was used, including mud, brush, tree stumps, hay, and even a few wagon loads of horse manure. On December 25, after five days of rain, the repairs to the dam were swept away. Undeterred, work on the breast was resumed in April 1880, but this time with slightly more appropriate methods.
A man who had some experience building railway embankments was employed to supervise the work. A double thickness of hemlock pilings was placed across the culvert entrance. Earth and large stone were dumped into the downstream part of the gap. This embankment was built up until it was high enough to enable a road to be graded out to it. Then rock, clay, shale and earth were hauled out and dumped.
Because the discharge system had been removed and sold for scrap, the water rising in the lake found its way to the stone embankment and started washing away any earth that was mixed with the stone. Hay, straw and cut brush were placed across the upstream face to stop the seepage. Then, earth and clay were dumped over the hay and straw to create the watertight section of the dam.
No rolling or puddling of the earth was done as in the original construction. The deposited material was little more than a colossal railway embankment without the strength or watertightness of the original. Whenever the lake waters reached the top of the repairs, a large wooden flume was used to carry the excess water over the top of the rising embankment.
About a mile upstream from the dam, on what would be the western shore of the lake, a forty-seven room club house was under construction along with some fine Queen Anne "cottages," boat houses and waterfront walkways.
In March 1881, the repaired part of the dam was higher than the bottom of the original spillway and, for the first time, water began flowing through it. By summer the repairs were completed, the lake was stocked with fish and the club house opened.
The road from the town of South Fork to the site reached a point where the top of the dam was only a few yards to its right with the spillway on its left. Since water was now flowing through the spillway and prevented visitors from crossing to the eastern shore of the lake, a bridge was constructed.
The foundation of the bridge consisted of 14 wooden supports 10 ft high at the entrance to the spillway, 99 ft wide at this point. Although the spillway had an average width of 85 ft, there was one area, 175 feet below the bridge, where the width along the bottom was only 69 ft. With these measurements in mind, it would appear that the bridge supports would not affect the discharge of the water. Thus, an array of iron screens to prevent the escape of fish were attached to the bridge supports.
Any traffic going to the club crossed over the top of the dam where the crest was fairly flat and 10 ft wide. If a wagon or carriage was on the breast, and another wanted to cross from the opposite direction, it would have to wait until the other completed its crossing. So, the top of the original dam was cut down 2 ft, giving a road width of 17 feet.
For the next eight years, the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club was one of the finest summer resorts in Pennsylvania. South Fork, the town from which it drew it's name, was the nearest place of any size. The drive from the South Fork railroad station to the dam was about two miles and visitors were always impressed by the scenic beauty.
Once the dam was reached, drivers would drive out to the center and customarily stop so that the passengers could enjoy the view. To the right, the dam dropped off abruptly and the water that had flowed through the spillway could be seen in the South Fork Creek down in the valley glistening through the top of the trees. To the left the bank sloped only a few yards to the impounded waters which ran on up the valley for two and a half miles.
At the western end of the dam the road turned left, never far from the water, and a mile further on were the main grounds of the club where the width of the lake was nearly a mile. When the water was "up" in the spring, the lake covered over 400 acres and was over seventy feet deep in places.
To all but a few, everything appeared tranquil and safe in the spring of 1889. However, conditions were ripe for disaster.
The lake behind the dam had a perimeter of 7 miles to hold 20 million tons of water, meaning the weight of the repair section was four times heavier than the force of the water on it. A mixture of earth, rock and clay, properly placed, forms a satisfactory material for a dam, but leaks will weaken them over a period of time. A few small leaks had developed at the South Fork Dam, but with the absence of a discharge system, the water in the lake could not be lowered to make the repairs in a proper manner.
The bridge supports, with the iron screens attached to them, were not as innocent as they appeared. The screens ran across the bottom of the bridge supports and reduced the discharge of water to the height of the bars alone by 40%. There was also an array of lighter screens at both ends of the bridge. It was suspected by some that the 99 ft bridge was more of an obstruction than the narrowest point of the spillway.
In the original plans, a spillway depth of 10 ft below the crest of the dam was specified. When the club lowered the crest of the dam 2 ft to widen the roadway, they reduced the capacity of the spillway by one-fifth. In addition, because of the way in which the dam was reconstructed in 1880 and 1881, the repaired section settled until it was at least six inches lower than the ends of the dam.
It is not uncommon for the best earth dams to settle, especially at their centers, the weakest point where the water pressure is the greatest, but with proper maintenance they can be built back up. At the South Fork Dam the part of the embankment which should have been the highest, if only by inches, was the lowest.
On May 28, 1889, a storm started out of Nebraska moving east. When the storm struck the Johnstown-South Fork area two days later it was the worst down-pour that had ever been recorded in that section of the country. The US Signal Service estimated that 6-10 inches of rain fell in 24 hours over the entire section.
During the night small creeks became roaring torrents ripping out trees and debris. Telegraph lines were downed and rail-lines were washed out. Before daybreak the Conemaugh River that ran through Johnstown was about to leave its banks. Fourteen miles up the valley the amount of water entering the lake behind the South Fork Dam was 10,000 cubic feet a minute. The obstructed spillway, however, only carried off 6,000 cfm.
On the morning of May 31, the situation at the dam was serious. The lake had risen over 2 ft during the night and by 7 a.m. was two and a half feet from the top of the dam. Because of the heavy run-off the screens at the spillway became clogged with debris. Every minute 4000 cubic feet of water was building up in the lake. Caretakers attempted to remove the tons of debris that were clogging the screens. By 9 a.m. the water in the lake was still rising an inch every ten minutes. By 10 a.m. the water was less than a foot from the top of the dam.
A group of day laborers were put to work with picks, shovels and a plow and horse on the western hillside. They hoped to cut a trench so the water through it would cut a deeper and wider channel so that the rising waters would not cross over the dam. However, the hillside was 175 ft across and the workman succeeded in making a trench only 2 ft wide and 14 in. deep before hitting rock.
As the water inched upward the fears of some of the observers present were confirmed. It was obvious that the dam "dished a little" at the center where the reconstruction had occurred. As the water rose and started flowing through the small trench on the western hillside, the men and plow were sent to throw up a ridge of earth on the sagging portion of the dam in hopes of heightening it. They made little progress, for even with all the rain the roadway was packed solid.
The workmen on the eastern end of the dam removed the floor boards of the bridge and began ripping out some of the screens and heavy debris. The lake had now grown from its normal 407 acres to 450 acres.
By 11 a.m. the water was even with the sagging center of the dam and started to eat at the small mound that had been thrown up by the plow. Workmen frantically tried to keep the water from breaking through. The water through the trench the plow had cut was running almost knee-deep and its force had widened the trench but had not cut much deeper as hoped. The tremendous weight of the water in the lake forced several serious leaks to develop on the outer face of the reconstructed section. Some of the workmen refused to venture out on the dam.
Around 11:30 a.m. the small mound of earth thrown up by the plow suddenly gave way and the water started over the dam, quickly widening out to 50 ft. Parke, the "resident engineer" at the dam, rushed off on horseback to inform the telegraph operator at South Fork to warn the people in the valley below that the dam might collapse. (Due to the confusion of downed lines and the disbelief of key persons, the message was never taken seriously.)
Around 12:30 p.m. Parke returned and as he crossed the dam he found the water to be running over the center a "good six inches" and about 300 feet across, while the water in the trench had widened to about 25 feet and risen to 20 inches.
The weight and speed of the water over the dam, 123 tons per second, did little damage to the top of the hard packed roadway but it tore at the outer face of the embankment. The force of the water kept washing away the earth and rock, working its way back toward the lake. Not even the heaviest stone could long resist and was soon carried away. By two o'clock, the water had cut a huge step in the very center of the dam. The reconstructed embankment became thinner and thinner. At 3:10pm the entire repaired section of the dam, one witness reported, "simply moved away."
The impounded waters rushed through the opening and tore into the sides of the unprotected original embankment widening the gap a 100 ft on either side. The whole lake, over 20 million tons of water, emptied in 45 minutes. The destruction and death it caused in the valley below would capture the attention of the whole nation and the world.
Investigators subsequently concluded that "the failure was due to the flow of water over the top of the earthen embankment caused by the insufficiency of the waste-way [spillway] to discharge the flood water." But the club and its members were not deemed responsible. The investigators concluded that the original dam had been designed and constructed poorly. The collapse of the culvert in 1862 that caused a break and even the two leaks that had occurred 35 years before were referred to as "slight breaks" in support of this conclusion.
They also concluded that if the original discharge system had been installed and was discharging to its full capacity, if the spillway had not been obstructed, if the dam had not been cut down and even if the dam had not sagged, the water still would have crossed over the dam and caused a failure.
In essence, the investigators concluded that William E Morris, the original designer of the dam who had died, and the original contractors who were also dead, had designed and built a dam without regard to freak storms (that the area had always been known for) and did not provide a large enough spillway.
Based on what was known about the original construction at that time, there is evidence to support this conclusion. However, the original specifications and construction of the dam were not as the investigators believed. The original dam had been designed and constructed in a way that the "most extensive rainfall of the century" would not have caused water to cross over the dam.
Due to the lowering of the dam during reconstruction and the sagging center, the
effectiveness of an emergency-spillway in the area where the trench was cut was
eliminated. The existence of the "emergency spillway" was never revealed to the
investigators. Following are five arguments to support this finding:
In May of 1841, the state had stopped construction for financial reasons. Before work was resumed, Morris was asked to prepare new plans for the dam and specified again that the "waste-way or ways" should not have a width of less than 150 ft.
It is inconceivable that any engineer would approve the completion of a dam with a waste-way width of 69 ft at its narrowest point, when the specifications called for 150 ft.
2. The original construction contact for the Western Reservoir (South Fork Dam) was allotted to James K. Morehead and H. B. Packer on Jan 31, 1840 and called for the "Excavation of earth and rock in wastes ....50,000 yards" (note the term "wastes").
The main spillway as it existed then and does now, is a quadrant of a circle 310 ft down the center, an 85 ft average width, with a maximum height of 52 ft on the hillside and 20 ft on the dam side. Noting the contours of the hill and the way the spillway fans out as it reaches up, it becomes apparent, even today, that the removal of earth and rock in this waste could not have exceeded 34,000 cu yd. The remaining 16,000 cu yd was consumed excavating the emergency spillway on the western hillside which was only 175 ft across.
3. All observers, including Parke, in the vicinity of the dam before the break, stated that water started flowing through the western hillside before it started over the dam. Parke claims that his men were responsible for this because they had dug and plowed down the western hillside "no more than knee deep," or about 14 inches. Yet later testimony revealed that the dam sagged at least 6 in. and 2 ft of height was taken off the top of the dam to make the road wider; however, there was no need to cut the 175 ft hillside down to make the road wider.
If the western hillside was not meant to be lower than the top of the original dam, they would have had to dig down at least 30 in. when water was already flowing over the dam. Remember, Parke himself, in a letter to the ASCE in June 1889, stated that when he crossed to the western side (when water was running over the center of the dam at a depth of a "good six inches") he found the water in the trench to have risen to a depth of about 20 inches. Even if no attempt was made to dig or plow the western hillside down, the water would still have started through there before it started over the dam which sagged at least six inches and had been cut down two feet.
Ironically, the area where the trench was cut was 175 ft across and so level that
workmen could cut a trench in less than an hour that caused water to flow through it. Only
superb engineering could have created this situation (the top of the dam that the club
reconstructed was not that level). Also, Parke, not knowing that the hillside was an
emergency spillway constructed over rock, was amazed that the flow of the water through
the trench did not cut a deeper channel. In addition, on the outlet side of the trench,
the escaping water never touched the constructed portion of the dam which could have
weakened it. Here, too, superior engineering was evident.
In 1889, the average altitude of stations 1 and 1 + 50, where the flow of water through the trench could not have affected the level, is 1,610.24 ft. The average altitude between stations 2 and 10 on the dam (eliminating the washed out section) is 1,610.76 ft. To get a roadway width of 17 ft, 2 ft of embankment was taken off between stations 2 and 10. Add the 2 ft and the average altitude on the dam would be 1,612.76--this gives a higher altitude of 2.52 ft above the hillside stations of 1 and 1 + 50 where there was no need to take off two feet when the club made the road wider.
There is no doubt that there had been an emergency spillway in and around stations 1 and 1 + 50 at least 70 ft wide and at least 3 ft deep (the missing 0.48 ft can be explained by noting the contours of the landscape between station 0 and 1.) This area slopes into the area of stations 1 and 1 + 50 which could have easily been filled by erosion during the 37 years from the date of construction until the break. Even one year after the '89 break, P.E Brendlinger from the ASCE investigated the site and could find "but slight traces" of the trench that had been 20 in. deep and 25 ft wide.
5. On the eastern end of the dam where the only altitude measurement was taken (station 10+50), where there would have been no need to cut down the dam to make the road wider since the northern side of the road is the natural hillside, the altitude is 1,613.34. Since no cutting down would have occurred there, and since only 4 ft of puddled dam construction was needed on the lake side, the chances of subsidence would be minuscule. Therefore, at least 1,613.34 ft had to be the altitude of the original construction since the ends of the original dam would not be lower than the center. Ironically, 1,613.34 is almost exactly 10 ft above the bottom of the main spillway (1,603.4 ft), just as Morris specified in 1839 and 1841. That would have left an emergency spill-way on the western hillside over 3 1/2 ft deep and over 70 ft wide--wide enough to have carried off the waters of a storm greater than the one of 1889.
If the reconstruction of the South Fork Dam had been rebuilt to the original
specifications and construction, the disaster of May 31, 1889, would never have occurred.
Granted; a break like the one in 1862, when the culvert collapsed, could have caused great
damage. However, the South Fork Dam as originally designed by Morris and constructed by
Morehead and Packer would not have had water pass over it--the worst possible thing that
can befall an earth and rock dam--the unquestionable cause of the 1889 Johnstown disaster.
This is a view from what remains of the breast of the dam today looking toward the buildings in the far background (the white area on the hillside), where once the clubhouse sat at the water's edge.
This is a view of what remains of the breast of the dam today while standing on the east section looking across (the washed out portion) to what remains of the west section.
The above article appeared on pages 63-66 of CIVIL ENGINEERING (May 1988) in edited form.
For more information--links below.
Johnstown Flood Museum (Special thanks for the use of the two black & white photos.)
Top of page
Contact: frburba-gmail.com (due to auto-generated spam, you supply the @ in
place of the -). | 5,472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the outskirts of Pompeii, hundreds of mysterious stelae (gravestones), shaped in a very unusual way, can be found. Known as columelle (from the Latin meaning 'small column'), they are rectangular standing stones topped with disks almost resembling human busts – and they have long puzzled archaeologists.
The city of Pompeii, best known for the massive volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD which buried it under ash, was incorporated into the Roman state in the early 1<sup>st century BCE, along with other cities of southern Campania (south of the Bay of Naples). This happened after a bitter Social War fought between Rome and its former allies in Italy, from 91 to 88 BCE.
Because columelle are so different to the kind of stelae that have been documented in Rome from the same period, archaeologists have previously argued that these gravestones must pre-date Roman times.
They have described them as objects that were unique to the funerary culture and belief system of Pompeii and its neighbours, saying that they were first created when these cities were independent from Rome.
However, analyses have revealed that the earliest known columelle were erected no earlier than the mid-1<sup>st century BCE, after Pompeii had already been conquered by Rome.
This paradox is intriguing to archaeologists, who have attempted to learn more about the origins and purpose of columelle, and why they emerged in Roman times. A lot of research has been done to find out how they were used, but little has been done to study them in the broader Roman context.
In a study now published by the American Journal of Archaeology, Allison Emmerson, from the Faculty of Classical Studies at Tulane University (USA), puts forward new hypotheses to solve the puzzle of what the columelle meant to the people of Southern Campania and why they appear older than they really are.
Unique cultural identity
In the pre-Roman period, the cities south of the Bay of Naples are thought to have been culturally distinct from the rest of Italy.
The aftermath of the Social War was characterised by great social and political upheaval. The entire Italian peninsula, including those cities, were for the first time all united under Rome, putting this unique culture in peril.
Emmerson argues that columelle were not pre-Roman objects which were then carried into the Roman era – as many other scholars had previously said. Instead, she writes that columelle began appearing around Pompeii and other southern cities early after the unification of the peninsula with a specific purpose
"The unification of the cities under Rome brought major shifts in the way Italians thought about themselves and each other. One reaction to the change was that Italian cities and regions — now politically and culturally united for the first time — began to emphasise their individual histories," Emmerson told IBTimes UK.
Columelle often marked one burial within a larger group tomb - usually the tomb of a single family, including their slaves. Their shape, so similar to that of a human bust, is much simpler than that of other gravestones from the same period, and as such, columelle appear to date back to more ancient times.
But Emmerson's research suggests that columelle were not as old as they might seem. Since none dating back to pre-Roman times have been discovered, there seems to be little evidence to say they formed part of a funerary culture unique to Pompeii and neighbouring cities before the Social War.
Rather, these gravestones erected after the war, seem to be a sort of political statement to show the rest of the Peninsula that these cities were unique, despite having been integrated into the Roman state.
"As often happens in times when humans look back to the 'good old days' that process brought with it some exaggeration, reimagining, and even invention of the past. Basically, they wanted to emphasize aspects of their culture that made them distinct. The evidence suggests that columelle, like other objects and traditions that appeared at the same time, were meant to seem old, but were actually new," Emmerson added.
According to her, there might have been even more reason to come up with objects such as columelle to create the image of an age old, unified region. The largest and most important city, Nuceria of southern Campania, had indeed sided with Rome in the Social War, unlike all the others. "So the columelle almost try to delete that recent history, glossing over what must have been bitter divisions between the people of the region," Emmerson said. | <urn:uuid:efed1827-a4ab-4e37-9a35-38720119b39f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/mysterious-gravestones-near-pompeii-reflect-political-upheaval-ancient-rome-1628332 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.983018 | 948 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.5716683864593... | 2 | On the outskirts of Pompeii, hundreds of mysterious stelae (gravestones), shaped in a very unusual way, can be found. Known as columelle (from the Latin meaning 'small column'), they are rectangular standing stones topped with disks almost resembling human busts – and they have long puzzled archaeologists.
The city of Pompeii, best known for the massive volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD which buried it under ash, was incorporated into the Roman state in the early 1<sup>st century BCE, along with other cities of southern Campania (south of the Bay of Naples). This happened after a bitter Social War fought between Rome and its former allies in Italy, from 91 to 88 BCE.
Because columelle are so different to the kind of stelae that have been documented in Rome from the same period, archaeologists have previously argued that these gravestones must pre-date Roman times.
They have described them as objects that were unique to the funerary culture and belief system of Pompeii and its neighbours, saying that they were first created when these cities were independent from Rome.
However, analyses have revealed that the earliest known columelle were erected no earlier than the mid-1<sup>st century BCE, after Pompeii had already been conquered by Rome.
This paradox is intriguing to archaeologists, who have attempted to learn more about the origins and purpose of columelle, and why they emerged in Roman times. A lot of research has been done to find out how they were used, but little has been done to study them in the broader Roman context.
In a study now published by the American Journal of Archaeology, Allison Emmerson, from the Faculty of Classical Studies at Tulane University (USA), puts forward new hypotheses to solve the puzzle of what the columelle meant to the people of Southern Campania and why they appear older than they really are.
Unique cultural identity
In the pre-Roman period, the cities south of the Bay of Naples are thought to have been culturally distinct from the rest of Italy.
The aftermath of the Social War was characterised by great social and political upheaval. The entire Italian peninsula, including those cities, were for the first time all united under Rome, putting this unique culture in peril.
Emmerson argues that columelle were not pre-Roman objects which were then carried into the Roman era – as many other scholars had previously said. Instead, she writes that columelle began appearing around Pompeii and other southern cities early after the unification of the peninsula with a specific purpose
"The unification of the cities under Rome brought major shifts in the way Italians thought about themselves and each other. One reaction to the change was that Italian cities and regions — now politically and culturally united for the first time — began to emphasise their individual histories," Emmerson told IBTimes UK.
Columelle often marked one burial within a larger group tomb - usually the tomb of a single family, including their slaves. Their shape, so similar to that of a human bust, is much simpler than that of other gravestones from the same period, and as such, columelle appear to date back to more ancient times.
But Emmerson's research suggests that columelle were not as old as they might seem. Since none dating back to pre-Roman times have been discovered, there seems to be little evidence to say they formed part of a funerary culture unique to Pompeii and neighbouring cities before the Social War.
Rather, these gravestones erected after the war, seem to be a sort of political statement to show the rest of the Peninsula that these cities were unique, despite having been integrated into the Roman state.
"As often happens in times when humans look back to the 'good old days' that process brought with it some exaggeration, reimagining, and even invention of the past. Basically, they wanted to emphasize aspects of their culture that made them distinct. The evidence suggests that columelle, like other objects and traditions that appeared at the same time, were meant to seem old, but were actually new," Emmerson added.
According to her, there might have been even more reason to come up with objects such as columelle to create the image of an age old, unified region. The largest and most important city, Nuceria of southern Campania, had indeed sided with Rome in the Social War, unlike all the others. "So the columelle almost try to delete that recent history, glossing over what must have been bitter divisions between the people of the region," Emmerson said. | 935 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article is all about the King who led resistance to the Germans. Read the below given article in detail.
Prince Albert was born in April 1875, the second and youngest son of Philip Count of Flanders. The future king was related to both the British and the Geman roal families.
A young king with concerns about national security
The Belgians chose Albert to succeed his childless uncle Leopald II in 1909. Although Belgium was neutral Albert I did have concerns about his country's security as tensions increased between the Great Powers, especially France and Germany.
Leading resistance to the Germans
Despite Belgian neutrality the Germans invaded Belgium in order to attack France more effectively by outflanking French defences. Albert had refused to allow the Germans free passage to attack the French. He bravely led Belgian resistance to the advancing Germans. By attacking Belgium the Germans gave Britain grounds to enter the First World War.
Once the Germans took the fortress at Liege their advance through Belgium was swift.
Only with British and French help did the area around Ypres remain in Belgian hands. Albert continued to command Belgian forces until the end of the war in November 1918.
After the war rebuilding a shattered nation
The role he played in resisting the Germans made him popular with his subjects, as did his considerable efforts to reconstruct the national economy. He wa happy wih the Vesailles Traty a the Germans had to pay reparations to Belgium. The treaty also ceded several German villages to Belgium.
A Premature death
He in died in February 1934 due to a climbing accident. He was given a state funeral, equally mourned by his Flemish and French speaking subjects. Perhaps if had still been alive in the Second World War defeat to the Germans would not have divided the country so stongly.
A legacy to build on
He was succeded by his son Leopald III, who did not carry on resisting the Gemans in 1940. Instead Leopald actively collaborated with the occupation forces. Leopald eventually abdicated as the French speaking provinces no longer considered him fit to rule. Albert's grandson Boudwain did much to restore the reputation of the monarchy to the levels seen under Albert I. His younger grandson Albert II is the current king.
This article is all about Japanese crown jewels. Read the below given article to study about them in detail..
History is usually written as the his story of our historical heroes - individuals, whose eventful lives and achievements make it worth to remember and document them. However, in the process of limiting our history to the stories of such greats, we miss out on the way civilizations organize themselves.
“Sometimes, beautiful arts arose from silly shadings “ . No doubt that our present metal phase has stone-copper phase as a base. | <urn:uuid:6f068d46-fd1a-44e4-a1bd-4cc32fd77e8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/albert-i | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.980724 | 578 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.034453056752... | 1 | This article is all about the King who led resistance to the Germans. Read the below given article in detail.
Prince Albert was born in April 1875, the second and youngest son of Philip Count of Flanders. The future king was related to both the British and the Geman roal families.
A young king with concerns about national security
The Belgians chose Albert to succeed his childless uncle Leopald II in 1909. Although Belgium was neutral Albert I did have concerns about his country's security as tensions increased between the Great Powers, especially France and Germany.
Leading resistance to the Germans
Despite Belgian neutrality the Germans invaded Belgium in order to attack France more effectively by outflanking French defences. Albert had refused to allow the Germans free passage to attack the French. He bravely led Belgian resistance to the advancing Germans. By attacking Belgium the Germans gave Britain grounds to enter the First World War.
Once the Germans took the fortress at Liege their advance through Belgium was swift.
Only with British and French help did the area around Ypres remain in Belgian hands. Albert continued to command Belgian forces until the end of the war in November 1918.
After the war rebuilding a shattered nation
The role he played in resisting the Germans made him popular with his subjects, as did his considerable efforts to reconstruct the national economy. He wa happy wih the Vesailles Traty a the Germans had to pay reparations to Belgium. The treaty also ceded several German villages to Belgium.
A Premature death
He in died in February 1934 due to a climbing accident. He was given a state funeral, equally mourned by his Flemish and French speaking subjects. Perhaps if had still been alive in the Second World War defeat to the Germans would not have divided the country so stongly.
A legacy to build on
He was succeded by his son Leopald III, who did not carry on resisting the Gemans in 1940. Instead Leopald actively collaborated with the occupation forces. Leopald eventually abdicated as the French speaking provinces no longer considered him fit to rule. Albert's grandson Boudwain did much to restore the reputation of the monarchy to the levels seen under Albert I. His younger grandson Albert II is the current king.
This article is all about Japanese crown jewels. Read the below given article to study about them in detail..
History is usually written as the his story of our historical heroes - individuals, whose eventful lives and achievements make it worth to remember and document them. However, in the process of limiting our history to the stories of such greats, we miss out on the way civilizations organize themselves.
“Sometimes, beautiful arts arose from silly shadings “ . No doubt that our present metal phase has stone-copper phase as a base. | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery is one of the many vices that were characterized by the early white people. They would make slaves out of the blacks, who would work on their farms and take care of their houses. The black people would work on the odd jobs. Interestingly, they would never be allowed to learn how to read and write. They were only allowed to live with the whites as their servants, but the issues of reading were heavily discouraged. This was a very contemptuous theme, because one would argue that there would have been no difference if the blacks learned how to read and write. Could they become poorer employees or what difference would it have made? Or is it true that one cannot enslave a learned person? This could have been the fear that the white landowners feared, hence ensured that the slaves never learned to read and write.
Buy Learned Slaves? No Way essay paper online
Language is important in the process of communication and integration of a nation. When people speak the same language, they tend to develop specific ties that are exclusive to them and they would tend to exclude people that do not understand their language. On the other hand, people who cannot use a similar language often find it hard to live together, unless they are compelled by the situation. The slaves in the United States were drawn from different regions of Africa. They did not have a common language, and this ensured that they could not scheme against their masters. Only two common things held them: their masters and the fact that they were slaves. The whites ensured that these people could not learn to read or write. When Douglass’ master learnt that his wife was teaching Douglass how to read, he was infuriated and commanded the wife not to continue doing this (Douglass, 101). This meant that he knew that the enlightenment of the black slaves and their ability to read and write would end the reign of the white over the slaves. Baldwin (1979) shared the same sentiments where he noted that
If two black people, at that bitter hour of the world's history, had been able to speak to each other, the institution of chattel slavery could never have lasted as long as it did.
This was an indication that the white masters knew the dangers of educating the blacks.
When Douglass learnt how to read and write, he started to read the Sheridan’s work that was geared towards emancipating the Catholics (Douglass, 100). He clearly denounced slavery, and the thoughts that he wrote down stung Douglass’ thoughts and feelings over the enslavers. His eyes became wider; his thoughts broader; and he fully understood why his Master Hughes did not want him learn how to read and write. Douglass (1845) expressed the extent of his ability to read and write, as
As I read and contemplated the subject, behold! that very discontentment which Master Hugh had predicted would follow my learning to read had already come, to torment and sting my soul to unutterable anguish (Douglass, 103).
This was his turning point from where he started visualizing freedom, and realizing that he was a human being who deserved to be free. He started to think on how he could run away, but his desire to learn how to write kept him waiting. He was not supposed to learn from anyone, hence it took him years of hard work and sacrifice to learn how to write and perfect his hand writing, to match that of his master’s son.
Language barrier is among the most nagging challenges that people from different decent face today when they come together. When such people are not offered a common language, they often come up with their own language that they would use to their advantage. In a strictly controlled environment that bars them from learning, they develop coded languages that would be dangerous to masters because they remain on the side of the unknown. This is how the American English developed, where people were limited to access the knowledge, and they had to come up with their own words in order to fill what the rest of the white population gave them (Baldwin, 1979). Baldwin wrote
There was a moment, in time, and in this place, when my brother, or my mother, or my father, or my sister, had to convey to me, for example, the danger in which I was standing from the white man standing just behind me, and to convey this with a speed, and in a language, that the white man could not possibly understand, and that, indeed, he cannot understand, until today (Baldwin, 1979).
Learning to read and write is a very important aspect in human development. It helps one to improve their social and intellectual being and perceptions, hence improving their thinking and social efficiencies. As most people correctly put it, education is a key to life. Whether one uses the intellectual knowledge gained or not, but a learned person is always better than an unlearned person. Education is therefore seen as a liberation tool, especially to people who regard it as expensive, or prefer making money to learning. They should know that an educated beggar might prove to be way better than an uneducated tycoon. People should be advised to learn in every opportune moment they get because it eliminates the mental slavery as opposed to the old physical slavery.
Related Free Communication and Media Essays
- Integrated Marketing Communication
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- Cross Cultural Communication
- Knowing Your Audience and Communication Release
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0.3732349276... | 1 | Slavery is one of the many vices that were characterized by the early white people. They would make slaves out of the blacks, who would work on their farms and take care of their houses. The black people would work on the odd jobs. Interestingly, they would never be allowed to learn how to read and write. They were only allowed to live with the whites as their servants, but the issues of reading were heavily discouraged. This was a very contemptuous theme, because one would argue that there would have been no difference if the blacks learned how to read and write. Could they become poorer employees or what difference would it have made? Or is it true that one cannot enslave a learned person? This could have been the fear that the white landowners feared, hence ensured that the slaves never learned to read and write.
Buy Learned Slaves? No Way essay paper online
Language is important in the process of communication and integration of a nation. When people speak the same language, they tend to develop specific ties that are exclusive to them and they would tend to exclude people that do not understand their language. On the other hand, people who cannot use a similar language often find it hard to live together, unless they are compelled by the situation. The slaves in the United States were drawn from different regions of Africa. They did not have a common language, and this ensured that they could not scheme against their masters. Only two common things held them: their masters and the fact that they were slaves. The whites ensured that these people could not learn to read or write. When Douglass’ master learnt that his wife was teaching Douglass how to read, he was infuriated and commanded the wife not to continue doing this (Douglass, 101). This meant that he knew that the enlightenment of the black slaves and their ability to read and write would end the reign of the white over the slaves. Baldwin (1979) shared the same sentiments where he noted that
If two black people, at that bitter hour of the world's history, had been able to speak to each other, the institution of chattel slavery could never have lasted as long as it did.
This was an indication that the white masters knew the dangers of educating the blacks.
When Douglass learnt how to read and write, he started to read the Sheridan’s work that was geared towards emancipating the Catholics (Douglass, 100). He clearly denounced slavery, and the thoughts that he wrote down stung Douglass’ thoughts and feelings over the enslavers. His eyes became wider; his thoughts broader; and he fully understood why his Master Hughes did not want him learn how to read and write. Douglass (1845) expressed the extent of his ability to read and write, as
As I read and contemplated the subject, behold! that very discontentment which Master Hugh had predicted would follow my learning to read had already come, to torment and sting my soul to unutterable anguish (Douglass, 103).
This was his turning point from where he started visualizing freedom, and realizing that he was a human being who deserved to be free. He started to think on how he could run away, but his desire to learn how to write kept him waiting. He was not supposed to learn from anyone, hence it took him years of hard work and sacrifice to learn how to write and perfect his hand writing, to match that of his master’s son.
Language barrier is among the most nagging challenges that people from different decent face today when they come together. When such people are not offered a common language, they often come up with their own language that they would use to their advantage. In a strictly controlled environment that bars them from learning, they develop coded languages that would be dangerous to masters because they remain on the side of the unknown. This is how the American English developed, where people were limited to access the knowledge, and they had to come up with their own words in order to fill what the rest of the white population gave them (Baldwin, 1979). Baldwin wrote
There was a moment, in time, and in this place, when my brother, or my mother, or my father, or my sister, had to convey to me, for example, the danger in which I was standing from the white man standing just behind me, and to convey this with a speed, and in a language, that the white man could not possibly understand, and that, indeed, he cannot understand, until today (Baldwin, 1979).
Learning to read and write is a very important aspect in human development. It helps one to improve their social and intellectual being and perceptions, hence improving their thinking and social efficiencies. As most people correctly put it, education is a key to life. Whether one uses the intellectual knowledge gained or not, but a learned person is always better than an unlearned person. Education is therefore seen as a liberation tool, especially to people who regard it as expensive, or prefer making money to learning. They should know that an educated beggar might prove to be way better than an uneducated tycoon. People should be advised to learn in every opportune moment they get because it eliminates the mental slavery as opposed to the old physical slavery.
Related Free Communication and Media Essays
- Integrated Marketing Communication
- Communication Strategies
- Intel and Social Media
- Cross Cultural Communication
- Knowing Your Audience and Communication Release
- Organizational Culture and Communication
- Non-Verbal Communication in Business
- Social Media Helps College Students Academically
- Information and the Manager's Job
- Facebook and Human Resource
Most popular orders | 1,160 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since it was debuted by the College Board in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT.
The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, non-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service, which until recently developed the SAT as well. The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college. The SAT was originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula, but several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016, and College Board president, David Coleman, has said that he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards. | <urn:uuid:c014f4a8-1c69-403c-9b54-3dab0409db75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thinkbigglobal.in/sat.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.986 | 207 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.1439893543... | 2 | The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since it was debuted by the College Board in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT.
The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, non-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service, which until recently developed the SAT as well. The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college. The SAT was originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula, but several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016, and College Board president, David Coleman, has said that he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards. | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This essay will look at how Robert Bruce gained control of Scotland and if he was responsible for securing Scotland’s independence from England. It will look at John Comyn’s death and the implications this had for Robert Bruce. This essay will also look at the battle of Bannockburn, the importance of this battle and if it had the desired outcome Bruce wanted.
From 1296 Scotland was without a King and under attack from Edward I there were only two real main contenders for the Scottish throne, John Comyn and Robert Bruce. Bruce and Comyn had sworn an oath of loyalty to Edward I and up until 1306 some may have questioned Robert Bruce’s loyalties regarding Scotland, sometimes he fought for Edward I and sometimes against him. One thing is clear Robert Bruce never wavered from the aspiration of his family to gain the throne of Scotland. (Hodder Gibson pg. 59)
On the 10th February 1306 Robert Bruce and John Comyn met at the church of the Grey Friars in Dumfries. Story’s differ among historians about why the two met, but it is said the two met to discuss the land-for-crown deal where one would become King of Scotland and the other would receive their land. It is also said Bruce wanted to confront Comyn on why he betrayed him by telling Edward I his motives. According to some chronicles the discussion became heated and Bruce struck Comyn with a knife injuring him, then Bruce’s men murdered Comyn. Killing Comyn in a church was the greatest sacrilege imaginable which meant instant excommunication for Bruce. This could have meant the end for Bruce not only was Edward I out for his blood but now the Comyn family and supports of the Comyn’s would be too. Bruce done the only thing he could in this situation and went confessed his sins to Bishop Wishart and received a full pardon for his actions. (Hodder & Gibson pg.58,59)
Bruce now had the full support of the church and with John Comyn dead Bruce was free to become king of Scotland and on the 25 March 1306 Bruce was inaugurated King of Scots at Scone. The community of the realm was divided due to Bruce’s actions and the legitimacy of Robert Bruce Kingship was questionable. It could be said that Bruce was not a real king, since Edward I had removed the Stone of Destiny on which Scottish Kings had been inaugurated. Not long after Bruce was made King he was forced to flee Scotland, as being captured by either the Comyn family or Edward I was looking inevitable. Edward I had also captured most of King Roberts family. However, this did not sway Bruce from his main objective of him being recognised as King of Scotland and Scotland’s Independence and in 1307 King Robert returned to reclaim his Kingdom. (Hodder & Gibson pg. 61, 62)
On King Roberts return to Scotland he raised a small army which had a few successes this showed King Roberts determination and proof he was going to continue with the struggle. Not long after King Robert’s return Edward I died not before making his son Edward II promise to continue the invasion of Scotland. However, Edward II and his now army withdrew and returned to England for his coronation. With the English gone King Robert’s focus was now back on the Comyn fraction and civil war broke out in Scotland; King Robert knew he had to defeat the Comyn family if he was to win the support of the Kingdom. King Robert only option was to be ruthless and to strike into the centre of Comyn land and gain the castle of Inverlochy. Bruce made lighting attacks on the Comyn’s and followers castles, these somewhat risky tactics seemed to work which resulted in some of the Comyn fraction falling. Bruce lastly defeated John Comyn Earl of Buchan at Inverurie and it was clear the Comyn Fraction’s power was over. (Hodder & Gibson pg.63, 64) (Class slides, Bruce’s strategy 1307-1308)
The tactics King Robert used in the North East were somewhat unusual he burned down houses had livestock slaughtered. Food stores were stolen or destroyed and anyone still loyal to the Comyn fraction was killed potentially wiping out Comyn influence. The motives behind these tactics were to deprive his enemies of any takeover or refuge. In the South West Bruce had sent Sir William Douglas to attack the enemy castles and to gather men for the cause. Bruce’s next fast and furious attack was on the Western Isles which ended with the battle of the Pass of Brander in autumn 1308. In 1309 King Robert held his first Parliament this was the first time Bruce was recognised as King of Scotland. Scotland; bishops and many nobles issued a declaration of joint approval of his Kingship, this was called the declaration of the clergy. The declaration indicates how much support King Robert has in Scotland but it also shows that some nobles were still against him or neutral to his cause. (Hodder & Gibson pg.65)
From the period of 1309 civil war in Scotland was almost over but the war against England was back on. Edward II raised an army to march from Berwick deep into Scotland but King Robert would not commit to an open battle and the English King was forced to retreat to Berwick for the winter months. However, the Scots were raiding across the border these tactics were often used by King Robert and this forced Edward II to retreat to try and protect the countries in northern England. From 1312 to 1314 most of the castles that remained in English hands were starting to fall to King Robert with Stirling and Berwick remaining to be captured. Edward II would not accept losing Stirling castle so the battle of Bannockburn was set to commence. (Hodder & Gibson pg. 66)
The battle of Bannockburn was a significant event in King Bruce legacy and there has been a lot of propaganda surrounding the battle, one thing is clear King Robert and his army did defeat the English. There are many factors to why Bruce defeated the English. The fact that Bruce knew the land to which he was fighting on and used this to his advantage by digging pot holes to manipulate the English into positions that best suited him and to dismantle the cavalry. Bruce also used schiltrons which the English could not cope with as they could not break through the schiltrons forcing the English to fall back. The morale in the Scottish camp was at a high as they were well trained and it had been a long time since they had been defeated under Bruce’s leadership. Bruce seemed to have more determination and his army had a purpose to which they were fighting for unlike the English. | <urn:uuid:9cd968ab-02c6-401e-a54f-481e5094fb0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aero-net.org/this-of-this-battle-and-if-it-had/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.990056 | 1,374 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.0299828890711... | 1 | This essay will look at how Robert Bruce gained control of Scotland and if he was responsible for securing Scotland’s independence from England. It will look at John Comyn’s death and the implications this had for Robert Bruce. This essay will also look at the battle of Bannockburn, the importance of this battle and if it had the desired outcome Bruce wanted.
From 1296 Scotland was without a King and under attack from Edward I there were only two real main contenders for the Scottish throne, John Comyn and Robert Bruce. Bruce and Comyn had sworn an oath of loyalty to Edward I and up until 1306 some may have questioned Robert Bruce’s loyalties regarding Scotland, sometimes he fought for Edward I and sometimes against him. One thing is clear Robert Bruce never wavered from the aspiration of his family to gain the throne of Scotland. (Hodder Gibson pg. 59)
On the 10th February 1306 Robert Bruce and John Comyn met at the church of the Grey Friars in Dumfries. Story’s differ among historians about why the two met, but it is said the two met to discuss the land-for-crown deal where one would become King of Scotland and the other would receive their land. It is also said Bruce wanted to confront Comyn on why he betrayed him by telling Edward I his motives. According to some chronicles the discussion became heated and Bruce struck Comyn with a knife injuring him, then Bruce’s men murdered Comyn. Killing Comyn in a church was the greatest sacrilege imaginable which meant instant excommunication for Bruce. This could have meant the end for Bruce not only was Edward I out for his blood but now the Comyn family and supports of the Comyn’s would be too. Bruce done the only thing he could in this situation and went confessed his sins to Bishop Wishart and received a full pardon for his actions. (Hodder & Gibson pg.58,59)
Bruce now had the full support of the church and with John Comyn dead Bruce was free to become king of Scotland and on the 25 March 1306 Bruce was inaugurated King of Scots at Scone. The community of the realm was divided due to Bruce’s actions and the legitimacy of Robert Bruce Kingship was questionable. It could be said that Bruce was not a real king, since Edward I had removed the Stone of Destiny on which Scottish Kings had been inaugurated. Not long after Bruce was made King he was forced to flee Scotland, as being captured by either the Comyn family or Edward I was looking inevitable. Edward I had also captured most of King Roberts family. However, this did not sway Bruce from his main objective of him being recognised as King of Scotland and Scotland’s Independence and in 1307 King Robert returned to reclaim his Kingdom. (Hodder & Gibson pg. 61, 62)
On King Roberts return to Scotland he raised a small army which had a few successes this showed King Roberts determination and proof he was going to continue with the struggle. Not long after King Robert’s return Edward I died not before making his son Edward II promise to continue the invasion of Scotland. However, Edward II and his now army withdrew and returned to England for his coronation. With the English gone King Robert’s focus was now back on the Comyn fraction and civil war broke out in Scotland; King Robert knew he had to defeat the Comyn family if he was to win the support of the Kingdom. King Robert only option was to be ruthless and to strike into the centre of Comyn land and gain the castle of Inverlochy. Bruce made lighting attacks on the Comyn’s and followers castles, these somewhat risky tactics seemed to work which resulted in some of the Comyn fraction falling. Bruce lastly defeated John Comyn Earl of Buchan at Inverurie and it was clear the Comyn Fraction’s power was over. (Hodder & Gibson pg.63, 64) (Class slides, Bruce’s strategy 1307-1308)
The tactics King Robert used in the North East were somewhat unusual he burned down houses had livestock slaughtered. Food stores were stolen or destroyed and anyone still loyal to the Comyn fraction was killed potentially wiping out Comyn influence. The motives behind these tactics were to deprive his enemies of any takeover or refuge. In the South West Bruce had sent Sir William Douglas to attack the enemy castles and to gather men for the cause. Bruce’s next fast and furious attack was on the Western Isles which ended with the battle of the Pass of Brander in autumn 1308. In 1309 King Robert held his first Parliament this was the first time Bruce was recognised as King of Scotland. Scotland; bishops and many nobles issued a declaration of joint approval of his Kingship, this was called the declaration of the clergy. The declaration indicates how much support King Robert has in Scotland but it also shows that some nobles were still against him or neutral to his cause. (Hodder & Gibson pg.65)
From the period of 1309 civil war in Scotland was almost over but the war against England was back on. Edward II raised an army to march from Berwick deep into Scotland but King Robert would not commit to an open battle and the English King was forced to retreat to Berwick for the winter months. However, the Scots were raiding across the border these tactics were often used by King Robert and this forced Edward II to retreat to try and protect the countries in northern England. From 1312 to 1314 most of the castles that remained in English hands were starting to fall to King Robert with Stirling and Berwick remaining to be captured. Edward II would not accept losing Stirling castle so the battle of Bannockburn was set to commence. (Hodder & Gibson pg. 66)
The battle of Bannockburn was a significant event in King Bruce legacy and there has been a lot of propaganda surrounding the battle, one thing is clear King Robert and his army did defeat the English. There are many factors to why Bruce defeated the English. The fact that Bruce knew the land to which he was fighting on and used this to his advantage by digging pot holes to manipulate the English into positions that best suited him and to dismantle the cavalry. Bruce also used schiltrons which the English could not cope with as they could not break through the schiltrons forcing the English to fall back. The morale in the Scottish camp was at a high as they were well trained and it had been a long time since they had been defeated under Bruce’s leadership. Bruce seemed to have more determination and his army had a purpose to which they were fighting for unlike the English. | 1,399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pages that link here:
Bronze mirrors play, ed a very important role in the history of world’s most populated country in the world – China. With tradition of using bronze mirrors for over 3000 years, these famous objects became one of the integral parts of their history, culture and art.
The earliest mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian and have been dated to around 6000 B.C. The first glass mirrors were produced in 1 A.D by Romans.
Mirrors were one of the most important religious artifacts in the famous Mesoamerican Culture that thrived in Central America. Here you can find out origins of those mirrors, their meaning, and the way they impacted people who worshiped them.
The history of mirrors starts in the 6000 BC. This earliest man made mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian that was found in Anatolia - modern day Turkey. | <urn:uuid:533169c2-ffbc-4b5b-b756-b8b261b24db8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mirrorhistory.com/picture/bronze-iron-age-mirror/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.980627 | 185 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.4910571575164... | 1 | Pages that link here:
Bronze mirrors play, ed a very important role in the history of world’s most populated country in the world – China. With tradition of using bronze mirrors for over 3000 years, these famous objects became one of the integral parts of their history, culture and art.
The earliest mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian and have been dated to around 6000 B.C. The first glass mirrors were produced in 1 A.D by Romans.
Mirrors were one of the most important religious artifacts in the famous Mesoamerican Culture that thrived in Central America. Here you can find out origins of those mirrors, their meaning, and the way they impacted people who worshiped them.
The history of mirrors starts in the 6000 BC. This earliest man made mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian that was found in Anatolia - modern day Turkey. | 189 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The key to success, according to General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, was 'Mystery.' Jackson, on more than one occasion, was known to have sent large bodies of troops off without revealing their destination. He would give directions in pieces until they finally reached their objective.
A southern soldier would receive fifty dollars in Confederate currency for a three-year re-enlistment under the Confederate Furlough and Bounty Act of 1862.
General Robert E. Lee became president of Washington College after the Civil War. His annual salary was $1,500.00. He served at the school for five years, up until his death. Lee transformed Washington College from a small, undistinguished school into one of the first American colleges to offer courses in business, journalism, and Spanish.
"The Civil War was a battle of ideas interrupted by artillery."
~ Anonymous, but quoted by E. B. Long
in The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861-1865
The prisoner exchange agreement of July 1862 stated that one general would be exchanged for sixty privates. | <urn:uuid:ac2c1f57-140a-4d78-a4d3-368040afa6a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.grcwrt.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.984784 | 225 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.146087691187... | 1 | The key to success, according to General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, was 'Mystery.' Jackson, on more than one occasion, was known to have sent large bodies of troops off without revealing their destination. He would give directions in pieces until they finally reached their objective.
A southern soldier would receive fifty dollars in Confederate currency for a three-year re-enlistment under the Confederate Furlough and Bounty Act of 1862.
General Robert E. Lee became president of Washington College after the Civil War. His annual salary was $1,500.00. He served at the school for five years, up until his death. Lee transformed Washington College from a small, undistinguished school into one of the first American colleges to offer courses in business, journalism, and Spanish.
"The Civil War was a battle of ideas interrupted by artillery."
~ Anonymous, but quoted by E. B. Long
in The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861-1865
The prisoner exchange agreement of July 1862 stated that one general would be exchanged for sixty privates. | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Here at CEFA we are getting very excited that stage 2 of the Australian Constitution Centre will soon be funded by the Australian Government. We will be delivering exciting new resources to support the Australian Curriculum Civics and Citizenship years 4 to 10. Our resources will be developed in collaboration with the Department of Education. Today’s CCF gives you a taste of some of the exciting constitutional topics our teaching and learning materials could explore.
In the 1880s Australian women did not have equal rights to men. It was difficult to attend university. In 1883 the first woman graduated from the University of Melbourne, Belle Guerin with a Bachelor of Arts and became a teacher. Women could not be lawyers or doctors or members of Parliament. It was common to pay women half the male rate for any job. When women married all their possessions were owned by their husband. Many women didn’t think their issues and problems would be taken seriously until they had the right to vote for who sat in the Parliament, the right to be MPs and make the laws.
Throughout the 1880’s women started forming rights groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the Women’s Suffrage Society and the Women’s Suffrage League to push for women’s suffrage.
The Women’s Christian Temperance Union wanted to restrict the drinking of alcohol in the Australian colonies. Domestic violence was common and in those days there were no women’s shelters or government support programs. A man could also abandon his wife and children and leave them in poverty.
Hopefully, most women were happy to be at home caring for their children and their husbands. However, some women did not choose the marriage path. As NSW suffragist Rose Scott said on numerous occasions ‘life is too short to waste it in the service of one man’. But refusing to get married was not an option for many women, especially working class women who did not get equal pay. Unless your family could afford to keep you, marriage was often the only option.
The women’s suffrage groups met in tea houses and other locations and formed campaign strategies. Some women were in support of federation, while others, like Rose Scott in New South Wales were against it. They would withhold support for federation until the colony they lived in gave them the right to vote.
Louisa Lawson started a newspaper for women in New South Wales in 1888. She employed only women and pushed for women’s rights. She was boycotted for employing an un-unionised workforce, however, her women employees were not allowed to join the union.
In Melbourne Vida Goldstein campaigned for women’s suffrage and 30,000 women signed what is known as the Monster Petition calling for women’s votes in 1891 (you can search for your own female forebears who may have signed the petition here). This alerted the people of Victoria that votes for women was not some niche issue. The petition was 260 metres long and was brought into the Parliament rolled onto a cardboard spindle.
Australia’s first Prime Minister Edmund Barton’s wife Jane was an active campaigner for federation through her work as the vice president of the Sydney Women’s Federal League. Throughout the 1890’s the Barton’s home in Sydney was an open house on Sunday evenings for federation supporters’ private gatherings.
The women’s groups in the other colonies of South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and Queensland were also campaigning. In the 1890s Catherine Helen Spence and Mary Lee from South Australia wrote letters and pamphlets and spoke at public meetings. They lobbied MPs and Ministers. In 1894 after two bills for women’s suffrage had already been defeated in the Parliament, women were given the right to vote in South Australia. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union was working hard in Western Australia and in 1899 the Parliament granted women the right to vote.
In 1897 Catherine Helen Spence was the first women to run for election in Australia as a delegate at the second constitutional convention. She ran on a platform for proportional representation. She had travelled to London and met with Thomas Hare (and J.S. Mill) and had devised a proportional voting system called the Hare-Spence system.
I maintain now, as I maintained then, that the main object of my life is proportional representation, or, to use my brother John's term, effective voting.
Spence came 22nd out of 33 candidates at the election. The South Australian (all male) delegates at the 1897-98 Constitutional Conventions were aware that they would need to ensure that women were given the vote in the Commonwealth Parliament. Otherwise South Australian women may have voted against the Constitution at the referendum.
South Australian delegate Fredrick Holder took up the charge at the Constitutional Convention. His wife Julia Holder was involved in the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and later went on to become the Australian President of the organisation. Section 41 of the Constitution was the solution. While the South Australians wanted to ensure that women in their colony (which would become a state at federation) could vote, they were careful not to tread on the toes of the delegates from the other colonies.
Section 41 Right of electors of States
No adult person who has or acquires a right to vote at elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of a State shall, while the right continues, be prevented by any law of the Commonwealth from voting at elections for either House of the Parliament of the Commonwealth.
There was a lot of discussion about whether section 41 would ensure that women in all the new states would be given the vote in the first federal electoral act. Or whether the electoral act could have different franchise in different states.
Some of the delegates thought that because the Constitution stated that federal law could not discriminate between the states and that the qualification of electors must be uniform across the States, all women would get the vote. However, there was still some ambiguity. Did this section provide uniform franchise? Could there be property or income qualification?
What was certain was that the women of South Australia and Western Australia already had the vote in their colony at federation and they could not be denied a vote in the Commonwealth Parliament. Some indigenous people also had the vote in their colony and could vote in federal elections due to section 41.
After the Yes vote at the NSW federation referendum held on 20 June 1899, the Bartons travelled to Hay in country NSW at the invitation of the Men’s and Women’s Federal Leagues. Barton acknowledged through a toast at the celebratory dinner at the Tattersall Hotel, the important work towards federation of the Women’s League and his wife.
The first Commonwealth electoral laws, The Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 gave women the vote and the right to stand for Parliament. The other four states followed the lead and in NSW in 1902, Tasmania in 1903, Queensland in 1905 and Victoria 1908 women were given the right to vote in their States as well as the federal parliament. Indigenous people who did not have the right to vote in their State before the 1902 electoral act was created were unenfranchised (explanation from Catherine Helen Spence in her 1910 autobiography: You can scarcely be disfranchised if you have never been enfranchised).
The first woman to be elected to the federal parliament was Dame Enid Lyons in 1943, the first woman to be appointed to the bench of the High Court was Mary Gaudron in 1987, the first woman to be appointed as Governor-General was Quentin Bryce in 2008, the first woman Prime Minister was Julia Gillard in 2010 and the first woman to obtain the role of Chief Justice of the High Court is Susan Kiefel in 2017.
Image source: State Library of South Australia.
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0.03834743797... | 20 | Here at CEFA we are getting very excited that stage 2 of the Australian Constitution Centre will soon be funded by the Australian Government. We will be delivering exciting new resources to support the Australian Curriculum Civics and Citizenship years 4 to 10. Our resources will be developed in collaboration with the Department of Education. Today’s CCF gives you a taste of some of the exciting constitutional topics our teaching and learning materials could explore.
In the 1880s Australian women did not have equal rights to men. It was difficult to attend university. In 1883 the first woman graduated from the University of Melbourne, Belle Guerin with a Bachelor of Arts and became a teacher. Women could not be lawyers or doctors or members of Parliament. It was common to pay women half the male rate for any job. When women married all their possessions were owned by their husband. Many women didn’t think their issues and problems would be taken seriously until they had the right to vote for who sat in the Parliament, the right to be MPs and make the laws.
Throughout the 1880’s women started forming rights groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the Women’s Suffrage Society and the Women’s Suffrage League to push for women’s suffrage.
The Women’s Christian Temperance Union wanted to restrict the drinking of alcohol in the Australian colonies. Domestic violence was common and in those days there were no women’s shelters or government support programs. A man could also abandon his wife and children and leave them in poverty.
Hopefully, most women were happy to be at home caring for their children and their husbands. However, some women did not choose the marriage path. As NSW suffragist Rose Scott said on numerous occasions ‘life is too short to waste it in the service of one man’. But refusing to get married was not an option for many women, especially working class women who did not get equal pay. Unless your family could afford to keep you, marriage was often the only option.
The women’s suffrage groups met in tea houses and other locations and formed campaign strategies. Some women were in support of federation, while others, like Rose Scott in New South Wales were against it. They would withhold support for federation until the colony they lived in gave them the right to vote.
Louisa Lawson started a newspaper for women in New South Wales in 1888. She employed only women and pushed for women’s rights. She was boycotted for employing an un-unionised workforce, however, her women employees were not allowed to join the union.
In Melbourne Vida Goldstein campaigned for women’s suffrage and 30,000 women signed what is known as the Monster Petition calling for women’s votes in 1891 (you can search for your own female forebears who may have signed the petition here). This alerted the people of Victoria that votes for women was not some niche issue. The petition was 260 metres long and was brought into the Parliament rolled onto a cardboard spindle.
Australia’s first Prime Minister Edmund Barton’s wife Jane was an active campaigner for federation through her work as the vice president of the Sydney Women’s Federal League. Throughout the 1890’s the Barton’s home in Sydney was an open house on Sunday evenings for federation supporters’ private gatherings.
The women’s groups in the other colonies of South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and Queensland were also campaigning. In the 1890s Catherine Helen Spence and Mary Lee from South Australia wrote letters and pamphlets and spoke at public meetings. They lobbied MPs and Ministers. In 1894 after two bills for women’s suffrage had already been defeated in the Parliament, women were given the right to vote in South Australia. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union was working hard in Western Australia and in 1899 the Parliament granted women the right to vote.
In 1897 Catherine Helen Spence was the first women to run for election in Australia as a delegate at the second constitutional convention. She ran on a platform for proportional representation. She had travelled to London and met with Thomas Hare (and J.S. Mill) and had devised a proportional voting system called the Hare-Spence system.
I maintain now, as I maintained then, that the main object of my life is proportional representation, or, to use my brother John's term, effective voting.
Spence came 22nd out of 33 candidates at the election. The South Australian (all male) delegates at the 1897-98 Constitutional Conventions were aware that they would need to ensure that women were given the vote in the Commonwealth Parliament. Otherwise South Australian women may have voted against the Constitution at the referendum.
South Australian delegate Fredrick Holder took up the charge at the Constitutional Convention. His wife Julia Holder was involved in the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and later went on to become the Australian President of the organisation. Section 41 of the Constitution was the solution. While the South Australians wanted to ensure that women in their colony (which would become a state at federation) could vote, they were careful not to tread on the toes of the delegates from the other colonies.
Section 41 Right of electors of States
No adult person who has or acquires a right to vote at elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of a State shall, while the right continues, be prevented by any law of the Commonwealth from voting at elections for either House of the Parliament of the Commonwealth.
There was a lot of discussion about whether section 41 would ensure that women in all the new states would be given the vote in the first federal electoral act. Or whether the electoral act could have different franchise in different states.
Some of the delegates thought that because the Constitution stated that federal law could not discriminate between the states and that the qualification of electors must be uniform across the States, all women would get the vote. However, there was still some ambiguity. Did this section provide uniform franchise? Could there be property or income qualification?
What was certain was that the women of South Australia and Western Australia already had the vote in their colony at federation and they could not be denied a vote in the Commonwealth Parliament. Some indigenous people also had the vote in their colony and could vote in federal elections due to section 41.
After the Yes vote at the NSW federation referendum held on 20 June 1899, the Bartons travelled to Hay in country NSW at the invitation of the Men’s and Women’s Federal Leagues. Barton acknowledged through a toast at the celebratory dinner at the Tattersall Hotel, the important work towards federation of the Women’s League and his wife.
The first Commonwealth electoral laws, The Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 gave women the vote and the right to stand for Parliament. The other four states followed the lead and in NSW in 1902, Tasmania in 1903, Queensland in 1905 and Victoria 1908 women were given the right to vote in their States as well as the federal parliament. Indigenous people who did not have the right to vote in their State before the 1902 electoral act was created were unenfranchised (explanation from Catherine Helen Spence in her 1910 autobiography: You can scarcely be disfranchised if you have never been enfranchised).
The first woman to be elected to the federal parliament was Dame Enid Lyons in 1943, the first woman to be appointed to the bench of the High Court was Mary Gaudron in 1987, the first woman to be appointed as Governor-General was Quentin Bryce in 2008, the first woman Prime Minister was Julia Gillard in 2010 and the first woman to obtain the role of Chief Justice of the High Court is Susan Kiefel in 2017.
Image source: State Library of South Australia.
SLSA B 56603 State Officers of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of South Australia. L - R: Maisie Hone; Mrs. Pengelley; Mrs. Edwards; Lady Julia Holder; Mary Lockwood; Elizabeth Nicholls. | 1,698 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In England the "gate" was similar to a temporary needle dam: a set of boards, called paddles, supported against the current by upright timbers called rymers which normally kept the level of water above it to navigable levels. Boats moving downstream would wait above the lock until the paddles were removed, which would allow a "flash" of water to pass through, carrying the boats with it. Upstream boats would be winched or towed through the lock with the paddles removed. Considerable skill was involved both in removing the paddles in a timely manner and navigating the boat through the lock. Flash locks of this type have been documented since at least 1295 C.E.
Flash locks were commonly built into small dams or weirs where a head of water was used for powering a mill. The lock allowed boats to pass the weir while still allowing the mill to operate when the gate was closed. However it could take up to a day or even more to restore the water levels after a boat had passed, so their use was unpopular with the millers.
As navigation increased in importance, improvements were made to the basic design, and they came to be known by various names according to where they were located. Thus on the Thames they were called navigation weirs, on the East Anglian rivers they were called staunches, those on the River Avon, Warwickshire were called water gates, and in a number of instances they were called half locks. On the River Nene and some of the tributaries of the River Great Ouse, a design using a guillotine gate in a wooden frame was used from the early seventeenth century onwards. The gate was opened by operating a large spoked wheel, connected by chains to a toothed drum.
The pound lock holds water between two gates, and is considerably easier to navigate. Pound locks have been built in China since 983, in the Netherlands from 1065 and in Britain from the 1560s. Nevertheless, a few flash locks remained after the introduction of pound locks. Flash locks on the Nene continued to be used until they were replaced in a programme of modernisation, which included building new locks, carried out between 1936 and 1941. The last flash lock on the Thames was Hart's Lock, which lasted until 1937, while on the Lower Avon, the structure of Cropthorne Water Gate lasted until the reopening of the river to navigation in 1961, although it had not been used for navigation for many years before that. Although slightly different in concept, Thames Lock at Weybridge on the Wey Navigation had an additional single gate some 100yd below the lock, which when closed raises the water level above it, allowing boats which would normally foul the cill to work through the lock. It continued in use until 1969, to enable grain barges to use the lock, and although grain traffic stopped in that year, it recommenced in 1981, when the gate was again used. The gate is still used at the lock-keeper's discretion for boats which have a draught exceeding 1.75feet.
The weirs which are the remnants of flash locks can still be seen on the River Thames though they are not used any more for navigation as regular pound locks were introduced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the last flash lock removed in 1937. The Environment Agency is now involved in a programme of replacing these, as their manual operation is considered to be dangerous, and involves lifting weights which exceed those recommended by the Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992.
Two or three paddles are stacked between each of the rymers, which slot into a beam placed on the bottom of the river. The paddles are of differing lengths allowing a very fine adjustment of the amount of water flowing through the weir.
Four of these weirs were replaced in 2009. Three were on the Thames at Mapledurham, Molesey and Radcot, while the fourth was at Blake's Lock, the first lock on the River Kennet, which is managed as part of the Thames. Three more of these weirs, at Rushey, Goring and Streatley, have been Grade II listed since 2009, but the EA is proposing to replace most of Rushey, which would be the only full-width example left.
. Nicholson Guides . Nicholson Guide Vol 7 - River Thames & the Southern Waterways . . 2006 . 978-0-00-721115-9 . harv. | <urn:uuid:733dee0d-9367-405c-a87c-cb658a50d380> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://everything.explained.today/Flash_lock/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.984848 | 917 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.00191697... | 1 | In England the "gate" was similar to a temporary needle dam: a set of boards, called paddles, supported against the current by upright timbers called rymers which normally kept the level of water above it to navigable levels. Boats moving downstream would wait above the lock until the paddles were removed, which would allow a "flash" of water to pass through, carrying the boats with it. Upstream boats would be winched or towed through the lock with the paddles removed. Considerable skill was involved both in removing the paddles in a timely manner and navigating the boat through the lock. Flash locks of this type have been documented since at least 1295 C.E.
Flash locks were commonly built into small dams or weirs where a head of water was used for powering a mill. The lock allowed boats to pass the weir while still allowing the mill to operate when the gate was closed. However it could take up to a day or even more to restore the water levels after a boat had passed, so their use was unpopular with the millers.
As navigation increased in importance, improvements were made to the basic design, and they came to be known by various names according to where they were located. Thus on the Thames they were called navigation weirs, on the East Anglian rivers they were called staunches, those on the River Avon, Warwickshire were called water gates, and in a number of instances they were called half locks. On the River Nene and some of the tributaries of the River Great Ouse, a design using a guillotine gate in a wooden frame was used from the early seventeenth century onwards. The gate was opened by operating a large spoked wheel, connected by chains to a toothed drum.
The pound lock holds water between two gates, and is considerably easier to navigate. Pound locks have been built in China since 983, in the Netherlands from 1065 and in Britain from the 1560s. Nevertheless, a few flash locks remained after the introduction of pound locks. Flash locks on the Nene continued to be used until they were replaced in a programme of modernisation, which included building new locks, carried out between 1936 and 1941. The last flash lock on the Thames was Hart's Lock, which lasted until 1937, while on the Lower Avon, the structure of Cropthorne Water Gate lasted until the reopening of the river to navigation in 1961, although it had not been used for navigation for many years before that. Although slightly different in concept, Thames Lock at Weybridge on the Wey Navigation had an additional single gate some 100yd below the lock, which when closed raises the water level above it, allowing boats which would normally foul the cill to work through the lock. It continued in use until 1969, to enable grain barges to use the lock, and although grain traffic stopped in that year, it recommenced in 1981, when the gate was again used. The gate is still used at the lock-keeper's discretion for boats which have a draught exceeding 1.75feet.
The weirs which are the remnants of flash locks can still be seen on the River Thames though they are not used any more for navigation as regular pound locks were introduced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the last flash lock removed in 1937. The Environment Agency is now involved in a programme of replacing these, as their manual operation is considered to be dangerous, and involves lifting weights which exceed those recommended by the Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992.
Two or three paddles are stacked between each of the rymers, which slot into a beam placed on the bottom of the river. The paddles are of differing lengths allowing a very fine adjustment of the amount of water flowing through the weir.
Four of these weirs were replaced in 2009. Three were on the Thames at Mapledurham, Molesey and Radcot, while the fourth was at Blake's Lock, the first lock on the River Kennet, which is managed as part of the Thames. Three more of these weirs, at Rushey, Goring and Streatley, have been Grade II listed since 2009, but the EA is proposing to replace most of Rushey, which would be the only full-width example left.
. Nicholson Guides . Nicholson Guide Vol 7 - River Thames & the Southern Waterways . . 2006 . 978-0-00-721115-9 . harv. | 970 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Walter Burroughs
In September 2016 the author was a passenger on a cruise ship which berthed at the Baltic port of Gdansk in almost the same position as a German battleship had seventy-seven years earlier – a warship that fired the first shots signifying the start of the Second World War. On a green mound above the berth and once the site of a fort shelled by the battleship now stands a poignant monument to the wartime sacrifices of the Polish people.
As dawn broke on the first day of September 1939 German forces began an assault on Poland which culminated a little over a month later in the total subversion of that country. Germany having failed to respond to requests to withdraw its forces, Britain and France coming to the aid of their Polish ally, declared war upon Germany.
In Australia two days later, on a quiet Sunday morning, Prime Minister Robert Menzies broadcast to the nation choosing the following words: Fellow Australians, it is my melancholy duty to inform you officially, that in consequence of persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her and that, as a result, Australia is also at war.Thus began our nation’s involvement in what would become the deadliest conflict in known history. But how did it all start?
Poland has had a tumultuous history with its fertile plains subject to many invasions and border disputes. As its national boundaries changed many times it is ethnically diverse with a population mainly of Polish, German and Russian origins.
In more recent times dramatic changes occurred following the First World War when, subject to the Treaty of Versailles, previous German held West Prussia largely became part of Poland and was separated from East Prussia (still retained by Germany) by a land corridor controlled by Poland. At the same time, between West and East Prussia the Free City of Danzig (later named Gdansk) was created, with the region remaining separate from Germany and Poland and under League of Nations protection. The Free City was however created to give Poland access to a major seaport and in administrative terms it came under their control.
This situation was an obvious affront to Germans and propaganda being fomented by them in the late 1930s for the freedom and unification of German peoples inflamed resentment. In 1938 Germany was able to stare down British and French opposition to ‘liberate’ its subjects from Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, and it was then only a matter of time before attention turned to Poland with its significant German speaking population.
In the immediate lead-up to this conflict, German forces now on a war footing were strategically placed within striking distance of its Polish frontier. Being aware of warmongering, Poland began a partial mobilisation of its forces. On 25 August 1939 the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein, commanded by Kapitan zur See Gustav Kleikamp, made a good-will visit to Danzig ostensibly honouring the memory of the crew of the German cruiser Magdeburg(1)which had been sunk 25 years earlier and whose dead were buried in the city. Thousands of Danzigers waved in welcome to the ship as cadets lined her decks in salute before mooring under Polish fortifications at Westerplatte. Unseen below her decks were 300 hundred heavily armed assault troops.
Launched in 1906 the 13,200 ton Schleswig-Holstein(2) was the last pre-dreadnought battleship to enter the German Navy. During WWI she saw service in the North Sea and was at the Battle of Jutland where she was damaged by enemy shell fire. Owing to her obsolescence she was one of the few major warships permitted to be retained by Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935 she was converted to a training ship for naval cadets and her main armament reduced to 4 x 11-inch and 10 x 6-inch guns supported by a smaller number of anti-aircraft weapons.
In the early hours of 01 September 1939 the battleship silently slipped her moorings and glided down stream to anchor within clear view of the Polish fort. At 04:47 when the first glimmer of daylight was observed she unleashed a bombardment upon the fort at almost point blank range. This was the signal for German forces to commence their invasion, giving rise to a new ferocious form of warfare known as ‘Blitzkrieg’ or Lightning Strike. Almost at once squadrons of Luftwaffe bombers attacked Polish airfields aiming for the destruction of aircraft before they could disperse. Next, German troops led by Panzer divisions crossed the border; other than speed their greatest asset was radio communications, allowing them to be effectively controlled.
While forbidden under treaty obligations, Polish forces had secretly reinforced the casements at Westerplatte. The fort was well defended and despite overwhelming odds from the assault troops, and an attack by Stuka dive bombers, the small Polish garrison held out for seven days. The victors were impressed by the determination of the defenders and in these early days of the war after surrender, the 200 garrison troops under command of Major Henryk Sucharaki were treated with great respect. The Polish Navy dispersed its forces to sea before they were smothered by German sea and air attacks. After dramatic escapes two of her five submarines and three of her four destroyers reached Britain. The other submarines were interned in neutral Sweden and one destroyer, in dockyard hands, was unable to leave.
Under secret protocols known as the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’ the Soviet Union on 17 September 1939 thrust its forces along an extensive western border into beleaguered Poland, thereby sealing its fate and dividing the spoils with Germany. The war, although one sided, was not without cost. Polish casualties amounted to 66,300 dead, 133,700 wounded; 587,000 prisoners were captured by Germany and another 100,000 by the Soviet Union. Russian casualties were nominal while Germany lost 16,000 dead and 32,000 wounded. However, a total of 200,000 Polish servicemen fought in the Second World War under British command. Most important were its pilots who manned some of the RAF Fighter Command’s most successful squadrons during the Battle of Britain. Some have postulated that without the support of Polish airmen the battle could have been lost, leaving the country exposed to planned invasion.
War Ends and a New Beginning
The ship that started the war came to an ignoble end. The elderly Schleswig-Holstein was bombed and sunk by British aircraft in December 1944. She was subsequently salvaged and then beached being used as a target by the Soviet Navy.
The grand medieval Hanseatic city of Danzig (Gdansk) was extensively damaged during its ‘liberation’ towards the end of WWII. Gdansk was to claim fame as the home of Lech Walesa, the Polish shipyard worker and patriot who in 1980 co-founded the ‘Solidarity Movement’. The advent of ‘Solidarity’ confronted Soviet occupation of territories in Eastern Europe eventually leading to their return to democratic government with Walesa awarded the Nobel Peace Prize as President of the Polish Republic. In 2016 a frail Lech Walesa still resides in his beloved Gdansk.
- SMS Magdeburg was a new light cruiser which early in WWI formed part of a squadron sent into the Baltic to bombard Russian positions. On 26 August 1914 while off the coast of Estonia she ran aground and as she could not be freed the decision was made to scuttle the ship and transfer her crew to an accompanying destroyer. While this was taking place she was discovered by two Russian cruisers who shelled the hapless ship when 15 German sailors were killed. On boarding the ship the Russians were able to salvage three German Naval code books which were in the process of being destroyed. One of these was passed to British authorities. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, called this a priceless document used to great advantage in predicting the movement of German ships including at the Battle of Jutland.
2.SMS Schleswig-Holstein was later berthed at the nearby German occupied port of Gdynia where she was attacked by RAF aircraft in December 1944 when 28 of her crew were killed. She was again attacked by RAF aircraft in March 1945 after which the burning ship was scuttled near the port. The ship was subsequently salvaged and then beached for use as a target by the Soviet Navy. Vizeadmiral Kleikamp was captured by British forces in May 1945 and served two years as a POW, he died in September 1952. | <urn:uuid:e1f404d9-331e-4ed1-b625-220193c7d42b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.navyhistory.org.au/author/burrw/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.982373 | 1,790 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.74688965082... | 1 | By Walter Burroughs
In September 2016 the author was a passenger on a cruise ship which berthed at the Baltic port of Gdansk in almost the same position as a German battleship had seventy-seven years earlier – a warship that fired the first shots signifying the start of the Second World War. On a green mound above the berth and once the site of a fort shelled by the battleship now stands a poignant monument to the wartime sacrifices of the Polish people.
As dawn broke on the first day of September 1939 German forces began an assault on Poland which culminated a little over a month later in the total subversion of that country. Germany having failed to respond to requests to withdraw its forces, Britain and France coming to the aid of their Polish ally, declared war upon Germany.
In Australia two days later, on a quiet Sunday morning, Prime Minister Robert Menzies broadcast to the nation choosing the following words: Fellow Australians, it is my melancholy duty to inform you officially, that in consequence of persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her and that, as a result, Australia is also at war.Thus began our nation’s involvement in what would become the deadliest conflict in known history. But how did it all start?
Poland has had a tumultuous history with its fertile plains subject to many invasions and border disputes. As its national boundaries changed many times it is ethnically diverse with a population mainly of Polish, German and Russian origins.
In more recent times dramatic changes occurred following the First World War when, subject to the Treaty of Versailles, previous German held West Prussia largely became part of Poland and was separated from East Prussia (still retained by Germany) by a land corridor controlled by Poland. At the same time, between West and East Prussia the Free City of Danzig (later named Gdansk) was created, with the region remaining separate from Germany and Poland and under League of Nations protection. The Free City was however created to give Poland access to a major seaport and in administrative terms it came under their control.
This situation was an obvious affront to Germans and propaganda being fomented by them in the late 1930s for the freedom and unification of German peoples inflamed resentment. In 1938 Germany was able to stare down British and French opposition to ‘liberate’ its subjects from Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, and it was then only a matter of time before attention turned to Poland with its significant German speaking population.
In the immediate lead-up to this conflict, German forces now on a war footing were strategically placed within striking distance of its Polish frontier. Being aware of warmongering, Poland began a partial mobilisation of its forces. On 25 August 1939 the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein, commanded by Kapitan zur See Gustav Kleikamp, made a good-will visit to Danzig ostensibly honouring the memory of the crew of the German cruiser Magdeburg(1)which had been sunk 25 years earlier and whose dead were buried in the city. Thousands of Danzigers waved in welcome to the ship as cadets lined her decks in salute before mooring under Polish fortifications at Westerplatte. Unseen below her decks were 300 hundred heavily armed assault troops.
Launched in 1906 the 13,200 ton Schleswig-Holstein(2) was the last pre-dreadnought battleship to enter the German Navy. During WWI she saw service in the North Sea and was at the Battle of Jutland where she was damaged by enemy shell fire. Owing to her obsolescence she was one of the few major warships permitted to be retained by Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935 she was converted to a training ship for naval cadets and her main armament reduced to 4 x 11-inch and 10 x 6-inch guns supported by a smaller number of anti-aircraft weapons.
In the early hours of 01 September 1939 the battleship silently slipped her moorings and glided down stream to anchor within clear view of the Polish fort. At 04:47 when the first glimmer of daylight was observed she unleashed a bombardment upon the fort at almost point blank range. This was the signal for German forces to commence their invasion, giving rise to a new ferocious form of warfare known as ‘Blitzkrieg’ or Lightning Strike. Almost at once squadrons of Luftwaffe bombers attacked Polish airfields aiming for the destruction of aircraft before they could disperse. Next, German troops led by Panzer divisions crossed the border; other than speed their greatest asset was radio communications, allowing them to be effectively controlled.
While forbidden under treaty obligations, Polish forces had secretly reinforced the casements at Westerplatte. The fort was well defended and despite overwhelming odds from the assault troops, and an attack by Stuka dive bombers, the small Polish garrison held out for seven days. The victors were impressed by the determination of the defenders and in these early days of the war after surrender, the 200 garrison troops under command of Major Henryk Sucharaki were treated with great respect. The Polish Navy dispersed its forces to sea before they were smothered by German sea and air attacks. After dramatic escapes two of her five submarines and three of her four destroyers reached Britain. The other submarines were interned in neutral Sweden and one destroyer, in dockyard hands, was unable to leave.
Under secret protocols known as the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’ the Soviet Union on 17 September 1939 thrust its forces along an extensive western border into beleaguered Poland, thereby sealing its fate and dividing the spoils with Germany. The war, although one sided, was not without cost. Polish casualties amounted to 66,300 dead, 133,700 wounded; 587,000 prisoners were captured by Germany and another 100,000 by the Soviet Union. Russian casualties were nominal while Germany lost 16,000 dead and 32,000 wounded. However, a total of 200,000 Polish servicemen fought in the Second World War under British command. Most important were its pilots who manned some of the RAF Fighter Command’s most successful squadrons during the Battle of Britain. Some have postulated that without the support of Polish airmen the battle could have been lost, leaving the country exposed to planned invasion.
War Ends and a New Beginning
The ship that started the war came to an ignoble end. The elderly Schleswig-Holstein was bombed and sunk by British aircraft in December 1944. She was subsequently salvaged and then beached being used as a target by the Soviet Navy.
The grand medieval Hanseatic city of Danzig (Gdansk) was extensively damaged during its ‘liberation’ towards the end of WWII. Gdansk was to claim fame as the home of Lech Walesa, the Polish shipyard worker and patriot who in 1980 co-founded the ‘Solidarity Movement’. The advent of ‘Solidarity’ confronted Soviet occupation of territories in Eastern Europe eventually leading to their return to democratic government with Walesa awarded the Nobel Peace Prize as President of the Polish Republic. In 2016 a frail Lech Walesa still resides in his beloved Gdansk.
- SMS Magdeburg was a new light cruiser which early in WWI formed part of a squadron sent into the Baltic to bombard Russian positions. On 26 August 1914 while off the coast of Estonia she ran aground and as she could not be freed the decision was made to scuttle the ship and transfer her crew to an accompanying destroyer. While this was taking place she was discovered by two Russian cruisers who shelled the hapless ship when 15 German sailors were killed. On boarding the ship the Russians were able to salvage three German Naval code books which were in the process of being destroyed. One of these was passed to British authorities. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, called this a priceless document used to great advantage in predicting the movement of German ships including at the Battle of Jutland.
2.SMS Schleswig-Holstein was later berthed at the nearby German occupied port of Gdynia where she was attacked by RAF aircraft in December 1944 when 28 of her crew were killed. She was again attacked by RAF aircraft in March 1945 after which the burning ship was scuttled near the port. The ship was subsequently salvaged and then beached for use as a target by the Soviet Navy. Vizeadmiral Kleikamp was captured by British forces in May 1945 and served two years as a POW, he died in September 1952. | 1,887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Evangelical Christians and World War One
It is the centenary of the end of the First World War. Let us remind ourselves of that fearful period in British history of valiant courage, self-sacrifice, unimaginable suffering and death. What can we learn from it?
Five of the Causes that Triggered the War
1. Mutual Defence Alliances
Countries throughout Europe made mutual defence agreements that would suck them into battle. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them. The slogan to justify going to war were the oft repeated words, ‘We are under treaty obligations.’ Before World War 1, no less that five alliances existed:
- Russia and Serbia
- Germany and Austria-Hungary
- France and Russia
- Britain, France, and Belgium
- Japan and Britain
So when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia moved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilising, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies.
Before the War, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention among the European countries. Because of the raw materials these areas could provide, tensions around these areas ran high. The increasing competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into the war.
As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race was well under way. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military build up. In all of the Great Powers, military spending increased greatly in the years prior to the war and all of them except Britain had conscription. Over 85% of men of military age in France and 50% in Germany had served in the army or navy. France had the highest proportion of its population in the army.
Percentage Increase in
Size of Peacetime Army 1914
The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914. The rivalry between the powers led to a building up of weapons and an increase in mutual distrust.
Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia in particular, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into the war.
Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria-Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the war. But more generally, nationalism in various countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but the extension of the war in Europe. Each country tried to prove their dominance and power.
5. Darwinism: The survival of the fittest philosophy used to justify the conflict.
Great Britain was shocked at the news of German barbarism, and such atrocities as the gassing of soldiers. How could such an advanced and cultured nation behave in this degrading fashion? The Kaiser and his generals had their headquarters in Northern France, and visiting them in 1915 was an American scientist, Professor Vernon Kellogg. He was a pacifist who had come to the war to help minister to the casualties. He met up with the German high command in the evenings and often heard from them their Darwinian creed of natural selection, that man has a brute ancestry. This was the gospel of German intellectuals. They believed that if the Germans won the war then that would show they were on the right side of the evolutionary process. If the Germans lost it would display the fact that they did not deserve to win the war and were on the wrong side in the evolutionary movement.
Such grotesque Darwinism motivated the German war machine and hearing this, Vernon Kellogg questioned his own pacifism. Those ideas, he concluded, could only be overcome by force and he reported his conversations with the German High Command to America and the world in a book entitled, Headquarters Night: a Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Head of the German Army in France. He then began his campaign for American intervention in the war. He was very influential with his contacts in Washington and so America did intervene in the war. On April 6, 1916, the USA declared war on Germany. Subsequently 100,000 American soldiers were to lose their lives in their country’s resistance to German militarism.
7. The Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
The immediate trigger of World War I that pulled in all these items (the alliances, imperialism, militarism, nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the Archduke. Their first attempt failed when a driver avoided a grenade thrown at their car. However, later that day a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip assassinated him and his wife while they were in Sarajevo, Bosnia — which was part of Austria-Hungary. This was in protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this region. Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was this assassination that provoked Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia began to mobilise due to its alliance with Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia. So the dominoes began to fall as the war expanded sucking in all those involved in the defence alliances. Europe drifted into a war that eventually resulted in 15 million dead and 20 million injured, staggering figures, hiding staggering pain and grief; new technology resulted in devastating new weaponry.
Is the First World War to be Considered a Just War?
A just war is a war which is declared for right and noble reasons and fought in a certain way. A just war is not a war that is ‘good’ as such — it is a war that Christians feel to be necessary or ‘just’ in the circumstances, when all other solutions have been tried and have failed. It is a necessary evil and a last resort.
Most Christians would support a war if it were justified by just war standards. The Just War Theory was first developed by Thomas Aquinas. He was an influential medieval theologian who wrote on the theme of whether a war should be waged, whether it could be justified, and how should it be waged. A war is generally considered to be just by such criteria as the following eight:
- A just war can only be waged as a last resort. All non-violent options must be exhausted before the use of force can be justified.
- A war is just only if it is waged by a legitimate authority. Even just causes cannot be served by actions taken by individuals or groups who do not constitute an authority sanctioned by whatever the society and outsiders to the society deem legitimate.
- A just war can only be fought to redress a wrong suffered. For example, self-defence against an armed attack is always considered to be a just cause.
- Further, a just war can only be fought with ‘right’ intentions: the only permissible objective of a just war is to redress the injury.
- A war can only be just if it is fought with a reasonable chance of success. Deaths and injury incurred in a hopeless cause are not morally justifiable.
- The ultimate goal of a just war is to re-establish peace. More specifically, the peace established after the war must be preferable to the peace that would have prevailed if the war had not been fought.
- The violence used in the war must be proportional to the injury suffered. States are prohibited from using force not necessary to attain the limited objective of addressing the injury suffered.
- The weapons used in war must discriminate between combatants and non-combatants. Civilians are never permissible targets of war, and every effort must be taken to avoid killing civilians. The deaths of civilians are justified only if they are unavoidable victims of a deliberate attack on a military target.
So there was in 1914 some difference of opinion about going to war with Germany. Christian opponents to Britain declaring war believed the war was partly caused by the haughty imperialism of both Britain and Germany. Again some believed that Germans were our kith and kin, that the British were a Germanic people, and again, that Germany was a Protestant nation, and we had much in common with Lutheran Germany compared to Roman Catholic France and Orthodox Russia. This was initially Dr. J. Gresham Machen’s conviction. He had studied for some years in Germany, loved the land and the evangelical Christians he knew there. He also loved England and was terribly torn over his duty to support the USA government in its declaration of war against Germany.
Some British men were totally pacifist by conviction. At his trial one said, ‘I’d rather be shot, sir, than shoot another man.’ There was a Christian family in a gospel church in Birkenhead with four sons. All four refused to fight. They even refused to serve on fishing trawlers to help supply food to the country, and they said they would not rescue men from a sinking ship. They were asked the classic question whether they would kill anyone who was attempting to kill their parents, or violate their sisters. They said they would not. They lost their appeal and were compelled either to sign up or to go to prison. But another Christian objected to military duties as he was a piano tuner and he believed that the explosion of shells would damage his hearing and he would be unemployed after the war. They heard his case sympathetically and he was discharged from any combative duty and he served in the medical corps.
That was the course of action taken by Professor J. Gresham Machen. He volunteered to work for the Red Cross and served near the battle front making cups of hot chocolate for the troops, playing the piano, selling stamps and writing letters home for the illiterate. The book of his letters written to his mother during those years has been published in recent years and it makes moving reading.
The most famous difference of opinion concerning whether the war was just or not took place between two of the giants of the Strict Baptists, members and officers in the same congregation. J. K. Popham was the editor of the Gospel Standard. He was the pastor of the famous Galeed church in Brighton (1914 incidentally was the year of the 100th anniversary, of Gadsby’s Hymnal). Popham believed the First World War was a just war, that the defence of the realm was a clear bounden duty of the government and the people. But one of his deacons, John Gosden who was a future editor of the Gospel Standard and a pastor at Maidstone did not believe that it was a just war. He refused to bear arms, serving instead in the Royal Army Medical Corps as a stretcher bearer. He showed such bravery in battle, when under heavy fire he went alone to tend to a young wounded soldier, so that he himself was wounded in the act. For that he was awarded the Military Medal. He used every opportunity of speaking of the Lord Jesus to the wounded and dying soldiers and that time as a stretcher-bearer was a period instrumental in confirming his call to become a pastor. Interestingly enough at the start of the Second World War he told his congregation that he had no difficulty in agreeing with the men joining up and fighting against Hitler. This was, in his estimation, a just war, unlike the First World War.
Ben Ramsbottom of Luton knew personally that generation of men who had passed through the war and become ministers. He describes them thus: ‘Men of varying abilities; men of different gifts; each one having his own line, but they were men of God, they were men of stature, they knew what they believed, they knew why they believed it, they had a testimony to bear, and the truth had been burnt home in their souls. Many of them had known what it was to serve in the trenches in the First World War. Many of them had known the severe depression after the First World War. These things had been sanctified to them.’
John Murray was just the same. He and two brothers fought in the war. Both his brothers were killed and he searched no man’s land looking for the body of his brother Tommy without success. John Murray was almost killed when a piece of shrapnel hit his head. He lost his eye and was invalided home. He was resolute in his conviction that it was a just war. Serving in France did not make him a pacifist. When America entered the Second World War students were exempt from conscription if they went to Seminary. He earnestly spoke to the new class at the beginning of the academic year, welcoming them but pointing out their duty to the powers that be, hoping that none were there simply to escape their responsibility of giving to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s. This is what he said:
The reason why in the circumstances you are able to be here is that you are bona fide aspirants for the gospel ministry. It may have appeared to you that theological study in the quiet of these halls and on this campus is remote from the most practical contribution which you could render in the exigencies of this present time.
Unless for some physical reason you are ineligible for military service I hope you have felt something of the urge to enlist in the services of your country in the present emergency. Indeed I hope you have felt the urge in a very potent way. I hope you have found it very difficult to take advantage of the opportunities and privileges that are now being given you when so many of your fellow-countrymen have to face the hardship and peril of the field of battle, and face these perils and endure so many hardships for the protection of the many privileges that are now yours. If perchance you have not weighed these considerations then I hardly think your decision for the course upon which you have embarked is worthy of your privilege and of the task that lies ahead of you.
What I mean simply is this, that I hope it has been hard for you to come here, and hard for the very reason that it offers you immunity from the hard, bitter and painful ordeal through which many of your fellow-countrymen of your age are being called upon to experience at this present time. (Collected Writings of John Murray, Volume 1, pp.104-106, ‘Greeting to Entering Students, 1944’ Banner of Truth, 1976).
Professor John Murray had little sympathy with pacifism and scorned the attitude that judges all war as utterly futile. He served as a soldier as in everything he did to the glory of God. I remember him speaking of the soldiers’ advance, weapons firing at the enemy, and then the capture of German troops and the immediate and natural response of humane and caring treatment of these POW’s and seeking to honour God in both different attitudes.
The Difficulties of Being a Christian in the Army
1. Bad language. Constant swearing and blasphemy were a sad part of life in the forces.
2. Sabbath desecration and lack of access to public worship. Each day was the same as the next and there was no attempt to mark Sundays. Away from the trenches behind the lines there were field services and a large number of chaplains. The YMCA worked there in their huts and held services.
3. The difficulty of keeping up daily Bible reading and prayer. There was great difficulty in finding a place for quiet and prayer. Considerable courage was needed to kneel down in a dormitory of men and pray. Strangely it could be tough fellow soldiers who spoke a word to mockers and protected those men in their personal devotions.
4. The lack of other believers with whom they could enjoy fellowship. One wrote home these surprising and sad words, ‘Can you realise my position? Since last leaving home I have never to my knowledge seen, and certainly have not spoken to one of my own faith.’ Yet Reginald Honeysett, a future pastor, unexpectedly met a lad who also loved the Bible and the Lord’s Day. They became bosom friends until the young man was killed, but Reg subsequently met his sister and he married her. He became pastor in Abingdon; he loved the lines of the hymn, ‘Why was I made to hear thy voice and enter while there’s room.’ He said, ‘That fully describes my case.’
How often in the excellent book on the First World War and the Strict Baptists, With Mercy and with Judgement does Matthew Hyde (the new minister at Galeed, Brighton) quote the Christians writing home from the trenches having barely escaped with their lives from one particular bombing and shell fire. They are quoting to their parents and sweethearts those famous lines from the hymn, ‘Sovereign Ruler of the skies’, ‘Not a single shaft can hit, Till the God of love sees fit.’ Those lines must be quoted a dozen times in the book. That was their trust in a Sovereign Lord, as it was the trust of their praying families and congregations.
The Christians Back in Great Britain
1. Praying: There were particular Weeks of Prayer called for in all the churches of various denominations. The Archbishop of Canterbury called for the first Lord’s Day in 1916 to be set aside for prayer. He refused to call it a ‘day for humiliation and prayer’ believing that would be misunderstood. But King George V called for that, a day of humiliation and prayer, on the first Sunday in 1918. The Prime Minister, David Lloyd George attended one in the Strict Baptist Church in Tadworth. He arrived at 6.45 but the service had started at 6. It was a wet night and his house was a mile and a half away from the church. He apologised for his lateness, gave to the offering, lingered a long time and thanked the preacher. Of course he was raised in a Sandemanian Scottish Baptist church in North Wales.
But there were some joint inter-denominational services of thanksgiving organised, and some were led by sacramentalist ministers and liberal ministers who denied the gospel. It was felt by some evangelicals that the king would have been better advised not to have called for a day of thanksgiving to be the Sabbath. Others, though, could not sympathise with any criticism about this, and were delighted that such a day should have been called for by their Monarch.
2. Being Under Fire: Being in England did not mean that you were out of danger. There were bombing raids from Zeppelins and in one such raid on London the editor of the Christian magazine Zion’s Witness went to the window at the strange noise and a bomb blast killed him.
3. Christian Women Being Active: Women for the first time in numbers worked in factories, on the buses, making munitions (the famous Vickers machine guns), on the land, and, of course, as nurses. Christian women gathered creature comforts and sent them out to the front by the Red Cross. There were formed little organisations called the Particular Baptist War Work Society, and The Young Ladies Effort. They made something like shoe boxes, and each one contained two warm shirts, two pairs of socks, a belt, a scarf, a pair of mittens, a pocket handkerchief, a New Testament and a letter. Congregations were exhorted to write regularly to the boys at the front. They sent out denominational magazines, but the shortage of paper meant these shrank in size or appeared only alternate months.
In five years a Manchester Baptist church had sent out 591 pillows and cushions, 121 belts, 129 washers, 302 pairs of mitten, 702 New Testaments and books, 818 handkerchiefs, 790 food parcels, 1,270 shorts, 1,639 pairs of socks, 58 bed jackets, 398 woollen mufflers, 200 woollen bonnet, 58 surgical slippers, 11 woollen jackets, soap, stationery, and financial gifts to Serbian refugees.
4. Businesses were changing and some prospered: With sons at the front it was daughters who ran family businesses. With rationing there were additional burdens as materials were in short supply and there were rising costs. The evangelical Baptist James Tiptaft started a jewellery business in Birmingham. He was the nephew of the famous Anglican seceder William Tiptaft and the founder of the church in Abingdon. James preached for over forty years and in 1909 his son Norman entered the jewellery business and then during the first World War made items for the War Office, hundreds of cap badges, and accoutrements for the uniforms of British and Commonwealth forces. They also had to make munitions including armaments.
John Player was the famous tobacconist from Nottingham. He was the son of the John Dane Player the Strict Baptist pastor at Saffron Waldon. The tobacconist sat under the ministry of another editor of the Gospel Standard, Alfred Coughtry. Player’s both sons took up the business. Smoking was endemic in the trenches during the First World War with many men chain-smoking to calm their nerves. At its peak Players (later Imperial Tobacco) employed 7000 people and was producing 52 billion cigarettes a year — a billion a week, but in May 2016 the business in Nottingham closed and moved to Poland.
5. The country was grieving for the length of this terrible war: The nation was sick at heart and the congregations were heavy in spirit. Sunday school teachers, scholars, deacons and office bearers were suddenly cut down and a congregation mourned deeply and at length. The names of those killed were inscribed on tablets or framed and hung up in church buildings where they still are to be found to this day. I remember visiting the Calvinistic Methodist church in Pontardawe where Gareth Davies had such a distinguished ministry. I gazed at the large framed memorial listing the boys from the Sunday school who had been killed and I shook my head. There were scores and scores of names, from a single Welsh chapel in the Swansea valley. The killing went on and on for years. The Christian’s Pathway magazine published in each issue ‘Muster Rolls’ of those who had been killed in the past month whose family or church paid a fee to have them included. There were about 150 names a year; the average age was 18. Let us read J. K. Popham’s words on this dark period in 20th century British history:
What pen will be able to describe the extent, the depth of the woe created by the war in which we are parties? Lands drenched with blood of men; rivers reddened with human gore and choked with corpses; cities and villages heaps of blackened stones and charred timbers; the seas turned into graves for ships that floated as so many cities; widows and fatherless children numberless, whose hearts are throbbing with helpless, hopeless anguish; the financial world full of confusion, ruin and misery, the world’s wealth wasted in the combatants’ fierce attempts to annihilate each other. Oh woe! Enough to make the sun blush that ever he shone on men as vile as to make the fair creation groan in desolation! For a few miles of territory, for a day’s power over men a man will plunge the whole world into a black night of sorrow. (Gospel Standard, pp.5-6).
The End of the War
As Gary Sheffield, professor of war studies at the University of Wolverhampton, has written,
August 8, 1918 marked the beginning of the end of the First World War. At 4.20am Australian, British, Canadian and French infantry, supported by artillery of awesome power, and by tanks, aircraft and cavalry, attacked German defences near the French city of Amiens. By nightfall the Allies had advanced eight miles. By the standards of trench warfare, with gains measured in yards, this advance was remarkable. Erich Ludendorff, de facto German commander-in-chief, later called August 8, 1918 ‘the black day of the German army in the history of the war’.
Three weeks earlier, a powerful French-led counteroffensive (the Second Battle of the Marne) had halted a major German attack. Having decisively seized the initiative, at Amiens the Allies exercised it to devastating effect. The German army never recovered from the blow it received on August 8. From then until November 11, 1918 Germany was faced with a perfect storm. Relentless Allied attacks on the battlefields of France and Flanders inflicted defeat after defeat on the German army and drove it backwards. In the process German military morale was badly damaged, from Ludendorff’s down to the lowliest infantryman. Away from the Western Front, Germany’s allies surrendered or simply disintegrated. The German home front progressively collapsed in the face of the British naval blockade, which was starving the population, and the ineptitude of German authorities in distributing what food was available. By the second week of November German soldiers were surrendering in droves and revolution had broken out in German cities. Berlin decided to capitulate before things deteriorated any further. This defeat of German militarism by Great Britain and her allies was like the victories of Agincourt, and Drake’s overcoming the Spanish Armada preventing the invasion of England, and Waterloo, and Trafalgar, and Dunkirk, those events for which the nation could and did give thanks to God. The war had ended in victory for the Allies. What would have been far worse than even its multitude of horror and pain was for all that to have ended in defeat and occupation.
The Battle of Amiens was a crucial stepping stone to victory. On the day after the Armistice was signed, a Canadian soldier wrote: ‘How much has happened since on the morning of August 8th we were awakened out of our doze . . . [by] the big guns . . . How little we thought that in less than four months the victory would be won’.
Most of the British public today has probably never heard of the Battle of Amiens. This ignorance is rooted in the popular view of the First World War as a futile, senseless disaster. Crudely put, Sassoon’s poems and Blackadder have had more influence than any history book. The battle of Amiens, or any of the Allied victories of 1918, are being ignored, but now some balance has been restored to that picture.
The First World War, as contemporary Christians saw it then, and the vast majority of British men and women of 100 years ago, was an event for which they were prepared to endure sacrifice on a vast scale. In England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland most evangelical church-goers, like the rest of the country, thought the war was worth fighting, to defend their homes and the Empire against a dangerous enemy.
The country in 1914 was a democracy, albeit an incomplete one, governed on liberal principles. The government had far less powers than it has accrued by today, much to our disadvantage. There was enormous respect for parliamentary decisions. The powers that be are ordained of God, wrote the apostle and the people believed it. ‘We must render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s.’ They believed it was necessary that a brief just war had to be fought. For such a state to wage a total war, involving not just the armed forces but the whole of society, the consent of the masses was essential. By-and-large, in First World War Britain that consent was given. The gospel churches largely supported the war.
Today it is easy to say that our ancestors were wrong, that the vast loss of life was simply not worth the issues at stake. This is to use hindsight. Belgian refugees reaching Britain with terrible stories of the actions of German soldiers in their homeland reinforced determination to fight on. German shelling of English coastal towns, initiation of chemical warfare, Zeppelin raids on London — all these stoked hatred and fear of a ruthless enemy. In 1918, the harsh peace terms imposed by Germany on the Russian Bolshevik regime left little doubt as to the fate of Britain should it be defeated. After the final battle of Amiens, British soldiers were greeted by French and Belgian civilians as liberators from four years of harsh occupation.
There was an appalling cost in human life and that is not to be downplayed, but that cost is not to be blanketed in an aura of ‘futility’. Nor is there to be even a hint of triumphalism at the Allied victory. Let us hope that that will be true of the commemoration of the Armistice on November 11.
The last day of the war was November 11, 1918. The peace was signed at Versailles July 28, 1919, and many churches held thanksgiving services the next day. In Ramsgate for example, Francis Kirby is recorded as preaching from 2 Thessalonians 3:16, ‘Now the Lord of peace himself give you peace always by all means.’ The King appointed the Sunday to be a day of National Thanksgiving and there was in most congregations worship, a reading of the king’s proclamation, and they ended with the national anthem. In the afternoon would be another similar service with men who had gone through the war speaking. Yet the recent murder of Tsar Nicholas II and his family brought solemn reflections about the future and soon the epidemic of Spanish Flu spread across Europe killing more people than those who had died in battle.
Slowly the soldiers returned home. Some had been hardened by the war — an outward religion would never stand the fire. A non-commissioned officer said to J. H. Gosden, ‘I was once a Strict Baptist, but God would not give me grace. Now he can keep it.’ Professor Kenneth Morgan, socialist historian and former principal of Aberystwyth has written a History of Wales. His fine parents lived opposite our Manse for many years. He wrote that after the First World War, ‘The new world was bringing new challenges, intellectual and cultural, to which the chapels were finding difficulty in responding. Puritanism, Sabbatarianism, the full rigours of a hell-fire fundamentalist creed barely reconstructed from the days of Daniel Rowland and George Whitefield, conveyed less and less to twentieth-century society. It jarred particularly on the generation of your Welshmen back from the trenches in France, or from service in the Dardanelles or Palestine.’
That simply was not the case. The watered down socialism or nationalism, the limited themes of the brotherhood of all men and the universal fatherhood of God were no magnet to men who had experienced the nearness of death, but where confessional Christianity was declared, the ruin of man by the fall, redemption through the Seed of the woman and regeneration by the Spirit of God, these themes drew men to saving faith in God. The soldiers who returned to Neath in 1919 and 1920 when Seth Joshua followed his brother Frank to the pastorate of the Neath Forward Movement lined up an hour before the service started to worship God while hundreds were turned away. The message they heard of man’s depravity made sense of the Gallipoli and the trenches and man’s only hope in new life by the indwelling Spirit. The same message brought the same response in Ulster from the messages of W. P. Nichols, and in Lowestoft in Pastor Brown’s preaching and up in Sunderland and Newcastle. A few years later, six miles from Neath in Port Talbot, Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones preached the same message of the three Rs, Ruin, Redemption, and Regeneration to the same humble response in hundreds of people
The religion of humanism and social help received its death blow in 1914-1918. But it has died a slow death. It will not die without taking as much historic Christianity with it, and is not annihilated yet.
Today almost every denominational theological college in Wales of every label, Anglican, Roman Catholic, and those of the Free Churches which for so long had taught their students those effete humanist ideas has now closed, the Baptist College in Cardiff (which today has five students) being the final seminary to close its doors next year. My father’s twin brother once studied in the Congregational College in Brecon in the late 1920s, and entered the ministry, and as a result of what he had been taught there did not preach on the apostle Paul for years because Uncle Bryn had been taught that Paul had misrepresented the simple message of the Carpenter from Galilee. The sole traditional seminary extant in Wales will soon be the evangelical one in Bridgend, the Union Seminary, the descendant of the much mocked Porth Bible Institute which became the South Wales Bible College ion Barry before moving to Bridgend.
A great book came out soon after the ending of the First World War. It revealed the fruit of the considered thinking of J. Gresham Machen’s studies in God-fearing Princeton, and then his observations from his time in modernist dominated Germany and finally living through his experiences at the front in France in the First Word War. It was his classic book Christianity and Liberalism which was first published in 1923 and is as amazingly relevant a century later to the situation all over the world today as it was when it first appeared.
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It was our Lord who said, ‘Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength: this is the first commandment. And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. There is none other […]
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The problem that confronts us all and dwarfs every other is how are we to bring the Word of God to our generation? If the apostles saw fit to appoint others to serve tables that they might devote themselves ‘continually to prayer and the ministry of the Word,’ it is clear that any ministry which […] | <urn:uuid:9be93666-df38-4f4d-ab04-592bbaa7ac16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://banneroftruth.org/uk/resources/articles/2018/evangelical-christians-and-world-war-one/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.980622 | 7,130 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.53737837076... | 1 | Evangelical Christians and World War One
It is the centenary of the end of the First World War. Let us remind ourselves of that fearful period in British history of valiant courage, self-sacrifice, unimaginable suffering and death. What can we learn from it?
Five of the Causes that Triggered the War
1. Mutual Defence Alliances
Countries throughout Europe made mutual defence agreements that would suck them into battle. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them. The slogan to justify going to war were the oft repeated words, ‘We are under treaty obligations.’ Before World War 1, no less that five alliances existed:
- Russia and Serbia
- Germany and Austria-Hungary
- France and Russia
- Britain, France, and Belgium
- Japan and Britain
So when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia moved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilising, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies.
Before the War, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention among the European countries. Because of the raw materials these areas could provide, tensions around these areas ran high. The increasing competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into the war.
As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race was well under way. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military build up. In all of the Great Powers, military spending increased greatly in the years prior to the war and all of them except Britain had conscription. Over 85% of men of military age in France and 50% in Germany had served in the army or navy. France had the highest proportion of its population in the army.
Percentage Increase in
Size of Peacetime Army 1914
The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914. The rivalry between the powers led to a building up of weapons and an increase in mutual distrust.
Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia in particular, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into the war.
Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria-Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the war. But more generally, nationalism in various countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but the extension of the war in Europe. Each country tried to prove their dominance and power.
5. Darwinism: The survival of the fittest philosophy used to justify the conflict.
Great Britain was shocked at the news of German barbarism, and such atrocities as the gassing of soldiers. How could such an advanced and cultured nation behave in this degrading fashion? The Kaiser and his generals had their headquarters in Northern France, and visiting them in 1915 was an American scientist, Professor Vernon Kellogg. He was a pacifist who had come to the war to help minister to the casualties. He met up with the German high command in the evenings and often heard from them their Darwinian creed of natural selection, that man has a brute ancestry. This was the gospel of German intellectuals. They believed that if the Germans won the war then that would show they were on the right side of the evolutionary process. If the Germans lost it would display the fact that they did not deserve to win the war and were on the wrong side in the evolutionary movement.
Such grotesque Darwinism motivated the German war machine and hearing this, Vernon Kellogg questioned his own pacifism. Those ideas, he concluded, could only be overcome by force and he reported his conversations with the German High Command to America and the world in a book entitled, Headquarters Night: a Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Head of the German Army in France. He then began his campaign for American intervention in the war. He was very influential with his contacts in Washington and so America did intervene in the war. On April 6, 1916, the USA declared war on Germany. Subsequently 100,000 American soldiers were to lose their lives in their country’s resistance to German militarism.
7. The Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
The immediate trigger of World War I that pulled in all these items (the alliances, imperialism, militarism, nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the Archduke. Their first attempt failed when a driver avoided a grenade thrown at their car. However, later that day a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip assassinated him and his wife while they were in Sarajevo, Bosnia — which was part of Austria-Hungary. This was in protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this region. Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was this assassination that provoked Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia began to mobilise due to its alliance with Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia. So the dominoes began to fall as the war expanded sucking in all those involved in the defence alliances. Europe drifted into a war that eventually resulted in 15 million dead and 20 million injured, staggering figures, hiding staggering pain and grief; new technology resulted in devastating new weaponry.
Is the First World War to be Considered a Just War?
A just war is a war which is declared for right and noble reasons and fought in a certain way. A just war is not a war that is ‘good’ as such — it is a war that Christians feel to be necessary or ‘just’ in the circumstances, when all other solutions have been tried and have failed. It is a necessary evil and a last resort.
Most Christians would support a war if it were justified by just war standards. The Just War Theory was first developed by Thomas Aquinas. He was an influential medieval theologian who wrote on the theme of whether a war should be waged, whether it could be justified, and how should it be waged. A war is generally considered to be just by such criteria as the following eight:
- A just war can only be waged as a last resort. All non-violent options must be exhausted before the use of force can be justified.
- A war is just only if it is waged by a legitimate authority. Even just causes cannot be served by actions taken by individuals or groups who do not constitute an authority sanctioned by whatever the society and outsiders to the society deem legitimate.
- A just war can only be fought to redress a wrong suffered. For example, self-defence against an armed attack is always considered to be a just cause.
- Further, a just war can only be fought with ‘right’ intentions: the only permissible objective of a just war is to redress the injury.
- A war can only be just if it is fought with a reasonable chance of success. Deaths and injury incurred in a hopeless cause are not morally justifiable.
- The ultimate goal of a just war is to re-establish peace. More specifically, the peace established after the war must be preferable to the peace that would have prevailed if the war had not been fought.
- The violence used in the war must be proportional to the injury suffered. States are prohibited from using force not necessary to attain the limited objective of addressing the injury suffered.
- The weapons used in war must discriminate between combatants and non-combatants. Civilians are never permissible targets of war, and every effort must be taken to avoid killing civilians. The deaths of civilians are justified only if they are unavoidable victims of a deliberate attack on a military target.
So there was in 1914 some difference of opinion about going to war with Germany. Christian opponents to Britain declaring war believed the war was partly caused by the haughty imperialism of both Britain and Germany. Again some believed that Germans were our kith and kin, that the British were a Germanic people, and again, that Germany was a Protestant nation, and we had much in common with Lutheran Germany compared to Roman Catholic France and Orthodox Russia. This was initially Dr. J. Gresham Machen’s conviction. He had studied for some years in Germany, loved the land and the evangelical Christians he knew there. He also loved England and was terribly torn over his duty to support the USA government in its declaration of war against Germany.
Some British men were totally pacifist by conviction. At his trial one said, ‘I’d rather be shot, sir, than shoot another man.’ There was a Christian family in a gospel church in Birkenhead with four sons. All four refused to fight. They even refused to serve on fishing trawlers to help supply food to the country, and they said they would not rescue men from a sinking ship. They were asked the classic question whether they would kill anyone who was attempting to kill their parents, or violate their sisters. They said they would not. They lost their appeal and were compelled either to sign up or to go to prison. But another Christian objected to military duties as he was a piano tuner and he believed that the explosion of shells would damage his hearing and he would be unemployed after the war. They heard his case sympathetically and he was discharged from any combative duty and he served in the medical corps.
That was the course of action taken by Professor J. Gresham Machen. He volunteered to work for the Red Cross and served near the battle front making cups of hot chocolate for the troops, playing the piano, selling stamps and writing letters home for the illiterate. The book of his letters written to his mother during those years has been published in recent years and it makes moving reading.
The most famous difference of opinion concerning whether the war was just or not took place between two of the giants of the Strict Baptists, members and officers in the same congregation. J. K. Popham was the editor of the Gospel Standard. He was the pastor of the famous Galeed church in Brighton (1914 incidentally was the year of the 100th anniversary, of Gadsby’s Hymnal). Popham believed the First World War was a just war, that the defence of the realm was a clear bounden duty of the government and the people. But one of his deacons, John Gosden who was a future editor of the Gospel Standard and a pastor at Maidstone did not believe that it was a just war. He refused to bear arms, serving instead in the Royal Army Medical Corps as a stretcher bearer. He showed such bravery in battle, when under heavy fire he went alone to tend to a young wounded soldier, so that he himself was wounded in the act. For that he was awarded the Military Medal. He used every opportunity of speaking of the Lord Jesus to the wounded and dying soldiers and that time as a stretcher-bearer was a period instrumental in confirming his call to become a pastor. Interestingly enough at the start of the Second World War he told his congregation that he had no difficulty in agreeing with the men joining up and fighting against Hitler. This was, in his estimation, a just war, unlike the First World War.
Ben Ramsbottom of Luton knew personally that generation of men who had passed through the war and become ministers. He describes them thus: ‘Men of varying abilities; men of different gifts; each one having his own line, but they were men of God, they were men of stature, they knew what they believed, they knew why they believed it, they had a testimony to bear, and the truth had been burnt home in their souls. Many of them had known what it was to serve in the trenches in the First World War. Many of them had known the severe depression after the First World War. These things had been sanctified to them.’
John Murray was just the same. He and two brothers fought in the war. Both his brothers were killed and he searched no man’s land looking for the body of his brother Tommy without success. John Murray was almost killed when a piece of shrapnel hit his head. He lost his eye and was invalided home. He was resolute in his conviction that it was a just war. Serving in France did not make him a pacifist. When America entered the Second World War students were exempt from conscription if they went to Seminary. He earnestly spoke to the new class at the beginning of the academic year, welcoming them but pointing out their duty to the powers that be, hoping that none were there simply to escape their responsibility of giving to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s. This is what he said:
The reason why in the circumstances you are able to be here is that you are bona fide aspirants for the gospel ministry. It may have appeared to you that theological study in the quiet of these halls and on this campus is remote from the most practical contribution which you could render in the exigencies of this present time.
Unless for some physical reason you are ineligible for military service I hope you have felt something of the urge to enlist in the services of your country in the present emergency. Indeed I hope you have felt the urge in a very potent way. I hope you have found it very difficult to take advantage of the opportunities and privileges that are now being given you when so many of your fellow-countrymen have to face the hardship and peril of the field of battle, and face these perils and endure so many hardships for the protection of the many privileges that are now yours. If perchance you have not weighed these considerations then I hardly think your decision for the course upon which you have embarked is worthy of your privilege and of the task that lies ahead of you.
What I mean simply is this, that I hope it has been hard for you to come here, and hard for the very reason that it offers you immunity from the hard, bitter and painful ordeal through which many of your fellow-countrymen of your age are being called upon to experience at this present time. (Collected Writings of John Murray, Volume 1, pp.104-106, ‘Greeting to Entering Students, 1944’ Banner of Truth, 1976).
Professor John Murray had little sympathy with pacifism and scorned the attitude that judges all war as utterly futile. He served as a soldier as in everything he did to the glory of God. I remember him speaking of the soldiers’ advance, weapons firing at the enemy, and then the capture of German troops and the immediate and natural response of humane and caring treatment of these POW’s and seeking to honour God in both different attitudes.
The Difficulties of Being a Christian in the Army
1. Bad language. Constant swearing and blasphemy were a sad part of life in the forces.
2. Sabbath desecration and lack of access to public worship. Each day was the same as the next and there was no attempt to mark Sundays. Away from the trenches behind the lines there were field services and a large number of chaplains. The YMCA worked there in their huts and held services.
3. The difficulty of keeping up daily Bible reading and prayer. There was great difficulty in finding a place for quiet and prayer. Considerable courage was needed to kneel down in a dormitory of men and pray. Strangely it could be tough fellow soldiers who spoke a word to mockers and protected those men in their personal devotions.
4. The lack of other believers with whom they could enjoy fellowship. One wrote home these surprising and sad words, ‘Can you realise my position? Since last leaving home I have never to my knowledge seen, and certainly have not spoken to one of my own faith.’ Yet Reginald Honeysett, a future pastor, unexpectedly met a lad who also loved the Bible and the Lord’s Day. They became bosom friends until the young man was killed, but Reg subsequently met his sister and he married her. He became pastor in Abingdon; he loved the lines of the hymn, ‘Why was I made to hear thy voice and enter while there’s room.’ He said, ‘That fully describes my case.’
How often in the excellent book on the First World War and the Strict Baptists, With Mercy and with Judgement does Matthew Hyde (the new minister at Galeed, Brighton) quote the Christians writing home from the trenches having barely escaped with their lives from one particular bombing and shell fire. They are quoting to their parents and sweethearts those famous lines from the hymn, ‘Sovereign Ruler of the skies’, ‘Not a single shaft can hit, Till the God of love sees fit.’ Those lines must be quoted a dozen times in the book. That was their trust in a Sovereign Lord, as it was the trust of their praying families and congregations.
The Christians Back in Great Britain
1. Praying: There were particular Weeks of Prayer called for in all the churches of various denominations. The Archbishop of Canterbury called for the first Lord’s Day in 1916 to be set aside for prayer. He refused to call it a ‘day for humiliation and prayer’ believing that would be misunderstood. But King George V called for that, a day of humiliation and prayer, on the first Sunday in 1918. The Prime Minister, David Lloyd George attended one in the Strict Baptist Church in Tadworth. He arrived at 6.45 but the service had started at 6. It was a wet night and his house was a mile and a half away from the church. He apologised for his lateness, gave to the offering, lingered a long time and thanked the preacher. Of course he was raised in a Sandemanian Scottish Baptist church in North Wales.
But there were some joint inter-denominational services of thanksgiving organised, and some were led by sacramentalist ministers and liberal ministers who denied the gospel. It was felt by some evangelicals that the king would have been better advised not to have called for a day of thanksgiving to be the Sabbath. Others, though, could not sympathise with any criticism about this, and were delighted that such a day should have been called for by their Monarch.
2. Being Under Fire: Being in England did not mean that you were out of danger. There were bombing raids from Zeppelins and in one such raid on London the editor of the Christian magazine Zion’s Witness went to the window at the strange noise and a bomb blast killed him.
3. Christian Women Being Active: Women for the first time in numbers worked in factories, on the buses, making munitions (the famous Vickers machine guns), on the land, and, of course, as nurses. Christian women gathered creature comforts and sent them out to the front by the Red Cross. There were formed little organisations called the Particular Baptist War Work Society, and The Young Ladies Effort. They made something like shoe boxes, and each one contained two warm shirts, two pairs of socks, a belt, a scarf, a pair of mittens, a pocket handkerchief, a New Testament and a letter. Congregations were exhorted to write regularly to the boys at the front. They sent out denominational magazines, but the shortage of paper meant these shrank in size or appeared only alternate months.
In five years a Manchester Baptist church had sent out 591 pillows and cushions, 121 belts, 129 washers, 302 pairs of mitten, 702 New Testaments and books, 818 handkerchiefs, 790 food parcels, 1,270 shorts, 1,639 pairs of socks, 58 bed jackets, 398 woollen mufflers, 200 woollen bonnet, 58 surgical slippers, 11 woollen jackets, soap, stationery, and financial gifts to Serbian refugees.
4. Businesses were changing and some prospered: With sons at the front it was daughters who ran family businesses. With rationing there were additional burdens as materials were in short supply and there were rising costs. The evangelical Baptist James Tiptaft started a jewellery business in Birmingham. He was the nephew of the famous Anglican seceder William Tiptaft and the founder of the church in Abingdon. James preached for over forty years and in 1909 his son Norman entered the jewellery business and then during the first World War made items for the War Office, hundreds of cap badges, and accoutrements for the uniforms of British and Commonwealth forces. They also had to make munitions including armaments.
John Player was the famous tobacconist from Nottingham. He was the son of the John Dane Player the Strict Baptist pastor at Saffron Waldon. The tobacconist sat under the ministry of another editor of the Gospel Standard, Alfred Coughtry. Player’s both sons took up the business. Smoking was endemic in the trenches during the First World War with many men chain-smoking to calm their nerves. At its peak Players (later Imperial Tobacco) employed 7000 people and was producing 52 billion cigarettes a year — a billion a week, but in May 2016 the business in Nottingham closed and moved to Poland.
5. The country was grieving for the length of this terrible war: The nation was sick at heart and the congregations were heavy in spirit. Sunday school teachers, scholars, deacons and office bearers were suddenly cut down and a congregation mourned deeply and at length. The names of those killed were inscribed on tablets or framed and hung up in church buildings where they still are to be found to this day. I remember visiting the Calvinistic Methodist church in Pontardawe where Gareth Davies had such a distinguished ministry. I gazed at the large framed memorial listing the boys from the Sunday school who had been killed and I shook my head. There were scores and scores of names, from a single Welsh chapel in the Swansea valley. The killing went on and on for years. The Christian’s Pathway magazine published in each issue ‘Muster Rolls’ of those who had been killed in the past month whose family or church paid a fee to have them included. There were about 150 names a year; the average age was 18. Let us read J. K. Popham’s words on this dark period in 20th century British history:
What pen will be able to describe the extent, the depth of the woe created by the war in which we are parties? Lands drenched with blood of men; rivers reddened with human gore and choked with corpses; cities and villages heaps of blackened stones and charred timbers; the seas turned into graves for ships that floated as so many cities; widows and fatherless children numberless, whose hearts are throbbing with helpless, hopeless anguish; the financial world full of confusion, ruin and misery, the world’s wealth wasted in the combatants’ fierce attempts to annihilate each other. Oh woe! Enough to make the sun blush that ever he shone on men as vile as to make the fair creation groan in desolation! For a few miles of territory, for a day’s power over men a man will plunge the whole world into a black night of sorrow. (Gospel Standard, pp.5-6).
The End of the War
As Gary Sheffield, professor of war studies at the University of Wolverhampton, has written,
August 8, 1918 marked the beginning of the end of the First World War. At 4.20am Australian, British, Canadian and French infantry, supported by artillery of awesome power, and by tanks, aircraft and cavalry, attacked German defences near the French city of Amiens. By nightfall the Allies had advanced eight miles. By the standards of trench warfare, with gains measured in yards, this advance was remarkable. Erich Ludendorff, de facto German commander-in-chief, later called August 8, 1918 ‘the black day of the German army in the history of the war’.
Three weeks earlier, a powerful French-led counteroffensive (the Second Battle of the Marne) had halted a major German attack. Having decisively seized the initiative, at Amiens the Allies exercised it to devastating effect. The German army never recovered from the blow it received on August 8. From then until November 11, 1918 Germany was faced with a perfect storm. Relentless Allied attacks on the battlefields of France and Flanders inflicted defeat after defeat on the German army and drove it backwards. In the process German military morale was badly damaged, from Ludendorff’s down to the lowliest infantryman. Away from the Western Front, Germany’s allies surrendered or simply disintegrated. The German home front progressively collapsed in the face of the British naval blockade, which was starving the population, and the ineptitude of German authorities in distributing what food was available. By the second week of November German soldiers were surrendering in droves and revolution had broken out in German cities. Berlin decided to capitulate before things deteriorated any further. This defeat of German militarism by Great Britain and her allies was like the victories of Agincourt, and Drake’s overcoming the Spanish Armada preventing the invasion of England, and Waterloo, and Trafalgar, and Dunkirk, those events for which the nation could and did give thanks to God. The war had ended in victory for the Allies. What would have been far worse than even its multitude of horror and pain was for all that to have ended in defeat and occupation.
The Battle of Amiens was a crucial stepping stone to victory. On the day after the Armistice was signed, a Canadian soldier wrote: ‘How much has happened since on the morning of August 8th we were awakened out of our doze . . . [by] the big guns . . . How little we thought that in less than four months the victory would be won’.
Most of the British public today has probably never heard of the Battle of Amiens. This ignorance is rooted in the popular view of the First World War as a futile, senseless disaster. Crudely put, Sassoon’s poems and Blackadder have had more influence than any history book. The battle of Amiens, or any of the Allied victories of 1918, are being ignored, but now some balance has been restored to that picture.
The First World War, as contemporary Christians saw it then, and the vast majority of British men and women of 100 years ago, was an event for which they were prepared to endure sacrifice on a vast scale. In England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland most evangelical church-goers, like the rest of the country, thought the war was worth fighting, to defend their homes and the Empire against a dangerous enemy.
The country in 1914 was a democracy, albeit an incomplete one, governed on liberal principles. The government had far less powers than it has accrued by today, much to our disadvantage. There was enormous respect for parliamentary decisions. The powers that be are ordained of God, wrote the apostle and the people believed it. ‘We must render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s.’ They believed it was necessary that a brief just war had to be fought. For such a state to wage a total war, involving not just the armed forces but the whole of society, the consent of the masses was essential. By-and-large, in First World War Britain that consent was given. The gospel churches largely supported the war.
Today it is easy to say that our ancestors were wrong, that the vast loss of life was simply not worth the issues at stake. This is to use hindsight. Belgian refugees reaching Britain with terrible stories of the actions of German soldiers in their homeland reinforced determination to fight on. German shelling of English coastal towns, initiation of chemical warfare, Zeppelin raids on London — all these stoked hatred and fear of a ruthless enemy. In 1918, the harsh peace terms imposed by Germany on the Russian Bolshevik regime left little doubt as to the fate of Britain should it be defeated. After the final battle of Amiens, British soldiers were greeted by French and Belgian civilians as liberators from four years of harsh occupation.
There was an appalling cost in human life and that is not to be downplayed, but that cost is not to be blanketed in an aura of ‘futility’. Nor is there to be even a hint of triumphalism at the Allied victory. Let us hope that that will be true of the commemoration of the Armistice on November 11.
The last day of the war was November 11, 1918. The peace was signed at Versailles July 28, 1919, and many churches held thanksgiving services the next day. In Ramsgate for example, Francis Kirby is recorded as preaching from 2 Thessalonians 3:16, ‘Now the Lord of peace himself give you peace always by all means.’ The King appointed the Sunday to be a day of National Thanksgiving and there was in most congregations worship, a reading of the king’s proclamation, and they ended with the national anthem. In the afternoon would be another similar service with men who had gone through the war speaking. Yet the recent murder of Tsar Nicholas II and his family brought solemn reflections about the future and soon the epidemic of Spanish Flu spread across Europe killing more people than those who had died in battle.
Slowly the soldiers returned home. Some had been hardened by the war — an outward religion would never stand the fire. A non-commissioned officer said to J. H. Gosden, ‘I was once a Strict Baptist, but God would not give me grace. Now he can keep it.’ Professor Kenneth Morgan, socialist historian and former principal of Aberystwyth has written a History of Wales. His fine parents lived opposite our Manse for many years. He wrote that after the First World War, ‘The new world was bringing new challenges, intellectual and cultural, to which the chapels were finding difficulty in responding. Puritanism, Sabbatarianism, the full rigours of a hell-fire fundamentalist creed barely reconstructed from the days of Daniel Rowland and George Whitefield, conveyed less and less to twentieth-century society. It jarred particularly on the generation of your Welshmen back from the trenches in France, or from service in the Dardanelles or Palestine.’
That simply was not the case. The watered down socialism or nationalism, the limited themes of the brotherhood of all men and the universal fatherhood of God were no magnet to men who had experienced the nearness of death, but where confessional Christianity was declared, the ruin of man by the fall, redemption through the Seed of the woman and regeneration by the Spirit of God, these themes drew men to saving faith in God. The soldiers who returned to Neath in 1919 and 1920 when Seth Joshua followed his brother Frank to the pastorate of the Neath Forward Movement lined up an hour before the service started to worship God while hundreds were turned away. The message they heard of man’s depravity made sense of the Gallipoli and the trenches and man’s only hope in new life by the indwelling Spirit. The same message brought the same response in Ulster from the messages of W. P. Nichols, and in Lowestoft in Pastor Brown’s preaching and up in Sunderland and Newcastle. A few years later, six miles from Neath in Port Talbot, Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones preached the same message of the three Rs, Ruin, Redemption, and Regeneration to the same humble response in hundreds of people
The religion of humanism and social help received its death blow in 1914-1918. But it has died a slow death. It will not die without taking as much historic Christianity with it, and is not annihilated yet.
Today almost every denominational theological college in Wales of every label, Anglican, Roman Catholic, and those of the Free Churches which for so long had taught their students those effete humanist ideas has now closed, the Baptist College in Cardiff (which today has five students) being the final seminary to close its doors next year. My father’s twin brother once studied in the Congregational College in Brecon in the late 1920s, and entered the ministry, and as a result of what he had been taught there did not preach on the apostle Paul for years because Uncle Bryn had been taught that Paul had misrepresented the simple message of the Carpenter from Galilee. The sole traditional seminary extant in Wales will soon be the evangelical one in Bridgend, the Union Seminary, the descendant of the much mocked Porth Bible Institute which became the South Wales Bible College ion Barry before moving to Bridgend.
A great book came out soon after the ending of the First World War. It revealed the fruit of the considered thinking of J. Gresham Machen’s studies in God-fearing Princeton, and then his observations from his time in modernist dominated Germany and finally living through his experiences at the front in France in the First Word War. It was his classic book Christianity and Liberalism which was first published in 1923 and is as amazingly relevant a century later to the situation all over the world today as it was when it first appeared.
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It was our Lord who said, ‘Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength: this is the first commandment. And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. There is none other […]
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The problem that confronts us all and dwarfs every other is how are we to bring the Word of God to our generation? If the apostles saw fit to appoint others to serve tables that they might devote themselves ‘continually to prayer and the ministry of the Word,’ it is clear that any ministry which […] | 7,178 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The a close relationship and partnership. According
The Cold War was a stressful and scary time for most Canadians and Americans. The thought of a nuclear bomb hitting their country and destroying their homes and families haunted them every day of their lives. NORAD was created as a military tactic to protect North America from bombs and missiles. It is a bi-national organization with Canada and the United States, that was created during the Cold War. Canada and United States came together during a difficult time to defend their countries, and this resulted in their relationship becoming closer and their partnership getting better. The threat of communism spreading got North America very worried and that caused Canada and the United States to react fast, and in that process, they came up with NORAD. Also, the threat of a Soviet bomb caused a great deal of fear that a nuclear bomb would hit and destroy their country. As a result, both Canada and the United States had to find a way to calm their citizens down and make them feel safer, and that was done by creating NORAD. NORAD was the most important military strategy used during the Cold War because it was used as a way of protecting North America, its democratic way of life and bringing to countries closer together.The United States and Canada joined together as one to defend their country, which resulted in a close relationship and partnership. According to the Royal Canadian Air Force “The partnership grew out of the high tensions with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Throughout the Second World War, Canada and the U.S. worked closely together, but the advent of nuclear weapons and long-range bombers meant that there was a very real chance that North America could be attacked directly in the event of war. This potential threat was the impetus for a broader level of cooperation between the two countries for mutual defense.” Canada and the United States always had a close relationship before the Cold War because they both share North America, but coming together and working together in a difficult time is a big step in their relationship. They had to put behind all their fears and come up with a way toDiPede 1 protect their countries. The creation of NORAD forced the United States and Canada to work with each other. This also made the citizens of both Canada and the United States closer together because NORAD involves both countries. Canadians and Americans worked together in each other’s countries and it was crucial that both Americans and Canadians worked well with each other. Canada and the United States learned that they have to work together in order to succeed in military tactics. According to the Security and Defense Cooperation “On May 12, 2013, NORAD celebrated its 55th anniversary, representing an example of outstanding Canada-U.S. cooperation and an effective organization in the defense of our two countries.” NORAD resulted in the longest lasting cooperative relationship that the government of Canada and the United States have, still to this day. Today, Canada and the United States still work closely together and impact one another heavily.The threat of the spread of communism got North America worried, which caused the governments to react quickly and come up with the best possible military tactic, which was creating NORAD. The Loyal Edmonton Regiment Military Museum states “The threat of Communist expansionism grew in September 1949 when the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear device. The Soviets now possessed “the bomb” and had long-range bombers that could deliver this horrific weapon of war to the North American continent.” What makes Canada and the United States different from most of the other countries, is the fact that they are democratic countries. Many people immigrated to Canada and the United States because of the fact that they are democratic countries and they could choose who they wanted as President or Prime Minister. The threat of Communism taking over Canada and the United States made the citizens of both countries scared that the thing that they love about their country may be taken away from them. The threat also scared both governments because they would lose their role in the government. In order to protect themselves, their position in the government and their democratic country, they reacted fast and efficiently to ensure that they were not too late. The unintended consequence of creating NORAD in such a short period of time is that both governments did not get the chance to fully talk about all the consequences that came with the creation of NORAD.The Soviet Threat got both Canadians and Americans worried about the nuclear bomb, which caused both governments to react quickly and make their citizens feel safe. This was accomplished with the creation of NORAD. The Canadian Forces Museum of Aerospace Defence states “Over 50,000 Canadian civilians volunteered their time and money to watch for and report any aircraft in their local airspace.” The threat of the nuclear bomb scared everyone and got everyone worried that they would be bombed.The scary part was that they did not know when it would come. People were so scared that they used their personal time and money to look out for aircrafts in their local airspace. Since Canadians and Americans were really scared, Canadian and American governments had to do something to make sure that the people calmed down and felt safe in their own country. Both governments were also scared of the bomb because if they got bombed, millions would die and the after effect would be horrible. They would have to pay a lot of money to repair the country. But worst of all, they would have a reputation of getting bombed and that would affect people’s decision before immigrating to the United States or Canada. So in order to make sure that didn’t happen and that the citizens felt safe, Canada and the United States created the organization NORAD. This made sure that they always had eyes in the airs above North America and would be notified if a bomb and/or missile were being fired at North America. According to the Canadian Military Heritage “Billions of dollars are being invested and will continue to be invested to back up these decisions: A warning and defense system against air attack is extremely expensive, whatever one’s point of view.” The Soviet Threat caused the United States and Canada to spend a lot of money to getDiPede 3the best technology and soldiers to operate NORAD. This resulted in change because to this day, NORAD is still operating and is being used in a variety of different ways to protect North America. After NORAD was created, Canadians and Americans both felt much safer because they then knew that soldiers were supervising the airs above North America and they had the best technology supporting the soldiers.The most important military tactic that was used during the Cold War was the creation of NORAD because it was used to protect North America, it’s democratic way of life, and finally for bringing two countries closer together. The United States and Canada joined together to defend their countries and, as a result, their relationship and partnership grew bigger. Also, the threat of Communism spreading to Canada and the United States got North America very worried and that caused both governments to come up with a military defense, which was NORAD. Finally, the Soviet Union got Canadians and Americans scared about the nuclear bomb that they had, and that caused both governments to do something to protect their civilians and that was successful with the creation of NORAD. NORAD was much more than a defense system to Canada and the United States, it protected the democratic way of life which Canadians and Americans loved and brought two countries together which created a more significant bond between them. | <urn:uuid:27e9a024-787e-4770-992f-96c39c52b832> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/the-a-close-relationship-and-partnership-according/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.984705 | 1,504 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.29847675561904... | 1 | The a close relationship and partnership. According
The Cold War was a stressful and scary time for most Canadians and Americans. The thought of a nuclear bomb hitting their country and destroying their homes and families haunted them every day of their lives. NORAD was created as a military tactic to protect North America from bombs and missiles. It is a bi-national organization with Canada and the United States, that was created during the Cold War. Canada and United States came together during a difficult time to defend their countries, and this resulted in their relationship becoming closer and their partnership getting better. The threat of communism spreading got North America very worried and that caused Canada and the United States to react fast, and in that process, they came up with NORAD. Also, the threat of a Soviet bomb caused a great deal of fear that a nuclear bomb would hit and destroy their country. As a result, both Canada and the United States had to find a way to calm their citizens down and make them feel safer, and that was done by creating NORAD. NORAD was the most important military strategy used during the Cold War because it was used as a way of protecting North America, its democratic way of life and bringing to countries closer together.The United States and Canada joined together as one to defend their country, which resulted in a close relationship and partnership. According to the Royal Canadian Air Force “The partnership grew out of the high tensions with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Throughout the Second World War, Canada and the U.S. worked closely together, but the advent of nuclear weapons and long-range bombers meant that there was a very real chance that North America could be attacked directly in the event of war. This potential threat was the impetus for a broader level of cooperation between the two countries for mutual defense.” Canada and the United States always had a close relationship before the Cold War because they both share North America, but coming together and working together in a difficult time is a big step in their relationship. They had to put behind all their fears and come up with a way toDiPede 1 protect their countries. The creation of NORAD forced the United States and Canada to work with each other. This also made the citizens of both Canada and the United States closer together because NORAD involves both countries. Canadians and Americans worked together in each other’s countries and it was crucial that both Americans and Canadians worked well with each other. Canada and the United States learned that they have to work together in order to succeed in military tactics. According to the Security and Defense Cooperation “On May 12, 2013, NORAD celebrated its 55th anniversary, representing an example of outstanding Canada-U.S. cooperation and an effective organization in the defense of our two countries.” NORAD resulted in the longest lasting cooperative relationship that the government of Canada and the United States have, still to this day. Today, Canada and the United States still work closely together and impact one another heavily.The threat of the spread of communism got North America worried, which caused the governments to react quickly and come up with the best possible military tactic, which was creating NORAD. The Loyal Edmonton Regiment Military Museum states “The threat of Communist expansionism grew in September 1949 when the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear device. The Soviets now possessed “the bomb” and had long-range bombers that could deliver this horrific weapon of war to the North American continent.” What makes Canada and the United States different from most of the other countries, is the fact that they are democratic countries. Many people immigrated to Canada and the United States because of the fact that they are democratic countries and they could choose who they wanted as President or Prime Minister. The threat of Communism taking over Canada and the United States made the citizens of both countries scared that the thing that they love about their country may be taken away from them. The threat also scared both governments because they would lose their role in the government. In order to protect themselves, their position in the government and their democratic country, they reacted fast and efficiently to ensure that they were not too late. The unintended consequence of creating NORAD in such a short period of time is that both governments did not get the chance to fully talk about all the consequences that came with the creation of NORAD.The Soviet Threat got both Canadians and Americans worried about the nuclear bomb, which caused both governments to react quickly and make their citizens feel safe. This was accomplished with the creation of NORAD. The Canadian Forces Museum of Aerospace Defence states “Over 50,000 Canadian civilians volunteered their time and money to watch for and report any aircraft in their local airspace.” The threat of the nuclear bomb scared everyone and got everyone worried that they would be bombed.The scary part was that they did not know when it would come. People were so scared that they used their personal time and money to look out for aircrafts in their local airspace. Since Canadians and Americans were really scared, Canadian and American governments had to do something to make sure that the people calmed down and felt safe in their own country. Both governments were also scared of the bomb because if they got bombed, millions would die and the after effect would be horrible. They would have to pay a lot of money to repair the country. But worst of all, they would have a reputation of getting bombed and that would affect people’s decision before immigrating to the United States or Canada. So in order to make sure that didn’t happen and that the citizens felt safe, Canada and the United States created the organization NORAD. This made sure that they always had eyes in the airs above North America and would be notified if a bomb and/or missile were being fired at North America. According to the Canadian Military Heritage “Billions of dollars are being invested and will continue to be invested to back up these decisions: A warning and defense system against air attack is extremely expensive, whatever one’s point of view.” The Soviet Threat caused the United States and Canada to spend a lot of money to getDiPede 3the best technology and soldiers to operate NORAD. This resulted in change because to this day, NORAD is still operating and is being used in a variety of different ways to protect North America. After NORAD was created, Canadians and Americans both felt much safer because they then knew that soldiers were supervising the airs above North America and they had the best technology supporting the soldiers.The most important military tactic that was used during the Cold War was the creation of NORAD because it was used to protect North America, it’s democratic way of life, and finally for bringing two countries closer together. The United States and Canada joined together to defend their countries and, as a result, their relationship and partnership grew bigger. Also, the threat of Communism spreading to Canada and the United States got North America very worried and that caused both governments to come up with a military defense, which was NORAD. Finally, the Soviet Union got Canadians and Americans scared about the nuclear bomb that they had, and that caused both governments to do something to protect their civilians and that was successful with the creation of NORAD. NORAD was much more than a defense system to Canada and the United States, it protected the democratic way of life which Canadians and Americans loved and brought two countries together which created a more significant bond between them. | 1,487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Medieval Chivalry and Knighthood
During medieval times knighthood was a class culture, cherished and jealousy guarded by the knightly caste. Knight had the honor of defending the king as well as their country. On the bloody fields of battle a code of chivalry evolved that tempered anger and fury with mercy. It created ways of turning the grim business of fighting into something tolerable, perhaps even acceptable. Chivalry was not only looked upon as a code for war; it was looked upon as a setting for stories of love and romance. Chivalry meant a higher social status as well as recognition.
Chivalry as we know it denotes the ideals and practices considered suitable to be a noble. Over time chivalry has been used as the primal word to describe the attitude and actions of men towards women. "The word itself is reminiscent of the milieu in which the ideas connected with it took shape-the aristocratic society of mediaeval France dominated by mounted warriors or chevaliers." From as early as the eleventh century several different sets of ideas represented different standards of chivalric behavior. Over the next four hundred years the concepts of
The ideal nobleman developed by and for the feudal class under the influence of changing environments, ideas, political views and economies.
The concept of being born into a certain class in society was a great part of medieval life. This concept of the class system was based on the land ownership and duties that were owed to other people. The knights were the military supporters of the feudal lords. The knight fought for his lord and if necessary died for him. However, the feudal inheritance was provided only for the eldest son. Younger sons therefore tended to the church or joined groups of knight lacking land. They worked and did their jobs waiting for the opportunity to marry into an estate.
There were three methods of becoming a knight. "The most common involved the King or tenant-in-chief conferring the title, known as 'dubbing'. The second method involved religion, the soon to be knight kept a night vigil with his arms on the altar in front of him. He then took a purifying bath, heard Mass and had his spurs put on it. The dubbing then followed with a formal sermon and a sword. The third method involved the readings of a service Benedictio Novi Militis.
A certain type of apprenticeship exited for knighthood. It was served through being a squire. This involved acting like a servant in the household while being instructed in manners, humility and various skills. Servants were taught exactly what it meant to be a knight. They were tight the responsibilities of knighthood and what their duties exactly were in defending their lord.
Aside from the military training of a knight there was a certain set of manners and customs that developed which is known as 'chivalry'. Part of this was the cultivation of manners that should be used in the courts.... | <urn:uuid:ed59c63a-dd83-4209-b2fa-9703ff6f487a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/medieval-chivalry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.988887 | 594 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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During medieval times knighthood was a class culture, cherished and jealousy guarded by the knightly caste. Knight had the honor of defending the king as well as their country. On the bloody fields of battle a code of chivalry evolved that tempered anger and fury with mercy. It created ways of turning the grim business of fighting into something tolerable, perhaps even acceptable. Chivalry was not only looked upon as a code for war; it was looked upon as a setting for stories of love and romance. Chivalry meant a higher social status as well as recognition.
Chivalry as we know it denotes the ideals and practices considered suitable to be a noble. Over time chivalry has been used as the primal word to describe the attitude and actions of men towards women. "The word itself is reminiscent of the milieu in which the ideas connected with it took shape-the aristocratic society of mediaeval France dominated by mounted warriors or chevaliers." From as early as the eleventh century several different sets of ideas represented different standards of chivalric behavior. Over the next four hundred years the concepts of
The ideal nobleman developed by and for the feudal class under the influence of changing environments, ideas, political views and economies.
The concept of being born into a certain class in society was a great part of medieval life. This concept of the class system was based on the land ownership and duties that were owed to other people. The knights were the military supporters of the feudal lords. The knight fought for his lord and if necessary died for him. However, the feudal inheritance was provided only for the eldest son. Younger sons therefore tended to the church or joined groups of knight lacking land. They worked and did their jobs waiting for the opportunity to marry into an estate.
There were three methods of becoming a knight. "The most common involved the King or tenant-in-chief conferring the title, known as 'dubbing'. The second method involved religion, the soon to be knight kept a night vigil with his arms on the altar in front of him. He then took a purifying bath, heard Mass and had his spurs put on it. The dubbing then followed with a formal sermon and a sword. The third method involved the readings of a service Benedictio Novi Militis.
A certain type of apprenticeship exited for knighthood. It was served through being a squire. This involved acting like a servant in the household while being instructed in manners, humility and various skills. Servants were taught exactly what it meant to be a knight. They were tight the responsibilities of knighthood and what their duties exactly were in defending their lord.
Aside from the military training of a knight there was a certain set of manners and customs that developed which is known as 'chivalry'. Part of this was the cultivation of manners that should be used in the courts.... | 593 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1st February 1919
The Belfast Strike
For the young men of Belfast that did not join the Army, they may have been spared to horrors of life in the trenches. However, they did not escape gruelling hardship at home as they were forced to work 60-hour weeks in the shipyards and factories of the city. Low pay, and poor working conditions exacerbated the angst of the workers and small-scale wild cat strikes were becoming commonplace towards the end of the war.
In anticipation of further unrest once the war ended, the Trade Union Congress negotiated a 47-hour working week to come into effect in January 1919. This was not satisfactory to the Belfast workers, and they rejected this in favour of a 44-hour week. The idea of the 44-hour week stemmed from a meeting held in August 1918 in the Ulster Hall which was addressed by James Baird, of the Boilermaker’s Society. At this meeting he said;
This meeting has been arranged by a number of the rank and file trade unionists who realising that some time must elapse before the various trades organisations could be put into motion, had determined that a beginning should be made. The committee responsible for the demonstration were not trying to usurp the position of the trade union officials, but they believed that the great meeting would help to create a public opinion which would assist the movement for an eight-hour day. Our proposal is that work should commence at 8.30am, cease at 5.30pm, with one hour for dinner, for five working days, and at 8.30am till 12.30pm on Saturdays, making it in all a 44-hour week.
Throughout December and into the New Year there was much discussions with the various employers who refused to yield to a 44-hour week, instead demanding a 47-hour week. This lead to the decision of workers to ballot for strike action. The ballot took place on 14th January. 97% of workers voted to strike if their terms were not met. The deadline was set for noon on 25th January.
As the deadline approached, there was much anxiety in Belfast over whether or not the strike would proceed. As most premises closed at noon on a Saturday anyways, it was not going to be immediately clear what the impact of a strike would be. However, as thousands of unofficial flyers were distributed to workers all over the city announcing that the strike should commence, it became clear that some form of labour strife was about to commence.
That night chaos ensued as the street lights went out as workers in electricity and gas works downed tools. By Monday morning, tens of thousands of workers were put out by the closure of their employment, and every citizen of the city acutely felt its impact. The industries mainly affected were;
- Electric lighting
- Gas supplies
- Post Offices
- Telegraphs and Telephones
By Monday morning, sympathy strikes in many other industries began. Even gravediggers working for Belfast City Council downed their shovels in protest. Hospitals stockpiled on candles as it was realised by workers that their concession to light hospitals would not be possible, as they could not separate lighting hospitals with lighting the streets.
By Tuesday, strikes were spreading across the Kingdom with large scale disruption beginning in Glasgow and London. In Manchester, 4,000 men halted work because a single docker refused to join a trade union.
By Wednesday night, looting and rioting were breaking out in the darkness of Belfast. All Belfast newspapers were out of print on that day, bar the Northern Whig, which managed a single sheet.
Labour unrest began to spread across Ireland by the end of the week with issues reported in Derry, Lurgan, Donegal, Limerick, Dublin, Dundalk, Monaghan, and Maryborough. Meanwhile, by week’s end in Glasgow, hundreds of people were injured in widescale rioting that forced troops to be deployed to the city to quell tensions. The main clashes took place around the George Square area of the city and the unrest became known as Bloody Friday.
Belfast Newsletter, 22nd August 1918 | <urn:uuid:977f9372-a04c-4c98-a836-0b8197c04ea2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gerdooley.com/1919-1921-first-36-weeks/week-two-26119-2219 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.986008 | 837 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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The Belfast Strike
For the young men of Belfast that did not join the Army, they may have been spared to horrors of life in the trenches. However, they did not escape gruelling hardship at home as they were forced to work 60-hour weeks in the shipyards and factories of the city. Low pay, and poor working conditions exacerbated the angst of the workers and small-scale wild cat strikes were becoming commonplace towards the end of the war.
In anticipation of further unrest once the war ended, the Trade Union Congress negotiated a 47-hour working week to come into effect in January 1919. This was not satisfactory to the Belfast workers, and they rejected this in favour of a 44-hour week. The idea of the 44-hour week stemmed from a meeting held in August 1918 in the Ulster Hall which was addressed by James Baird, of the Boilermaker’s Society. At this meeting he said;
This meeting has been arranged by a number of the rank and file trade unionists who realising that some time must elapse before the various trades organisations could be put into motion, had determined that a beginning should be made. The committee responsible for the demonstration were not trying to usurp the position of the trade union officials, but they believed that the great meeting would help to create a public opinion which would assist the movement for an eight-hour day. Our proposal is that work should commence at 8.30am, cease at 5.30pm, with one hour for dinner, for five working days, and at 8.30am till 12.30pm on Saturdays, making it in all a 44-hour week.
Throughout December and into the New Year there was much discussions with the various employers who refused to yield to a 44-hour week, instead demanding a 47-hour week. This lead to the decision of workers to ballot for strike action. The ballot took place on 14th January. 97% of workers voted to strike if their terms were not met. The deadline was set for noon on 25th January.
As the deadline approached, there was much anxiety in Belfast over whether or not the strike would proceed. As most premises closed at noon on a Saturday anyways, it was not going to be immediately clear what the impact of a strike would be. However, as thousands of unofficial flyers were distributed to workers all over the city announcing that the strike should commence, it became clear that some form of labour strife was about to commence.
That night chaos ensued as the street lights went out as workers in electricity and gas works downed tools. By Monday morning, tens of thousands of workers were put out by the closure of their employment, and every citizen of the city acutely felt its impact. The industries mainly affected were;
- Electric lighting
- Gas supplies
- Post Offices
- Telegraphs and Telephones
By Monday morning, sympathy strikes in many other industries began. Even gravediggers working for Belfast City Council downed their shovels in protest. Hospitals stockpiled on candles as it was realised by workers that their concession to light hospitals would not be possible, as they could not separate lighting hospitals with lighting the streets.
By Tuesday, strikes were spreading across the Kingdom with large scale disruption beginning in Glasgow and London. In Manchester, 4,000 men halted work because a single docker refused to join a trade union.
By Wednesday night, looting and rioting were breaking out in the darkness of Belfast. All Belfast newspapers were out of print on that day, bar the Northern Whig, which managed a single sheet.
Labour unrest began to spread across Ireland by the end of the week with issues reported in Derry, Lurgan, Donegal, Limerick, Dublin, Dundalk, Monaghan, and Maryborough. Meanwhile, by week’s end in Glasgow, hundreds of people were injured in widescale rioting that forced troops to be deployed to the city to quell tensions. The main clashes took place around the George Square area of the city and the unrest became known as Bloody Friday.
Belfast Newsletter, 22nd August 1918 | 871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Underground Railroad was actually a network of secret passageways and safe houses that were used in the nineteenth century by African American slaves in the United States who were escaping from slavery. By 1850, at least 100,000 slaves had used the Underground Railroad as their route to freedom. There are many records that document this.
How the Underground Railroad Was Set Up
The Underground Railroad was a form of underground resistance to slavery. It consisted of various meeting points, secret passageways, assistance from abolitionists, transportation and safe houses. While some people did know about the connections along the route, few knew of their precise location. Escaped slaves moved along this route as they made their way north with the help of “conductors" who included freeborn African Americans, white abolitionists, African Americans who used to be slaves, Native Americans and churches. These people usually only knew about their part of the operation and nothing more.
The Route That the Underground Railroad Took
There were “stations" or “depots" where the runaway slaves were able to sleep and eat along the way. These were hosted by “stationmasters" and paid for by “stockholders." “Conductors" were also present. They helped to move the travelers from one station to the next.
These slaves would oftentimes learn about the Underground Railroad because conductors would enter a plantation as a slave. Once integrated therein they would help people move north at night, usually only traveling between 10 to 20 miles each night. They would then sleep at a station or depot the next day while a message was sent to the next stationmaster that they were on their way. Sometimes boats and trains were used for transportation. However, they mainly used wagons and their own feet to get from one point to the next.
What the Traveling Conditions Were Like
Most routes were indirect so as to throw off anyone who may be in pursuit of them. Those who traveled the Underground Railroad would usually do so by themselves or in a small group. However, there were some mass escapes. Few women or children would make the journey because it was seen as too treacherous for them.
Since there was a risk that the Underground Railroad would be discovered, the routes and safe havens were only passed along by word of mouth. There were a lot of solicitations for this information in Southern newspapers of the day. Big rewards were offered for this information, as well as the capture and return of escaped slaves. This led federal marshals and professional bounty hunters, who were known as slave catchers, to pursue them.
The Underground Railroad’s Importance
The Underground Railroad played an important role in American history. It operated during a very controversial time in which our nation was greatly divided. By understanding what it was all about and the sentiments surrounding it, you will get a better understanding of the events leading up to the Civil War. | <urn:uuid:a0e1c558-fe87-4d0d-924c-ea5ca95ce233> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/91478-basic-history-of-the-underground-railroad/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.991077 | 590 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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-0.183004319... | 1 | The Underground Railroad was actually a network of secret passageways and safe houses that were used in the nineteenth century by African American slaves in the United States who were escaping from slavery. By 1850, at least 100,000 slaves had used the Underground Railroad as their route to freedom. There are many records that document this.
How the Underground Railroad Was Set Up
The Underground Railroad was a form of underground resistance to slavery. It consisted of various meeting points, secret passageways, assistance from abolitionists, transportation and safe houses. While some people did know about the connections along the route, few knew of their precise location. Escaped slaves moved along this route as they made their way north with the help of “conductors" who included freeborn African Americans, white abolitionists, African Americans who used to be slaves, Native Americans and churches. These people usually only knew about their part of the operation and nothing more.
The Route That the Underground Railroad Took
There were “stations" or “depots" where the runaway slaves were able to sleep and eat along the way. These were hosted by “stationmasters" and paid for by “stockholders." “Conductors" were also present. They helped to move the travelers from one station to the next.
These slaves would oftentimes learn about the Underground Railroad because conductors would enter a plantation as a slave. Once integrated therein they would help people move north at night, usually only traveling between 10 to 20 miles each night. They would then sleep at a station or depot the next day while a message was sent to the next stationmaster that they were on their way. Sometimes boats and trains were used for transportation. However, they mainly used wagons and their own feet to get from one point to the next.
What the Traveling Conditions Were Like
Most routes were indirect so as to throw off anyone who may be in pursuit of them. Those who traveled the Underground Railroad would usually do so by themselves or in a small group. However, there were some mass escapes. Few women or children would make the journey because it was seen as too treacherous for them.
Since there was a risk that the Underground Railroad would be discovered, the routes and safe havens were only passed along by word of mouth. There were a lot of solicitations for this information in Southern newspapers of the day. Big rewards were offered for this information, as well as the capture and return of escaped slaves. This led federal marshals and professional bounty hunters, who were known as slave catchers, to pursue them.
The Underground Railroad’s Importance
The Underground Railroad played an important role in American history. It operated during a very controversial time in which our nation was greatly divided. By understanding what it was all about and the sentiments surrounding it, you will get a better understanding of the events leading up to the Civil War. | 589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Washington: When it comes to obesity prevention, sleep is not usually what comes to one's mind. However, a new research has revealed that sufficient sleep during infancy can help curb long-term obesity.
One in three children are overweight or obese by the time they start school. Treating obesity once established is challenging, however, researchers observed that sleep intervention in infancy reduces the risk of obesity for participants in the later stages of an infant's life.
"Sleep is a very important behaviour that we need to consider. In terms of maintaining a healthy weight, sleep usually isn't the first behaviour that comes to mind - for parents or health practitioners - yet the research is actually very clear," said researcher Rachael Taylor.
"The relationship between not getting enough sleep and being at a higher risk of obesity is actually stronger than the evidence base for nutrition or activity, where the findings are often more mixed," Taylor added.
The researchers studied more than 800 babies, dividing their mothers into four groups, three of which received intervention in addition to the standard Well Child/Tamariki Ora care: sleep; promotion of breastfeeding, healthy eating, and physical activity; and a combination of both.
For sleep intervention, pregnant women, mothers, and their partners were invited to a group discussion based on what to expect, sleep-wise, with their baby in the first few months and how to prevent sleep problems.
When the infants were about three weeks old, they were monitored at home to understand their sleep pattern. The researchers talked to parents about assisting their child with sleep by learning to recognise signals from the baby that they were tired, and then encouraging the baby to settle themselves to sleep. If a sleep problem developed, expert support was immediately available until infants were two years old.
For nutrition and activity intervention, mothers had access to a lactation consultant at least two times during the first few months of feeding; researchers visited them to discuss how to eat healthily as a family and conducted group sessions for parents and babies about being physically active as a family.
Researchers found the brief sleep intervention reduced the risk of obesity in the years that followed, while no benefit was observed with the nutrition and activity intervention.
"For those children who received the sleep intervention, we found that at two years of age they had about half the risk of obesity compared with children who had not received the sleep intervention. As any parent knows, getting enough good quality sleep keeps a child happy, behaving well and enjoying life. However, it also helps them do well at school, their diets are better, and they tend to be more active - all factors that help us be healthier," added Taylor.
According to co-author Barry Taylor, it is important for children to have a regular sleep routine. Children should go to bed at a time that gives them enough sleep so that they are not tired the next day, and screen-time should be avoided for at least 30 minutes before going to bed, as well as in bed.
The study appeared in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.... | <urn:uuid:653e2550-efc5-4e5a-b246-5436a03356d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/health-and-wellbeing/070918/adequate-sleep-during-infancy-can-help-curb-long-term-obesity-new-stu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.984369 | 617 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.22522559762... | 2 | Washington: When it comes to obesity prevention, sleep is not usually what comes to one's mind. However, a new research has revealed that sufficient sleep during infancy can help curb long-term obesity.
One in three children are overweight or obese by the time they start school. Treating obesity once established is challenging, however, researchers observed that sleep intervention in infancy reduces the risk of obesity for participants in the later stages of an infant's life.
"Sleep is a very important behaviour that we need to consider. In terms of maintaining a healthy weight, sleep usually isn't the first behaviour that comes to mind - for parents or health practitioners - yet the research is actually very clear," said researcher Rachael Taylor.
"The relationship between not getting enough sleep and being at a higher risk of obesity is actually stronger than the evidence base for nutrition or activity, where the findings are often more mixed," Taylor added.
The researchers studied more than 800 babies, dividing their mothers into four groups, three of which received intervention in addition to the standard Well Child/Tamariki Ora care: sleep; promotion of breastfeeding, healthy eating, and physical activity; and a combination of both.
For sleep intervention, pregnant women, mothers, and their partners were invited to a group discussion based on what to expect, sleep-wise, with their baby in the first few months and how to prevent sleep problems.
When the infants were about three weeks old, they were monitored at home to understand their sleep pattern. The researchers talked to parents about assisting their child with sleep by learning to recognise signals from the baby that they were tired, and then encouraging the baby to settle themselves to sleep. If a sleep problem developed, expert support was immediately available until infants were two years old.
For nutrition and activity intervention, mothers had access to a lactation consultant at least two times during the first few months of feeding; researchers visited them to discuss how to eat healthily as a family and conducted group sessions for parents and babies about being physically active as a family.
Researchers found the brief sleep intervention reduced the risk of obesity in the years that followed, while no benefit was observed with the nutrition and activity intervention.
"For those children who received the sleep intervention, we found that at two years of age they had about half the risk of obesity compared with children who had not received the sleep intervention. As any parent knows, getting enough good quality sleep keeps a child happy, behaving well and enjoying life. However, it also helps them do well at school, their diets are better, and they tend to be more active - all factors that help us be healthier," added Taylor.
According to co-author Barry Taylor, it is important for children to have a regular sleep routine. Children should go to bed at a time that gives them enough sleep so that they are not tired the next day, and screen-time should be avoided for at least 30 minutes before going to bed, as well as in bed.
The study appeared in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.... | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who was lived from 1588-1679. He attended Oxford University where he studied classics. His occupation was a tutor, but he also traveled around Europe to meet with scientists and to study different forms of government. He became interested in why people allowed themselves to be ruled, and what would be the best form of government for England. Thomas Hobbes was the first great figure in modern moral philosophy.
Hobbes had a pessimistic view of people; he believed humans were selfish creatures who would do anything to better their positions. He also thought that people could not be trusted to make decisions on their own, and a country needed an authority figure to provide direction and leadership. Therefore, Hobbes believed in an absolute monarchy – a government that gave all power to a king or queen. He also thought that people should obey their king, even if he is a tyrant. He said that because people were only interested in promoting their own self-interests, democracy would never work. In fact, he thought democracy was very dangerous. But even though he distrusted democracy, he believed that a diverse group of representatives presenting the problems of the common person would prevent a king from being unfair and cruel. Hobbes coined the phrase, “Voice of the people,” meaning one person could be chosen to represent a group with similar views.
In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote his famous work, “Leviathan” which put into writing his views on democracy and monarchy. In this work, he said that life in the state of nature is “nasty, brutish, and short” and without government, we would be living in this state of nature. Hobbes ideas that people should decide how they should be ruled set the stage for the “social contract” proposed some years later by John Locke. Society makes a kind of contract with itself to give power to a ruling body. In “Leviathan” Hobbes also said that nations are like people in that they are selfishly motivated, and that every country was in constant battle for power and wealth. He wanted people to stop fighting and relinquish control to a single ruler.
Hobbes idea’s weren’t just about government, though. He was one of the strongest opponents to the idea of spirituality. He believed in materialism – that everything that happens is a result of the physical world, and that the soul does not exist. According to Hobbes, nature is made up of material matter – there is nothing spiritual or magical about it.
Hobbes didn’t like the idea of spirit in the mind, because he felt it led people to cause trouble by claiming they were directly in contact with God. In fact, during Thomas Hobbes’ life, people often used spirituality as an excuse to disobey the government and the church.
Hobbes believed that all thoughts and sensations in the mind are produced mechanically by the senses and the brain, but the problem is that our mind doesn’t always tell us the truth, it often tells us things we want to believe, or things that we’re afraid might be true. | <urn:uuid:ea778231-f47c-4504-92d6-5727ff164568> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Thomas_Hobbes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.986827 | 651 | 4.40625 | 4 | [
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0.28773820400238... | 6 | Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who was lived from 1588-1679. He attended Oxford University where he studied classics. His occupation was a tutor, but he also traveled around Europe to meet with scientists and to study different forms of government. He became interested in why people allowed themselves to be ruled, and what would be the best form of government for England. Thomas Hobbes was the first great figure in modern moral philosophy.
Hobbes had a pessimistic view of people; he believed humans were selfish creatures who would do anything to better their positions. He also thought that people could not be trusted to make decisions on their own, and a country needed an authority figure to provide direction and leadership. Therefore, Hobbes believed in an absolute monarchy – a government that gave all power to a king or queen. He also thought that people should obey their king, even if he is a tyrant. He said that because people were only interested in promoting their own self-interests, democracy would never work. In fact, he thought democracy was very dangerous. But even though he distrusted democracy, he believed that a diverse group of representatives presenting the problems of the common person would prevent a king from being unfair and cruel. Hobbes coined the phrase, “Voice of the people,” meaning one person could be chosen to represent a group with similar views.
In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote his famous work, “Leviathan” which put into writing his views on democracy and monarchy. In this work, he said that life in the state of nature is “nasty, brutish, and short” and without government, we would be living in this state of nature. Hobbes ideas that people should decide how they should be ruled set the stage for the “social contract” proposed some years later by John Locke. Society makes a kind of contract with itself to give power to a ruling body. In “Leviathan” Hobbes also said that nations are like people in that they are selfishly motivated, and that every country was in constant battle for power and wealth. He wanted people to stop fighting and relinquish control to a single ruler.
Hobbes idea’s weren’t just about government, though. He was one of the strongest opponents to the idea of spirituality. He believed in materialism – that everything that happens is a result of the physical world, and that the soul does not exist. According to Hobbes, nature is made up of material matter – there is nothing spiritual or magical about it.
Hobbes didn’t like the idea of spirit in the mind, because he felt it led people to cause trouble by claiming they were directly in contact with God. In fact, during Thomas Hobbes’ life, people often used spirituality as an excuse to disobey the government and the church.
Hobbes believed that all thoughts and sensations in the mind are produced mechanically by the senses and the brain, but the problem is that our mind doesn’t always tell us the truth, it often tells us things we want to believe, or things that we’re afraid might be true. | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Its science will look at four major themes: the universe's first light, how the first galaxies were formed, how stars are formed, and looking at the origins of life including exoplanets. Despite his patent, some contemporaries claimed he stole their idea.
Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, Samuel Klingenstiernawhich led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light.
It was probably inevitable that as glassmaking and lens-grinding techniques improved in the late s, someone would hold up two lenses and discovered what they could do. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times.
It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope.
He has worked as team leader and section head in his role as a clinical cytogeneticist in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. One story goes that he got the idea for his design after observing two children in his shop holding up two lenses that made a distant weather vane appear close.
Galileo spent his time to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased power. While Lippershey was unable to obtain a patent for his telescope inAlvan Clark of Cambridge, MA received one on 11 November for his unique design which simplified the eyepiece, allowing for easier access to the lenses.
No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley best known as the inventor of the octant developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors.
The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths. His writings show that with the exception of his bravadohe would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared.
His enormous apparatus for the time was built to make detailed studies of the planets and solar system. After working on radar during the Second World War, Bernard saw the great scientific potential of radio telescopes in studying the cosmos. | <urn:uuid:8d3da343-e41f-4cb0-867b-83095b7718e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hogypupacilob.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/a-history-of-telescopes-in-astronomy131983875gl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.982527 | 483 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.285536915063858... | 3 | Its science will look at four major themes: the universe's first light, how the first galaxies were formed, how stars are formed, and looking at the origins of life including exoplanets. Despite his patent, some contemporaries claimed he stole their idea.
Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, Samuel Klingenstiernawhich led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light.
It was probably inevitable that as glassmaking and lens-grinding techniques improved in the late s, someone would hold up two lenses and discovered what they could do. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times.
It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope.
He has worked as team leader and section head in his role as a clinical cytogeneticist in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. One story goes that he got the idea for his design after observing two children in his shop holding up two lenses that made a distant weather vane appear close.
Galileo spent his time to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased power. While Lippershey was unable to obtain a patent for his telescope inAlvan Clark of Cambridge, MA received one on 11 November for his unique design which simplified the eyepiece, allowing for easier access to the lenses.
No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley best known as the inventor of the octant developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors.
The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths. His writings show that with the exception of his bravadohe would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared.
His enormous apparatus for the time was built to make detailed studies of the planets and solar system. After working on radar during the Second World War, Bernard saw the great scientific potential of radio telescopes in studying the cosmos. | 483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Building Learning Power
Building Learning Power is an approach to helping young people to become better learners, both in school and out.
Positive effects of developing pupils learning behaviours include raised achievement, improved behaviour, increased motivation, established habits of lifelong learning, increased enjoyment in learning and enhanced creativity.
We introduced Building Learning power last academic year and it has been well received by both staff and pupils. It has had a really positive impact on how children learn in school and we hope these ‘learning powers’ will stick with them as they progress through life.
To help consolidate Building Learning Power in school we recently held a Learning Heroes Day. All staff and children came to school wearing a Learning Hero Cape which demonstrated key learning powers and throughout the day the whole school took part in a variety of activities to show how the different learning powers support and enhance learning.
Throughout the day, children were encouraged to ‘think outside the box’, persevere, work collaboratively and reflect on their ideas. It was amazing to see children working creatively and enthusiastically on a range of activities! We even had a visit from Spiderman in assembly who showed the children some amazing tricks and explained to them how much hard work and training he had to do to develop and perfect his skills. | <urn:uuid:1f15e4b3-4ef2-45b0-9dd2-ce110ddf2cee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.caythorpe.lincs.sch.uk/news/?pid=35&nid=3&storyid=206 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.984773 | 256 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.18103979527950... | 8 | Building Learning Power
Building Learning Power is an approach to helping young people to become better learners, both in school and out.
Positive effects of developing pupils learning behaviours include raised achievement, improved behaviour, increased motivation, established habits of lifelong learning, increased enjoyment in learning and enhanced creativity.
We introduced Building Learning power last academic year and it has been well received by both staff and pupils. It has had a really positive impact on how children learn in school and we hope these ‘learning powers’ will stick with them as they progress through life.
To help consolidate Building Learning Power in school we recently held a Learning Heroes Day. All staff and children came to school wearing a Learning Hero Cape which demonstrated key learning powers and throughout the day the whole school took part in a variety of activities to show how the different learning powers support and enhance learning.
Throughout the day, children were encouraged to ‘think outside the box’, persevere, work collaboratively and reflect on their ideas. It was amazing to see children working creatively and enthusiastically on a range of activities! We even had a visit from Spiderman in assembly who showed the children some amazing tricks and explained to them how much hard work and training he had to do to develop and perfect his skills. | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Detailed chart of Barrow's Strait, Prince Regent Inlet, King William Sea, the Gulf of Boothia, Strait of the Fury and Hecla, Mellville Peninsula and part of Baffin's Bay, showing the regions explored by John Ross during his second voyage in search of the Northwest Passage.
The map includes 6 vignettes showing coastal profiles of places visited by Ross on the expedition.
John Ross was in charge of the expedition and his nephew, James Clark Ross accompanied him on this voyage as second in command. Due to controversies surrounding his previous Arctic voyage in 1818, Ross was unable to secure financing from England for a second voyage. He instead was backed by the London gin magnate, Felix Booth, after whom the Boothia Peninsula is named.
The map shows the track of the expedition and Somerset House, where they spent one of the four difficult Arctic winters before they were rescued by whalers in ships acquired from the wreck of the Fury, from Parry's expedition. Given up for lost, when Ross told the whalers that he was Captain Ross of the ship Victory, they grimly told him that could not be, as Captain Ross had died in the Northwest Passage two years before. Ross' record of staying in the Arctic for four winters would not be broken for 70 years. Upon returning to England, the captain was greeted as a hero. | <urn:uuid:bc8cf9d5-7487-455b-8947-3b68d9becf5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/64402/to-his-most-excellent-majesty-william-ivth-king-of-great-bri-ross?q=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.983137 | 281 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1708342... | 2 | Detailed chart of Barrow's Strait, Prince Regent Inlet, King William Sea, the Gulf of Boothia, Strait of the Fury and Hecla, Mellville Peninsula and part of Baffin's Bay, showing the regions explored by John Ross during his second voyage in search of the Northwest Passage.
The map includes 6 vignettes showing coastal profiles of places visited by Ross on the expedition.
John Ross was in charge of the expedition and his nephew, James Clark Ross accompanied him on this voyage as second in command. Due to controversies surrounding his previous Arctic voyage in 1818, Ross was unable to secure financing from England for a second voyage. He instead was backed by the London gin magnate, Felix Booth, after whom the Boothia Peninsula is named.
The map shows the track of the expedition and Somerset House, where they spent one of the four difficult Arctic winters before they were rescued by whalers in ships acquired from the wreck of the Fury, from Parry's expedition. Given up for lost, when Ross told the whalers that he was Captain Ross of the ship Victory, they grimly told him that could not be, as Captain Ross had died in the Northwest Passage two years before. Ross' record of staying in the Arctic for four winters would not be broken for 70 years. Upon returning to England, the captain was greeted as a hero. | 280 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Light is the most important phenomena around us .It makes us see things of this world. How strange it is that light which removes darkness has itself been in dark for long. What is the nature of light? Is it a particle or wave?.
Although few ancient civilizations claim to have determined exact nature of light very long before. But, nothing conclusive scientific evidence was there. The first scientific work to determine the nature of light was done by Newton, as late as 17th century. Newton proposed his famous corpuscles theory. It said light consists of tiny corpuscles (energy packets) which travel in straight line. This was sufficient to explain the properties like rectilinear propagation, and formation of shadow. The phenomena of reflection and refraction was explained on the basis of elastic collision and attraction of light by dense medium particles respectively. It was widely accepted and applauded. At the same time a Dutch physicist who didn't agree with Newton suggested wave phenomena of light. Owing to small wavelength of light and large objects in our daily life, he said, these waves seem to travel in straight line and hence show particle nature. He also could explain all phenomenon of light which were explained by Newton or were known by that time. To the surprise, Huygens's work remained in dump as for more than a century because scientific community had great faith in Newton. .
The year 1801 A.D. (106 years after Huygen's death) came to light the phenomena of interference. The works of Thomas young to obtain maximum and minimum intensity of light on screen at different positions using a monochromatic light was the double slit experiment. Newton's theory failed to explain it as it was a wave phenomena. On the other hand Huygen's theory was more than sufficient. Thus came the rise of Huygen's theory and it was widely accepted.
A series if investigations in a row all supported by Huygens principle came to light. | <urn:uuid:145aee13-add8-4fdb-978d-88005f38bc6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/18479.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.980339 | 397 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.41891479492187... | 2 | Light is the most important phenomena around us .It makes us see things of this world. How strange it is that light which removes darkness has itself been in dark for long. What is the nature of light? Is it a particle or wave?.
Although few ancient civilizations claim to have determined exact nature of light very long before. But, nothing conclusive scientific evidence was there. The first scientific work to determine the nature of light was done by Newton, as late as 17th century. Newton proposed his famous corpuscles theory. It said light consists of tiny corpuscles (energy packets) which travel in straight line. This was sufficient to explain the properties like rectilinear propagation, and formation of shadow. The phenomena of reflection and refraction was explained on the basis of elastic collision and attraction of light by dense medium particles respectively. It was widely accepted and applauded. At the same time a Dutch physicist who didn't agree with Newton suggested wave phenomena of light. Owing to small wavelength of light and large objects in our daily life, he said, these waves seem to travel in straight line and hence show particle nature. He also could explain all phenomenon of light which were explained by Newton or were known by that time. To the surprise, Huygens's work remained in dump as for more than a century because scientific community had great faith in Newton. .
The year 1801 A.D. (106 years after Huygen's death) came to light the phenomena of interference. The works of Thomas young to obtain maximum and minimum intensity of light on screen at different positions using a monochromatic light was the double slit experiment. Newton's theory failed to explain it as it was a wave phenomena. On the other hand Huygen's theory was more than sufficient. Thus came the rise of Huygen's theory and it was widely accepted.
A series if investigations in a row all supported by Huygens principle came to light. | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
.. is name to, brought about many religious reforms. Amenhotep IV began a series of reforms to ensure the Pharaoh’s status as a living god among the people, as opposed to a simple agent of the sun-god Amen-Re, as the priests of the royal court were beginning to assert a more powerful and independent role. Assisted by the royal family, Amenhotep IV commenced on a series of religious reforms, which would help him regain the power lost to the priests. He worshiped Aten, the radiant god of the sun disk.
Why this particular god Aten was chosen may never be known, But Amenhotep IV apparently so inspired by his faith that he wrote The Hymn to the Aten in his praise. At first he tolerated worship of other gods along with Aten, but eventually he chiseled out the name of Amen-Re from anything which beared the name, and closed the temples of the other gods. The Pharaoh and his family were to worship Aten, while the remainder of the populace was to worship the Pharaoh. Amenhotep then moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes, which was primarily centered on Amen-Re, to a new location called Akhenaten, now modern day Armana, to further separate from previous beliefs. Amenhotep IV also changed his name to Akhenaten, which translates to It pleases Aten. Akhenaten also replaced his advisors with new men, instead of the Amen serving priests. These changes showed a move toward a more monotheist view of the Egyptian world, a view that had never been observed before.
Although each period and line of kings favored a supreme state-god, there had always been toleration of the multitude of deities in Egypt’s pantheon (David 155). This new religion saw the worship of Aten as the principal hero in Egyptian religion, with gods like Amon as enemies. These reforms however, would be short-lived, and the only enduring sign of this Pharaoh’s significance is in the Hymns, which were written to the new god Aten. In The Hymn, Aten is proclaimed to be the sole god, and responsible for all of creation. O unique god, who has no second to him! You have created the earth according to your desire, while you were alone, With men, cattle, and wild beasts, all that is upon earth and goes upon feet, and all that soars above and flies with its wings (Akhenaten lines 60-65).
The Hymn also proclaims the pharaoh as the gods sole representative on earth, and virtually interchangeable with one another. When you rise you make all to flourish for the King, you who made up the foundations of the earth. You who rise them up for your son, he who came forth from your body, .. (Akhenaten lines 122-125). The writing is very beautiful and was inscribed on walls in various tombs.
Though much of what Akhenaten was proposing was a drastic change from the traditional beliefs of Egyptian religion, there were some aspects of these reforms shown in The Hymn to the Aten that were not that far a cry from much of what was taught and believed in the past. As with the gods of the past, Aten was visible, as in that he could be presented in a painting to the people who worshipped him. This new god, Aten, was allowed to be pictured in the elaborate murals on tomb walls and so on, much the same as the old gods of the prior religion were. Aten was also the embodiment of the sun, as Amon-Re was in the old religion, and was worshipped much the same as Amon-Re was prior to Akhenaten’s condemnation of him. Aten was also seen as The Creator of all that was Existing, which also held to the traditional belief that the sun god was the chief creator of the universe. It was also believed in this new religion as in the old one, that the Pharaoh was the next of kin to the sun god, even though the sun god had changed from Re to Aten.
It was also believed that the sun god was raised above the other gods, while being able to have his presence encompass everything. None of these ideas were new to the Egyptian people, as they were exhibited in the old religion; however there was much in this new theology that was extremely different from the traditions of the old. The Hymn to the Aten introduced a great many new concepts to the religion of the Egyptian people. The nature of Aten as the creator is different from previous religious beliefs. Aten was said to have created the world out of his own will to do so, not out of necessity.
Also, we see Aten being distinguished from nature, as well as seeing that nature is not a separate being in the theological order of things. Nature is now believed to be ordered under Aten, with no separate, sovereign being of its own. The Nile is no longer believed to be the embodiment of a god, but a creation of the god, Aten. These two views are the result of the shift toward the monotheist belief that Aten is the sole god in the cosmos, worshipped by the Pharaoh and his family, who are in turn worshipped by the Egyptian people. Aten is now seen as a universal god, who is worshipped by everyone on earth, just in forms and fashions differing from those of the Egyptians; not as a god who was specific to the Egyptian people.
Though this hymn offers much that is vastly different from the old beliefs in Egyptian culture, it is also an effort to revitalize the old beliefs. The Hymn is intending to bring the Pharaoh back into the center of Egyptian religion, politics and culture. It is an attempt to revive and reestablish the unquestionable divinity of the Pharaoh. However, it is going about it by completely severing ties with the old traditions of Egyptian religion. The Aten had no moral philosophy or attractive mythology which could inspire the general worshipper (David 157).
The Hymn also creates a paradoxical relationship between the two theological views as expressed in Egyptian culture. On one hand, there is the new tendency toward a monotheistic religion, with Aten as the sole god, and no other gods governing nature, etc. On the other hand, there are the old views on religion being expressed; the Pharaoh was worshipped by the people of Egypt as a god, and he in turn is worshipping the god Aten; thus, there is more than one god. These new religious views also appeared to help influence a major break in the traditional art of the time. Rather than producing idealized portraits as had been done for hundreds of years prior, Akhenaten encouraged artists to represent him in informal situations – basking in Atens benevolent rays. With his blessing, the artists portrayed Akhenaten not as a conqueror, riding in a war chariot and trampling his enemies, but as a family man, relaxing with Nefertiti, his queen, and his daughters.
The Hymn to the Aten, though it offered new ideas on Egyptian religion, was an attempt by a ruler who enjoyed the idea of a divine title to regain what his predecessors had. The religious reforms brought about by Akhenaten were intended to restore the position of the Pharaoh to the level of absolute rule which had once been held due to belief that the Pharaoh was the personification of the gods. This however was not to be, as the priests which Akhenaten had fought against in his attempt to redefine the Pharaoh’s divinity would take advantage of the weakness of Akhenaten’s successor, Tutankhamen. Tutankhamen’s immaturity enabled the courtiers and officials to direct political and religious events.. The court moved back to Thebes, and the royal couple changed their names to Tutankhamen, demonstrating their renewed allegiance to Amen-Re.
The king restored the old temples of the many gods, and reinstated the priesthoods (David 158). The reforms, which Akhenaten brought to return the power once held by the Pharaoh in the Old Kingdom, were unable to be understood. The people who Akhenaten had to ensure comprehension of his reasoning did not, for they no longer were connected to the old order which he was trying to reestablish. Religion Essays. | <urn:uuid:c43204ab-0c3a-4bf8-9e43-9378dfcac150> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewop.org/egyptian-religous-reforms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.987688 | 1,732 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.042197611182... | 5 | .. is name to, brought about many religious reforms. Amenhotep IV began a series of reforms to ensure the Pharaoh’s status as a living god among the people, as opposed to a simple agent of the sun-god Amen-Re, as the priests of the royal court were beginning to assert a more powerful and independent role. Assisted by the royal family, Amenhotep IV commenced on a series of religious reforms, which would help him regain the power lost to the priests. He worshiped Aten, the radiant god of the sun disk.
Why this particular god Aten was chosen may never be known, But Amenhotep IV apparently so inspired by his faith that he wrote The Hymn to the Aten in his praise. At first he tolerated worship of other gods along with Aten, but eventually he chiseled out the name of Amen-Re from anything which beared the name, and closed the temples of the other gods. The Pharaoh and his family were to worship Aten, while the remainder of the populace was to worship the Pharaoh. Amenhotep then moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes, which was primarily centered on Amen-Re, to a new location called Akhenaten, now modern day Armana, to further separate from previous beliefs. Amenhotep IV also changed his name to Akhenaten, which translates to It pleases Aten. Akhenaten also replaced his advisors with new men, instead of the Amen serving priests. These changes showed a move toward a more monotheist view of the Egyptian world, a view that had never been observed before.
Although each period and line of kings favored a supreme state-god, there had always been toleration of the multitude of deities in Egypt’s pantheon (David 155). This new religion saw the worship of Aten as the principal hero in Egyptian religion, with gods like Amon as enemies. These reforms however, would be short-lived, and the only enduring sign of this Pharaoh’s significance is in the Hymns, which were written to the new god Aten. In The Hymn, Aten is proclaimed to be the sole god, and responsible for all of creation. O unique god, who has no second to him! You have created the earth according to your desire, while you were alone, With men, cattle, and wild beasts, all that is upon earth and goes upon feet, and all that soars above and flies with its wings (Akhenaten lines 60-65).
The Hymn also proclaims the pharaoh as the gods sole representative on earth, and virtually interchangeable with one another. When you rise you make all to flourish for the King, you who made up the foundations of the earth. You who rise them up for your son, he who came forth from your body, .. (Akhenaten lines 122-125). The writing is very beautiful and was inscribed on walls in various tombs.
Though much of what Akhenaten was proposing was a drastic change from the traditional beliefs of Egyptian religion, there were some aspects of these reforms shown in The Hymn to the Aten that were not that far a cry from much of what was taught and believed in the past. As with the gods of the past, Aten was visible, as in that he could be presented in a painting to the people who worshipped him. This new god, Aten, was allowed to be pictured in the elaborate murals on tomb walls and so on, much the same as the old gods of the prior religion were. Aten was also the embodiment of the sun, as Amon-Re was in the old religion, and was worshipped much the same as Amon-Re was prior to Akhenaten’s condemnation of him. Aten was also seen as The Creator of all that was Existing, which also held to the traditional belief that the sun god was the chief creator of the universe. It was also believed in this new religion as in the old one, that the Pharaoh was the next of kin to the sun god, even though the sun god had changed from Re to Aten.
It was also believed that the sun god was raised above the other gods, while being able to have his presence encompass everything. None of these ideas were new to the Egyptian people, as they were exhibited in the old religion; however there was much in this new theology that was extremely different from the traditions of the old. The Hymn to the Aten introduced a great many new concepts to the religion of the Egyptian people. The nature of Aten as the creator is different from previous religious beliefs. Aten was said to have created the world out of his own will to do so, not out of necessity.
Also, we see Aten being distinguished from nature, as well as seeing that nature is not a separate being in the theological order of things. Nature is now believed to be ordered under Aten, with no separate, sovereign being of its own. The Nile is no longer believed to be the embodiment of a god, but a creation of the god, Aten. These two views are the result of the shift toward the monotheist belief that Aten is the sole god in the cosmos, worshipped by the Pharaoh and his family, who are in turn worshipped by the Egyptian people. Aten is now seen as a universal god, who is worshipped by everyone on earth, just in forms and fashions differing from those of the Egyptians; not as a god who was specific to the Egyptian people.
Though this hymn offers much that is vastly different from the old beliefs in Egyptian culture, it is also an effort to revitalize the old beliefs. The Hymn is intending to bring the Pharaoh back into the center of Egyptian religion, politics and culture. It is an attempt to revive and reestablish the unquestionable divinity of the Pharaoh. However, it is going about it by completely severing ties with the old traditions of Egyptian religion. The Aten had no moral philosophy or attractive mythology which could inspire the general worshipper (David 157).
The Hymn also creates a paradoxical relationship between the two theological views as expressed in Egyptian culture. On one hand, there is the new tendency toward a monotheistic religion, with Aten as the sole god, and no other gods governing nature, etc. On the other hand, there are the old views on religion being expressed; the Pharaoh was worshipped by the people of Egypt as a god, and he in turn is worshipping the god Aten; thus, there is more than one god. These new religious views also appeared to help influence a major break in the traditional art of the time. Rather than producing idealized portraits as had been done for hundreds of years prior, Akhenaten encouraged artists to represent him in informal situations – basking in Atens benevolent rays. With his blessing, the artists portrayed Akhenaten not as a conqueror, riding in a war chariot and trampling his enemies, but as a family man, relaxing with Nefertiti, his queen, and his daughters.
The Hymn to the Aten, though it offered new ideas on Egyptian religion, was an attempt by a ruler who enjoyed the idea of a divine title to regain what his predecessors had. The religious reforms brought about by Akhenaten were intended to restore the position of the Pharaoh to the level of absolute rule which had once been held due to belief that the Pharaoh was the personification of the gods. This however was not to be, as the priests which Akhenaten had fought against in his attempt to redefine the Pharaoh’s divinity would take advantage of the weakness of Akhenaten’s successor, Tutankhamen. Tutankhamen’s immaturity enabled the courtiers and officials to direct political and religious events.. The court moved back to Thebes, and the royal couple changed their names to Tutankhamen, demonstrating their renewed allegiance to Amen-Re.
The king restored the old temples of the many gods, and reinstated the priesthoods (David 158). The reforms, which Akhenaten brought to return the power once held by the Pharaoh in the Old Kingdom, were unable to be understood. The people who Akhenaten had to ensure comprehension of his reasoning did not, for they no longer were connected to the old order which he was trying to reestablish. Religion Essays. | 1,739 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bamberg Conference of 1926
Adolf Hitler called for a Nazi Party conference to be held at Bamberg. Hitler was becoming concerned that the Nazi Party was splitting in two ideologically and wanted the issue resolved as soon as possible. Bamberg was not a random choice for this conference. Bamberg is in Bavaria and Hitler was effectively making a statement about where he thought the heart and soul of Nazism lay.
In early 1926, the Nazi Party appeared to Hitler as if it was splitting into two different ideologies. He believed that the party could only go down one road and the conference at Bamberg was called to resolve the issue once and for all. Party ‘Gaufuehrers’ (District Leaders) were called to the meeting. Those district leaders from Northern Germany were at odds with district leaders from the south of Germany as to where the heart of Nazism lay. Those from the north were described as “urban, socialist (with) a revolutionary trend” (Louis Snyder) while those district leaders from the south were described as “rural, racialist (and with) populist ideas.” (Snyder)
The northern side of the party was represented by Gregor Strasser – considered at the time as a rival to Hitler for the future leadership of the party – while the south was best represented by Gottfried Feder.
Hitler chose at Sunday February 14th, for the meeting in the hope that those from the north of Germany would find it more difficult to get to Bamberg than those in the south. In this sense, Hitler was making it clear where his loyalties lay. However, he knew that he had to be careful as he was unsure which group had the most support when the meeting opened. Both Strasser and Jospeh Goebbels spoke for the north but were outnumbered by representatives of the party from the south of Germany. Hitler did, however, make himself clear when he told the conference that he would not allow the party to go in the direction of “undiluted socialist principles”.
One of the key topics that highlighted differences within the party was what should be done to the homes and estates of those from noble “princely” background. The more radical northern representatives believed that the estates should be expropriated and put to the greater use of the many. Hitler made a two-hour speech in which he stated where he stood: that expropriation of the estates would push the party along the road of communism and that he could not tolerate anything that would help “communist-inspired movements”.
Hitler knew exactly what he was doing in the speech. He tainted those who stood behind Strasser with the stain of communism – taking land from those who owned it and redistributing it. There was a loathing of communism among the party and Hitler correctly gambled that those who stood behind Strasser would quickly move behind the southern Nazis, who by the end of the congress clearly had the backing of Hitler. One of the main figures who made this move was Joseph Goebbels. He had originally gone to Bamberg to speak on the behalf of the northern ‘urban revolutionaries’ but by the time the conference broke up, he had set himself firmly in the Hitler camp. It was a move of loyalty recognised by Hitler who made the future Head of Propaganda Gauleiter of Berlin. Strasser, for his part, called Goebbels a “scheming dwarf”.
However, Hitler never forgot someone who he believed represented a challenge to his authority. In 1926 Strasser appeared to do just this. He was one of those murdered in the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in 1934. Strasser had nothing to do with the threat posed by Roehm and the SA and was politically inactive at the time – but the whole episode presented Hitler with the perfect opportunity for revenge.
- Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no…
- Gregor Strasser Gregor Strasser was an early member of the Nazi Party. During Adolf Hitler’s imprisonment Strasser attempted to take the Nazi Party in a… | <urn:uuid:44fc1ebc-c827-4e93-b10c-3e90ff16f6e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/the-bamberg-conference-of-1926/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00385.warc.gz | en | 0.988882 | 870 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.11150592565... | 7 | The Bamberg Conference of 1926
Adolf Hitler called for a Nazi Party conference to be held at Bamberg. Hitler was becoming concerned that the Nazi Party was splitting in two ideologically and wanted the issue resolved as soon as possible. Bamberg was not a random choice for this conference. Bamberg is in Bavaria and Hitler was effectively making a statement about where he thought the heart and soul of Nazism lay.
In early 1926, the Nazi Party appeared to Hitler as if it was splitting into two different ideologies. He believed that the party could only go down one road and the conference at Bamberg was called to resolve the issue once and for all. Party ‘Gaufuehrers’ (District Leaders) were called to the meeting. Those district leaders from Northern Germany were at odds with district leaders from the south of Germany as to where the heart of Nazism lay. Those from the north were described as “urban, socialist (with) a revolutionary trend” (Louis Snyder) while those district leaders from the south were described as “rural, racialist (and with) populist ideas.” (Snyder)
The northern side of the party was represented by Gregor Strasser – considered at the time as a rival to Hitler for the future leadership of the party – while the south was best represented by Gottfried Feder.
Hitler chose at Sunday February 14th, for the meeting in the hope that those from the north of Germany would find it more difficult to get to Bamberg than those in the south. In this sense, Hitler was making it clear where his loyalties lay. However, he knew that he had to be careful as he was unsure which group had the most support when the meeting opened. Both Strasser and Jospeh Goebbels spoke for the north but were outnumbered by representatives of the party from the south of Germany. Hitler did, however, make himself clear when he told the conference that he would not allow the party to go in the direction of “undiluted socialist principles”.
One of the key topics that highlighted differences within the party was what should be done to the homes and estates of those from noble “princely” background. The more radical northern representatives believed that the estates should be expropriated and put to the greater use of the many. Hitler made a two-hour speech in which he stated where he stood: that expropriation of the estates would push the party along the road of communism and that he could not tolerate anything that would help “communist-inspired movements”.
Hitler knew exactly what he was doing in the speech. He tainted those who stood behind Strasser with the stain of communism – taking land from those who owned it and redistributing it. There was a loathing of communism among the party and Hitler correctly gambled that those who stood behind Strasser would quickly move behind the southern Nazis, who by the end of the congress clearly had the backing of Hitler. One of the main figures who made this move was Joseph Goebbels. He had originally gone to Bamberg to speak on the behalf of the northern ‘urban revolutionaries’ but by the time the conference broke up, he had set himself firmly in the Hitler camp. It was a move of loyalty recognised by Hitler who made the future Head of Propaganda Gauleiter of Berlin. Strasser, for his part, called Goebbels a “scheming dwarf”.
However, Hitler never forgot someone who he believed represented a challenge to his authority. In 1926 Strasser appeared to do just this. He was one of those murdered in the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in 1934. Strasser had nothing to do with the threat posed by Roehm and the SA and was politically inactive at the time – but the whole episode presented Hitler with the perfect opportunity for revenge.
- Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no…
- Gregor Strasser Gregor Strasser was an early member of the Nazi Party. During Adolf Hitler’s imprisonment Strasser attempted to take the Nazi Party in a… | 858 | ENGLISH | 1 |
October 21st, 2014 in English Learning
The word opposite can be an adjective, an adverb or a noun.
As an adverb it means ‘across from’ or ‘facing something/someone’.
- The bus stop is opposite the cinema.
- He sat opposite her. (In this case, she can see him and he can see her.)
When you play against somebody you act with them as one of the two main characters in a film.
- She has played against some of the biggest stars in Hollywood.
The noun ‘opposite’ is used to refer to someone or something that is completely different from someone/something else.
- He and his wife are opposites in character.
- Opposites attract.
Do the opposite
- Whatever I suggest, she does the opposite.
The opposite of
- He seemed agitated – the opposite of his regular self.
In front of
If somebody or something is in front of you, you will be able to see them/it when you look forwards.
- There were two boys in front of me. (Here the boys can’t necessarily see you, but you can see them.)
- That boy sits in front of the television all day long.
If you wouldn’t do something in front of somebody, you wouldn’t do it if they were with you.
- Will you say this in front of your father?
- They played in front of a crowd of 50,000 people.
The phrase ‘in front of’ can also be used to refer to something that is going to happen to you in the future.
- She is an excellent dancer. If she also polishes her acting skills, she will have a brilliant career in front of her. | <urn:uuid:55cd3da2-710a-41f4-a5be-ca7de119162e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.englishpractice.com/2014/10/page/7/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.986735 | 376 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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The word opposite can be an adjective, an adverb or a noun.
As an adverb it means ‘across from’ or ‘facing something/someone’.
- The bus stop is opposite the cinema.
- He sat opposite her. (In this case, she can see him and he can see her.)
When you play against somebody you act with them as one of the two main characters in a film.
- She has played against some of the biggest stars in Hollywood.
The noun ‘opposite’ is used to refer to someone or something that is completely different from someone/something else.
- He and his wife are opposites in character.
- Opposites attract.
Do the opposite
- Whatever I suggest, she does the opposite.
The opposite of
- He seemed agitated – the opposite of his regular self.
In front of
If somebody or something is in front of you, you will be able to see them/it when you look forwards.
- There were two boys in front of me. (Here the boys can’t necessarily see you, but you can see them.)
- That boy sits in front of the television all day long.
If you wouldn’t do something in front of somebody, you wouldn’t do it if they were with you.
- Will you say this in front of your father?
- They played in front of a crowd of 50,000 people.
The phrase ‘in front of’ can also be used to refer to something that is going to happen to you in the future.
- She is an excellent dancer. If she also polishes her acting skills, she will have a brilliant career in front of her. | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were many sectional differences in ideas, leadership, and future plans for the United States.Leaders from both sides had conflicting objectives and intentions.
Many issues were argued amidst the states and their leaders.Abraham Lincoln noticed the strong division growing between the northern and southern states and wanted to unit them.Lincoln wanted all states to be either slave or free just so long as they agreed.Confederate leaders however, did not want the uniting of states.They believed one government should not control all states; instead, they wanted individual states to be governed by themselves.
A main divergence was the topic of labor.More specifically, what was the better system of production?What was the most civilized way of working?
Factory workers and slaves were the main source of labor.Northerners were disgusted with the South for owning slaves.They felt slavery was immoral and decadent.Southerners, however, deliberated that the North were hypocrites because of their poor working conditions.The North relied on industries for income, and the South relied on cash crops.Mutually they believed their working arrangements were much better than that of the opposing side.
Industries provided mass production of widgets and various parts for assorted machinery.Unfortunately, the majority of employment used for industrial labor was provided through the services of extremely young children (sweat shops).Because of the extraneous activities, the life expectancy became shorter.
For the South, labor came from slaves.The slaves would mainly work on fields picking cotton, plowing and many other farming duties on plantations. Although living and working situations were at times considered better than those in the North, it wasn't justified.It was very difficult and demeaning.With the animosity growing, war was destined to occur.
One interpretation for the cause of the Civil War w… | <urn:uuid:ce312d75-ed28-403a-98da-c3b0bf3d027f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/civil-war-leaders/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.982795 | 370 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.35608437657356... | 1 | There were many sectional differences in ideas, leadership, and future plans for the United States.Leaders from both sides had conflicting objectives and intentions.
Many issues were argued amidst the states and their leaders.Abraham Lincoln noticed the strong division growing between the northern and southern states and wanted to unit them.Lincoln wanted all states to be either slave or free just so long as they agreed.Confederate leaders however, did not want the uniting of states.They believed one government should not control all states; instead, they wanted individual states to be governed by themselves.
A main divergence was the topic of labor.More specifically, what was the better system of production?What was the most civilized way of working?
Factory workers and slaves were the main source of labor.Northerners were disgusted with the South for owning slaves.They felt slavery was immoral and decadent.Southerners, however, deliberated that the North were hypocrites because of their poor working conditions.The North relied on industries for income, and the South relied on cash crops.Mutually they believed their working arrangements were much better than that of the opposing side.
Industries provided mass production of widgets and various parts for assorted machinery.Unfortunately, the majority of employment used for industrial labor was provided through the services of extremely young children (sweat shops).Because of the extraneous activities, the life expectancy became shorter.
For the South, labor came from slaves.The slaves would mainly work on fields picking cotton, plowing and many other farming duties on plantations. Although living and working situations were at times considered better than those in the North, it wasn't justified.It was very difficult and demeaning.With the animosity growing, war was destined to occur.
One interpretation for the cause of the Civil War w… | 358 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists looking for evidence of neolithic axe work have make an "astonishing" discovery in North Wales.
It is thought to have been thrown away when someone had started to shape the stone into an axe, but it was not good enough.
Hundreds of pieces of debris have also been discovered at the field at Ty’n y Llwyfan Farm, known as 'stone flakes' which is the debris from axe working.
The test pitting work ran by experts and volunteers last month show there was axe-working in the field and should help experts to pin-point exact working locations next year.
It is not known whether people were living permanently in the area, or if they were just visiting to collect axe stone from the area.
Jane Kenney, a senior archaeologist at Gwynedd Archaeological Trust explained the flakes are struck from stone blocks as they are reduced to a suitable shape and size for axes.
To find the flakes, archaeologists dug 16 small holes (test pits) at intervals across a field at Ty’n y Llwyfan Farm, with permission from the local farmer.
The area is near to where evidence of axe working has been found before.
"We were astonished with the results," Ms Kenney, said. "Axe-working flakes were found in every pit.
"Some just had a few, but most had many and some had hundreds of flakes. Three axe 'roughouts' were found also.
"The person trying to make an axe would have selected a stone from the nearby scree and tried to knap it into shape.
"But some stones are better than others, and if a stone was not good enough it was quickly discarded after initial shaping.
"These discarded stones are what we can find and they are known as roughouts.
"Sometimes a nearly finished axe broke during manufacture and the roughout can be beautifully shaped."
The Neolithic period in Britain was about 6000 to 4500 years ago - before bronze and iron metalworking had been discovered.
As a result, stone was very important for making tools.
And some of the hills above Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are made from a hard volcanic rock, with a fine grain ideal for making stone axes.
Ms Kenney said the axes from here found their way through exchange over all of the southern half of Britain.
The work was carried out with grant aid from Cadw and assistance from the Snowdonia National Park Authority.
It is leading into a wider project on Neolithic axes around Penmaenmawr and Llanfairfechan as part of the Carneddau Landscape Partnership Scheme - starting in the New Year and supported by the National Lottery Heritage Fund.
Over the next few years, the wider 'Landscape of Neolithic Axes Project' run by the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust will investigate the area further.
Ms Kenney, added: "In future years we want to look more widely for axe-working sites around Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr.
"We would love to find out where people were living and where they were finishing off the axes.
"We might find out if people were living permanently in the area or if they visited so that they could collect axe stone from this special, and probably sacred, place."
Neolithic stone axe making was first recorded in North Wales the 1920s, when there were excavations around a rock outcrop known as Graig Lwyd above Penmaenmawr.
Since then fieldwork, especially by David T Jones from Llanfairfechan, has shown stone quarrying and axe working took place at a number of locations above Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr.
There are traces of an extensive Neolithic landscape of national importance in this area that has received relatively little archaeological investigation. | <urn:uuid:56f77145-9c9e-406d-8c98-f981e8651592> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/north-wales-news/archaeologists-made-astonishing-new-find-17419108 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.981292 | 807 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.72456312179565... | 4 | Archaeologists looking for evidence of neolithic axe work have make an "astonishing" discovery in North Wales.
It is thought to have been thrown away when someone had started to shape the stone into an axe, but it was not good enough.
Hundreds of pieces of debris have also been discovered at the field at Ty’n y Llwyfan Farm, known as 'stone flakes' which is the debris from axe working.
The test pitting work ran by experts and volunteers last month show there was axe-working in the field and should help experts to pin-point exact working locations next year.
It is not known whether people were living permanently in the area, or if they were just visiting to collect axe stone from the area.
Jane Kenney, a senior archaeologist at Gwynedd Archaeological Trust explained the flakes are struck from stone blocks as they are reduced to a suitable shape and size for axes.
To find the flakes, archaeologists dug 16 small holes (test pits) at intervals across a field at Ty’n y Llwyfan Farm, with permission from the local farmer.
The area is near to where evidence of axe working has been found before.
"We were astonished with the results," Ms Kenney, said. "Axe-working flakes were found in every pit.
"Some just had a few, but most had many and some had hundreds of flakes. Three axe 'roughouts' were found also.
"The person trying to make an axe would have selected a stone from the nearby scree and tried to knap it into shape.
"But some stones are better than others, and if a stone was not good enough it was quickly discarded after initial shaping.
"These discarded stones are what we can find and they are known as roughouts.
"Sometimes a nearly finished axe broke during manufacture and the roughout can be beautifully shaped."
The Neolithic period in Britain was about 6000 to 4500 years ago - before bronze and iron metalworking had been discovered.
As a result, stone was very important for making tools.
And some of the hills above Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are made from a hard volcanic rock, with a fine grain ideal for making stone axes.
Ms Kenney said the axes from here found their way through exchange over all of the southern half of Britain.
The work was carried out with grant aid from Cadw and assistance from the Snowdonia National Park Authority.
It is leading into a wider project on Neolithic axes around Penmaenmawr and Llanfairfechan as part of the Carneddau Landscape Partnership Scheme - starting in the New Year and supported by the National Lottery Heritage Fund.
Over the next few years, the wider 'Landscape of Neolithic Axes Project' run by the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust will investigate the area further.
Ms Kenney, added: "In future years we want to look more widely for axe-working sites around Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr.
"We would love to find out where people were living and where they were finishing off the axes.
"We might find out if people were living permanently in the area or if they visited so that they could collect axe stone from this special, and probably sacred, place."
Neolithic stone axe making was first recorded in North Wales the 1920s, when there were excavations around a rock outcrop known as Graig Lwyd above Penmaenmawr.
Since then fieldwork, especially by David T Jones from Llanfairfechan, has shown stone quarrying and axe working took place at a number of locations above Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr.
There are traces of an extensive Neolithic landscape of national importance in this area that has received relatively little archaeological investigation. | 775 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dogs were used by international forces to deliver vital messages. About a million dogs were killed in action.
Dogs used during WWI included Border Collies, Lurchers, English Sheepdogs, Retrievers and mongrels.
The Airedale Terrier was probably the most common breed used by the British in World War One though.
The Red Cross also commonly used them to find wounded soldiers.
Sergeant Stubby, a Bull Terrier or Boston Terrier, has been called the most decorated war dog of World War I, and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat.
Recognized in connection with an exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution.
Among many other exploits, he's said to have captured a German spy. He also became mascot at Georgetown University. Rags was another notable World War I dog. | <urn:uuid:cf9ad9d5-02d7-423f-b5c7-89804c085567> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldwar-1.co.uk/dogs-of-world-war-one/animals-of-world-war-one/dogs-of-world-war-one | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.98513 | 178 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.0003441089... | 4 | Dogs were used by international forces to deliver vital messages. About a million dogs were killed in action.
Dogs used during WWI included Border Collies, Lurchers, English Sheepdogs, Retrievers and mongrels.
The Airedale Terrier was probably the most common breed used by the British in World War One though.
The Red Cross also commonly used them to find wounded soldiers.
Sergeant Stubby, a Bull Terrier or Boston Terrier, has been called the most decorated war dog of World War I, and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat.
Recognized in connection with an exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution.
Among many other exploits, he's said to have captured a German spy. He also became mascot at Georgetown University. Rags was another notable World War I dog. | 170 | ENGLISH | 1 |
units in any column of route always formed into column of division prior to deployment, the division being whatever the appropriate tactical sub-unit was for the particular nation, battalion organization and drill manual in use. Deploying on the head is well covered in all the period manuals. You now have Torrens electronically and should find what you need there as a good example. I bet Google has trashed the plates, but the text should come clear with enough reading and questions of the sort you are raising.
However, you will find that a brigade on the march rarely deployed on the head. The first thing to understand is that the brigade would be marching in battle order, either by the left or by the right. The default was by the right unless specifically ordered to march by the left. Assuming the brigade is marching in column of march by the right, then the right hand battalion is leading, so all other battalions would normally fall in to the left in succession as they came up.
The first technique to convert from the march column into line of battle involved the column making a right wheel and then proceeding sufficiently far that all battalions were clear of the approach route (or had advanced to a place designated by a superior general - remember that most brigades approaching a battlefield were part of a larger army). Once in location, the brigade would halt and wheel up into line. Don't forget that line the case of a brigade or higher means that the battalions are in a line, not necessarily that each battalion is in line. In Frederick's day, the battalions would form open column of companies as they marched. When the column halted, the battalions would wheel up into line. Have a look at Leuthen for a very elegant example of how the approach march on a carefully selected angle could have a devastating effect. By 1815, it was just as likely that the battalions would exit the road (assuming they were in a march column suited to the road width), form open column of division on the march, then close up to whatever distance that nation used for tactical columns (half distance for some, quarter distance for British and closed column for others). The battalions would probably maintain full deployment distance from each other. When the brigade was in position, the battalions in their column would wheel towards the enemy.
Note that if the brigade was marching by the right, then it would normally wheel to the right to leave the road, then each battalion would wheel to the left when the brigade fronted the enemy.
The second technique involved the lead battalion halting and the following battalions forming line on the lead battalion. At the simplest, the lead battalion halted in place, then each successive battalion fell in to its left (assuming the brigade is marching by the right). There were two principal variations. The lead battalion could oblique to its right to ensure that the brigade was centered on the road or some other designated point. Or, the column could halt and form on a middle battalion by having the lead battalions retire obliquely to the right of the designated battalion and the rear battalions oblique to the left of the designated battalion.
The above assumes that the order of the battalions within the brigade was important, which was generally the case. Whenever commanders had the time and space to properly deploy their lines they would, since this was the formation in which the units were rehearsed. If in a rush, or if it was a meeting engagement, battalions would be inserted where they were most needed as they came up. Compare the manner in which the French army deployed onto the field at Waterloo to how Davout committed his forces at Auerstadt to see the difference.
Now as far as the battalions coming south from Brussels to Quatre Bras, they would almost certainly not be in fours. The chausees were LARGE roads with a paved centre and broad shoulders. Look up chausee in the archives, especially posts on the subject by Bruno Nackaerts for descriptions of just how broad. | <urn:uuid:1bb06232-ac07-4043-9f3e-7f0a1ddacc22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.napoleon-series.org/cgi-bin/forum/archive2009_config.pl?md=read;id=105703 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.980508 | 814 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | units in any column of route always formed into column of division prior to deployment, the division being whatever the appropriate tactical sub-unit was for the particular nation, battalion organization and drill manual in use. Deploying on the head is well covered in all the period manuals. You now have Torrens electronically and should find what you need there as a good example. I bet Google has trashed the plates, but the text should come clear with enough reading and questions of the sort you are raising.
However, you will find that a brigade on the march rarely deployed on the head. The first thing to understand is that the brigade would be marching in battle order, either by the left or by the right. The default was by the right unless specifically ordered to march by the left. Assuming the brigade is marching in column of march by the right, then the right hand battalion is leading, so all other battalions would normally fall in to the left in succession as they came up.
The first technique to convert from the march column into line of battle involved the column making a right wheel and then proceeding sufficiently far that all battalions were clear of the approach route (or had advanced to a place designated by a superior general - remember that most brigades approaching a battlefield were part of a larger army). Once in location, the brigade would halt and wheel up into line. Don't forget that line the case of a brigade or higher means that the battalions are in a line, not necessarily that each battalion is in line. In Frederick's day, the battalions would form open column of companies as they marched. When the column halted, the battalions would wheel up into line. Have a look at Leuthen for a very elegant example of how the approach march on a carefully selected angle could have a devastating effect. By 1815, it was just as likely that the battalions would exit the road (assuming they were in a march column suited to the road width), form open column of division on the march, then close up to whatever distance that nation used for tactical columns (half distance for some, quarter distance for British and closed column for others). The battalions would probably maintain full deployment distance from each other. When the brigade was in position, the battalions in their column would wheel towards the enemy.
Note that if the brigade was marching by the right, then it would normally wheel to the right to leave the road, then each battalion would wheel to the left when the brigade fronted the enemy.
The second technique involved the lead battalion halting and the following battalions forming line on the lead battalion. At the simplest, the lead battalion halted in place, then each successive battalion fell in to its left (assuming the brigade is marching by the right). There were two principal variations. The lead battalion could oblique to its right to ensure that the brigade was centered on the road or some other designated point. Or, the column could halt and form on a middle battalion by having the lead battalions retire obliquely to the right of the designated battalion and the rear battalions oblique to the left of the designated battalion.
The above assumes that the order of the battalions within the brigade was important, which was generally the case. Whenever commanders had the time and space to properly deploy their lines they would, since this was the formation in which the units were rehearsed. If in a rush, or if it was a meeting engagement, battalions would be inserted where they were most needed as they came up. Compare the manner in which the French army deployed onto the field at Waterloo to how Davout committed his forces at Auerstadt to see the difference.
Now as far as the battalions coming south from Brussels to Quatre Bras, they would almost certainly not be in fours. The chausees were LARGE roads with a paved centre and broad shoulders. Look up chausee in the archives, especially posts on the subject by Bruno Nackaerts for descriptions of just how broad. | 820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"The Law that ye make shall be law,
and I do not press my will,
Because ye are Sons of the Blood,
and call me Mother still."
N OT only did the Canadian-Pacific railway draw together the various provinces in the Dominion of Canada, but it drew the distant island continent of Australia closer to the mother country.
Let us see how Australia had prospered, since the days of her early colonisation, and how gradually she adopted the same form of government as her sister colony Canada.
Eight years had passed away, since Eyre had heroically forced his way across the 1500 miles of waste, stretching across the southern colonies. Australia was suffering from poverty and want of more hardy emigrants, when the gold rush took place to California. Among others, an Australian colonist, Hargreaves, was smitten with the gold-fever, and made his way to America, to be struck with the great similarity of the two countries.
"Slate, quartz, granite," he argued to himself; "if these mean gold country in America, why not in New South Wales?"
Returning home in 1851, he made his way across the Blue Mountains from Sydney to Bathurst, and was rewarded by finding gold in a creek, which he named Ophir, after the famous old diggings of King Solomon. A rush of diggers took place, until the mountain road from Sydney to Bathurst was thronged with men from all parts of Australia. The neighbouring colony of Victoria was in danger of losing all its colonists, as they flocked off in search of gold, when suddenly the news spread of still richer gold-fields within twenty miles of Melbourne. A yet wilder rush took place. Melbourne became a deserted city. Shops were shut, the plough rusted in the furrow, shearing-time came and there were no shearers. The Governor at Melbourne ruled "in pathetic loneliness—a monarch without a realm."
As the news spread, emigrants from England and America flocked into the country. In two years a quarter of a million people arrived in Victoria for this "Working Man's Paradise." The colonies grew apace. Railways sprang into being, telegraph poles stretched from town to town, and the government of the five separate colonies was re-adjusted to suit the new demands.
A new impetus was given to exploration: men realised how little was yet known of the interior of their great continent, and with the increase of population had come the desire for expansion. So the rich little colony of Victoria fitted out an expedition to attempt an overland route from south to north, from sea to sea. This expedition of Burke and Wills across Australia is one of the most famous in the annals of Australian exploration. The men of Melbourne turned out in their thousands to see the little band of men under their chosen leader, Burke, start on their great journey. The whole expedition had been carefully prepared. Camels had been brought from India to make the desert journey easier; a waggon had been constructed which, with its wheels off, would make a punt for crossing rivers. No pains had been spared. The party reached Cooper's Creek, near the boundary of New South Wales and Queensland, in safety on November 11. It was an old and well-known camping-ground in the midst of a flat sandy plain, through which a river wound its way. After a month spent here, Burke divided his party of eight into two, determined to push on for the northern coast.
"Wait here till we come back," he said to the four remaining at Cooper's Creek. "We may be three months; we may be four."
"We will wait," was the firm reply.
So, on December 16, Burke and Wills, King and Gray, with six camels, one horse, and food for three months, started off for the unknown. After two months of toilsome travel, they reached the salt water of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Within fifty miles of the coast they turned back, for provisions were running short and the way was arduous and long. They had been the first men to cross Australia from sea to sea, but the journey back was rich in disaster. Rains had made the ground heavy; the camels, tired with overwork and little food, sank down and died. Food ran so short that the hungry explorers had to kill and eat their poor tired horse, Billy. At last, on the 21st of April, Burke, Wills, and King (for Gray was dead) dragged themselves wearily back to Cooper's Creek. All was silent and deserted; and as the awful truth dawned on them, Burke threw himself on to the ground in despair, while Wills sobbed out: "They are gone."
On a tree was cut the word "Dig." Obeying, they found a bottle, inside which was a paper with these words: "We
leave the camp
Death of Burke.
That very day, perhaps but a few hours since, the party, after waiting four months and five days, had left for home. The weary explorers were too tired to follow, too sick at heart to think. They ate some oatmeal and sugar, and two days later, struggled on their way once more. At last their food failed. They ate a black seed called nardoo, cooked by the natives, but they grew weaker and weaker. Wills succumbed first. Heroically he insisted that his two friends should push on, as their only chance of safety, while he lay down to die alone. A few days later Burke died too, and King alone lived to stagger back to Melbourne with the news of their success, which was dearly bought.
Still the passing years found the five great colonies and Tasmania distinct and separate, each clinging blindly to its own individual existence. Australia was a continent of quarrelling colonies, with petty jealousies, bitter feelings, and a short-sighted outlook on the vast possibilities of the future. It was not till the end of the nineteenth century, that in the face of a common danger, the desirability of uniting their country took hold of men's minds.
"How could we defend our coasts in the event of an attack?" the colonists asked themselves hopelessly. The idea of federation grew. In 1891 a great convention was held at Sydney to discuss this idea.
"The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all," cried Sir Harry Parkes at a banquet of representatives from the various colonies and New Zealand. The difficulties seemed unsurmountable. Nine long years passed by, and it was not till 1900, that it was finally decided to break down all barriers and to merge the separate life of the five states and Tasmania into one joint dominion under the broad flag of Great Britain.
The news thrilled through every fibre of the world-wide Empire. The queen of the mother country sent out her grandson, now the heir-apparent to the British throne, to open the first Federal Parliament for her sons beyond the sea. It was a memorable day in the history of Australia, when the great white Ophir steamed into Mel-bourne harbour bearing the British Prince and Princess to distant Australian shores. The opening of Parliament took place on May 9, 1901, amid the greatest enthusiasm, and messages soon flashed to every quarter of the globe with the news, that Australia had entered on a new era of existence.
Australia—the Great South Land of past years—has at last awakened to her great duties and responsibilities. For the first time in history one nation occupies a whole continent; and that island continent, now ranking as one of the world-powers, is putting forth her splendid energies to work out mighty destinies, under the flag of the mother country. | <urn:uuid:2e2f2e48-809f-47d1-92f9-c055b85c37ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/synge/growth/australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.980504 | 1,603 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.21955181658... | 1 | "The Law that ye make shall be law,
and I do not press my will,
Because ye are Sons of the Blood,
and call me Mother still."
N OT only did the Canadian-Pacific railway draw together the various provinces in the Dominion of Canada, but it drew the distant island continent of Australia closer to the mother country.
Let us see how Australia had prospered, since the days of her early colonisation, and how gradually she adopted the same form of government as her sister colony Canada.
Eight years had passed away, since Eyre had heroically forced his way across the 1500 miles of waste, stretching across the southern colonies. Australia was suffering from poverty and want of more hardy emigrants, when the gold rush took place to California. Among others, an Australian colonist, Hargreaves, was smitten with the gold-fever, and made his way to America, to be struck with the great similarity of the two countries.
"Slate, quartz, granite," he argued to himself; "if these mean gold country in America, why not in New South Wales?"
Returning home in 1851, he made his way across the Blue Mountains from Sydney to Bathurst, and was rewarded by finding gold in a creek, which he named Ophir, after the famous old diggings of King Solomon. A rush of diggers took place, until the mountain road from Sydney to Bathurst was thronged with men from all parts of Australia. The neighbouring colony of Victoria was in danger of losing all its colonists, as they flocked off in search of gold, when suddenly the news spread of still richer gold-fields within twenty miles of Melbourne. A yet wilder rush took place. Melbourne became a deserted city. Shops were shut, the plough rusted in the furrow, shearing-time came and there were no shearers. The Governor at Melbourne ruled "in pathetic loneliness—a monarch without a realm."
As the news spread, emigrants from England and America flocked into the country. In two years a quarter of a million people arrived in Victoria for this "Working Man's Paradise." The colonies grew apace. Railways sprang into being, telegraph poles stretched from town to town, and the government of the five separate colonies was re-adjusted to suit the new demands.
A new impetus was given to exploration: men realised how little was yet known of the interior of their great continent, and with the increase of population had come the desire for expansion. So the rich little colony of Victoria fitted out an expedition to attempt an overland route from south to north, from sea to sea. This expedition of Burke and Wills across Australia is one of the most famous in the annals of Australian exploration. The men of Melbourne turned out in their thousands to see the little band of men under their chosen leader, Burke, start on their great journey. The whole expedition had been carefully prepared. Camels had been brought from India to make the desert journey easier; a waggon had been constructed which, with its wheels off, would make a punt for crossing rivers. No pains had been spared. The party reached Cooper's Creek, near the boundary of New South Wales and Queensland, in safety on November 11. It was an old and well-known camping-ground in the midst of a flat sandy plain, through which a river wound its way. After a month spent here, Burke divided his party of eight into two, determined to push on for the northern coast.
"Wait here till we come back," he said to the four remaining at Cooper's Creek. "We may be three months; we may be four."
"We will wait," was the firm reply.
So, on December 16, Burke and Wills, King and Gray, with six camels, one horse, and food for three months, started off for the unknown. After two months of toilsome travel, they reached the salt water of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Within fifty miles of the coast they turned back, for provisions were running short and the way was arduous and long. They had been the first men to cross Australia from sea to sea, but the journey back was rich in disaster. Rains had made the ground heavy; the camels, tired with overwork and little food, sank down and died. Food ran so short that the hungry explorers had to kill and eat their poor tired horse, Billy. At last, on the 21st of April, Burke, Wills, and King (for Gray was dead) dragged themselves wearily back to Cooper's Creek. All was silent and deserted; and as the awful truth dawned on them, Burke threw himself on to the ground in despair, while Wills sobbed out: "They are gone."
On a tree was cut the word "Dig." Obeying, they found a bottle, inside which was a paper with these words: "We
leave the camp
Death of Burke.
That very day, perhaps but a few hours since, the party, after waiting four months and five days, had left for home. The weary explorers were too tired to follow, too sick at heart to think. They ate some oatmeal and sugar, and two days later, struggled on their way once more. At last their food failed. They ate a black seed called nardoo, cooked by the natives, but they grew weaker and weaker. Wills succumbed first. Heroically he insisted that his two friends should push on, as their only chance of safety, while he lay down to die alone. A few days later Burke died too, and King alone lived to stagger back to Melbourne with the news of their success, which was dearly bought.
Still the passing years found the five great colonies and Tasmania distinct and separate, each clinging blindly to its own individual existence. Australia was a continent of quarrelling colonies, with petty jealousies, bitter feelings, and a short-sighted outlook on the vast possibilities of the future. It was not till the end of the nineteenth century, that in the face of a common danger, the desirability of uniting their country took hold of men's minds.
"How could we defend our coasts in the event of an attack?" the colonists asked themselves hopelessly. The idea of federation grew. In 1891 a great convention was held at Sydney to discuss this idea.
"The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all," cried Sir Harry Parkes at a banquet of representatives from the various colonies and New Zealand. The difficulties seemed unsurmountable. Nine long years passed by, and it was not till 1900, that it was finally decided to break down all barriers and to merge the separate life of the five states and Tasmania into one joint dominion under the broad flag of Great Britain.
The news thrilled through every fibre of the world-wide Empire. The queen of the mother country sent out her grandson, now the heir-apparent to the British throne, to open the first Federal Parliament for her sons beyond the sea. It was a memorable day in the history of Australia, when the great white Ophir steamed into Mel-bourne harbour bearing the British Prince and Princess to distant Australian shores. The opening of Parliament took place on May 9, 1901, amid the greatest enthusiasm, and messages soon flashed to every quarter of the globe with the news, that Australia had entered on a new era of existence.
Australia—the Great South Land of past years—has at last awakened to her great duties and responsibilities. For the first time in history one nation occupies a whole continent; and that island continent, now ranking as one of the world-powers, is putting forth her splendid energies to work out mighty destinies, under the flag of the mother country. | 1,598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Truth is the daughter of time, and I feel no shame in being her midwife.” – Johannes Kepler.
Johannes Kepler Biography
Johannes Kepler was born on 27 December 1571 in Well der Stadt, a small town in what is now the Stuttgart region of Germany. He was the fourth child of Heinrich Kepler, a mercenary who left the family when Johannes was only five and is thought to have died in the eighty years war. His mother, Katharina, was an innkeeper’s daughter. She did her best to allow Johannes to experience the wonders of nature, and it was probably because of this that he developed a love for astronomy. It was she who took him to a high place in order for him to see the great comet of 1577 better and it was probably she that called him outside in 1580, when he was nine, to look at the lunar eclipse.
In 1589, after leaving grammar school, Kepler attended the University of Tübingen, and proved himself to be a skillful mathematician. Under Michael Maestlin, the university’s professor of mathematics, he learned about planetary motion and became a fan of the Copernican system which put the Sun, rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.
Kepler had wanted to become a minister, having studied both philosophy and theology whilst at university, and having attended seminary at Maulbronn before that. However, he was recommended as a teacher of mathematics and astronomy at a school in Graz, a position which he took up at the age of 23 in April 1594. Whilst teaching at Graz, Kepler claimed to have an epiphany on 19 July 1595 in which he believed that he was shown God’s geometrical plan for the universe. His experiments led him to publish a book called Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1596. A second edition of which was published in 1621 included all of his observations and corrections since the first edition was published some quarter of a century earlier.
The year before he published Mysterium Cosmographicum, Johannes Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old, twice-widowed mother of one, and they began courting. The couple was married on 27 April 1597. They had two children who died in infancy, but three more children would follow, a daughter called Susanna and two sons, Friedrich and Ludwig.
Following the publication of Mysterium Cosmographicum, Kepler formulated grand plans to expand on the work, by publishing four more books dealing with the sun, stars, planets and their motions, the physical nature of the planets and the effects of the heavens on the earth. In order to help him with his work, he began correspondence with a number of eminent astronomers, to whom he had previously sent copies of his book. One such person was Tycho Brahe, who was particularly critical of the use, in Kepler’s work, of the inaccurate data supplied by Copernicus. Never the less, the two started regular correspondence. Eventually, and amidst, growing religious tension in Graz which was threatening his employment, Kepler accepted an invitation from Tycho to visit him in Prague.
Kepler arrived in Benátky nad Jizerou, about 35km outside of Prague, where Tycho Brahe was building a new observatory, on 4 February 1600. He met Tycho and his assistants and stayed for the next couple of months as a guest, and as Tycho began to trust Kepler, he allowed him more and more access to his data. Following an argument, however, over negotiations for a more formal arrangement of employment with Tycho, Kepler left and headed to Prague. The pair soon came to an arrangement though and Kepler returned to Graz to collect his family. Political and religious tensions in Graz meant that he could not return immediately to Brahe, but when he refused to convert to Catholicism he was banished, and he and his family headed to Prague, where from 1601, he was supported by Tycho Brahe but on 24 October 1601, Tycho died unexpectedly. Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete Brahe’s unfinished work.
As the imperial mathematician, Johannes Kepler’s primary responsibility to Emperor Rudolph II was to provide astrological advice. Kepler had been providing detailed horoscopes to friends and family since his university time, and so this presented no problem for him. The emperor showed an active interest in Kepler’s work and, on paper at least, provided an ample income. However, due to he financial troubles the emperor was experiencing at the time, actually getting hold of enough money to look after his family proved difficult and was causing problems for him at home. However, this was balanced by the fact that his position at court allowed him to practice his Lutheran religion without hindrance and also provided him with access to other scholars, which allowed his astronomical work to progress quite rapidly.
As he also now had unrestricted access to Tycho Brahe’s work, he also made leaps and bounds with his work on optics and actually paused most of his other work during 1603 to work exclusively on the subject. This resulted in a manuscript which he presented to Emperor Rudolph on 1 January 1604. The manuscript was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) within which it should be noted that Kepler was the first to correctly describe that images are presented to the human eye upside down before being inverted by the lens for presentation to the retina. The work is now considered to be the foundation of modern optics.
In October of 1604, Johannes Kepler began to systematically observe a bright new evening star, a supernova, which led to him to conduct more research into the phenomenon. The research resulted in the publication of Astronomia nova, within which are published Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion.
Kepler then switched his focus back to the Rudolphine Tables, which was the unfinished work he took over from Tycho Brahe. The tables included specific predictions of planet and star positions, but the work would continue for several more years before it was completed.
In 1610, Johannes Kepler was contacted by Galileo Galilei who told him of his observations of four new satellites orbiting Jupiter, essentially to seek confirmation of his observations. This confirmation came enthusiastically from Kepler as he realized the significance of not only Galileo’s observations but the means by which they had been achieved. Through the use of a relatively new device called a telescope.
The following year Johannes Kepler published a description of the symmetry of snowflakes and extended the discussion to include a statement about the most efficient way to pack spheres, something which came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. However, 1611 would mark another significant turn in Kepler’s life. Emperor Rudolph’s health was failing and after he was forced to abdicate by his brother Matthias as King of Bohemia, it became apparent that Kepler’s days at court were numbered. During the same time, his wife Barbara became ill with Hungarian spotted fever and all three of his children contracted smallpox. Friedrich, his six year old son died, and soon afterwards so did Barbara. Kepler had been offered a post by the University of Padua as mathematics professor to replace Galileo, but he wanted to keep his family in Germany. He had arranged for a move to Linz as a teacher and mathematician, but delayed his departure following the deaths of his wife and son. On the death of the emperor in 1612, Matthias actually re-affirmed Kepler’s position at court, but allowed him to move to Linz.
Whilst in Linz he published a formal and systematic work on the year of Christ’s birth and also wrote a similarly detailed treatise on how to measure the volume of containers. The first was published in 1613 and the latter in 1615. In the same year as the publication of the work on the date of Christ’s birth which was called De Vero Anno, he married a 24-year-old woman called Susanna Reuttinger. They had six children, although the first three died in childhood. The next three, though, Cordula, Fridmar, and Hildebert survived.
Between 1615 and 1621, Johannes Kepler published a three-volume work called Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy), which contained all three of his laws of planetary motion, with the first two being purposefully extended to cover all the planets, the moon and the satellites of Jupiter. This would become his most influential work. He also published astronomical calendars in which he would forecast political events, the weather, and planetary positions. These became very popular and helped him to offset the cost of producing his other work. By 1624 though, the calendars started to cause more trouble than they were worth, partly due to the ambiguity of his predictions. The last of his calendars, published in 1624, was publicly burned.
During this time, Johannes Kepler had to turn some of his efforts in another direction when his mother, Katharina, was accused of witchcraft. Kepler devised a successful legal defense and after 14 months in prison, Katharina was released in October 1621.
By 1623, Kepler had finally completed the Rudolphine Tables, but they would not be printed until 1627, at Kepler’s own expense in the city of Ulm, which was where Kepler and his family had moved to following more religious tension, and the besieging of Linz in 1626.
The following years consisted of a lot of travel following the military success of the emperor’s forces. He spent time in the imperial court in Prague as well as in Linz and Ulm. He finally moved to Regensburg in the South East of Germany, but shortly after arriving there he fell ill. Johannes Kepler died on 15 November 1630. He was buried in Regensburg. | <urn:uuid:bcb3ab6a-6df3-4821-87fb-c486b5c51f3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.5minutebiographies.com/johannes-kepler/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.989617 | 2,072 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.447542548179626... | 2 | “Truth is the daughter of time, and I feel no shame in being her midwife.” – Johannes Kepler.
Johannes Kepler Biography
Johannes Kepler was born on 27 December 1571 in Well der Stadt, a small town in what is now the Stuttgart region of Germany. He was the fourth child of Heinrich Kepler, a mercenary who left the family when Johannes was only five and is thought to have died in the eighty years war. His mother, Katharina, was an innkeeper’s daughter. She did her best to allow Johannes to experience the wonders of nature, and it was probably because of this that he developed a love for astronomy. It was she who took him to a high place in order for him to see the great comet of 1577 better and it was probably she that called him outside in 1580, when he was nine, to look at the lunar eclipse.
In 1589, after leaving grammar school, Kepler attended the University of Tübingen, and proved himself to be a skillful mathematician. Under Michael Maestlin, the university’s professor of mathematics, he learned about planetary motion and became a fan of the Copernican system which put the Sun, rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.
Kepler had wanted to become a minister, having studied both philosophy and theology whilst at university, and having attended seminary at Maulbronn before that. However, he was recommended as a teacher of mathematics and astronomy at a school in Graz, a position which he took up at the age of 23 in April 1594. Whilst teaching at Graz, Kepler claimed to have an epiphany on 19 July 1595 in which he believed that he was shown God’s geometrical plan for the universe. His experiments led him to publish a book called Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1596. A second edition of which was published in 1621 included all of his observations and corrections since the first edition was published some quarter of a century earlier.
The year before he published Mysterium Cosmographicum, Johannes Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old, twice-widowed mother of one, and they began courting. The couple was married on 27 April 1597. They had two children who died in infancy, but three more children would follow, a daughter called Susanna and two sons, Friedrich and Ludwig.
Following the publication of Mysterium Cosmographicum, Kepler formulated grand plans to expand on the work, by publishing four more books dealing with the sun, stars, planets and their motions, the physical nature of the planets and the effects of the heavens on the earth. In order to help him with his work, he began correspondence with a number of eminent astronomers, to whom he had previously sent copies of his book. One such person was Tycho Brahe, who was particularly critical of the use, in Kepler’s work, of the inaccurate data supplied by Copernicus. Never the less, the two started regular correspondence. Eventually, and amidst, growing religious tension in Graz which was threatening his employment, Kepler accepted an invitation from Tycho to visit him in Prague.
Kepler arrived in Benátky nad Jizerou, about 35km outside of Prague, where Tycho Brahe was building a new observatory, on 4 February 1600. He met Tycho and his assistants and stayed for the next couple of months as a guest, and as Tycho began to trust Kepler, he allowed him more and more access to his data. Following an argument, however, over negotiations for a more formal arrangement of employment with Tycho, Kepler left and headed to Prague. The pair soon came to an arrangement though and Kepler returned to Graz to collect his family. Political and religious tensions in Graz meant that he could not return immediately to Brahe, but when he refused to convert to Catholicism he was banished, and he and his family headed to Prague, where from 1601, he was supported by Tycho Brahe but on 24 October 1601, Tycho died unexpectedly. Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete Brahe’s unfinished work.
As the imperial mathematician, Johannes Kepler’s primary responsibility to Emperor Rudolph II was to provide astrological advice. Kepler had been providing detailed horoscopes to friends and family since his university time, and so this presented no problem for him. The emperor showed an active interest in Kepler’s work and, on paper at least, provided an ample income. However, due to he financial troubles the emperor was experiencing at the time, actually getting hold of enough money to look after his family proved difficult and was causing problems for him at home. However, this was balanced by the fact that his position at court allowed him to practice his Lutheran religion without hindrance and also provided him with access to other scholars, which allowed his astronomical work to progress quite rapidly.
As he also now had unrestricted access to Tycho Brahe’s work, he also made leaps and bounds with his work on optics and actually paused most of his other work during 1603 to work exclusively on the subject. This resulted in a manuscript which he presented to Emperor Rudolph on 1 January 1604. The manuscript was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) within which it should be noted that Kepler was the first to correctly describe that images are presented to the human eye upside down before being inverted by the lens for presentation to the retina. The work is now considered to be the foundation of modern optics.
In October of 1604, Johannes Kepler began to systematically observe a bright new evening star, a supernova, which led to him to conduct more research into the phenomenon. The research resulted in the publication of Astronomia nova, within which are published Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion.
Kepler then switched his focus back to the Rudolphine Tables, which was the unfinished work he took over from Tycho Brahe. The tables included specific predictions of planet and star positions, but the work would continue for several more years before it was completed.
In 1610, Johannes Kepler was contacted by Galileo Galilei who told him of his observations of four new satellites orbiting Jupiter, essentially to seek confirmation of his observations. This confirmation came enthusiastically from Kepler as he realized the significance of not only Galileo’s observations but the means by which they had been achieved. Through the use of a relatively new device called a telescope.
The following year Johannes Kepler published a description of the symmetry of snowflakes and extended the discussion to include a statement about the most efficient way to pack spheres, something which came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. However, 1611 would mark another significant turn in Kepler’s life. Emperor Rudolph’s health was failing and after he was forced to abdicate by his brother Matthias as King of Bohemia, it became apparent that Kepler’s days at court were numbered. During the same time, his wife Barbara became ill with Hungarian spotted fever and all three of his children contracted smallpox. Friedrich, his six year old son died, and soon afterwards so did Barbara. Kepler had been offered a post by the University of Padua as mathematics professor to replace Galileo, but he wanted to keep his family in Germany. He had arranged for a move to Linz as a teacher and mathematician, but delayed his departure following the deaths of his wife and son. On the death of the emperor in 1612, Matthias actually re-affirmed Kepler’s position at court, but allowed him to move to Linz.
Whilst in Linz he published a formal and systematic work on the year of Christ’s birth and also wrote a similarly detailed treatise on how to measure the volume of containers. The first was published in 1613 and the latter in 1615. In the same year as the publication of the work on the date of Christ’s birth which was called De Vero Anno, he married a 24-year-old woman called Susanna Reuttinger. They had six children, although the first three died in childhood. The next three, though, Cordula, Fridmar, and Hildebert survived.
Between 1615 and 1621, Johannes Kepler published a three-volume work called Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy), which contained all three of his laws of planetary motion, with the first two being purposefully extended to cover all the planets, the moon and the satellites of Jupiter. This would become his most influential work. He also published astronomical calendars in which he would forecast political events, the weather, and planetary positions. These became very popular and helped him to offset the cost of producing his other work. By 1624 though, the calendars started to cause more trouble than they were worth, partly due to the ambiguity of his predictions. The last of his calendars, published in 1624, was publicly burned.
During this time, Johannes Kepler had to turn some of his efforts in another direction when his mother, Katharina, was accused of witchcraft. Kepler devised a successful legal defense and after 14 months in prison, Katharina was released in October 1621.
By 1623, Kepler had finally completed the Rudolphine Tables, but they would not be printed until 1627, at Kepler’s own expense in the city of Ulm, which was where Kepler and his family had moved to following more religious tension, and the besieging of Linz in 1626.
The following years consisted of a lot of travel following the military success of the emperor’s forces. He spent time in the imperial court in Prague as well as in Linz and Ulm. He finally moved to Regensburg in the South East of Germany, but shortly after arriving there he fell ill. Johannes Kepler died on 15 November 1630. He was buried in Regensburg. | 2,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Source: Friends of ASOR
By Joan E. Taylor
Everyone knows what Jesus looks like: he is the most painted figure in all of western art, recognized everywhere as having long hair and a beard, a long robe with sleeves (often white) and a mantle (often blue).
But what did he really look like, as a man living in Judaea in the 1st century? This subject has long been of interest. I have already written on John the Baptist and his clothing, but not about Jesus. Nevertheless, over the years, numerous television documentaries have asked me for guidance on dramatizing aspects of ancient life. In order to give them clear directions, I gathered information about what Jesus looked like, or rather, what he is said to have worn. I would like to share this here.
It is worth emphasizing that images of Jesus over time give us clues on how Jesus was imagined in different environments, but say absolutely nothing about what he really looked like. Our images of Jesus were largely created in the Byzantine era (4th-6th centuries). Byzantine images of Jesus were based on the image of a Graeco-Roman deity, for example the famous statue of Olympian Zeus by Phidias in the 4th century BCE.
This huge statue was located inside the Temple of Zeus at Olympia in Greece and depicted a long-haired and bearded Zeus on a throne. It was so well-known that the Roman Emperor Augustus had a copy of himself made in the same style, but without the godly long hair and beard. Men in the 1st century rarely had long hair; it was considered either godly or girlie.
Portrait of Augustus created ca. 20–30 BC; the head does not belong to the statue, dated middle 2nd century CE. (Wikimedia Commons)
Byzantine artists, looking for iconography that emphasized Jesus’s heavenly rule as cosmic King, drew on such depictions of a deity sitting on a throne – representing his authority over the earth and his coming role as judge. We also then get the godly long hair and beard, because Jesus is like a younger version of Zeus/Jupiter, Neptune or Serapis, just as God as ‘Father’ would in due course be depicted as an older (white-haired) version of the same gods.
As time went on the sun god’s halo was also added to Jesus’s head to show his heavenly nature. The winged victory in the hands of Olympian Zeus was replaced with gesture of blessing, with the Bible held in Jesus’s hand instead of a spear. This iconography of Jesus with long hair, a beard and a halo comes from the 4th century onwards, with Jesus sitting on a heavenly throne, like Olympian Zeus, as cosmic judge of the world: the Alpha and Omega, beginning and end (Revelation 21:5-6, and 22:13). With this in mind we can ‘read’ the apse mosaic from Santa Pudenziana, Rome, dated to the early 5th century CE.
Apsis mosaic of Santa Pudenziana. (Wikimedia Commons)
Everything here, from the long golden robe to the long hair and beard, has meaning. The point is not to show Jesus as a man of 1st-century Judaea, but to make theological points about Jesus as Christ (King) and divine Son. In this classic Byzantine Jesus, the ‘mini-Zeus’ version, the long robe with baggy sleeves indicates status. By the Byzantine era, royal, ecclesiastical and elite males wore such long robes as seen in depictions of the emperor Justinian and his entourage in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna.
Court of Emperor Justinian with (right) archbishop Maximian and (left) court officials and Praetorian Guards; Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. (Wikimedia Commons)
But at the time of Jesus long tunics were usually worn by women, not men. There were exceptions. For a man to wear a stolē, a longer garment, could also indicate high status at this time (e.g. Mark 12: 38; Luke 20: 46) or heavenly raiment (Mark 16: 5; Rev. 6: 11; 7: 9, 13, 14). But Jesus scorned men who advertised their status by wearing these (Mark 12: 38; Luke 20: 46). It is so ironic then that he is often depicted as wearing a longer garment himself.
The earliest extant images of Jesus in Roman catacomb paintings show him as a teacher/philosopher or magus (wonder-worker, with a wand), dressed in the common clothing of the time for a man: a knee length (essentially sleeveless) tunic (chitōn) and a long mantle (himation). He is also beardless and short-haired. We see this in the depiction of Jesus healing a woman with an issue of blood (Mark 5:25-34) in the late 3rd century Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus.
The healing of a bleeding woman, Rome, Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter. (Wikimedia Commons)
Jesus was recognizable in these portrayals not because of how he looked but by what he did. The Gospel stories were so familiar to the viewers that they recognized Jesus from what was being shown. Still, for people today, this image of Jesus seems strange. When a picture of Jesus was discovered last year on a 4th/5th century glass paten (Eucharist plate) found in southern Spain, one of the things the media was most interested in was that Jesus was beardless.
Beardless Jesus, Spain. (Huffington Post)
Did Jesus actually have a beard? As a kind of wandering sage, I think he would have had one, simply because he did not go to barbers. This was also the common appearance of a philosopher; the Stoic philosopher Epictetus considered it appropriately natural. He did not have a beard just because he was a Jew. A beard was not distinctive of Jews in antiquity. While by the time the Babylonian Talmud was written in the 5th-6th centuries beardedness might have been common for Jewish men (b.Shabbat 152a, ‘The glory of a face is its beard’), it was never identified as an indicator of Jews in the 1st century. In fact, one of the problems for oppressors of Jews in the Diaspora was identifying them when they looked like everyone else. However, the Jewish men on Judaea capta coins (issued by Rome after the capture of Jerusalem in 70 CE) are bearded but with short hair; this is probably how Romans imagined Jewish men in Judaea, even if in the Diaspora a Jewish man may have looked like every other guy.
So what did Jesus really look like? Jesus wore normal clothing, unlike John the Baptist; John’s clothing was sufficiently unusual and Elijah-like to be mentioned (Mark 1:6: “And John was wearing camel hair and a skin girdle around his waist.”) So what was normal for men of 1st-century Judaea?
Important insights into dress and appearance are gained by studies of the Egyptian mummy portraits from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. These portraits depict a style of clothing and hair that was probably universal in the eastern Mediterranean, including in the region of Judaea. This is also clear from the archaeological discoveries of Masada and the Judaean Desert Caves. The clothing of rich people was mainly distinguished by expensive dyes and fineness of the cloth, but the actual styles were quite similar.
Most men wore a simple short tunic (chitōn), finishing around the knees, as Jesus is depicted wearing in catacomb art. Men were supposed to be ready for action – movement – so they did not usually have long robes; the high status longer garment sometimes worn by the elite advertized leisure. To be really active you would ‘gird your loins’ by tucking your chitōn up by pulling it through your legs and tying it.
A chitōn invariably had two bands of color that ran from the shoulder to the hem, front and back. These are seen in many examples from excavations in sites close to the Dead Sea, where textiles have been well preserved, especially from Nahal Hever and Masada.
On top of the tunic a man would wear a himation or mantle, a large piece of colored woolen material. A woman who wanted to be healed touched Jesus’s himation (Mark 5:27). There was also a type of fine linen mantle/wrap called a sindōn, but Jesus only wore one of these in death (Mark 15:46).
Jesus did not wear white. This color was distinctive, requiring bleaching, and in Judaea it was associated with the Essenes (Josephus, War 2:123), a legal school of Judaism who followed a strict interpretation of the law and a life of community and extreme purity. It is also associated with heavenly attire (Mark 16:5; Rev. 19:14). The difference between Jesus’ regular clothing and bright, white clothing is described specifically during the Transfiguration scene where we are told that Jesus’ clothing (here himatia) became ‘glistening, intensely white, as no fuller on earth could bleach them’ (Mark 9.3). He is thus transformed into wearing the shining garb of angels.
Jesus would probably have worn un-dyed wool for his tunic and a dyed mantle. It is clear from clothing found in Masada and the caves by the Dead Sea that clothing was often very highly colored. The ordinary people of Jesus’ time loved color, and their clothing has beautiful shades of red, green, and types of purple designed to imitate the colors favoured by the wealthy. Their cloth was durable, and they did not wear earthy hues but vibrant ones, especially for their himatia.
We are told additionally about Jesus’s clothing during his execution, when it is divided among soldiers (Mark 15:24; Matt. 27:35; Luke 23:34; John 19:23-24). Jesus is said in the Gospel of John (19:23-24) to have worn a chitōn (tunic) and himatia (mantles), plural. The soldiers did not want to rip his chitōn, since it was made as one piece of cloth. It could not be separated out into pieces as was sometimes the case, so they cast lots for which soldier would take it. This is curious because one person described as wearing a seamless garment is the high priest (Josephus, Ant. 3:161). Was John trying to make some hidden allusion to the high priest? Or was he simply recording a peculiarity of Jesus’s tunic? I favor the latter, because in this Gospel Jesus’s clothing is very carefully described.
The Roman soldiers divided Jesus’s mantles (himatia) into four shares (John 19:23), indicating that he was wearing two mantles each made of two pieces of cloth that could be separated. This is especially interesting. One of the himatia was probably a tallith or prayer shawl. This was traditionally made of undyed creamy-colored woollen material with blue-striped edges and fringes, which would be drawn over the head when praying. While there were no fringed mantles found in the caves by the Dead Sea, there was blue wool with fringes (tzitzith), possibly used to make them.
Since talliths are defined as distinctive clothing for Jewish men, worn either singly or with another mantle for warmth, there seems no reason to doubt that Jesus wore one. Indications that Jesus wore a regular mantle as well as the tallith mantle are found not only at the crucifixion scene but also on another occasion: Jesus takes off his mantles, himatia, when he washes the feet of his disciples (John 13:4, 12). Here there is a distinction made between the mantles he took off and the tunic he kept on. The Gospel of John, therefore, provides a specific indication of what Jesus wore which correlates with the presentation of the night of Passover eve as cold (John 18:18, 25, cf. Mark 14:24). Jesus would have worn a mantle for warmth along with a distinctively Jewish tallith, as other Jewish men would have worn in cold weather. In wearing two mantles, one of which was a tallith, Jesus’s clothing would have identified him as a Jew like any other.
On his feet? Jesus would have worn sandals. In the desert caves close to the Dead Sea and Masada sandals from the time of Jesus have come to light. They were very simple, with the soles of thick pieces of leather sewn together, and the upper parts made of straps of leather going through the toes.
And what about Jesus’s face? In the mummy portraits, the people were Greek-Egyptian, but there was a large Jewish population also in Egypt and some ethnic mixing. Their faces, so realistic, are the closest we have to photographs of the people of Jesus’s own time and place.
Mummy Portrait of a young officer with sword belt, Berlin. (Wikimedia Commons)
If we are to imagine Jesus then, as a Jew of his time, the mummy paintings provide a good clue to his appearance. However, there is one other place to look: to the synagogue Dura Europos, dating from the early 3rd century. The depiction of Moses on the walls of the synagogue of Dura-Europos is probably the closest fit, I think, since it shows how a Jewish sage was imagined in the Graeco-Roman world. Moses is shown in undyed clothing, appropriate to tastes of ascetic masculinity (eschewing color), and his one mantle is a tallith, since one can see tassels (tzitzith). This image is a far more correct as a basis for imagining the historical Jesus than the adaptations of the Byzantine Jesus that have become standard.
Joan Taylor is Professor of Christian Origins and Second Temple Judaism at King’s College London.
From the December 2019 issue of The Ancient Near East Today, December 2019, Vol. VII, No. 12 | <urn:uuid:e7a4a55a-86ba-4371-ab67-52b419230127> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ocl.org/what-did-jesus-look-like/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.982127 | 3,026 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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By Joan E. Taylor
Everyone knows what Jesus looks like: he is the most painted figure in all of western art, recognized everywhere as having long hair and a beard, a long robe with sleeves (often white) and a mantle (often blue).
But what did he really look like, as a man living in Judaea in the 1st century? This subject has long been of interest. I have already written on John the Baptist and his clothing, but not about Jesus. Nevertheless, over the years, numerous television documentaries have asked me for guidance on dramatizing aspects of ancient life. In order to give them clear directions, I gathered information about what Jesus looked like, or rather, what he is said to have worn. I would like to share this here.
It is worth emphasizing that images of Jesus over time give us clues on how Jesus was imagined in different environments, but say absolutely nothing about what he really looked like. Our images of Jesus were largely created in the Byzantine era (4th-6th centuries). Byzantine images of Jesus were based on the image of a Graeco-Roman deity, for example the famous statue of Olympian Zeus by Phidias in the 4th century BCE.
This huge statue was located inside the Temple of Zeus at Olympia in Greece and depicted a long-haired and bearded Zeus on a throne. It was so well-known that the Roman Emperor Augustus had a copy of himself made in the same style, but without the godly long hair and beard. Men in the 1st century rarely had long hair; it was considered either godly or girlie.
Portrait of Augustus created ca. 20–30 BC; the head does not belong to the statue, dated middle 2nd century CE. (Wikimedia Commons)
Byzantine artists, looking for iconography that emphasized Jesus’s heavenly rule as cosmic King, drew on such depictions of a deity sitting on a throne – representing his authority over the earth and his coming role as judge. We also then get the godly long hair and beard, because Jesus is like a younger version of Zeus/Jupiter, Neptune or Serapis, just as God as ‘Father’ would in due course be depicted as an older (white-haired) version of the same gods.
As time went on the sun god’s halo was also added to Jesus’s head to show his heavenly nature. The winged victory in the hands of Olympian Zeus was replaced with gesture of blessing, with the Bible held in Jesus’s hand instead of a spear. This iconography of Jesus with long hair, a beard and a halo comes from the 4th century onwards, with Jesus sitting on a heavenly throne, like Olympian Zeus, as cosmic judge of the world: the Alpha and Omega, beginning and end (Revelation 21:5-6, and 22:13). With this in mind we can ‘read’ the apse mosaic from Santa Pudenziana, Rome, dated to the early 5th century CE.
Apsis mosaic of Santa Pudenziana. (Wikimedia Commons)
Everything here, from the long golden robe to the long hair and beard, has meaning. The point is not to show Jesus as a man of 1st-century Judaea, but to make theological points about Jesus as Christ (King) and divine Son. In this classic Byzantine Jesus, the ‘mini-Zeus’ version, the long robe with baggy sleeves indicates status. By the Byzantine era, royal, ecclesiastical and elite males wore such long robes as seen in depictions of the emperor Justinian and his entourage in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna.
Court of Emperor Justinian with (right) archbishop Maximian and (left) court officials and Praetorian Guards; Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. (Wikimedia Commons)
But at the time of Jesus long tunics were usually worn by women, not men. There were exceptions. For a man to wear a stolē, a longer garment, could also indicate high status at this time (e.g. Mark 12: 38; Luke 20: 46) or heavenly raiment (Mark 16: 5; Rev. 6: 11; 7: 9, 13, 14). But Jesus scorned men who advertised their status by wearing these (Mark 12: 38; Luke 20: 46). It is so ironic then that he is often depicted as wearing a longer garment himself.
The earliest extant images of Jesus in Roman catacomb paintings show him as a teacher/philosopher or magus (wonder-worker, with a wand), dressed in the common clothing of the time for a man: a knee length (essentially sleeveless) tunic (chitōn) and a long mantle (himation). He is also beardless and short-haired. We see this in the depiction of Jesus healing a woman with an issue of blood (Mark 5:25-34) in the late 3rd century Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus.
The healing of a bleeding woman, Rome, Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter. (Wikimedia Commons)
Jesus was recognizable in these portrayals not because of how he looked but by what he did. The Gospel stories were so familiar to the viewers that they recognized Jesus from what was being shown. Still, for people today, this image of Jesus seems strange. When a picture of Jesus was discovered last year on a 4th/5th century glass paten (Eucharist plate) found in southern Spain, one of the things the media was most interested in was that Jesus was beardless.
Beardless Jesus, Spain. (Huffington Post)
Did Jesus actually have a beard? As a kind of wandering sage, I think he would have had one, simply because he did not go to barbers. This was also the common appearance of a philosopher; the Stoic philosopher Epictetus considered it appropriately natural. He did not have a beard just because he was a Jew. A beard was not distinctive of Jews in antiquity. While by the time the Babylonian Talmud was written in the 5th-6th centuries beardedness might have been common for Jewish men (b.Shabbat 152a, ‘The glory of a face is its beard’), it was never identified as an indicator of Jews in the 1st century. In fact, one of the problems for oppressors of Jews in the Diaspora was identifying them when they looked like everyone else. However, the Jewish men on Judaea capta coins (issued by Rome after the capture of Jerusalem in 70 CE) are bearded but with short hair; this is probably how Romans imagined Jewish men in Judaea, even if in the Diaspora a Jewish man may have looked like every other guy.
So what did Jesus really look like? Jesus wore normal clothing, unlike John the Baptist; John’s clothing was sufficiently unusual and Elijah-like to be mentioned (Mark 1:6: “And John was wearing camel hair and a skin girdle around his waist.”) So what was normal for men of 1st-century Judaea?
Important insights into dress and appearance are gained by studies of the Egyptian mummy portraits from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. These portraits depict a style of clothing and hair that was probably universal in the eastern Mediterranean, including in the region of Judaea. This is also clear from the archaeological discoveries of Masada and the Judaean Desert Caves. The clothing of rich people was mainly distinguished by expensive dyes and fineness of the cloth, but the actual styles were quite similar.
Most men wore a simple short tunic (chitōn), finishing around the knees, as Jesus is depicted wearing in catacomb art. Men were supposed to be ready for action – movement – so they did not usually have long robes; the high status longer garment sometimes worn by the elite advertized leisure. To be really active you would ‘gird your loins’ by tucking your chitōn up by pulling it through your legs and tying it.
A chitōn invariably had two bands of color that ran from the shoulder to the hem, front and back. These are seen in many examples from excavations in sites close to the Dead Sea, where textiles have been well preserved, especially from Nahal Hever and Masada.
On top of the tunic a man would wear a himation or mantle, a large piece of colored woolen material. A woman who wanted to be healed touched Jesus’s himation (Mark 5:27). There was also a type of fine linen mantle/wrap called a sindōn, but Jesus only wore one of these in death (Mark 15:46).
Jesus did not wear white. This color was distinctive, requiring bleaching, and in Judaea it was associated with the Essenes (Josephus, War 2:123), a legal school of Judaism who followed a strict interpretation of the law and a life of community and extreme purity. It is also associated with heavenly attire (Mark 16:5; Rev. 19:14). The difference between Jesus’ regular clothing and bright, white clothing is described specifically during the Transfiguration scene where we are told that Jesus’ clothing (here himatia) became ‘glistening, intensely white, as no fuller on earth could bleach them’ (Mark 9.3). He is thus transformed into wearing the shining garb of angels.
Jesus would probably have worn un-dyed wool for his tunic and a dyed mantle. It is clear from clothing found in Masada and the caves by the Dead Sea that clothing was often very highly colored. The ordinary people of Jesus’ time loved color, and their clothing has beautiful shades of red, green, and types of purple designed to imitate the colors favoured by the wealthy. Their cloth was durable, and they did not wear earthy hues but vibrant ones, especially for their himatia.
We are told additionally about Jesus’s clothing during his execution, when it is divided among soldiers (Mark 15:24; Matt. 27:35; Luke 23:34; John 19:23-24). Jesus is said in the Gospel of John (19:23-24) to have worn a chitōn (tunic) and himatia (mantles), plural. The soldiers did not want to rip his chitōn, since it was made as one piece of cloth. It could not be separated out into pieces as was sometimes the case, so they cast lots for which soldier would take it. This is curious because one person described as wearing a seamless garment is the high priest (Josephus, Ant. 3:161). Was John trying to make some hidden allusion to the high priest? Or was he simply recording a peculiarity of Jesus’s tunic? I favor the latter, because in this Gospel Jesus’s clothing is very carefully described.
The Roman soldiers divided Jesus’s mantles (himatia) into four shares (John 19:23), indicating that he was wearing two mantles each made of two pieces of cloth that could be separated. This is especially interesting. One of the himatia was probably a tallith or prayer shawl. This was traditionally made of undyed creamy-colored woollen material with blue-striped edges and fringes, which would be drawn over the head when praying. While there were no fringed mantles found in the caves by the Dead Sea, there was blue wool with fringes (tzitzith), possibly used to make them.
Since talliths are defined as distinctive clothing for Jewish men, worn either singly or with another mantle for warmth, there seems no reason to doubt that Jesus wore one. Indications that Jesus wore a regular mantle as well as the tallith mantle are found not only at the crucifixion scene but also on another occasion: Jesus takes off his mantles, himatia, when he washes the feet of his disciples (John 13:4, 12). Here there is a distinction made between the mantles he took off and the tunic he kept on. The Gospel of John, therefore, provides a specific indication of what Jesus wore which correlates with the presentation of the night of Passover eve as cold (John 18:18, 25, cf. Mark 14:24). Jesus would have worn a mantle for warmth along with a distinctively Jewish tallith, as other Jewish men would have worn in cold weather. In wearing two mantles, one of which was a tallith, Jesus’s clothing would have identified him as a Jew like any other.
On his feet? Jesus would have worn sandals. In the desert caves close to the Dead Sea and Masada sandals from the time of Jesus have come to light. They were very simple, with the soles of thick pieces of leather sewn together, and the upper parts made of straps of leather going through the toes.
And what about Jesus’s face? In the mummy portraits, the people were Greek-Egyptian, but there was a large Jewish population also in Egypt and some ethnic mixing. Their faces, so realistic, are the closest we have to photographs of the people of Jesus’s own time and place.
Mummy Portrait of a young officer with sword belt, Berlin. (Wikimedia Commons)
If we are to imagine Jesus then, as a Jew of his time, the mummy paintings provide a good clue to his appearance. However, there is one other place to look: to the synagogue Dura Europos, dating from the early 3rd century. The depiction of Moses on the walls of the synagogue of Dura-Europos is probably the closest fit, I think, since it shows how a Jewish sage was imagined in the Graeco-Roman world. Moses is shown in undyed clothing, appropriate to tastes of ascetic masculinity (eschewing color), and his one mantle is a tallith, since one can see tassels (tzitzith). This image is a far more correct as a basis for imagining the historical Jesus than the adaptations of the Byzantine Jesus that have become standard.
Joan Taylor is Professor of Christian Origins and Second Temple Judaism at King’s College London.
From the December 2019 issue of The Ancient Near East Today, December 2019, Vol. VII, No. 12 | 3,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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The Great Fire of London is one of the most well-known disasters in London's history. It began on 2 September 1666 and lasted just under five days. One-third of London was destroyed and about 100,000 people were made homeless.
The fire started at 1am on Sunday morning in Thomas Farriner's bakery on Pudding Lane. It may have been caused by a spark from his oven falling onto a pile of fuel nearby. The fire spread easily because London was very dry after a long, hot summer. The area around Pudding Lane was full of warehouses containing highly flammable things like timber, rope and oil. A very strong easterly wind blew the fire from house to house in the narrow streets.
As the fire was spreading so quickly most Londoners concentrated on escaping rather than fighting the fire. They rescued as many of their belongings as they could carry and fled. Thomas Farriner and his family had to climb out of an upstairs window and onto their neighbour's roof to escape the fire in their bakery.
There was no fire brigade in London in 1666 so Londoners themselves had to fight the fire, helped by local soldiers. They used buckets of water, water squirts and fire hooks. Equipment was stored in local churches. The best way to stop the fire was to pull down houses with hooks to make gaps or 'fire breaks'. This was difficult because the wind forced the fire across any gaps created. The mayor, Thomas Bludworth, complained, 'the fire overtakes us faster than we can do it.'
A quicker way of demolishing houses was to blow them up with gunpowder, but this technique wasn't used until the third day of the fire (Tuesday 4 September). Fire Posts, each staffed by 130 men, were set up around the City to fight the blaze. On Tuesday night the wind dropped and the fire-fighters finally gained control. By dawn on Thursday the fire was out.
The damage caused by the Great Fire was immense: 436 acres of London were destroyed, including 13,200 houses and 87 out of 109 churches. Some places still smouldered for months afterwards. Only 51 churches and about 9000 houses were rebuilt. St Paul's Cathedral was ruined, as was the Guildhall and 52 livery company halls.
It took nearly 50 years to rebuild the burnt area of London. St Paul's Cathedral was not completed until 1711.
Throughout 1667 people cleared rubble and surveyed the burnt area. Much time was spent planning new street layouts and drawing up new building regulations. By the end of the year, only 150 new houses had been built. Public buildings, like churches, were paid for with money from a new coal tax.
The new regulations were designed to prevent such a disaster happening again. Houses now had to be faced in brick instead of wood. Some streets were widened and two new streets were created. Pavements and new sewers were laid, and London's quaysides were improved. The results were noticeable: '(London) is not only the finest, but the most healthy city in the world', said one proud Londoner.
Please note that the Museum of London will be closing at 5.30pm today (Tuesday 21 January). We are sorry for any inconvenience this may cause. | <urn:uuid:dd6244b5-e3aa-4e95-960e-5ad5d2b90413> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://collections.museumoflondon.org.uk/online/group/23219.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.987898 | 676 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.412147700786590... | 1 | View the most popular items in our shop
The Great Fire of London is one of the most well-known disasters in London's history. It began on 2 September 1666 and lasted just under five days. One-third of London was destroyed and about 100,000 people were made homeless.
The fire started at 1am on Sunday morning in Thomas Farriner's bakery on Pudding Lane. It may have been caused by a spark from his oven falling onto a pile of fuel nearby. The fire spread easily because London was very dry after a long, hot summer. The area around Pudding Lane was full of warehouses containing highly flammable things like timber, rope and oil. A very strong easterly wind blew the fire from house to house in the narrow streets.
As the fire was spreading so quickly most Londoners concentrated on escaping rather than fighting the fire. They rescued as many of their belongings as they could carry and fled. Thomas Farriner and his family had to climb out of an upstairs window and onto their neighbour's roof to escape the fire in their bakery.
There was no fire brigade in London in 1666 so Londoners themselves had to fight the fire, helped by local soldiers. They used buckets of water, water squirts and fire hooks. Equipment was stored in local churches. The best way to stop the fire was to pull down houses with hooks to make gaps or 'fire breaks'. This was difficult because the wind forced the fire across any gaps created. The mayor, Thomas Bludworth, complained, 'the fire overtakes us faster than we can do it.'
A quicker way of demolishing houses was to blow them up with gunpowder, but this technique wasn't used until the third day of the fire (Tuesday 4 September). Fire Posts, each staffed by 130 men, were set up around the City to fight the blaze. On Tuesday night the wind dropped and the fire-fighters finally gained control. By dawn on Thursday the fire was out.
The damage caused by the Great Fire was immense: 436 acres of London were destroyed, including 13,200 houses and 87 out of 109 churches. Some places still smouldered for months afterwards. Only 51 churches and about 9000 houses were rebuilt. St Paul's Cathedral was ruined, as was the Guildhall and 52 livery company halls.
It took nearly 50 years to rebuild the burnt area of London. St Paul's Cathedral was not completed until 1711.
Throughout 1667 people cleared rubble and surveyed the burnt area. Much time was spent planning new street layouts and drawing up new building regulations. By the end of the year, only 150 new houses had been built. Public buildings, like churches, were paid for with money from a new coal tax.
The new regulations were designed to prevent such a disaster happening again. Houses now had to be faced in brick instead of wood. Some streets were widened and two new streets were created. Pavements and new sewers were laid, and London's quaysides were improved. The results were noticeable: '(London) is not only the finest, but the most healthy city in the world', said one proud Londoner.
Please note that the Museum of London will be closing at 5.30pm today (Tuesday 21 January). We are sorry for any inconvenience this may cause. | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Legend has it that Achilles was the bravest hero of the Trojan war, according to Greek mythology. When Achilles was born, his mother, Thetis, tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. As she immersed him, she held him by one heel and forgot to dip him a second time so the heel she held could get wet too. Therefore, the place where she held him remained untouched by the magic water of the Styx and that part stayed mortal or vulnerable. Achilles fought heroically against the Trojans, but was killed by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow from behind. To this day, any weak point is called an “Achilles Heel”. We also refer to the strong tendon that connects the muscles of the calf of the leg with the heel bone as the “achilles tendon”. | <urn:uuid:0684f94b-7018-410e-97dd-48a0fa66916b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://living-by-divine-design.com/tag/beauty/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.988954 | 179 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.512403964996337... | 2 | Legend has it that Achilles was the bravest hero of the Trojan war, according to Greek mythology. When Achilles was born, his mother, Thetis, tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. As she immersed him, she held him by one heel and forgot to dip him a second time so the heel she held could get wet too. Therefore, the place where she held him remained untouched by the magic water of the Styx and that part stayed mortal or vulnerable. Achilles fought heroically against the Trojans, but was killed by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow from behind. To this day, any weak point is called an “Achilles Heel”. We also refer to the strong tendon that connects the muscles of the calf of the leg with the heel bone as the “achilles tendon”. | 174 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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