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The tradition was brought to America by Irish immigrants whose ancestors had endured religious persecution. Did you know that this popular custom was brought to the United States by Irish immigrants in the 19th century? Irish Catholics practiced their faith in secret The custom of having candles in windows has its origins in the time of British persecution of Catholics in Ireland. Under the penal laws passed against Catholics in Britain and Ireland after the Reformation, the practice of Catholicism was effectively banned. Priests were ordered to leave the country by May 1, 1698, or be hanged. Catholics faced imprisonment, fines, and even death if they were caught attending Mass. The penal laws made it highly inconvenient to be a practicing Catholic. They were forbidden from traveling five miles from home, giving their children a Catholic education, and if a Protestant decided he wanted a Catholic’s horse, he could have it, no matter its value, for £5. In an article in the Arlington Catholic Herald, Fr. William Saunders writes that under this persecution, the Irish kept the faith by practicing their religion surreptitiously. Priests would celebrate Mass outdoors, in secret, on “Mass rocks,” and they would offer instruction in the faith from behind hedges, earning them the name “Hedge Schoolmasters.” The candle in a window as a signal from underground Catholics And at Christmas, Saunders writes, “every faithful Irish Catholic family hoped to have a priest visit their home so that they could receive the sacraments and in return offer him hospitality.” As a sign to the priest making his rounds on Christmas Eve, they would place lit candles in their windows to indicate that he would be safe and welcome. Since you are here… …we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you?	<urn:uuid:1d0cd19f-572e-43e2-9376-eae6f24ebb42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aleteia.org/2019/12/04/why-do-people-place-candles-in-their-windows-at-christmastime/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00483.warc.gz	en	0.982177	495	3.28125	3	[ 0.11740286648273468, 0.1953093558549881, 0.14053478837013245, -0.3066944181919098, 0.20027601718902588, -0.07436513155698776, 0.08244306594133377, -0.16131547093391418, 0.32918497920036316, -0.4598340690135956, -0.5800989270210266, 0.16808362305164337, -0.42243492603302, -0.025056464597582...	1	The tradition was brought to America by Irish immigrants whose ancestors had endured religious persecution. Did you know that this popular custom was brought to the United States by Irish immigrants in the 19th century? Irish Catholics practiced their faith in secret The custom of having candles in windows has its origins in the time of British persecution of Catholics in Ireland. Under the penal laws passed against Catholics in Britain and Ireland after the Reformation, the practice of Catholicism was effectively banned. Priests were ordered to leave the country by May 1, 1698, or be hanged. Catholics faced imprisonment, fines, and even death if they were caught attending Mass. The penal laws made it highly inconvenient to be a practicing Catholic. They were forbidden from traveling five miles from home, giving their children a Catholic education, and if a Protestant decided he wanted a Catholic’s horse, he could have it, no matter its value, for £5. In an article in the Arlington Catholic Herald, Fr. William Saunders writes that under this persecution, the Irish kept the faith by practicing their religion surreptitiously. Priests would celebrate Mass outdoors, in secret, on “Mass rocks,” and they would offer instruction in the faith from behind hedges, earning them the name “Hedge Schoolmasters.” The candle in a window as a signal from underground Catholics And at Christmas, Saunders writes, “every faithful Irish Catholic family hoped to have a priest visit their home so that they could receive the sacraments and in return offer him hospitality.” As a sign to the priest making his rounds on Christmas Eve, they would place lit candles in their windows to indicate that he would be safe and welcome. Since you are here… …we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you?	475	ENGLISH	1
Block #15: Pine Tree Sponsored by: Blair Carmean September 25, 2013 Harriet Tubman gave many bits of advice to travelers on the Underground Railroad. One of these was to “travel using the cover of nature.” This knowledge gained by runaways, mostly by word of mouth, was vital to survival. Knowing how to navigate a forest for food, water, and shelter helped many to make the way north. Harriet’s knowledge of forest terrain was acquired during her time spent with her father in the lumbering business. The trees and forest of the Eastern Shore provided the traveler with cover and shelter, and Harriet was well acquainted with the forests of the area. The dense foliage of our area’s pine trees offered resting places between the stations on the trail, which could be some 10 to 20 miles apart.	<urn:uuid:baeb4187-4564-4d52-8b04-83a6cd34e6ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fiberartscenter.com/quilt-trail/pine-tree/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00488.warc.gz	en	0.981224	175	3.28125	3	[ 0.13622631132602692, -0.08905147016048431, 0.5467764735221863, 0.02037826180458069, 0.5593900680541992, 0.0891287550330162, 0.14923948049545288, 0.013208668678998947, -0.42958196997642517, 0.2558080852031708, -0.018464522436261177, -0.3386993706226349, -0.24151431024074554, 0.1881452053785...	9	Block #15: Pine Tree Sponsored by: Blair Carmean September 25, 2013 Harriet Tubman gave many bits of advice to travelers on the Underground Railroad. One of these was to “travel using the cover of nature.” This knowledge gained by runaways, mostly by word of mouth, was vital to survival. Knowing how to navigate a forest for food, water, and shelter helped many to make the way north. Harriet’s knowledge of forest terrain was acquired during her time spent with her father in the lumbering business. The trees and forest of the Eastern Shore provided the traveler with cover and shelter, and Harriet was well acquainted with the forests of the area. The dense foliage of our area’s pine trees offered resting places between the stations on the trail, which could be some 10 to 20 miles apart.	179	ENGLISH	1
James Baldwin’s Critique of the Social Condition James Baldwin was an African American writer who, through his own personal experiences and life, addressed issues such as race, sexuality, and the American identity. “Notes of a Native Son” is one of many essays that Baldwin wrote during his lifetime. Within this essay, Baldwin talks about when his father died and the events that revolved around it. His father’s death occurs in the early 1940s, where oppression and racism were still fairly prevalent in many cities across the nation. So amidst the events that revolve around Baldwin’s father’s death, there are many riots and beatings taking place. This essay is simply not a recollection of what Baldwin experienced in the past, but it challenges, critiques, and tries to understand the current social condition of the time. He does this by recalling his personal experiences to draw the reader in and as a result of that, can begin to construct an analysis of the social condition. Baldwin weaves in and out of his personal experiences and private reasons to give the reader both a small and large perspective of what is going on at the time. It’s important for the reader to have a small, personal perspective so they can connect with the emotions Baldwin expresses. At the same time a large general perspective is needed because it shows the reader that Baldwin’s experiences, although unique, is connected to a larger group of people, that in one way or another, his plight is the plight of many. Baldwin effectively implements this method when he says “All of Harlem, indeed, seemed to be infected by waiting” (73). This sentence is placed in between two moments. Prior to this sentence, Baldwin returns home in anticipation of his father’s passing and the birth of a new baby. So like the rest of Harlem, he is waiting. Immediately after the sentence, Baldwin describes the racial tension that exists between the African Americans and the Whites. The people of Harlem as well as other cities are waiting for that one injustice or catalyst that will push their tolerance over the top and lead them to violently fight back through riot and protest. In one sentence, Baldwin manages to switch gears, from one that is very private to a description of the general feeling felt among the people living in Harlem. Baldwin, being a part of the community, takes his own feelings of waiting and applies it to a general picture, where a lot of people were in fact waiting as well. Baldwin continues on and says that blacks were being oppressed everywhere. “…Negro girls who set upon a white girl in the subway because…she was stepping on their toes. Indeed she was, all over the nation” (73). Not only does this portray the ever growing tension felt among African Americans in a certain area, it expresses the tension felt across the nation. African Americans everywhere were still continuously looked down upon,...	<urn:uuid:44156a5d-d5c8-4d6b-b3cf-b4d4aa85d915>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/james-baldwin-s-critique-of-the-social-condition	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00058.warc.gz	en	0.98098	599	3.375	3	[ -0.09038500487804413, 0.45775651931762695, 0.45921480655670166, -0.12437900900840759, -0.661873459815979, 0.4929606318473816, 0.45472511649131775, -0.048704762011766434, -0.15729990601539612, -0.400776207447052, 0.12653735280036926, -0.017947731539607048, 0.05370131880044937, -0.0183767750...	1	James Baldwin’s Critique of the Social Condition James Baldwin was an African American writer who, through his own personal experiences and life, addressed issues such as race, sexuality, and the American identity. “Notes of a Native Son” is one of many essays that Baldwin wrote during his lifetime. Within this essay, Baldwin talks about when his father died and the events that revolved around it. His father’s death occurs in the early 1940s, where oppression and racism were still fairly prevalent in many cities across the nation. So amidst the events that revolve around Baldwin’s father’s death, there are many riots and beatings taking place. This essay is simply not a recollection of what Baldwin experienced in the past, but it challenges, critiques, and tries to understand the current social condition of the time. He does this by recalling his personal experiences to draw the reader in and as a result of that, can begin to construct an analysis of the social condition. Baldwin weaves in and out of his personal experiences and private reasons to give the reader both a small and large perspective of what is going on at the time. It’s important for the reader to have a small, personal perspective so they can connect with the emotions Baldwin expresses. At the same time a large general perspective is needed because it shows the reader that Baldwin’s experiences, although unique, is connected to a larger group of people, that in one way or another, his plight is the plight of many. Baldwin effectively implements this method when he says “All of Harlem, indeed, seemed to be infected by waiting” (73). This sentence is placed in between two moments. Prior to this sentence, Baldwin returns home in anticipation of his father’s passing and the birth of a new baby. So like the rest of Harlem, he is waiting. Immediately after the sentence, Baldwin describes the racial tension that exists between the African Americans and the Whites. The people of Harlem as well as other cities are waiting for that one injustice or catalyst that will push their tolerance over the top and lead them to violently fight back through riot and protest. In one sentence, Baldwin manages to switch gears, from one that is very private to a description of the general feeling felt among the people living in Harlem. Baldwin, being a part of the community, takes his own feelings of waiting and applies it to a general picture, where a lot of people were in fact waiting as well. Baldwin continues on and says that blacks were being oppressed everywhere. “…Negro girls who set upon a white girl in the subway because…she was stepping on their toes. Indeed she was, all over the nation” (73). Not only does this portray the ever growing tension felt among African Americans in a certain area, it expresses the tension felt across the nation. African Americans everywhere were still continuously looked down upon,...	582	ENGLISH	1
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation The Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Q: How can Charles Dickens manipulate readers atmosphere about Ebenezer Scrooge throughout the Christmas Carol? Charles Dickens is well known for his host of uniquely unkind, comic and repugnant books; he also remains the most widely read of Victorian novelists. He had been born in Portsmouth in 1812 and was the next child of a clerk in the navy pay-office. His childhood was not a happy one. As in 1824 his father was imprisoned. Dickens got sent to work at a blacking warehouse. Memories of his youth especially of this occasion chased him for the rest of his life. His parents failed to educate him. However, Dickens worked hard, building up his way to writing books. Before he wrote books, he had many jobs, which had been being a clerk in a solicitorвЂ™s office, then, a reporter of parliamentary debates for the Morning Chronicle. His anguish and brutal childhood led him to write novels on social justice such as вЂњA Christmas CarolвЂќ along with вЂњOliver TwistвЂќ. His novel A Christmas Carol (written in the 1843) is based on social precision. Dickens defines society ignorant and unfair towards the reason behind poverty in that specific time. He informs us how poor people were hated and looked down upon. Young children had to operate in warehouses so that they can support their own families: In вЂњA Christmas CarolвЂќ he uses the case of CratchitвЂ™s kid. In 1834, the the Poor Law Amendment Act was passed. The act said that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other aid from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse. It also stated that the conditions in workhouses were to b.. .	<urn:uuid:c178ab83-c897-4b71-87ed-c05ad7602aad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/biology/1016011/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00066.warc.gz	en	0.987814	398	3.59375	4	[ -0.10232869535684586, 0.10043592751026154, 0.3485269546508789, 0.10113748162984848, 0.22299008071422577, -0.4637521803379059, -0.08436142653226852, 0.3688739836215973, -0.38780477643013, 0.353733628988266, 0.16578426957130432, 0.27168935537338257, -0.024454306811094284, 0.18450522422790527...	1	Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation The Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Q: How can Charles Dickens manipulate readers atmosphere about Ebenezer Scrooge throughout the Christmas Carol? Charles Dickens is well known for his host of uniquely unkind, comic and repugnant books; he also remains the most widely read of Victorian novelists. He had been born in Portsmouth in 1812 and was the next child of a clerk in the navy pay-office. His childhood was not a happy one. As in 1824 his father was imprisoned. Dickens got sent to work at a blacking warehouse. Memories of his youth especially of this occasion chased him for the rest of his life. His parents failed to educate him. However, Dickens worked hard, building up his way to writing books. Before he wrote books, he had many jobs, which had been being a clerk in a solicitorвЂ™s office, then, a reporter of parliamentary debates for the Morning Chronicle. His anguish and brutal childhood led him to write novels on social justice such as вЂњA Christmas CarolвЂќ along with вЂњOliver TwistвЂќ. His novel A Christmas Carol (written in the 1843) is based on social precision. Dickens defines society ignorant and unfair towards the reason behind poverty in that specific time. He informs us how poor people were hated and looked down upon. Young children had to operate in warehouses so that they can support their own families: In вЂњA Christmas CarolвЂќ he uses the case of CratchitвЂ™s kid. In 1834, the the Poor Law Amendment Act was passed. The act said that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other aid from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse. It also stated that the conditions in workhouses were to b.. .	392	ENGLISH	1
30 Sep Men of Gold and Silver During the year 1324, the 44 year old West African Sultan, Mansa Musa decided to make his long awaited trek to Mecca; the Hajj. This he accomplished like none other before or since. With an entourage of 60,000 men (and some women?) and 80 camels; off they went. The great Sultan had heard about the poverty in Cairo, Medina and Mecca; he had a plan to alleviate this. Upon arrival at theses cities, he had his subordinates give to the underprivileged gold and silver. After he and his entourage made their Hajj, Musa and entourage made stops at Medina and Cairo to learn that their good will had resulted in the opposite of what they had intended. The worth of gold and silver plummeted while the price at the market place inflated. Everyone was adversely affected by the over abundance of the gold and silver that the Sultan had distributed. – It took the cities of Cairo, Medina and Mecca more than a decade to recover. Two hundred and thirty-six years later, King Philip 11 of Spain was the recipient of tons of plundered gold and silver from New Spain (which is now Mexico) Latin and northern South America. Despite this Spain was insolvent during the years 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. – Moral of this and the above story is: it is not how much gold and silver a country has, it is how it manages what it has. – There is no panacea to solve this universal financial crisis that only a very few countries have not been affected. As for the United States, it does not have a tax revenue problem, it has a spending problem that needs to be reviewed and acted upon; in other words, checked.	<urn:uuid:f565bae0-4682-4ff2-ad60-9dd94e066c41>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://candidatemills.com/men-of-gold-and-silver-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00177.warc.gz	en	0.984614	362	3.3125	3	[ -0.05478248745203018, 0.4522281885147095, 0.1850440502166748, 0.015479062683880329, 0.2554227411746979, -0.23105788230895996, 0.1070297509431839, 0.06245217099785805, -0.10575775057077408, -0.06173202022910118, 0.502846360206604, -0.06461966037750244, 0.05159823223948479, 0.156453311443328...	2	30 Sep Men of Gold and Silver During the year 1324, the 44 year old West African Sultan, Mansa Musa decided to make his long awaited trek to Mecca; the Hajj. This he accomplished like none other before or since. With an entourage of 60,000 men (and some women?) and 80 camels; off they went. The great Sultan had heard about the poverty in Cairo, Medina and Mecca; he had a plan to alleviate this. Upon arrival at theses cities, he had his subordinates give to the underprivileged gold and silver. After he and his entourage made their Hajj, Musa and entourage made stops at Medina and Cairo to learn that their good will had resulted in the opposite of what they had intended. The worth of gold and silver plummeted while the price at the market place inflated. Everyone was adversely affected by the over abundance of the gold and silver that the Sultan had distributed. – It took the cities of Cairo, Medina and Mecca more than a decade to recover. Two hundred and thirty-six years later, King Philip 11 of Spain was the recipient of tons of plundered gold and silver from New Spain (which is now Mexico) Latin and northern South America. Despite this Spain was insolvent during the years 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. – Moral of this and the above story is: it is not how much gold and silver a country has, it is how it manages what it has. – There is no panacea to solve this universal financial crisis that only a very few countries have not been affected. As for the United States, it does not have a tax revenue problem, it has a spending problem that needs to be reviewed and acted upon; in other words, checked.	388	ENGLISH	1
William Penn was born and raised in England, but he is well known for what he did in the Americas. First and foremost, William Penn was a religious nonconformist and writer: he wrote numerous religious books over his lifetime. Second, Penn is responsible for the “holy experiment”: the colony of Pennsylvania. He was a Quaker advocate, and as a proprietor had the opportunity to practice the Quaker Peace testimony. Penn was interested in religion from the time he was a child. When he was twelve years old he had the opportunity to hear testimony from a traveling Quaker minister, Thomas Loe. Penn was touched by Loe’s message, and sought the ‘authentic Christian message’ rather then focusing on ‘institutional’ religion. At the age of 16, Penn started attending Oxford University. It was at Oxford University, that William began to reject Anglicanism and he began attending unauthorized prayer meetings. At this time, he was expelled for his “religious unconformity”. He then attended a Protestant school in France, where he completed his education. When Penn turned 23, he converted and became a Quaker after another run in with Thomas Loe. He then began to write down his religious ideas, and took a lot of criticism from other scholars. Penn wrote the book Sandy Foundations Shaken which was considered “controversial and superficial” and for this, was imprisoned in the Tower of London. While imprisoned, Penn kept writing. He wrote the book No Cross, No Crown, which was a ... Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - The Life of William Penn William Penn, most commonly known for the establishment of the state of Pennsylvania, could also be referred to as the first great pioneer of American liberty. His beliefs on equal rights and religious toleration not only contributed to liberty in the Old World, but in the New World as well. In a time when religions persecuted one another for their beliefs, colonists were stealing land from Indians, and women had little to no rights, Penn established a sanctuary free from the stereotypes that were common in that time in history.... [tags: American History] 1927 words (5.5 pages) - William Penn, an English entrepreneur, had an unforeseen impact on the history of the United States of America. In the late 1600’s and early 1700’s, Penn was already a champion for democracy, religious freedom, and anti-slavery movements. Through his good relations both the nobility of England, and the Indians of Pennsylvania, Penn was able to secure an entire state for many years to come. Credited with establishing the city of Philadelphia, name after his ideal of ‘brotherly love’, William Penn left a lasting impression on the United States of America.... [tags: English Entrepeneur, Quaker] 1104 words (3.2 pages) - William Penn he was alive in the 18th century.(4) William Penn was born October 14, 1644 to Sir William Penn and Margaret Penn. His father was a landowner and mother was the daughter of a merchant. William Penn was baptized at All Hallows church in London. He was born in London,United Kingdom. He was famous as a Quaker and the leader of the Pennsylvania colony. Penn was a lot of things in his life he was a land investor,Philosopher,lawyer,Minister,Missionary,and a Journalist. (1)William Penn had four kids Thomas Penn,Richard Penn,Sr.,William Penn Jr.,and John Penn.... [tags: biography, religious groups] 1094 words (3.1 pages) - William Penn was a great individual who contributed tremendously to this nation. John Moretta’s “William Penn and the Quaker Legacy” talks about the courageous efforts by Penn and his perspectives on things. Penn was a spiritual human being who believed in god and wanted a peaceful society for one to live in. He was a brave individual who wanted everyone to be equal and was democratic. Religious tolerance alleged by Penn changed the views of many individuals who lived in that era. The importance of Penn’s background, Quakerism and the development of his society due to his view on religious tolerance will be discussed in this paper.... [tags: Biography, Quakers, Church] 930 words (2.7 pages) - In "A Charter of Privileges, “William Penn, the Governor, was writing a firsthand account about how he wanted his state to be governed. His purpose was to give the people a doctrine that they could look up to and realize what rights they had and what rules were in place. Penn allowed the citizens to worship without fear of religious persecution. He writes that the people shall.. [not] be compelled to frequent or maintain any religious worship place or ministry" (1). Penn talked about property rights, the process of forming an Assembly, how to appoint vacancies, and the rights of criminals.... [tags: Slavery, Atlantic slave trade, History of slavery] 1369 words (3.9 pages) - My experience so far at William Penn University has been a roller coaster ride. It has had its ups and downs similar to any other new experience to a person. As a freshman it takes some adjusting to get used to the style, especially when I have had the support from my parents for a long time. I have had moments here that I have enjoyed, and other ones that I would rather not have to deal with. It has been a full 7 weeks, but it definitely has been an experience I will need in the future and it is better to learn it now than later on down the road.... [tags: English-language films, High school, College] 1162 words (3.3 pages) - William Penn and the Quakers The Quakers, also known as the Society of Friends was religious group that founded Pennsylvania. William Penn, one of the leaders, worked with the Quakers, Indians and the other population to make an ideal world for him, his followers, and the other people in his environment. With his efforts, and the help of others, the Quakers left a huge impact on Pennsylvania and the entire nation. The Quakers are a religion that originated in England in protest of the Anglican Church's practices.... [tags: essays research papers] 1275 words (3.6 pages) - William Penn William Penn was born and raised in England, but he is well known for what he did in the Americas. First and foremost, William Penn was a religious nonconformist and writer: he wrote numerous religious books over his lifetime. Second, Penn is responsible for the “holy experiment”: the colony of Pennsylvania. He was a Quaker advocate, and as a proprietor had the opportunity to practice the Quaker Peace testimony. Penn was interested in religion from the time he was a child. When he was twelve years old he had the opportunity to hear testimony from a traveling Quaker minister, Thomas Loe.... [tags: essays research papers] 731 words (2.1 pages) - The policy of William Penn with the indians compared to the English settlers and the Spanish, French, and Dutch is quite different. This includes considering the certain agreements and ways they came to the New World to maintain land along with how it possibly changed the “New World”, now known as America, for the worst. A short background of how all of this even happened was due to King Charles II of England owing money to William Penn’s father because of a large loan he had with him. He gave it to William Penn because his father had already passed.... [tags: Pennsylvania, Iroquois] 761 words (2.2 pages) - Roger Williams, William Penn, the Maryland Assembly and Liberty Conscience The New England colonies of Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland [Pa. and Md.are not in New England] were founded with the express purpose of dispensing of with a statechurch [not exactly. Rhode Island was “put together.” Maryland did not have a single statechurch, but the Calverts did not intend to dispense with state support of a church]. In this theydeviated not only from the other British coloes in the New World but also from their Motherlandand indeed all the civilizations of western Christendom to date.... [tags: History Historical Papers] 1628 words (4.7 pages)	<urn:uuid:cf327b2f-e977-4ba0-8655-fa208bed8b6b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=96891	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00352.warc.gz	en	0.980611	1,768	3.578125	4	[ -0.10117703676223755, 0.3745501637458801, 0.19935017824172974, -0.17734241485595703, -0.3449169993400574, 0.05559037625789642, 0.05748050659894943, 0.17315638065338135, -0.15319952368736267, 0.0551757887005806, -0.10355265438556671, 0.21525247395038605, -0.03088708594441414, 0.060872755944...	1	William Penn was born and raised in England, but he is well known for what he did in the Americas. First and foremost, William Penn was a religious nonconformist and writer: he wrote numerous religious books over his lifetime. Second, Penn is responsible for the “holy experiment”: the colony of Pennsylvania. He was a Quaker advocate, and as a proprietor had the opportunity to practice the Quaker Peace testimony. Penn was interested in religion from the time he was a child. When he was twelve years old he had the opportunity to hear testimony from a traveling Quaker minister, Thomas Loe. Penn was touched by Loe’s message, and sought the ‘authentic Christian message’ rather then focusing on ‘institutional’ religion. At the age of 16, Penn started attending Oxford University. It was at Oxford University, that William began to reject Anglicanism and he began attending unauthorized prayer meetings. At this time, he was expelled for his “religious unconformity”. He then attended a Protestant school in France, where he completed his education. When Penn turned 23, he converted and became a Quaker after another run in with Thomas Loe. He then began to write down his religious ideas, and took a lot of criticism from other scholars. Penn wrote the book Sandy Foundations Shaken which was considered “controversial and superficial” and for this, was imprisoned in the Tower of London. While imprisoned, Penn kept writing. He wrote the book No Cross, No Crown, which was a ... Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - The Life of William Penn William Penn, most commonly known for the establishment of the state of Pennsylvania, could also be referred to as the first great pioneer of American liberty. His beliefs on equal rights and religious toleration not only contributed to liberty in the Old World, but in the New World as well. In a time when religions persecuted one another for their beliefs, colonists were stealing land from Indians, and women had little to no rights, Penn established a sanctuary free from the stereotypes that were common in that time in history.... [tags: American History] 1927 words (5.5 pages) - William Penn, an English entrepreneur, had an unforeseen impact on the history of the United States of America. In the late 1600’s and early 1700’s, Penn was already a champion for democracy, religious freedom, and anti-slavery movements. Through his good relations both the nobility of England, and the Indians of Pennsylvania, Penn was able to secure an entire state for many years to come. Credited with establishing the city of Philadelphia, name after his ideal of ‘brotherly love’, William Penn left a lasting impression on the United States of America.... [tags: English Entrepeneur, Quaker] 1104 words (3.2 pages) - William Penn he was alive in the 18th century.(4) William Penn was born October 14, 1644 to Sir William Penn and Margaret Penn. His father was a landowner and mother was the daughter of a merchant. William Penn was baptized at All Hallows church in London. He was born in London,United Kingdom. He was famous as a Quaker and the leader of the Pennsylvania colony. Penn was a lot of things in his life he was a land investor,Philosopher,lawyer,Minister,Missionary,and a Journalist. (1)William Penn had four kids Thomas Penn,Richard Penn,Sr.,William Penn Jr.,and John Penn.... [tags: biography, religious groups] 1094 words (3.1 pages) - William Penn was a great individual who contributed tremendously to this nation. John Moretta’s “William Penn and the Quaker Legacy” talks about the courageous efforts by Penn and his perspectives on things. Penn was a spiritual human being who believed in god and wanted a peaceful society for one to live in. He was a brave individual who wanted everyone to be equal and was democratic. Religious tolerance alleged by Penn changed the views of many individuals who lived in that era. The importance of Penn’s background, Quakerism and the development of his society due to his view on religious tolerance will be discussed in this paper.... [tags: Biography, Quakers, Church] 930 words (2.7 pages) - In "A Charter of Privileges, “William Penn, the Governor, was writing a firsthand account about how he wanted his state to be governed. His purpose was to give the people a doctrine that they could look up to and realize what rights they had and what rules were in place. Penn allowed the citizens to worship without fear of religious persecution. He writes that the people shall.. [not] be compelled to frequent or maintain any religious worship place or ministry" (1). Penn talked about property rights, the process of forming an Assembly, how to appoint vacancies, and the rights of criminals.... [tags: Slavery, Atlantic slave trade, History of slavery] 1369 words (3.9 pages) - My experience so far at William Penn University has been a roller coaster ride. It has had its ups and downs similar to any other new experience to a person. As a freshman it takes some adjusting to get used to the style, especially when I have had the support from my parents for a long time. I have had moments here that I have enjoyed, and other ones that I would rather not have to deal with. It has been a full 7 weeks, but it definitely has been an experience I will need in the future and it is better to learn it now than later on down the road.... [tags: English-language films, High school, College] 1162 words (3.3 pages) - William Penn and the Quakers The Quakers, also known as the Society of Friends was religious group that founded Pennsylvania. William Penn, one of the leaders, worked with the Quakers, Indians and the other population to make an ideal world for him, his followers, and the other people in his environment. With his efforts, and the help of others, the Quakers left a huge impact on Pennsylvania and the entire nation. The Quakers are a religion that originated in England in protest of the Anglican Church's practices.... [tags: essays research papers] 1275 words (3.6 pages) - William Penn William Penn was born and raised in England, but he is well known for what he did in the Americas. First and foremost, William Penn was a religious nonconformist and writer: he wrote numerous religious books over his lifetime. Second, Penn is responsible for the “holy experiment”: the colony of Pennsylvania. He was a Quaker advocate, and as a proprietor had the opportunity to practice the Quaker Peace testimony. Penn was interested in religion from the time he was a child. When he was twelve years old he had the opportunity to hear testimony from a traveling Quaker minister, Thomas Loe.... [tags: essays research papers] 731 words (2.1 pages) - The policy of William Penn with the indians compared to the English settlers and the Spanish, French, and Dutch is quite different. This includes considering the certain agreements and ways they came to the New World to maintain land along with how it possibly changed the “New World”, now known as America, for the worst. A short background of how all of this even happened was due to King Charles II of England owing money to William Penn’s father because of a large loan he had with him. He gave it to William Penn because his father had already passed.... [tags: Pennsylvania, Iroquois] 761 words (2.2 pages) - Roger Williams, William Penn, the Maryland Assembly and Liberty Conscience The New England colonies of Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland [Pa. and Md.are not in New England] were founded with the express purpose of dispensing of with a statechurch [not exactly. Rhode Island was “put together.” Maryland did not have a single statechurch, but the Calverts did not intend to dispense with state support of a church]. In this theydeviated not only from the other British coloes in the New World but also from their Motherlandand indeed all the civilizations of western Christendom to date.... [tags: History Historical Papers] 1628 words (4.7 pages)	1,742	ENGLISH	1
William Still, younger brother of Dr. James Still, was born on October 7, 1821 in Burlington County, NJ. He was the youngest of eighteen children, fourteen of whom were born after his parents and two siblings escaped slavery. Just like his brother James, William Still lacked formal education and, instead, successfully taught himself how to read and write. Still grew up in New Jersey, but moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania before his 23rd birthday. In 1847, he married Letitia George, and the couple had four children. That same year, Still was hired by the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, where he worked as a clerk. He became the society’s chairman shortly after, when they organized a vigilance committee to aid former slaves who escaped to the city. Hard Works Pays Off Through all of his hard work, Still eventually became one of Philadelphia’s leaders in the African American community. In 1959, he challenged the West Philadelphia Railway Company, who would not allow African Americans to ride their cars unless they stood on the platform. In 1961, he drew up a petition in favor of the right for black people to ride inside train cars along with the whites, and by 1962, he had gathered around 360 signatures from prominent individuals throughout the city. Finally, in 1967, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania established an Act prohibiting discrimination on the lines. Still, who was referred to as the “Father of the Underground Railroad,” helped over sixty slaves escape their imprisonment every month (his efforts ultimately totaling over 1,000 individuals). He interviewed each escaped slave and kept detailed records; during one interview, Still discovered that he was interviewing his older brother who was left behind when their mother escaped slavery. The Underground Railroad Still worked with Underground Railroad agents in the South as well as Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, New England, and Canada. After the Civil War, Still published a book titled The Underground Railroad Records in 1872; in it, he revealed many of the secret notes he had kept during his years helping slaves escape. In 1902, William Still died of heart trouble, leaving behind an incredible legacy. Throughout his 80 years, Still accomplished countless deeds for his country; his selfless nature and determination helped him combat racism and some of America’s worst behavior. All of his difficult labors and achievements make this New Jersey-native an American hero. To continue reading more Black History NJ stories, click here to get the complete series. Hero (Top) Feature Image: © Carly Weaver / Best of NJ Additional Image Courtesy: Wikipedia.com	<urn:uuid:135d9cb2-7bb8-4e0c-b169-b6c07731d7d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bestofnj.com/features/monthly-observances/black-history-month/black-history-nj-william-still/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00452.warc.gz	en	0.981872	528	4.125	4	[ -0.3708021640777588, 0.5935864448547363, 0.4395357072353363, -0.015012664720416069, -0.5495574474334717, -0.04879722744226456, -0.23729084432125092, -0.3876831531524658, -0.602994441986084, -0.1605871319770813, 0.24435408413410187, 0.548603355884552, 0.11493774503469467, 0.1985950171947479...	2	William Still, younger brother of Dr. James Still, was born on October 7, 1821 in Burlington County, NJ. He was the youngest of eighteen children, fourteen of whom were born after his parents and two siblings escaped slavery. Just like his brother James, William Still lacked formal education and, instead, successfully taught himself how to read and write. Still grew up in New Jersey, but moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania before his 23rd birthday. In 1847, he married Letitia George, and the couple had four children. That same year, Still was hired by the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, where he worked as a clerk. He became the society’s chairman shortly after, when they organized a vigilance committee to aid former slaves who escaped to the city. Hard Works Pays Off Through all of his hard work, Still eventually became one of Philadelphia’s leaders in the African American community. In 1959, he challenged the West Philadelphia Railway Company, who would not allow African Americans to ride their cars unless they stood on the platform. In 1961, he drew up a petition in favor of the right for black people to ride inside train cars along with the whites, and by 1962, he had gathered around 360 signatures from prominent individuals throughout the city. Finally, in 1967, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania established an Act prohibiting discrimination on the lines. Still, who was referred to as the “Father of the Underground Railroad,” helped over sixty slaves escape their imprisonment every month (his efforts ultimately totaling over 1,000 individuals). He interviewed each escaped slave and kept detailed records; during one interview, Still discovered that he was interviewing his older brother who was left behind when their mother escaped slavery. The Underground Railroad Still worked with Underground Railroad agents in the South as well as Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, New England, and Canada. After the Civil War, Still published a book titled The Underground Railroad Records in 1872; in it, he revealed many of the secret notes he had kept during his years helping slaves escape. In 1902, William Still died of heart trouble, leaving behind an incredible legacy. Throughout his 80 years, Still accomplished countless deeds for his country; his selfless nature and determination helped him combat racism and some of America’s worst behavior. All of his difficult labors and achievements make this New Jersey-native an American hero. To continue reading more Black History NJ stories, click here to get the complete series. Hero (Top) Feature Image: © Carly Weaver / Best of NJ Additional Image Courtesy: Wikipedia.com	549	ENGLISH	1
rre Curie won the Nobel Prize for discovering radioactive elements polonium and radium. The scientific world was excited with the newly discovered force of nature, but they soon realized that that the discovery was not the best for human race. They soon learned that the great discovery was a threat to health. Unfortunately, long time went by until their concerns were taken seriously. Marie Curie denied that radiation was bad for health even though everyone around her, who was exposed to radiation, was dyeing from leukemia. She never fully acknowledged that her work had ruined her health Marie curie herself was chronically ill and nearly blind from all the exposure to radioactive materials. But she never admitted that that her work led to her poor health. Radioactivity she worked on eventually led her into an early grave at the age of 67.Marie Curie was so fixed on her research that there is no reason to think that she would have stopped her research if she had known the health risks associated with her work. Her daughter and son-in-law, also Nobel Prize winners, continued her experiments with radioactivity and were eventually killed by the diseases caused by radiation.Order now In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie began to experiment with radiation. Initially they started by studying emissions from various minerals which led them to win a Nobel Prize in 1903 that they shared and another one to Marie alone in 1911. Their first accomplishment was to show that radioactivity was a property of atoms themselves. For scientists it was the most important of Curies discoveries, because it helped other scientists to understand the atomic structure of matter. The second, more famous discovery, was the discovery of polonium and radium. The most radioactive element they experimented with was radium, a substance that does not exists free in nature. To study it the Curies spent most of their time covered from head to toe in radioactive swamp exhalations in order to get microscopic amounts of radium. Marie Curie wanted to purify it so it could be used as early radiation treatment for tumors and other medical uses. Radiums radioactivity is due to the large size of the atom, which makes the nucleus unstable and prone to decay, usually to radon and then lead, by emitting particles and energy as it seeks a more stable configuration. Radium has a bluish glow that caught peoples attention and the companies tried to exploit this new invention. Radium was used in a lot of things including fake cure all medicines that did the opposite they killed. Large companies opened up factories to produce wristwatches with glow in the dark dials that became very fashionable. The glowing dials were hand painted by Radium Girls, some as young as 15, who worked in studios where they mixed their own paint from a powdered base. Soon after a lot of these girls became very sick and some of them died from so much exposure to the radioactive materials. The women used to use these glowing radioactive materials as make up, nail polish, and clothes accessories. They also used to put the brushes, they used for painting the watch dials, into their mouths to make the tip of the brush into a fine tip. They were so covered with radioactive dust; they glowed in the dark. People started to suspect that radium was harmful to health so when working with radium they started wearing protective clothing. Radium Girls started getting sick, they were suffering from fatigue, anemia, and were having trouble with their teeth. These dial painters were dyeing from a condition that came to be known as radium jaw.Their jawbones were so diseased that pieces of them actually came out when dentists tried to take out the bad teeth. The places where bad teeth were taken out never healed and started getting infected. Some women were diagnosed with bone cancer. The womens bodies were actually radioactive because their bones had absorbed radium. Radium is very dangerous because it forms medical bonds in the same way as calcium, so body is fooled by it by thinking that it is calcium and it is absorbed by the bones. This gives radium the ability to affect cells with out any obstacles, which causes bone tumors and bone marrow damage that causes anemia and leukemia.	<urn:uuid:2ef6bbba-2ff6-4264-8e44-8217cd12cc45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/more-than-hundred-years-passed-since-marie-and-pie-essay-79201/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00460.warc.gz	en	0.990627	847	3.671875	4	[ 0.1488698124885559, 0.4488309323787689, 0.0037038547452539206, 0.25344860553741455, 0.24789033830165863, -0.16088946163654327, 0.25585541129112244, 0.2153938263654709, -0.30301010608673096, -0.1623644232749939, 0.43275514245033264, -0.37463870644569397, 0.3187752962112427, 0.31705859303474...	3	rre Curie won the Nobel Prize for discovering radioactive elements polonium and radium. The scientific world was excited with the newly discovered force of nature, but they soon realized that that the discovery was not the best for human race. They soon learned that the great discovery was a threat to health. Unfortunately, long time went by until their concerns were taken seriously. Marie Curie denied that radiation was bad for health even though everyone around her, who was exposed to radiation, was dyeing from leukemia. She never fully acknowledged that her work had ruined her health Marie curie herself was chronically ill and nearly blind from all the exposure to radioactive materials. But she never admitted that that her work led to her poor health. Radioactivity she worked on eventually led her into an early grave at the age of 67.Marie Curie was so fixed on her research that there is no reason to think that she would have stopped her research if she had known the health risks associated with her work. Her daughter and son-in-law, also Nobel Prize winners, continued her experiments with radioactivity and were eventually killed by the diseases caused by radiation.Order now In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie began to experiment with radiation. Initially they started by studying emissions from various minerals which led them to win a Nobel Prize in 1903 that they shared and another one to Marie alone in 1911. Their first accomplishment was to show that radioactivity was a property of atoms themselves. For scientists it was the most important of Curies discoveries, because it helped other scientists to understand the atomic structure of matter. The second, more famous discovery, was the discovery of polonium and radium. The most radioactive element they experimented with was radium, a substance that does not exists free in nature. To study it the Curies spent most of their time covered from head to toe in radioactive swamp exhalations in order to get microscopic amounts of radium. Marie Curie wanted to purify it so it could be used as early radiation treatment for tumors and other medical uses. Radiums radioactivity is due to the large size of the atom, which makes the nucleus unstable and prone to decay, usually to radon and then lead, by emitting particles and energy as it seeks a more stable configuration. Radium has a bluish glow that caught peoples attention and the companies tried to exploit this new invention. Radium was used in a lot of things including fake cure all medicines that did the opposite they killed. Large companies opened up factories to produce wristwatches with glow in the dark dials that became very fashionable. The glowing dials were hand painted by Radium Girls, some as young as 15, who worked in studios where they mixed their own paint from a powdered base. Soon after a lot of these girls became very sick and some of them died from so much exposure to the radioactive materials. The women used to use these glowing radioactive materials as make up, nail polish, and clothes accessories. They also used to put the brushes, they used for painting the watch dials, into their mouths to make the tip of the brush into a fine tip. They were so covered with radioactive dust; they glowed in the dark. People started to suspect that radium was harmful to health so when working with radium they started wearing protective clothing. Radium Girls started getting sick, they were suffering from fatigue, anemia, and were having trouble with their teeth. These dial painters were dyeing from a condition that came to be known as radium jaw.Their jawbones were so diseased that pieces of them actually came out when dentists tried to take out the bad teeth. The places where bad teeth were taken out never healed and started getting infected. Some women were diagnosed with bone cancer. The womens bodies were actually radioactive because their bones had absorbed radium. Radium is very dangerous because it forms medical bonds in the same way as calcium, so body is fooled by it by thinking that it is calcium and it is absorbed by the bones. This gives radium the ability to affect cells with out any obstacles, which causes bone tumors and bone marrow damage that causes anemia and leukemia.	853	ENGLISH	1
1. Used to say that sth is necessary or very important (sometimes involving a rule or a law): All visitors must report to reception. Cars must not park in front of the entrance (= it is not allowed). (Formal) I must ask you not to do that again. You mustn’t say things like that. I must go to the bank and get some money. I must admit (= I feel that I should admit) I was surprised it cost so little. (Especially BrE) Must you always question everything I say? (= it is annoying) ‘Do we have to finish this today?’ ‘Yes, you must.’ HELP NOTE: Note that the negative for the last example is ‘No, you don’t have to.’ 2. Used to say that sth is likely or logical: You must be hungry after all that walking. He must have known (= surely he knew) what she wanted. I’m sorry she’s not here. She must have left already (= that must be the explanation). 3. (Especially BrE) used to recommend that sb do sth because you think it is a good idea: You simply must read this book. We must get together soon for lunch. Must/ have (got) to/ must not/ don’t have to: Necessity and Obligation Must and have (got) to: are used in the present to say that something is necessary or should be done. “Have to” is more common in NAmE, especially in speech: You must be home by 11 o’clock. I must wash the car tomorrow. I have to collect the children from school at 3 o’clock. Nurses have to wear a uniform. In BrE there is a difference between them. Must is used to talk about what the speaker or listener wants, and have (got) to about rules, laws and other people’s wishes: I must finish this essay today. I’m going out tomorrow. I have to finish this essay today. We have to hand them in tomorrow. There are no past or future forms of must. To talk about the past you use had to and has had to: I had to wait half an hour for a bus. “Will have to” is used to talk about the future, or have to if an arrangement has already been made: We’ll have to borrow the money we need. I have to go to the dentist tomorrow. Questions with “have to” are formed using do: Do the children have to wear a uniform? In negative sentences both must not and don’t have to are used, but with different meanings. Must not is used to tell somebody not to do something: Passengers must not smoke until the signs have been switched off. The short form mustn’t is used especially in BrE: You mustn’t leave the gate open. “Don’t have to” is used when it is not necessary to do something: You don’t have to pay for the tickets in advance. She doesn’t have to work at weekends. Both must and have to: are used to say that you are certain about something. “Have to” is the usual verb used in NAmE and this is becoming more frequent in BrE in this meaning: He has (got) to be the worst actor on TV! This must be the most boring party I’ve ever been to (BrE). If you are talking about the past, use must have: Your trip must have been fun! 1. (Not usually used in the progressive tenses) to be brave enough to do sth: She said it as loudly as she dared. He didn’t dare (to) say what he thought. They daren’t ask for any more money. (Literary) She dared not breathe a word of it to anybody. There was something, dare I say it, a little unusual about him. 2. To persuade sb to do sth dangerous, difficult or embarrassing so that they can show that they are not afraid: [vn] go on! Take it! I dare you. [Vn to INF] Some of the older boys had dared him to do it. Don’t you dare! (Informal) used to tell sb strongly not to do sth: ‘I’ll tell her about it.’ ‘Don’t you dare?’ Don’t you dare say anything to anybody? How dare you, etc.: Used to show that you are angry about sth that sb has done: How dare you talk to me like that? How dare she imply that I was lying? I dare say (also I daresay especially in BrE): Used when you are saying that sth is probable: I dare say you know about it already. Dare (sense 1) usually forms negatives and questions like an ordinary verb and is followed by an Infinitive with to. It is most common in the negative: I didn’t dare to ask. He won’t dare to break his promise. You told him? How did you dare? I hardly dared to hope she’d remember me. In positive sentences a phrase likes not be afraid is often used instead: She wasn’t afraid (= she dared) to tell him the truth. It can also be used like a modal verb especially in present tense negative forms in BrE, and is followed by an Infinitive without to: I daren’t tell her the truth. In spoken English, the forms of the ordinary verb are often used with an Infinitive without to: Don’t you dare tell her what I said! I didn’t dare look at him.	<urn:uuid:6cb44181-9cad-4148-8ad3-dfc3e1022084>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dichthuattranslation.wordpress.com/2013/05/13/modal-verbs-5/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00427.warc.gz	en	0.980484	1,246	3.5	4	[ 0.2463754117488861, -0.16651350259780884, 0.0013736486434936523, -0.5078883171081543, -0.03682699799537659, -0.004290797282010317, 0.1963777244091034, 0.2748558223247528, 0.2618473172187805, -0.05149555206298828, -0.23197147250175476, 0.060095660388469696, 0.20707009732723236, 0.4043537378...	1	1. Used to say that sth is necessary or very important (sometimes involving a rule or a law): All visitors must report to reception. Cars must not park in front of the entrance (= it is not allowed). (Formal) I must ask you not to do that again. You mustn’t say things like that. I must go to the bank and get some money. I must admit (= I feel that I should admit) I was surprised it cost so little. (Especially BrE) Must you always question everything I say? (= it is annoying) ‘Do we have to finish this today?’ ‘Yes, you must.’ HELP NOTE: Note that the negative for the last example is ‘No, you don’t have to.’ 2. Used to say that sth is likely or logical: You must be hungry after all that walking. He must have known (= surely he knew) what she wanted. I’m sorry she’s not here. She must have left already (= that must be the explanation). 3. (Especially BrE) used to recommend that sb do sth because you think it is a good idea: You simply must read this book. We must get together soon for lunch. Must/ have (got) to/ must not/ don’t have to: Necessity and Obligation Must and have (got) to: are used in the present to say that something is necessary or should be done. “Have to” is more common in NAmE, especially in speech: You must be home by 11 o’clock. I must wash the car tomorrow. I have to collect the children from school at 3 o’clock. Nurses have to wear a uniform. In BrE there is a difference between them. Must is used to talk about what the speaker or listener wants, and have (got) to about rules, laws and other people’s wishes: I must finish this essay today. I’m going out tomorrow. I have to finish this essay today. We have to hand them in tomorrow. There are no past or future forms of must. To talk about the past you use had to and has had to: I had to wait half an hour for a bus. “Will have to” is used to talk about the future, or have to if an arrangement has already been made: We’ll have to borrow the money we need. I have to go to the dentist tomorrow. Questions with “have to” are formed using do: Do the children have to wear a uniform? In negative sentences both must not and don’t have to are used, but with different meanings. Must not is used to tell somebody not to do something: Passengers must not smoke until the signs have been switched off. The short form mustn’t is used especially in BrE: You mustn’t leave the gate open. “Don’t have to” is used when it is not necessary to do something: You don’t have to pay for the tickets in advance. She doesn’t have to work at weekends. Both must and have to: are used to say that you are certain about something. “Have to” is the usual verb used in NAmE and this is becoming more frequent in BrE in this meaning: He has (got) to be the worst actor on TV! This must be the most boring party I’ve ever been to (BrE). If you are talking about the past, use must have: Your trip must have been fun! 1. (Not usually used in the progressive tenses) to be brave enough to do sth: She said it as loudly as she dared. He didn’t dare (to) say what he thought. They daren’t ask for any more money. (Literary) She dared not breathe a word of it to anybody. There was something, dare I say it, a little unusual about him. 2. To persuade sb to do sth dangerous, difficult or embarrassing so that they can show that they are not afraid: [vn] go on! Take it! I dare you. [Vn to INF] Some of the older boys had dared him to do it. Don’t you dare! (Informal) used to tell sb strongly not to do sth: ‘I’ll tell her about it.’ ‘Don’t you dare?’ Don’t you dare say anything to anybody? How dare you, etc.: Used to show that you are angry about sth that sb has done: How dare you talk to me like that? How dare she imply that I was lying? I dare say (also I daresay especially in BrE): Used when you are saying that sth is probable: I dare say you know about it already. Dare (sense 1) usually forms negatives and questions like an ordinary verb and is followed by an Infinitive with to. It is most common in the negative: I didn’t dare to ask. He won’t dare to break his promise. You told him? How did you dare? I hardly dared to hope she’d remember me. In positive sentences a phrase likes not be afraid is often used instead: She wasn’t afraid (= she dared) to tell him the truth. It can also be used like a modal verb especially in present tense negative forms in BrE, and is followed by an Infinitive without to: I daren’t tell her the truth. In spoken English, the forms of the ordinary verb are often used with an Infinitive without to: Don’t you dare tell her what I said! I didn’t dare look at him.	1,144	ENGLISH	1
Paragraphs on Muhammad Ali Jinnah (400 Words) Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born at Karachi on December 25, 1876. His father was a leading merchant of Karachi. He received his primary education at Karachi and Bombay. He passed his matriculation examination from the Mission High School, Bombay and went to England for studying law. He was called to the bar in 1896. He started his legal practice at Karachi in 1896. Next year he shifted to Bombay and in a short time won great distinction as a barrister. From 1930 to 1934 he practiced in England at the Privy Council and established himself as a lawyer of the first order. On his return to India, he resumed practice at Bombay. In the meanwhile, he had developed a keen interest in politics when he was studying law in England. Therefore, he joined Indian National Congress to work for the self-government for India. He became a member of the All-India Muslim League also and retained membership of both the parties for a long time. Jinnah worked as a mediator between the two parties and tried to bring about an understanding between the Muslims and the Hindus. In acknowledgment of his services and popularity the “Jinnah Hall” was built in Bombay. When the Indian National Congress rejected the Montagu-Chelmsford Scheme of 1918 and launched a non-co-operation movement, Jinnah left the Congress. He did not agree with the Non-Co-operation Movement because he considered it a departure from the policy of constitutional agitation. From this time onward he became the most determined critic and opponent of all the policies of Gandhi. He was convinced that the Hindus were pursuing a deliberate policy. The Hindu domination over the entire subcontinent of India. As a result of Muhammad Ali Jinnah soon became the voice of the Muslims of India. He formulated their demands and presented them in the form of the famous Fourteen Points in 1929. In 1934 he undertook the arduous work of uniting the various Muslim groups under the banner of the Muslim League. He also re-organized the Muslim League to make it an active and united organization. Under his inspiring and able leadership, the Muslim League contested elections in 1935 and swept the polls in the Punjab, Sind, and Bengal. With the passage of time more and more Muslims were joining the Muslim League. Other Muslim parties in Bengal and Punjab accepted the leadership of Jinnah and also joined the League. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the famous Lahore Resolution demanding Pakistan-a sovereign Muslim State, comprising the Muslim majority areas of India. Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah showed great ability and tremendous courage in his struggle for Pakistan. He countered the shrewd moves of the Congress and was able to change the view of the British Government. His lifelong struggle was crowned with success on 14th August 1947, when Pakistan came into being. Quaid-e-Azam became the first Governor-General of Pakistan. He worked day and night for the consolidation and progress of the country. His health had been failing for many years; now the great responsibilities of the state wrecked his health, and he passed away on September 11, 1948. Paragraphs on Muhammad Ali Jinnah (600 Words) Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi on the 25th of December, 1876. He received his early education in a local school. Later on, he entered into a Missionary high school and passed the Entrance Examination. Next year he went to England and returned after four years as Barrister-at-Law. In 1915. he loved and married Ratan Bai, the daughter of Sir Dinshaw Petit. In 1947, he got Pakistan and worked as the Governor-General. He died on 11th September 1948. His work for Pakistan is very great. First of all, he was the member of Indian National Congress. He worked for Hindu-Muslim unity. But later on, he joined the Muslim League be worked day and night. In the 1946-47 general elections, the Muslim : League won a large number of seats in the Provincial Assemblies. “Pakistan Resolution” was passed in 1940. After the Second World War, the British promised to leave the country. On 14th August 1947, India was divided into two states India and Pakistan. It was a great success for Jinnah. The Quaid-e-Azam was a weak and thin person. His health was not good. But on the other hand he was a man of strong will. He had to face a large number of problems and hardships but he remained firm to his stand. The English and the Hindus could not succeed to win him over. He always showed strong will power at all occasions. The Quaid-e-Azam was a brave man and fearless leader. To get Pakistan he did not care for his broken health. He did not care for dangers to his life and opposition from the Hindus and the English. The Quaid-e-Azam was a very wise man. He had an Independent judgement and opinion. He decided everything in the light of reasons. He never allowed his passions to interfere into his affairs. His arguments against or in favor of a matter were very clear and convincing. Through this great quality be failed the Hindu intrigues and the English mind and succeeded in his mission. The Quaid-i-Azam was a sincere and devoted leader. He was upright and honest. He never worked for his personal gain or fame. He devoted all his time and energy to work for the achievement of Pakistan. He was always ready to serve others. Although his health was poor yet he worked hard for his nation. He liked his people and worked for them. The Quaid worked selflessly for the Indian Muslims. After Pakistan was made. He continued to work hard for them until his death. The Quaid-e-Azam was a very good orator. He delivered his speech very effectively. He discussed all the important aspects of the subject in his speech. When he spoke in the Constituent Assembly, the discussed its functions clearly and proved himself á very successful public speaker. The Quaid-e-Azam was a hardworking and industrious person. He was always ready to serve others. Although his health was poor yet he worked hard for his nation. He liked his people and worked for them. They too liked him much. Moreover, he refused to take a rest. He made long tours of India to awaken the Muslims. He had to solve all the problems but he never showed a sign of exhaustion. This quality of our great leader infused a new spirit in the Muslims. At last, he succeeded to create a new homeland for the Muslims of India.	<urn:uuid:d21991c4-bbde-4e2c-ae39-eb2509e9e2a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2018/12/paragraph-on-muhammad-ali-jinnah.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00130.warc.gz	en	0.990127	1,376	3.640625	4	[ -0.12921187281608582, 0.48229920864105225, -0.364236056804657, 0.2727929949760437, -0.6086385250091553, 0.0641174390912056, 0.6977552175521851, -0.327414870262146, 0.35373398661613464, -0.14515413343906403, 0.03945750743150711, -0.20712810754776, 0.31357675790786743, 0.06787482649087906, ...	7	Paragraphs on Muhammad Ali Jinnah (400 Words) Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born at Karachi on December 25, 1876. His father was a leading merchant of Karachi. He received his primary education at Karachi and Bombay. He passed his matriculation examination from the Mission High School, Bombay and went to England for studying law. He was called to the bar in 1896. He started his legal practice at Karachi in 1896. Next year he shifted to Bombay and in a short time won great distinction as a barrister. From 1930 to 1934 he practiced in England at the Privy Council and established himself as a lawyer of the first order. On his return to India, he resumed practice at Bombay. In the meanwhile, he had developed a keen interest in politics when he was studying law in England. Therefore, he joined Indian National Congress to work for the self-government for India. He became a member of the All-India Muslim League also and retained membership of both the parties for a long time. Jinnah worked as a mediator between the two parties and tried to bring about an understanding between the Muslims and the Hindus. In acknowledgment of his services and popularity the “Jinnah Hall” was built in Bombay. When the Indian National Congress rejected the Montagu-Chelmsford Scheme of 1918 and launched a non-co-operation movement, Jinnah left the Congress. He did not agree with the Non-Co-operation Movement because he considered it a departure from the policy of constitutional agitation. From this time onward he became the most determined critic and opponent of all the policies of Gandhi. He was convinced that the Hindus were pursuing a deliberate policy. The Hindu domination over the entire subcontinent of India. As a result of Muhammad Ali Jinnah soon became the voice of the Muslims of India. He formulated their demands and presented them in the form of the famous Fourteen Points in 1929. In 1934 he undertook the arduous work of uniting the various Muslim groups under the banner of the Muslim League. He also re-organized the Muslim League to make it an active and united organization. Under his inspiring and able leadership, the Muslim League contested elections in 1935 and swept the polls in the Punjab, Sind, and Bengal. With the passage of time more and more Muslims were joining the Muslim League. Other Muslim parties in Bengal and Punjab accepted the leadership of Jinnah and also joined the League. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the famous Lahore Resolution demanding Pakistan-a sovereign Muslim State, comprising the Muslim majority areas of India. Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah showed great ability and tremendous courage in his struggle for Pakistan. He countered the shrewd moves of the Congress and was able to change the view of the British Government. His lifelong struggle was crowned with success on 14th August 1947, when Pakistan came into being. Quaid-e-Azam became the first Governor-General of Pakistan. He worked day and night for the consolidation and progress of the country. His health had been failing for many years; now the great responsibilities of the state wrecked his health, and he passed away on September 11, 1948. Paragraphs on Muhammad Ali Jinnah (600 Words) Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi on the 25th of December, 1876. He received his early education in a local school. Later on, he entered into a Missionary high school and passed the Entrance Examination. Next year he went to England and returned after four years as Barrister-at-Law. In 1915. he loved and married Ratan Bai, the daughter of Sir Dinshaw Petit. In 1947, he got Pakistan and worked as the Governor-General. He died on 11th September 1948. His work for Pakistan is very great. First of all, he was the member of Indian National Congress. He worked for Hindu-Muslim unity. But later on, he joined the Muslim League be worked day and night. In the 1946-47 general elections, the Muslim : League won a large number of seats in the Provincial Assemblies. “Pakistan Resolution” was passed in 1940. After the Second World War, the British promised to leave the country. On 14th August 1947, India was divided into two states India and Pakistan. It was a great success for Jinnah. The Quaid-e-Azam was a weak and thin person. His health was not good. But on the other hand he was a man of strong will. He had to face a large number of problems and hardships but he remained firm to his stand. The English and the Hindus could not succeed to win him over. He always showed strong will power at all occasions. The Quaid-e-Azam was a brave man and fearless leader. To get Pakistan he did not care for his broken health. He did not care for dangers to his life and opposition from the Hindus and the English. The Quaid-e-Azam was a very wise man. He had an Independent judgement and opinion. He decided everything in the light of reasons. He never allowed his passions to interfere into his affairs. His arguments against or in favor of a matter were very clear and convincing. Through this great quality be failed the Hindu intrigues and the English mind and succeeded in his mission. The Quaid-i-Azam was a sincere and devoted leader. He was upright and honest. He never worked for his personal gain or fame. He devoted all his time and energy to work for the achievement of Pakistan. He was always ready to serve others. Although his health was poor yet he worked hard for his nation. He liked his people and worked for them. The Quaid worked selflessly for the Indian Muslims. After Pakistan was made. He continued to work hard for them until his death. The Quaid-e-Azam was a very good orator. He delivered his speech very effectively. He discussed all the important aspects of the subject in his speech. When he spoke in the Constituent Assembly, the discussed its functions clearly and proved himself á very successful public speaker. The Quaid-e-Azam was a hardworking and industrious person. He was always ready to serve others. Although his health was poor yet he worked hard for his nation. He liked his people and worked for them. They too liked him much. Moreover, he refused to take a rest. He made long tours of India to awaken the Muslims. He had to solve all the problems but he never showed a sign of exhaustion. This quality of our great leader infused a new spirit in the Muslims. At last, he succeeded to create a new homeland for the Muslims of India.	1,431	ENGLISH	1
Astrid as imagined by artist Christian Krohg in 1899 \|Queen consort of Norway\| \|Spouse\|\|Olav II of Norway\| \|Issue\|\|Wulfhild of Norway\| \|House\|\|House of Munsö\| \|Father\|\|Olof Skötkonung of Sweden\| Astrid was born to King Olof Skötkonung of Sweden and his Obotritian mistress Edla. She was the half sister of King Anund Jacob of Sweden and sister of King Emund the Old of Sweden. It is said that she and her brother Emund were not treated well by their stepmother, Queen Estrid, and that they were sent away to foster parents. Astrid was sent to a man named Egil in Västergötland. In 1016, it had been decided that Norway and Sweden should come to more peaceful relations by a royal marriage alliance. Noblemen of both countries tried to arrange a marriage between King Olav of Norway and the half sister of Astrid, Princess Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden. King Olof of Sweden agreed at first but broke his promise. King Olav was supposed to have married Astrid's half sister, Olof Skötkonung's legitimate daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden. Ingegerd was, however, after his father's wishes instead married to Yaroslav I the Wise, Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev. Astrid was married to King Olav in Sarpsborg in 1019. Some sources claim that Astrid replaced Ingegerd by the wish of her father. Other sources claim that the marriage took place against the will of her father, by the cooperation of King Olav of Norway and the Swedish jarl Ragnvald Ulfsson. Astrid was described as beautiful, articulate and generous, and well liked by others. She was the mother of Wulfhild of Norway (1020-1070), wife of Ordulf, Duke of Saxony and the stepmother of King Magnus the Good, with whom she had a good relationship. In 1030, she was widowed when her husband was killed. She left Norway and settled in the Swedish court, where she had a high position. When her stepson Magnus visited Sigtuna on his way to claim the Norwegian throne, she gave him her official support and encouraged Sweden to do so as well.	<urn:uuid:04e53d87-97e5-462a-83c8-04219410c998>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Astrid_Olofsdotter	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00284.warc.gz	en	0.984574	516	3.28125	3	[ 0.3780856728553772, 0.7567995190620422, 0.19331835210323334, -0.13823369145393372, 0.21158652007579803, 0.16272065043449402, -0.23642000555992126, -0.1565413773059845, 0.34097298979759216, -0.11625902354717255, 0.15483920276165009, -0.32016047835350037, 0.37371793389320374, 0.0037001890596...	1	Astrid as imagined by artist Christian Krohg in 1899 \|Queen consort of Norway\| \|Spouse\|\|Olav II of Norway\| \|Issue\|\|Wulfhild of Norway\| \|House\|\|House of Munsö\| \|Father\|\|Olof Skötkonung of Sweden\| Astrid was born to King Olof Skötkonung of Sweden and his Obotritian mistress Edla. She was the half sister of King Anund Jacob of Sweden and sister of King Emund the Old of Sweden. It is said that she and her brother Emund were not treated well by their stepmother, Queen Estrid, and that they were sent away to foster parents. Astrid was sent to a man named Egil in Västergötland. In 1016, it had been decided that Norway and Sweden should come to more peaceful relations by a royal marriage alliance. Noblemen of both countries tried to arrange a marriage between King Olav of Norway and the half sister of Astrid, Princess Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden. King Olof of Sweden agreed at first but broke his promise. King Olav was supposed to have married Astrid's half sister, Olof Skötkonung's legitimate daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden. Ingegerd was, however, after his father's wishes instead married to Yaroslav I the Wise, Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev. Astrid was married to King Olav in Sarpsborg in 1019. Some sources claim that Astrid replaced Ingegerd by the wish of her father. Other sources claim that the marriage took place against the will of her father, by the cooperation of King Olav of Norway and the Swedish jarl Ragnvald Ulfsson. Astrid was described as beautiful, articulate and generous, and well liked by others. She was the mother of Wulfhild of Norway (1020-1070), wife of Ordulf, Duke of Saxony and the stepmother of King Magnus the Good, with whom she had a good relationship. In 1030, she was widowed when her husband was killed. She left Norway and settled in the Swedish court, where she had a high position. When her stepson Magnus visited Sigtuna on his way to claim the Norwegian throne, she gave him her official support and encouraged Sweden to do so as well.	523	ENGLISH	1
This section needs additional citations for verification . (April 2016) Baseball originated before the American Civil War (1861–1865). First played on sandlots in particular, scoring and record-keeping gave baseball gravity. "Today," notes John Thorn in The Baseball Encyclopedia, "baseball without records is inconceivable." In 1871, the first professional baseball league was created. By the beginning of the 20th century, most large cities in the eastern United States had a professional baseball team. After several leagues came and went in the 19th century, the National League (founded in 1876) and American League (recognized as a major league in 1903) were established as the dominant leagues by the early 20th century. The most victorious team in each league was said to have won the "pennant;" the two pennant winners met after the end of the regular season in the World Series. The winner of at least four games (out of a possible seven) was the champion for that year. This arrangement still holds today, although the leagues are now subdivided and pennants are decided in post-season playoff series between the winners of each division. Baseball became popular in the 1920s, when Babe Ruth led the New York Yankees to several World Series titles and became a national hero on the strength of his home runs (balls that cannot be played because they have been hit out of the field). One of the most noteworthy players was the Brooklyn Dodgers' Jackie Robinson, who became the first African-American player in the major leagues in 1947. Prior to Robinson, black players had been restricted to the Negro Leagues. Starting in the 1950s, major league baseball expanded its geographical range. Western cities got teams, either by luring them to move from eastern cities or by forming expansion teams with players made available by established teams. Until the 1970s, because of strict contracts, the owners of baseball teams also virtually owned the players; since then, the rules have changed so that players can become free agents, within certain limits, to sell their services to any team. The resulting bidding wars led to increasingly wealthy players. Disputes between the players' union and the owners have at times halted baseball for months at a time. Japan has also seen a prominent professional baseball circuit develop known as Nippon Professional Baseball. Founded in 1934, the league emerged as an international force after World War II. NPB is considered to be the highest caliber of baseball outside the U.S. major leagues, and the best Japanese talent often emigrate to the U.S. by way of the posting system. Other prominent countries to play the game include South Korea (where their league has its own posting system with Major League Baseball), Mexico, Latin America, and the Caribbean states. Football (commonly known as American football in Europe and Australia) was professionalized in the 1890s as a slow, and initially covert, process; William Heffelfinger and Ben "Sport" Donnelly were the first to secretly accept payment for playing the game in 1892. Regional leagues in Chicago, , Ohio and had coalesced in the 1900s and 1910s, most of which gave way to the in 1920. By 1920, pro football remained overshadowed by the college game. The first game involving an APFA team took place on September 26, 1920, at Douglas Park in Rock Island, Illinois, as the hometown Independents flattened the St. Paul Ideals 48-0. The first head-to-head battles in the league occurred one week later as Dayton topped Columbus 14-0 and Rock Island pasted Muncie 45-0. Forward passes were rare, coaching from the sidelines was prohibited and players competed on both offense and defense. Money was so tight that George Halas carried equipment, wrote press releases, sold tickets, taped ankles, played and coached for the Decatur club. As opposed to today's standard 16-game schedule, clubs in 1920 scheduled their own opponents and could play non league and even college squads that counted toward their records. With no established guidelines, the number of games played—and the quality of opponents scheduled—by APFA teams varied, and the league did not maintain official standings. The inaugural season was a struggle. Games received little attention from the fans—and even less from the press. According to Robert W. Peterson's book "Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football," APFA games averaged crowds of 4,241. The association bylaws called for teams to pay a $100 entry fee, but no one ever did. The season concluded on December 19. At the conclusion of the season there were no playoffs (that innovation, although New York's regional league had used it, would not arrive until 1933) and it took more than four months before the league even bothered to crown a champion. Much as college football did for decades, the APFA determined its victor by ballot. On April 30, 1921, team representatives voted the Akron Pros, who completed the season undefeated with eight wins and three ties while yielding only a total of seven points, the champion in spite of protests by the one-loss teams in Decatur and Buffalo, who each had tied Akron and had more wins, thanks in part to Akron's owner presiding over the meeting. The victors received a silver loving cup donated by sporting goods company Brunswick-Balke-Collender. While players were not given diamond-encrusted rings, they did receive golden fobs in the shape of a football inscribed with the words "World Champions." The whereabouts of the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup, only given out that one time, are unknown. The legacy of two APFA franchises continues on, however. The Racine Cardinals now play in Arizona, and the Decatur Staleys moved to Chicago in 1921 and changed their name to the Bears the following year. Ten APFA players along with Carr are enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which opened its doors in 1963 not far from the Canton automobile dealership that gave birth to the NFL in 1920. The APFA, by 1922 known as the , has remained the predominant professional football league in the United States, and, effectively, the entire world. The evolution from a haphazard collection of teams in big and small cities to the much more rigid structure it is in the present was gradual. With most of the small-market teams except the Green Bay Packers squeezed out of the NFL by the time of the Great Depression, multiple attempts at teams in the major cities of Washington, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, and Philadelphia failed before, eventually, their current representatives took root (though Boston proved particularly problematic until the New England Patriots were accepted into the NFL in 1970); the NFL expanded coast-to-coast, the first of the four major leagues to do so, in 1946 with the Los Angeles Rams and admitted the San Francisco 49ers four years later; the NFL did not enter the Southern United States until admitting the Dallas Cowboys, Atlanta Falcons and New Orleans Saints in the 1960s. A championship game was established in 1933, a draft was established in 1936, and schedules were standardized in the 1930s. A competing league has historically arisen to attempt to challenge the NFL's dominance every 10 to 15 years, but none managed to maintain long-term operations independent of the NFL and only two—the of the late 1940s and the of the 1960s—were strong enough to successfully compete against the league before the NFL subsumed their operations. Minor league football, although their leagues' memberships were unstable, began to arise in the late 1930s and remained viable as a business model up into the 1970s. A major factor in the NFL's rise to dominance was its early in the sport's history. As college football heavily restricted the rights of its teams to broadcast games (a policy eventually ruled to be illegal in 1984), the NFL instead allowed games to be televised nationwide, ; the restriction was softened in the early 1970s, by which point the NFL had secured broadcast deals with all of the major television networks, another major factor in the inability of any competing league to gain traction since then. The related sport of was eventually professionalized by the 1950s, which saw the evolution of the . The CFL, despite losing all games in a series of contests against the NFL, was considered to be at least comparable in talent to the American leagues of the 1960s (its lone game against an AFL squad was a victory). Because Canada has a tenth of the population of the United States, the ability to make money from television was much lower, and although some of the cities of Canada were comparable to the major markets of the U.S., teams in places such as Saskatchewan and Hamilton were in markets quite small compared to even the small markets of the NFL, thus the CFL now pays noticeably less than other major professional leagues, but still more than enough to be considered fully professional. The rise of beginning in the late 1980s has allowed for smaller-scale professional football to be viable. Ice hockey was first professionalized in Pittsburgh in the early 1900s (decade). As Canadians made up the vast majority of hockey players, early American professional leagues imported almost all of their talent before Canadian leagues began to form in the wake of a mining boom, depriving the U.S. leagues and teams of talent. Two distinct circuits formed: the Pacific Coast Hockey Association in western Canada and the northwestern U.S., and the National Hockey Association of central Canada, both of which competed for the then-independent Stanley Cup. The NHA's teams reorganized as the National Hockey League in 1917, and the West Coast circuit died out by the mid-1920s. By 1926, the NHL expanded to 10 teams in Canada, and in the northeastern and midwestern United States. However, the onset of the Great Depression in 1930s, combined with Canada's entry into World War II (which greatly reduced the league's player pool), led to the league's retrenchment to six markets: Boston, New York City, Chicago and Detroit in the U.S., and Toronto and Montreal in Canada. These Original Six cities would be the only cities with NHL franchises from 1935 to 1967. During this time, the NHL was both stagnant and restrictive in its policies, giving teams territorial advantages, having teams with multiple owners in the same family (thus allowing the best players to be stacked onto certain teams), and restricting its players' salaries through reserve clauses. This stagnation allowed other leagues to arise: the Western Hockey League soon became the de facto major league of the western states and provinces, and the second-tier American Hockey League emerged in a number of midwestern markets the NHL had neglected, in addition to a handful of small towns. Amid pressure from television networks that were threatening to offer the WHL a contract, the NHL doubled in size in 1967, beginning a period of expansion that lasted through much of the 1970s. The last major challenger to the NHL's dominance was the World Hockey Association, which successfully broke the NHL's reserve clause in court, drove up professional hockey salaries, and continued to pressure the older league into expansion. The WHA merged four of its remaining teams into the NHL in 1979, but had to give up most of its players, as they were still under NHL contract and had to return to their original teams. The NHL made its last pronounced realignment in the 1990s, moving most of the WHA teams out of their markets and establishing a number of new teams in the southern United States. In Europe, the introduction of professionalism varied widely, and the highest-caliber league on the continent, the Soviet Championship League (proven to be at least equal to or better than the NHL in the 1970s), was officially composed of semi-professional works teams paid for their association with industries or government agencies (the Red Army squad employed members of the armed forces, and the Soviet Union often drafted the best hockey players in the country to serve on the squad). The modern-day descendant of the Soviet league, the Kontinental Hockey League, is fully professional and has a number of teams outside Russia, to the point where it has the resources to sign NHL veterans. Other European countries such as Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, and Austria also have prominent professional leagues. Basketball was invented in 1891 and the first professional leagues emerged in the 1920s. The Basketball Association of America was established in 1946 and three years later became the modern National Basketball Association. The NBA was slower to establish dominance of the sport than other sports in the United States, as it would not do so until 1976, when it absorbed four teams from the American Basketball Association. Professional basketball has the advantages of much smaller rosters than other professional sports, allowing the sport to be viable in smaller cities than other sports. Professional basketball leagues of varying caliber can be found around the world, especially in Europe and South America. Resistance to professionalism Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateurist philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateurist philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as "rebel" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league. Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries. For example, all Eastern bloc countries were populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society team for their workers.	<urn:uuid:e963a650-33e2-4d66-9ccc-fdb9de6c492e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.luna.ovh/planeta/en/Professional_sports	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00144.warc.gz	en	0.981499	2,938	3.6875	4	[ -0.13080041110515594, 0.22160935401916504, -0.03026866912841797, -0.39844322204589844, -0.04797159135341644, 0.5462380051612854, -0.11735521256923676, 0.1752830147743225, 0.31796956062316895, 0.044400036334991455, 0.16338497400283813, 0.22850683331489563, -0.03115219622850418, 0.1928119957...	1	This section needs additional citations for verification . (April 2016) Baseball originated before the American Civil War (1861–1865). First played on sandlots in particular, scoring and record-keeping gave baseball gravity. "Today," notes John Thorn in The Baseball Encyclopedia, "baseball without records is inconceivable." In 1871, the first professional baseball league was created. By the beginning of the 20th century, most large cities in the eastern United States had a professional baseball team. After several leagues came and went in the 19th century, the National League (founded in 1876) and American League (recognized as a major league in 1903) were established as the dominant leagues by the early 20th century. The most victorious team in each league was said to have won the "pennant;" the two pennant winners met after the end of the regular season in the World Series. The winner of at least four games (out of a possible seven) was the champion for that year. This arrangement still holds today, although the leagues are now subdivided and pennants are decided in post-season playoff series between the winners of each division. Baseball became popular in the 1920s, when Babe Ruth led the New York Yankees to several World Series titles and became a national hero on the strength of his home runs (balls that cannot be played because they have been hit out of the field). One of the most noteworthy players was the Brooklyn Dodgers' Jackie Robinson, who became the first African-American player in the major leagues in 1947. Prior to Robinson, black players had been restricted to the Negro Leagues. Starting in the 1950s, major league baseball expanded its geographical range. Western cities got teams, either by luring them to move from eastern cities or by forming expansion teams with players made available by established teams. Until the 1970s, because of strict contracts, the owners of baseball teams also virtually owned the players; since then, the rules have changed so that players can become free agents, within certain limits, to sell their services to any team. The resulting bidding wars led to increasingly wealthy players. Disputes between the players' union and the owners have at times halted baseball for months at a time. Japan has also seen a prominent professional baseball circuit develop known as Nippon Professional Baseball. Founded in 1934, the league emerged as an international force after World War II. NPB is considered to be the highest caliber of baseball outside the U.S. major leagues, and the best Japanese talent often emigrate to the U.S. by way of the posting system. Other prominent countries to play the game include South Korea (where their league has its own posting system with Major League Baseball), Mexico, Latin America, and the Caribbean states. Football (commonly known as American football in Europe and Australia) was professionalized in the 1890s as a slow, and initially covert, process; William Heffelfinger and Ben "Sport" Donnelly were the first to secretly accept payment for playing the game in 1892. Regional leagues in Chicago, , Ohio and had coalesced in the 1900s and 1910s, most of which gave way to the in 1920. By 1920, pro football remained overshadowed by the college game. The first game involving an APFA team took place on September 26, 1920, at Douglas Park in Rock Island, Illinois, as the hometown Independents flattened the St. Paul Ideals 48-0. The first head-to-head battles in the league occurred one week later as Dayton topped Columbus 14-0 and Rock Island pasted Muncie 45-0. Forward passes were rare, coaching from the sidelines was prohibited and players competed on both offense and defense. Money was so tight that George Halas carried equipment, wrote press releases, sold tickets, taped ankles, played and coached for the Decatur club. As opposed to today's standard 16-game schedule, clubs in 1920 scheduled their own opponents and could play non league and even college squads that counted toward their records. With no established guidelines, the number of games played—and the quality of opponents scheduled—by APFA teams varied, and the league did not maintain official standings. The inaugural season was a struggle. Games received little attention from the fans—and even less from the press. According to Robert W. Peterson's book "Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football," APFA games averaged crowds of 4,241. The association bylaws called for teams to pay a $100 entry fee, but no one ever did. The season concluded on December 19. At the conclusion of the season there were no playoffs (that innovation, although New York's regional league had used it, would not arrive until 1933) and it took more than four months before the league even bothered to crown a champion. Much as college football did for decades, the APFA determined its victor by ballot. On April 30, 1921, team representatives voted the Akron Pros, who completed the season undefeated with eight wins and three ties while yielding only a total of seven points, the champion in spite of protests by the one-loss teams in Decatur and Buffalo, who each had tied Akron and had more wins, thanks in part to Akron's owner presiding over the meeting. The victors received a silver loving cup donated by sporting goods company Brunswick-Balke-Collender. While players were not given diamond-encrusted rings, they did receive golden fobs in the shape of a football inscribed with the words "World Champions." The whereabouts of the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup, only given out that one time, are unknown. The legacy of two APFA franchises continues on, however. The Racine Cardinals now play in Arizona, and the Decatur Staleys moved to Chicago in 1921 and changed their name to the Bears the following year. Ten APFA players along with Carr are enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which opened its doors in 1963 not far from the Canton automobile dealership that gave birth to the NFL in 1920. The APFA, by 1922 known as the , has remained the predominant professional football league in the United States, and, effectively, the entire world. The evolution from a haphazard collection of teams in big and small cities to the much more rigid structure it is in the present was gradual. With most of the small-market teams except the Green Bay Packers squeezed out of the NFL by the time of the Great Depression, multiple attempts at teams in the major cities of Washington, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, and Philadelphia failed before, eventually, their current representatives took root (though Boston proved particularly problematic until the New England Patriots were accepted into the NFL in 1970); the NFL expanded coast-to-coast, the first of the four major leagues to do so, in 1946 with the Los Angeles Rams and admitted the San Francisco 49ers four years later; the NFL did not enter the Southern United States until admitting the Dallas Cowboys, Atlanta Falcons and New Orleans Saints in the 1960s. A championship game was established in 1933, a draft was established in 1936, and schedules were standardized in the 1930s. A competing league has historically arisen to attempt to challenge the NFL's dominance every 10 to 15 years, but none managed to maintain long-term operations independent of the NFL and only two—the of the late 1940s and the of the 1960s—were strong enough to successfully compete against the league before the NFL subsumed their operations. Minor league football, although their leagues' memberships were unstable, began to arise in the late 1930s and remained viable as a business model up into the 1970s. A major factor in the NFL's rise to dominance was its early in the sport's history. As college football heavily restricted the rights of its teams to broadcast games (a policy eventually ruled to be illegal in 1984), the NFL instead allowed games to be televised nationwide, ; the restriction was softened in the early 1970s, by which point the NFL had secured broadcast deals with all of the major television networks, another major factor in the inability of any competing league to gain traction since then. The related sport of was eventually professionalized by the 1950s, which saw the evolution of the . The CFL, despite losing all games in a series of contests against the NFL, was considered to be at least comparable in talent to the American leagues of the 1960s (its lone game against an AFL squad was a victory). Because Canada has a tenth of the population of the United States, the ability to make money from television was much lower, and although some of the cities of Canada were comparable to the major markets of the U.S., teams in places such as Saskatchewan and Hamilton were in markets quite small compared to even the small markets of the NFL, thus the CFL now pays noticeably less than other major professional leagues, but still more than enough to be considered fully professional. The rise of beginning in the late 1980s has allowed for smaller-scale professional football to be viable. Ice hockey was first professionalized in Pittsburgh in the early 1900s (decade). As Canadians made up the vast majority of hockey players, early American professional leagues imported almost all of their talent before Canadian leagues began to form in the wake of a mining boom, depriving the U.S. leagues and teams of talent. Two distinct circuits formed: the Pacific Coast Hockey Association in western Canada and the northwestern U.S., and the National Hockey Association of central Canada, both of which competed for the then-independent Stanley Cup. The NHA's teams reorganized as the National Hockey League in 1917, and the West Coast circuit died out by the mid-1920s. By 1926, the NHL expanded to 10 teams in Canada, and in the northeastern and midwestern United States. However, the onset of the Great Depression in 1930s, combined with Canada's entry into World War II (which greatly reduced the league's player pool), led to the league's retrenchment to six markets: Boston, New York City, Chicago and Detroit in the U.S., and Toronto and Montreal in Canada. These Original Six cities would be the only cities with NHL franchises from 1935 to 1967. During this time, the NHL was both stagnant and restrictive in its policies, giving teams territorial advantages, having teams with multiple owners in the same family (thus allowing the best players to be stacked onto certain teams), and restricting its players' salaries through reserve clauses. This stagnation allowed other leagues to arise: the Western Hockey League soon became the de facto major league of the western states and provinces, and the second-tier American Hockey League emerged in a number of midwestern markets the NHL had neglected, in addition to a handful of small towns. Amid pressure from television networks that were threatening to offer the WHL a contract, the NHL doubled in size in 1967, beginning a period of expansion that lasted through much of the 1970s. The last major challenger to the NHL's dominance was the World Hockey Association, which successfully broke the NHL's reserve clause in court, drove up professional hockey salaries, and continued to pressure the older league into expansion. The WHA merged four of its remaining teams into the NHL in 1979, but had to give up most of its players, as they were still under NHL contract and had to return to their original teams. The NHL made its last pronounced realignment in the 1990s, moving most of the WHA teams out of their markets and establishing a number of new teams in the southern United States. In Europe, the introduction of professionalism varied widely, and the highest-caliber league on the continent, the Soviet Championship League (proven to be at least equal to or better than the NHL in the 1970s), was officially composed of semi-professional works teams paid for their association with industries or government agencies (the Red Army squad employed members of the armed forces, and the Soviet Union often drafted the best hockey players in the country to serve on the squad). The modern-day descendant of the Soviet league, the Kontinental Hockey League, is fully professional and has a number of teams outside Russia, to the point where it has the resources to sign NHL veterans. Other European countries such as Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, and Austria also have prominent professional leagues. Basketball was invented in 1891 and the first professional leagues emerged in the 1920s. The Basketball Association of America was established in 1946 and three years later became the modern National Basketball Association. The NBA was slower to establish dominance of the sport than other sports in the United States, as it would not do so until 1976, when it absorbed four teams from the American Basketball Association. Professional basketball has the advantages of much smaller rosters than other professional sports, allowing the sport to be viable in smaller cities than other sports. Professional basketball leagues of varying caliber can be found around the world, especially in Europe and South America. Resistance to professionalism Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateurist philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateurist philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as "rebel" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league. Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries. For example, all Eastern bloc countries were populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society team for their workers.	3,148	ENGLISH	1
Disko Bay has been an important location for centuries. Its coastline was first encountered by Europeans when Erik the Red started a settlement in 985 AD on the more habitable western coast of Greenland. The two settlements, called the Eastern and Western settlements, were sustenance economies that survived on animal husbandry and farming. Soon after the Western settlement was established, the Norsemen traveled up the coast during the summer thaw and discovered Disko Bay. Their interest in this bay was due to its rich resources: walruses for ivory, seals for their pelts, and whales for a variety of materials. These products became the main source of income for the Greenlandic settlers who traded with Iceland, the British Isles, and mainland Europe. Without these resources the settlements would probably not have lasted as long as they did. It is uncertain when the Inuit first started venturing into Disko Bay, but the Saqqaq were present there between 2400–900 BC.	<urn:uuid:47efed87-5497-437d-8f5d-aafd11a903f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.byronsgames.com/blog/where-in-the-world-wednesday-disko-bay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00321.warc.gz	en	0.983831	194	4	4	[ -0.18970264494419098, 0.051875125616788864, 0.08219429105520248, -0.19848871231079102, 0.21719534695148468, -0.0829242393374443, -0.04385693371295929, -0.011583381332457066, -0.35862356424331665, 0.16901305317878723, 0.14417675137519836, -0.784720778465271, 0.1092894971370697, 0.2209838181...	15	Disko Bay has been an important location for centuries. Its coastline was first encountered by Europeans when Erik the Red started a settlement in 985 AD on the more habitable western coast of Greenland. The two settlements, called the Eastern and Western settlements, were sustenance economies that survived on animal husbandry and farming. Soon after the Western settlement was established, the Norsemen traveled up the coast during the summer thaw and discovered Disko Bay. Their interest in this bay was due to its rich resources: walruses for ivory, seals for their pelts, and whales for a variety of materials. These products became the main source of income for the Greenlandic settlers who traded with Iceland, the British Isles, and mainland Europe. Without these resources the settlements would probably not have lasted as long as they did. It is uncertain when the Inuit first started venturing into Disko Bay, but the Saqqaq were present there between 2400–900 BC.	201	ENGLISH	1
Dedicated in 2010, this historical marker replaces a previous marker that was created in 1937 and titled Indian Massacre. The marker shares the story of an attack by indigenous people against settlers of European descent. From the perspectives of settlers, these attacks were acts of terror against peaceful civilian families. From the perspective of many Native peoples, however, these acts of violence were part of a strategy of defending their land and tribal sovereignty against invasion. The frontier was contested space, and the killing of Nicholas Wood and Jacob Straight at this location in 1786 also included the capture of Elizabeth Dragoo. Jacob Straight's wife, who is not named by the marker, was able to escape capture. Indian resistance to the settler’s occupation of the Ohio Valley in the late 18th century, along with acts by settlers of European descent, was sometimes violent. While major battles such as the French and Indian War and Pontiac’s Rebellion dominate the historical narrative, the periods before and after these wars were tense and Native people and settlers on the frontier had to be prepared for a constant state of warfare. While gathering crops on October 1776, the Straight family noticed that the livestock was making a lot of noise which provided a warning that Native people might be in the area and preparing for an attack. As the settlers were preparing to go to the fort, they realized Mrs. Dragoo and her son had not returned to the house. the Straights feared that they had been captured and Jacob Strait and Nicholas Wood went to see if they could find them. Meanwhile, Mrs. Strait and her children had already left to go to the fort.Jacob Strait and Nicholas Wood did not get far until the Indians had shot Mr. Wood and even though he was unarmed and surrendered. One of the Native Americans reportedly struck Straight in the head and scalped him. Mrs. Strait was able to hide herself and her daughter under some rocks and once the Indians left the area she came out of her hiding place and waded the river to Prickett's Fort. The next morning, the settlers found the Indians had taken everything from the house prior to setting a fire that was intended to destroy the homestead. However, the attackers seem to have faltered in this goal or simply changed their mind as there was only a hole burnt through the floor. Mrs. Dragoo sent her son ahead so that he was not slowed by her pace, which was hampered by a state of illness. Later it was discovered that she had also been killed and her body was scalped. The Indians adopted the orphaned boy and he later married a member of the tribe and had four children, two boys and two girls. After the boys were older, he took them hunting one day and never went back to the tribe. He returned to Virginia, leaving the two girls with their mother.	<urn:uuid:7b31f152-4754-4a23-adc9-22637d813615>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/75326	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00265.warc.gz	en	0.991261	574	3.90625	4	[ -0.18720228970050812, 0.27391916513442993, 0.24991531670093536, 0.3939152956008911, -0.3153638243675232, -0.09778076410293579, 0.49736154079437256, 0.23524487018585205, -0.21335729956626892, -0.29802846908569336, 0.17086902260780334, -0.25291046500205994, -0.07609676569700241, 0.4478269815...	3	Dedicated in 2010, this historical marker replaces a previous marker that was created in 1937 and titled Indian Massacre. The marker shares the story of an attack by indigenous people against settlers of European descent. From the perspectives of settlers, these attacks were acts of terror against peaceful civilian families. From the perspective of many Native peoples, however, these acts of violence were part of a strategy of defending their land and tribal sovereignty against invasion. The frontier was contested space, and the killing of Nicholas Wood and Jacob Straight at this location in 1786 also included the capture of Elizabeth Dragoo. Jacob Straight's wife, who is not named by the marker, was able to escape capture. Indian resistance to the settler’s occupation of the Ohio Valley in the late 18th century, along with acts by settlers of European descent, was sometimes violent. While major battles such as the French and Indian War and Pontiac’s Rebellion dominate the historical narrative, the periods before and after these wars were tense and Native people and settlers on the frontier had to be prepared for a constant state of warfare. While gathering crops on October 1776, the Straight family noticed that the livestock was making a lot of noise which provided a warning that Native people might be in the area and preparing for an attack. As the settlers were preparing to go to the fort, they realized Mrs. Dragoo and her son had not returned to the house. the Straights feared that they had been captured and Jacob Strait and Nicholas Wood went to see if they could find them. Meanwhile, Mrs. Strait and her children had already left to go to the fort.Jacob Strait and Nicholas Wood did not get far until the Indians had shot Mr. Wood and even though he was unarmed and surrendered. One of the Native Americans reportedly struck Straight in the head and scalped him. Mrs. Strait was able to hide herself and her daughter under some rocks and once the Indians left the area she came out of her hiding place and waded the river to Prickett's Fort. The next morning, the settlers found the Indians had taken everything from the house prior to setting a fire that was intended to destroy the homestead. However, the attackers seem to have faltered in this goal or simply changed their mind as there was only a hole burnt through the floor. Mrs. Dragoo sent her son ahead so that he was not slowed by her pace, which was hampered by a state of illness. Later it was discovered that she had also been killed and her body was scalped. The Indians adopted the orphaned boy and he later married a member of the tribe and had four children, two boys and two girls. After the boys were older, he took them hunting one day and never went back to the tribe. He returned to Virginia, leaving the two girls with their mother.	583	ENGLISH	1
Free Essays Must Be Free! United States Senate election in Ohio, Congressman Theodore Burton had been elected as senator in Foraker's place inand announced that he would seek a second term in the elections. By this time, the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had been ratified, giving the people the right to elect senators, and Ohio had instituted primary elections for the office. Foraker and former congressman Ralph D. Cole also entered the Republican primary. When Burton withdrew, Foraker became the favorite, but his Old Guard Republicanism was deemed outdated, and Harding was urged to enter the race. Daugherty claimed credit for persuading Harding to run, "I found him like a turtle sunning himself on a log, and I pushed him into the water. It was calculated to offend nobody except Democrats. Harding won the primary by 12, votes over Foraker. Slogan written on Ohio walls and fences, Harding's general election opponent was Ohio Attorney General Timothy Hoganwho had risen to statewide office despite widespread prejudice against Roman Catholics in rural areas. Inthe start of World War I and the prospect of a Catholic senator from Ohio increased nativist sentiment. Harding did not attack Hogan an old friend on this or most other issues, but he did not denounce the nativist hatred for his opponent. Senate, the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress, and were led by President Wilson. As a junior senator in the minority, Harding received unimportant committee assignments, but carried out those duties assiduously. As senator-elect, he indicated that he could not support votes for women until Ohio did. Increased support for suffrage there and among Senate Republicans meant that by the time Congress voted on the issue, Harding was a firm supporter. Harding, who drank, initially voted against banning alcohol. He voted for the Eighteenth Amendmentwhich imposed Prohibitionafter successfully moving to modify it by placing a time limit on ratification, which was expected to kill it. Once it was ratified anyway, Harding voted to override Wilson's veto of the Volstead Billwhich implemented the amendment, assuring the support of the Anti-Saloon League. He urged delegates to stand as a united party. The convention nominated Justice Charles Evans Hughes. In the November presidential electiondespite increasing Republican unity, Hughes was narrowly defeated by Wilson. In MayHarding, less enthusiastic about Wilson, opposed a bill to expand the president's powers. Many senators disliked Article X of the League Covenantthat committed signatories to the defense of any member nation that was attacked, seeing it as forcing the United States to war without the assent of Congress. Harding was one of 39 senators who signed a round-robin letter opposing the League. When Wilson invited the Foreign Relations Committee to the White House to informally discuss the treaty, Harding ably questioned Wilson about Article X; the president evaded his inquiries. The Senate debated Versailles in Septemberand Harding made a major speech against it. By then, Wilson had suffered a stroke while on a speaking tour. With an incapacitated president in the White House and less support in the country, the treaty was defeated. These plans ended when Roosevelt suddenly died on January 6, Among those coveting Harding's seat were former governor Willis he had been defeated by James M. On December 17,Harding made a low-key announcement of his presidential candidacy. Harding was far more acceptable to the "Old Guard" leaders of the party. His strategy was to make Harding an acceptable choice to delegates once the leaders faltered. Daugherty established a Harding for president campaign office in Washington run by his confidant, Jess Smithand worked to manage a network of Harding friends and supporters, including Frank Scobey of Texas clerk of the Ohio State Senate during Harding's years there. Despite the candidate's work, according to Russell, "without Daugherty's Mephistophelean efforts, Harding would never have stumbled forward to the nomination. Harding, speech before the Home Market Club, Boston, May 14, There were only 16 presidential primary states inof which the most crucial to Harding was Ohio. Harding had to have some loyalists at the convention to have any chance of nomination, and the Wood campaign hoped to knock Harding out of the race by taking Ohio. Wood campaigned in the state, and his supporter, Procter, spent large sums; Harding spoke in the non-confrontational style he had adopted in Harding and Daugherty were so confident of sweeping Ohio's 48 delegates that the candidate went on to the next state, Indiana, before the April 27 Ohio primary. In Indiana, Harding finished fourth, with less than ten percent of the vote, and failed to win a single delegate. He was willing to give up and have Daugherty file his re-election papers for the Senate, but Florence Harding grabbed the phone from his hand, "Warren Harding, what are you doing? Not until the convention is over. Think of your friends in Ohio! Johnson was deemed to be behind the inquiry, and the rage of the Lowden and Wood factions put an end to any possible compromise among the frontrunners. Of the almost 1, delegates, 27 were women—the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionguaranteeing women the vote, was within one state of ratification, and would pass before the end of August.1 describe the basis of feminist criminology; Denver international airport baggage handling system; Science and the future of mankind essay writer. A new survey of 2, Americans found that those who make exercise a regular habit are happier, more money and have sex more often than those who do not. There is a moderate amount of literature on the subject of Elders as educators, administrators, leaders and decision-makers who play crucial roles in decision-making and in teaching. The Accompanying the concerns of climate change and global warming is the media spin. and so much more an overview of the space program of the united states Global warming is a slow steady Australias geographic isolation breeds unique flora and fauna rise in Earth's surface temperature Temperatures today an analysis of ban smoking in public. The Washington Post noted on January 9, , that the source Simpson referenced may not have necessarily been an informant willingly or directly, or during the campaign, but rather may have become an informant as a result of later becoming implicated in wrongdoing. Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera. It was first broadcast on 18 March and currently airs on digital channel Eleven, the following is a list of characters that appeared in the soap in , by order of first alphabetnyc.com characters are introduced by the show's executive producer Jason Herbison, the 32nd season of Neighbours began airing from 4 January	<urn:uuid:850544db-cfc9-42a4-83d3-8cfb986511c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hikotatitilyfycub.alphabetnyc.com/the-subject-of-the-responsibility-of-having-sex-as-discussed-in-ellen-williss-article-49786kh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00203.warc.gz	en	0.98076	1,379	3.34375	3	[ -0.6214793920516968, -0.31499940156936646, -0.17856568098068237, -0.11222310364246368, -0.2904098331928253, -0.03327106684446335, 0.05925550311803818, 0.2681521773338318, -0.1254355013370514, 0.21708722412586212, 0.10314491391181946, 0.050910864025354385, -0.09053530544042587, 0.0004751448...	1	Free Essays Must Be Free! United States Senate election in Ohio, Congressman Theodore Burton had been elected as senator in Foraker's place inand announced that he would seek a second term in the elections. By this time, the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had been ratified, giving the people the right to elect senators, and Ohio had instituted primary elections for the office. Foraker and former congressman Ralph D. Cole also entered the Republican primary. When Burton withdrew, Foraker became the favorite, but his Old Guard Republicanism was deemed outdated, and Harding was urged to enter the race. Daugherty claimed credit for persuading Harding to run, "I found him like a turtle sunning himself on a log, and I pushed him into the water. It was calculated to offend nobody except Democrats. Harding won the primary by 12, votes over Foraker. Slogan written on Ohio walls and fences, Harding's general election opponent was Ohio Attorney General Timothy Hoganwho had risen to statewide office despite widespread prejudice against Roman Catholics in rural areas. Inthe start of World War I and the prospect of a Catholic senator from Ohio increased nativist sentiment. Harding did not attack Hogan an old friend on this or most other issues, but he did not denounce the nativist hatred for his opponent. Senate, the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress, and were led by President Wilson. As a junior senator in the minority, Harding received unimportant committee assignments, but carried out those duties assiduously. As senator-elect, he indicated that he could not support votes for women until Ohio did. Increased support for suffrage there and among Senate Republicans meant that by the time Congress voted on the issue, Harding was a firm supporter. Harding, who drank, initially voted against banning alcohol. He voted for the Eighteenth Amendmentwhich imposed Prohibitionafter successfully moving to modify it by placing a time limit on ratification, which was expected to kill it. Once it was ratified anyway, Harding voted to override Wilson's veto of the Volstead Billwhich implemented the amendment, assuring the support of the Anti-Saloon League. He urged delegates to stand as a united party. The convention nominated Justice Charles Evans Hughes. In the November presidential electiondespite increasing Republican unity, Hughes was narrowly defeated by Wilson. In MayHarding, less enthusiastic about Wilson, opposed a bill to expand the president's powers. Many senators disliked Article X of the League Covenantthat committed signatories to the defense of any member nation that was attacked, seeing it as forcing the United States to war without the assent of Congress. Harding was one of 39 senators who signed a round-robin letter opposing the League. When Wilson invited the Foreign Relations Committee to the White House to informally discuss the treaty, Harding ably questioned Wilson about Article X; the president evaded his inquiries. The Senate debated Versailles in Septemberand Harding made a major speech against it. By then, Wilson had suffered a stroke while on a speaking tour. With an incapacitated president in the White House and less support in the country, the treaty was defeated. These plans ended when Roosevelt suddenly died on January 6, Among those coveting Harding's seat were former governor Willis he had been defeated by James M. On December 17,Harding made a low-key announcement of his presidential candidacy. Harding was far more acceptable to the "Old Guard" leaders of the party. His strategy was to make Harding an acceptable choice to delegates once the leaders faltered. Daugherty established a Harding for president campaign office in Washington run by his confidant, Jess Smithand worked to manage a network of Harding friends and supporters, including Frank Scobey of Texas clerk of the Ohio State Senate during Harding's years there. Despite the candidate's work, according to Russell, "without Daugherty's Mephistophelean efforts, Harding would never have stumbled forward to the nomination. Harding, speech before the Home Market Club, Boston, May 14, There were only 16 presidential primary states inof which the most crucial to Harding was Ohio. Harding had to have some loyalists at the convention to have any chance of nomination, and the Wood campaign hoped to knock Harding out of the race by taking Ohio. Wood campaigned in the state, and his supporter, Procter, spent large sums; Harding spoke in the non-confrontational style he had adopted in Harding and Daugherty were so confident of sweeping Ohio's 48 delegates that the candidate went on to the next state, Indiana, before the April 27 Ohio primary. In Indiana, Harding finished fourth, with less than ten percent of the vote, and failed to win a single delegate. He was willing to give up and have Daugherty file his re-election papers for the Senate, but Florence Harding grabbed the phone from his hand, "Warren Harding, what are you doing? Not until the convention is over. Think of your friends in Ohio! Johnson was deemed to be behind the inquiry, and the rage of the Lowden and Wood factions put an end to any possible compromise among the frontrunners. Of the almost 1, delegates, 27 were women—the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionguaranteeing women the vote, was within one state of ratification, and would pass before the end of August.1 describe the basis of feminist criminology; Denver international airport baggage handling system; Science and the future of mankind essay writer. A new survey of 2, Americans found that those who make exercise a regular habit are happier, more money and have sex more often than those who do not. There is a moderate amount of literature on the subject of Elders as educators, administrators, leaders and decision-makers who play crucial roles in decision-making and in teaching. The Accompanying the concerns of climate change and global warming is the media spin. and so much more an overview of the space program of the united states Global warming is a slow steady Australias geographic isolation breeds unique flora and fauna rise in Earth's surface temperature Temperatures today an analysis of ban smoking in public. The Washington Post noted on January 9, , that the source Simpson referenced may not have necessarily been an informant willingly or directly, or during the campaign, but rather may have become an informant as a result of later becoming implicated in wrongdoing. Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera. It was first broadcast on 18 March and currently airs on digital channel Eleven, the following is a list of characters that appeared in the soap in , by order of first alphabetnyc.com characters are introduced by the show's executive producer Jason Herbison, the 32nd season of Neighbours began airing from 4 January	1,374	ENGLISH	1
Tang and Song Dynasty Each were accompanied by a Censorate, an agency that exercised surveillance over the rest of the government. They made sure that government officials stayed in line and completed their tasks. The legal system during this time period was much more detailed than anything before it, it included four basic forms criminal law, institutional regulations, administrative rules, and formulas of official documents. Finally, this dynasty was the first to set up a fairly equal testing system to select officers and allowed poor families and opportunity to become something higher through knowledge. The Tang system of government was the model upon which all subsequent dynasties based their own systems, and it was also used by other countries and kingdoms, such as those in Vietnam and Korea. Another factor for the success of the Tang Dynasty system of government was the emphasis on education. The Tang rulers felt that a well-educated public was not a threat to authority, but rather, a foundation of a stable, prosperous society. Another feature of the Tang Dynasty government was its obsessive record keeping and accounting of many aspects of life and commerce. This naturally created deep layers of accountability and certainty, which bolstered the strength of the government and society. ” Song Dynasty: Ruled China for more than 300 years and was the era of good government. China’s bureaucracy was run by a class of scholar-officials because knowledgeable scholars who knew the people and how to deal with others were able to move up, and soon became the highest ranking. The government was also centralized and the system used in the Tang dynasty carried over; the bureaucracy of trained civil officers through education. “CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA DURING THE SUI, TANG, and SONG DYNASTIES Politics & Government: ? The frontiers were stabilized & attempts at expansion were partially successful. ? Centralized government returned along with a bureaucracy of trained civil officers Economy ? Agricultural production improved & crop specialization intensified ? Champa Rice ? The use of a credit system and paper money improved commerce & trade. ? Imports included: luxury goods ? Exports included: manufactured goods ? Indian Ocean trade increased as Islamic and Jewish influence increased. Chinese trade ships, called junks, dominated eastern ocean trade. ? Silk Road trade increased” 4. How did the culture grow and change during your dynastic era. The culture heavily changed in the role and power of women over the two dynasties. During the Tang dynasty women had a less restricted lifestyle. They had been able to have a large social life with greater freedom of the classical times. Even female deity were widely worshiped. But the Song dynasty after becoming Confucianism and a large growth in the economy a very heavy change into patriarchy took place. Women were very strictly restricted from social life and very subdue to remain” behind” there husband and obediently obey, One way of the most wide spread and compelling part of the Song patriarchy was the practice of foot binding. Girls at a very young age begin this process wanting to make their feet smaller for beauty. Tight cloths are wrapped around the foot enabling it and the bone to extend outwards like normal. This practice was extremely painful but was looked at that time as beauty. Another cultural change was the position of women in the textile production. Many arts and crafts were made by rural women, like silk weaving. But because China has reduced its textiles productions, many women had to open restaurants in cities. But in elite families many were went to come concubines, or other degraded jobs. But the Song dynasty did give education to women because they believed this would help them raise their sons. And also a very big thing was women were able to control their own dowries and land they inherited from their families. The Tang & Han and the song are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. Song dynasty experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use of gunpowder weapons and flame throwers. The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China’s high point in science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials and the Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty and culture and the arts flourished with paintings, festivals, and Buddhist influence. 5. How did China’s influence on the region grow during your dynastic era? It grew because it influenced other parts of Asia through its culture, centralized government, systems, and literature. The countries of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan all were influenced by China during this time period in some way. In Korea, because of the closeness to China have been coloniztized at some points but mainly were influenced by Buddhism. The Vietnamese also allied with the Tang dynasty to bring some political unity to the peninsula. Tribute missions have Korean rulers knowledge of Chinese court life and administrative techniques which they directly modeled, and even made a capital city very similar to china’s at that time. Trade increased giving many luxury good to be placed into the hands of Korean upper classmen and Confucian and Buddhist texts also. Korea was also heavily influenced by China in their treating of women. Women in Korea had much more freedom but after influence of Confucian ways they were restricted much. A Chinese style-examination system was put in place for government officials. And even their written language has Chinese influenced characters. Similar to Korea, Vietnam has also been heavily influenced moreover through adopting Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, administrative techniques, the examination system, and a number of literary arts. Because China has taken over and controlled much of the agricultural portion of Vietnam, many rebellions took place and ultimately Vietnam became its own independent state. But has still influenced its religion and government systems. Unlike both Korea and Vietnam, Japan was physically separate from China and all influence and adoption of Chinese culture was voluntary. Court rituals, and systems of court ranking were based on Chinese ways after they became somewhat unified. Chinese yet again influenced through Buddhism which grew through Japan. Along with a religion they influenced, their art, architecture, education, and medicine were also adopted. Their selective borrowing kept them and independent and unique state from the Chinese but yet large aspects were still taken in. Chinese technology and innovation was wide spread through the whole Eurasian area. Making salt through evaporation and papermaking were one of the largest an global innovations used from China to the middle east. Another invention that changed war for history is the making of gunpowder and air arms, which rapidly influenced and grew in Europe. Chinese textile, like Silk, metallurgical, and naval techniques was imitated all across Eurasia. This dynastic era provided huge advancements in technology and innovation which spread thorough the Silk Road throughout Eurasia. Good Things: Censorates watch over the government and checks whether it is performing for the people. Art and Literature Richest and population grew People started moving to cities Tang dynasty women were treated like men because of invasion and discredited Confucian Neo Confucianism Qin/Han: -traded with barbarians, they gave too much to the barbarians, they thought by trading that they were in control but the barbarians -Great Wall, many people to build, death, people live by the wall	<urn:uuid:ca33f202-f6a6-4b74-94dd-0e80bb9b1f11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newyorkessays.com/essay-tang-and-song-dynasty/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00497.warc.gz	en	0.983994	1,532	4	4	[ -0.5209741592407227, 0.3452287018299103, 0.32092177867889404, -0.4137856960296631, 0.18511183559894562, 0.3466883897781372, 0.345148503780365, -0.27345699071884155, 0.28347742557525635, 0.16620351374149323, 0.3897337019443512, 0.2737591862678528, 0.5126601457595825, -0.024044964462518692, ...	2	Tang and Song Dynasty Each were accompanied by a Censorate, an agency that exercised surveillance over the rest of the government. They made sure that government officials stayed in line and completed their tasks. The legal system during this time period was much more detailed than anything before it, it included four basic forms criminal law, institutional regulations, administrative rules, and formulas of official documents. Finally, this dynasty was the first to set up a fairly equal testing system to select officers and allowed poor families and opportunity to become something higher through knowledge. The Tang system of government was the model upon which all subsequent dynasties based their own systems, and it was also used by other countries and kingdoms, such as those in Vietnam and Korea. Another factor for the success of the Tang Dynasty system of government was the emphasis on education. The Tang rulers felt that a well-educated public was not a threat to authority, but rather, a foundation of a stable, prosperous society. Another feature of the Tang Dynasty government was its obsessive record keeping and accounting of many aspects of life and commerce. This naturally created deep layers of accountability and certainty, which bolstered the strength of the government and society. ” Song Dynasty: Ruled China for more than 300 years and was the era of good government. China’s bureaucracy was run by a class of scholar-officials because knowledgeable scholars who knew the people and how to deal with others were able to move up, and soon became the highest ranking. The government was also centralized and the system used in the Tang dynasty carried over; the bureaucracy of trained civil officers through education. “CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA DURING THE SUI, TANG, and SONG DYNASTIES Politics & Government: ? The frontiers were stabilized & attempts at expansion were partially successful. ? Centralized government returned along with a bureaucracy of trained civil officers Economy ? Agricultural production improved & crop specialization intensified ? Champa Rice ? The use of a credit system and paper money improved commerce & trade. ? Imports included: luxury goods ? Exports included: manufactured goods ? Indian Ocean trade increased as Islamic and Jewish influence increased. Chinese trade ships, called junks, dominated eastern ocean trade. ? Silk Road trade increased” 4. How did the culture grow and change during your dynastic era. The culture heavily changed in the role and power of women over the two dynasties. During the Tang dynasty women had a less restricted lifestyle. They had been able to have a large social life with greater freedom of the classical times. Even female deity were widely worshiped. But the Song dynasty after becoming Confucianism and a large growth in the economy a very heavy change into patriarchy took place. Women were very strictly restricted from social life and very subdue to remain” behind” there husband and obediently obey, One way of the most wide spread and compelling part of the Song patriarchy was the practice of foot binding. Girls at a very young age begin this process wanting to make their feet smaller for beauty. Tight cloths are wrapped around the foot enabling it and the bone to extend outwards like normal. This practice was extremely painful but was looked at that time as beauty. Another cultural change was the position of women in the textile production. Many arts and crafts were made by rural women, like silk weaving. But because China has reduced its textiles productions, many women had to open restaurants in cities. But in elite families many were went to come concubines, or other degraded jobs. But the Song dynasty did give education to women because they believed this would help them raise their sons. And also a very big thing was women were able to control their own dowries and land they inherited from their families. The Tang & Han and the song are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. Song dynasty experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use of gunpowder weapons and flame throwers. The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China’s high point in science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials and the Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty and culture and the arts flourished with paintings, festivals, and Buddhist influence. 5. How did China’s influence on the region grow during your dynastic era? It grew because it influenced other parts of Asia through its culture, centralized government, systems, and literature. The countries of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan all were influenced by China during this time period in some way. In Korea, because of the closeness to China have been coloniztized at some points but mainly were influenced by Buddhism. The Vietnamese also allied with the Tang dynasty to bring some political unity to the peninsula. Tribute missions have Korean rulers knowledge of Chinese court life and administrative techniques which they directly modeled, and even made a capital city very similar to china’s at that time. Trade increased giving many luxury good to be placed into the hands of Korean upper classmen and Confucian and Buddhist texts also. Korea was also heavily influenced by China in their treating of women. Women in Korea had much more freedom but after influence of Confucian ways they were restricted much. A Chinese style-examination system was put in place for government officials. And even their written language has Chinese influenced characters. Similar to Korea, Vietnam has also been heavily influenced moreover through adopting Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, administrative techniques, the examination system, and a number of literary arts. Because China has taken over and controlled much of the agricultural portion of Vietnam, many rebellions took place and ultimately Vietnam became its own independent state. But has still influenced its religion and government systems. Unlike both Korea and Vietnam, Japan was physically separate from China and all influence and adoption of Chinese culture was voluntary. Court rituals, and systems of court ranking were based on Chinese ways after they became somewhat unified. Chinese yet again influenced through Buddhism which grew through Japan. Along with a religion they influenced, their art, architecture, education, and medicine were also adopted. Their selective borrowing kept them and independent and unique state from the Chinese but yet large aspects were still taken in. Chinese technology and innovation was wide spread through the whole Eurasian area. Making salt through evaporation and papermaking were one of the largest an global innovations used from China to the middle east. Another invention that changed war for history is the making of gunpowder and air arms, which rapidly influenced and grew in Europe. Chinese textile, like Silk, metallurgical, and naval techniques was imitated all across Eurasia. This dynastic era provided huge advancements in technology and innovation which spread thorough the Silk Road throughout Eurasia. Good Things: Censorates watch over the government and checks whether it is performing for the people. Art and Literature Richest and population grew People started moving to cities Tang dynasty women were treated like men because of invasion and discredited Confucian Neo Confucianism Qin/Han: -traded with barbarians, they gave too much to the barbarians, they thought by trading that they were in control but the barbarians -Great Wall, many people to build, death, people live by the wall	1,511	ENGLISH	1
Romeo and Juliet is the classic love story written by the infamous William Shakespeare, the Elizabethan playwright. It is set in Verona in the early 16th century and tells the story of two households- the Montagues and Capulets, who are equally alike in power, wealth, social status and dignity, as said in the prologue ‘two households, both alike in dignity’. The youngest generation of the two households break into mutiny because of the hatred of the previous generations (‘from ancient grudge break to mutiny’). These endless feuds cause destruction and death to the streets of Verona (‘civil blood makes civil hands unclean’). However, two young and naive members of the opposing households; Romeo, son of Lord and Lady Montague, and Juliet, daughter of Lord and Lady Capulet become entwined in a dangerous love rollercoaster, which was to be obstructed by their parents as the cold war of rivalry between the two households continued. This play however does not fit into the genre of romance, but tragedy as although Romeo and Juliet are ‘a pair of star-crossed lovers’, fate had planned events far from the fairy-tale happy ending for the both of them, a fact the audience have known since the prologue of the play- ‘star-crossed lovers take their life. Not only do the two main protagonists die an untimely death, but there are also many other deaths throughout the play, including that of Tybalt’s and Mercutio’s. Other tragic elements of the play include the fact that the two lovers cannot be united because of the brawls of the two families and that the only way to restore peace to Verona is for Romeo and Juliet to die, ‘who with their death bury their parent’s strife…which but their children’s end nought could remove’. There are also many other themes that run throughout the play such as; enmity, marriage, death and mainly- love. Like all pieces of literature, the play has been influenced by the era it was written in. This scene of the play serves as a reminder for us, a reminder that this play, with all its emphasis on love and romance is based in a patriarchal society, a masculine world where honour, pride, and status are prone to erupt in a fury of conflict. Other influences include the age that marriage was considered acceptable as Juliet was only 13 when her marriage proposal arrived and it was also normal for the groom to be considerably older than the bride, as Paris was 18 when he was engaged to Juliet. Marriage was fixed by the choice of the bride’s father, disobeying her father’s wishes would result in a suitable punishment- nunnery or death, which is what her fate would have probably been if she confessed her love for Romeo. The overall viciousness of the play’s social environment is a main tool that Shakespeare employs to make the pair’s love seem ever more fragile and delicate and their relationship is the only respite of the audience’s from the dangerous and brutal world pressing against their love. Act 3 Scene 1 is the scene directly after the marriage of Romeo and Juliet, and is seen as the pivotal point of the play as it is the point where the play transforms from a comedy/romance to a tragedy as the violence results in the banishment of Romeo. It is also the point where the audience see Romeo transform before their very eyes; they see him change from a loving, caring, tender-hearted and gentle person to a violent, destructive and reckless character, all because of the death of his best friend Mercutio. The scene takes place in Verona ‘a public place’. The sort of environment we would be expecting a laugh, maybe a joke and the development of characters in terms of their feelings towards others, but remembering that it is Shakespeare who is the playwright, the audience can expect anything to happen. The characters of Mercutio and Benvolio (who are characters of great friendship) are introduced to us at the beginning of the scene and Shakespeare immediately starts to build tension through his choice of language with the opening line of the scene (spoken by Benvolio) being: ‘the day is hot, the capels abroad, and if we meet we shall not escape a brawl’. Shakespeare again portrays Benvolio as the peacekeeper, a slightly more worried/concerned character than Mercutio. Here Benvolio is trying to explain to Mercutio that a hot day can get a lot of people bothered and is attempting to explain to Mercutio that it would be wise to leave early before any start of trouble begins, tension builds as we- the audience know that they are in a public place, which is the perfect area for someone to be in if they are looking for trouble. Benvolio carries on by saying that he can feel tension building in the atmosphere and senses something bad is going to happen ‘For now, these hot days, is the mad blood stirring’, through this line Benvolio is saying in the heat of this atmosphere it is quite common for young men to lose control, as it can make someone’s blood boil-which hints to the audience that trouble is just around the corner, especially with Mercutio present. Mercutio replies to Benvolio’s words of wisdom by aptly refusing to leave, his exact words being: “Come, come, thou art as hot a Jack in thy mood as any in Italy: and as soon mov’d to be moody and as soon moody to be mov’d. ” Mercutio here is implying that Benvolio is involved with many of the fights between the Montagues and Capulets, trying to make Benvolio retaliate with him. This is an antithesis because Benvolio is always trying to keep the peace as much as possible without being involved, a playful mood and atmosphere is built up with this banter. These opening verses highlight the contrasting personalities of Mercutio and Benvolio. Benvolio’s name originates from the word ‘benevolent’ which means ‘peaceful’ which is reflected in his personality, whereas Mercutio’s name originates from ‘mercury’ or, ‘mercurial’. Mercury being the chemical used in thermometers. Shakespeare chose this name for Mercutio as it reflects his character- volatile, dangerous, changeable in temperament and reacts quickly to provocation and heat in arguments. The structure of Mercutio’s dialogue in the opening verses of the scene also reflects his personality as he uses pros and a strong rhythm in his speech, (with Shakespeare using minimal punctuation in the text) emphasising his loss of control and bringing out the anger and recklessness in his personality. The audience are immediately reminded of the warnings of the Friar, of ‘fire’ and ‘powder’ meeting and the explosion and disaster which follow. Contrasting with the previous scene changing the atmosphere from happy and romantic to tense and dramatic; leaving the audience themselves tense and apprehensive about as to what the rest of the scene will reveal to them- keeping Shakespeare’s audience eager, engaged and very much involved in the plot of the play. Mercutio continues to be fearless and reckless as the scene progresses, seeming unconcerned about confrontation and of the consequences which may follow. Even when Benvolio announces the arrival of the Capulets (‘by my head! Here come the Capulets! ) Mercutio does not seem to care- ‘by my heel…I care not! ’ his comic and fiery character coming across again here with him appearing to look forward to confrontation. When approached by the Capulet’s Mercutio does not hesitate to provoke Tybalt, whose personality is no less volatile than that off Mercutio. It is at this point, under the blazing sun, in a public place, with these two personality’s clashing that the audience know that a fight is unavoidable. Tybalt then insults Mercutio by saying- ‘thou art consortest with Romeo? ’ implying that he is homosexual and referring to his sexuality with Romeo. Mercutio reacts infuriated and weapons are then drawn and it seems that a fourth public brawl will be inescapable. Benvolio then steps in, urging them to go to ‘some private place’, reminding both parties about the Prince’s warnings in Act 1 Scene 1- ‘If ever you disturb our streets again, your lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace’. However, his words of wisdom seemingly fell into deaf ears as Mercutio and Tybalt continued with their contention. Soon after this Romeo arrives at the fray, and is approached by Tybalt, whom he refuses to fight when challenged. Romeo attempts to explain that he could not fight Tybalt, as he had reasons to love him that greatly outweighed the reasons to hate him- reasons that he could not yet reveal to the play’s other protagonists (‘but love thee better than thou canst devise, till thou shalt know the reason of my love; and so good Capulet…’). Shakespeare creates dramatic irony (the audience having greater knowledge of the events of the play than the characters), with these few lines, as the audience of the play know the reason for Romeo’s love is his marriage to Juliet- Tybalt’s cousin. Dramatic irony is an effective technique to be used by Shakespeare in this scene as it makes the audience anxious to know if their interpretation of Romeo’s dialogue matches that of the characters on stage. Romeo would be a fool to get into a fight with his cousin-in-law, so backs down, a gesture which is seen as mature and noble by the audience but perceived as cowardly and weak by the characters in the scene- especially Mercutio. All that Mercutio understood from Romeo’s dialogue was that he was lacking confidence, bravery and was too scared to take on someone as fierce as Tybalt. Mercutio calls Romeo a coward ‘O calm, dishonourable vile submission’, he then tried to coax Tybalt into duelling him in Romeo’s place (‘you rat catcher, will you walk? ’), and he decided. Romeo tries to stop them, he stands in the middle of Mercutio and Tybalt, his attempt to be a saviour however failed and resulted in the death of his best friend- Mercutio was stabbed by Tybalt under Romeo’s arm, mortally wounding him. Mercutio- about to die still cracks jokes ‘Ay a scratch a scratch! however the mood changes completely when it is understood that Mercutio’s wounds were fatal. Before his death Mercutio is seen repeatedly saying the words ‘A plague upon both your houses’, expressing his extreme displeasure with both parties, saying how he views them as the cause of his death. Mercutio is a bystander in the feud and although he is the friend of Romeo he sees both families as being in the wrong and does not intend to take sides. Mercutio’s loyalty to Romeo seems to have gone with this line, which would have heavily impacted the audience. The conflict between the characters would have further engaged the Elizabethan audience, and ensured that their attention was on the plays plot (as the audience needed scenes such as these to keep their minds focused as in the Elizabethan Era plays were quite lengthy and people had to stand for hours on end, which would be frustrating). These conflicts would also serve as a way of informing the audience that more drama and exhilarating scenes awaited for them. This scene also reminds the audience of just how brutal this family feud actually is- Mercutio, neither Montague or Capulet was slain because of the conflict of the two families. It makes the audience fully understand how truly violent this feud is and makes them think about all the innocents who have been severely injured or even lost their lives at the hands of these two foes. It makes us understand how brutal the family’s hatred for each other is. The play pivots on the line ‘O Romeo, Romeo, brave Mercutio is dead! ’, it is at this very line where the play turns from comedy/romance to tragedy. Mercutio’s exit from the play was an extremely significant one, as he was the jester, the character who has overshadowed Romeo with his bawdy humour. It seemed that when Mercutio died all the humour of the play died with it. Characters began to change from this point onwards; the most significant change seen was that of Romeo who changed from Romeo the romantic… to Romeo the violent. Up to this point in this play Romeo had been portrayed as a depressing, dull and negative character, and he had been seen as this since the beginning of the play where we first encountered him as a heartbroken young man. The audience had no reason to be particularly drawn to this rather boring character, and almost instantly fell in love with Mercutio- with his vibrant, interesting and fiery personality. It seemed that only in Mercutio’s death could the spotlight truly be focused on Romeo, and shows us that Romeo was not as dull as we first perceived him to be, he actually has a unique personality with it changing from happy calm and collected to merciless, ruthless and angry almost instantaneously. The spotlight finally arrived to Romeo at this point in the play…in time for a dramatic climax, which no doubt captivated the audience. Romeo, in a quick rage decided that either he or Tybalt must die and barely hesitated to challenge him to a duel. Romeo killed Tybalt him in his stride. He became so blind with fury he murdered his cousin-in-law without a second thought, not taking any of the consequences into account. It is this point in the play where the audience begins to wonder about Romeo’s personality, had he really changed, just like that? Or had this been a part of Romeo’s personality that Shakespeare had been hiding for us, waiting to bring out at the right moment to ensure that all members of his audience were shocked, intrigued and eager to see how the plot unfolded? Another clever technique used by Shakespeare is used here. The scene ends with Romeo fleeing the scene (as advised by Benvolio), and with the arrival of the prince and Lady Capulet. The Prince turns to Benvolio and asks for his account of the events, seeing as he is a peaceful, noble and a trusted source who would give an unbiased recount- which he did. Benvolio throughout the play has cleverly been used by Shakespeare as a narrator, as he provides information for the person who he is directly speaking to on stage (in this case, the Prince) and the audience, ensuring that the events are kept fresh in their mind and are not forgotten. After hearing what had happen Lady Capulet was out for revenge, and was desperate to have Romeo killed. The Prince told Lady Capulet that it was fair that Romeo killed Tybalt, as he had slain Mercutio. But, still views Romeo as a villain and exiles him from Verona and states that if he returns he shall be killed, and no excuses or prayers would influence this decision- ‘I will be deaf to pleading and excuses…’ This captivates the audiences interest as they already know that Romeo and Juliet are now man and wife, and his actions have now cause him to be exiled from Verona- from Juliet. Seeming to have ruined all possible chances of them being together, and poses numerous questions in the minds of the audience, the most common and obvious probably being- ‘How on earth will they get back together? ’ They will also be extremely curious as to how the plot would unfold, would this twist cause their love to end? Dramatic irony again is used by Shakespeare here, a clever dramatic device that he has used multiple times in this scene and has proved extremely successful and effective. I think that this scene is very important in the context of Romeo and Juliet as it is the pivotal point in the play. It helps the audience to understand how important Mercutio was to Romeo, if it wasn’t for their friendship being as strong as it proved to be then Romeo would not have acted in the way he did and slain Tybalt. It also shows us a completely new side to Romeo, a character whom prior to this scene had been perceived as a plain and dull character, but now he seems like an emotionally complex character that is governed by his feelings and is prone to acting impulsively. Which explains why he killed Tybalt, his newly bonded in law, Romeo was blinded by the fury and murdered him in revenge for his best friend, without even considering the impact it would have on his relationship with his newly wed Juliet. Two main protagonists are killed off by Shakespeare in this scene; and it seems that these characters were destined to die for the plot to unravel. Shakespeare contrasts this scene to the mood of the previous scene (Act 2 Scene 6), which had a romantic, relaxed and generally atmosphere. Act 3 Scene 1 was written by Shakespeare and put directly in front of this scene in order to shock the audience and have their attention for the remainder of the play. Shakespeare successfully used a range of dramatic techniques in this scene and had the audience in his grasp throughout the entire scene. In my opinion I think that Act 3 Scene 1 is by far the best scene in Romeo and Juliet because it was unexpected and managed to shock the audience, it leaves everyone asking the same question- what does all this mean for Romeo and Juliet?	<urn:uuid:b769cb44-8b26-4e2d-8a15-67bfa172c7c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paperap.com/paper-on-how-does-shakespeare-use-dramatic-devices-in-act-3-scene-1-of-romeo-and-juliet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00249.warc.gz	en	0.981324	3,723	3.75	4	[ 0.08703997731208801, -0.021798040717840195, 0.5577110052108765, 0.004795640707015991, -0.6782048940658569, 0.3936474919319153, -0.028760358691215515, 0.15069136023521423, -0.01007883157581091, -0.33681464195251465, -0.013848509639501572, 0.05709158256649971, 0.3827705979347229, 0.190155833...	2	Romeo and Juliet is the classic love story written by the infamous William Shakespeare, the Elizabethan playwright. It is set in Verona in the early 16th century and tells the story of two households- the Montagues and Capulets, who are equally alike in power, wealth, social status and dignity, as said in the prologue ‘two households, both alike in dignity’. The youngest generation of the two households break into mutiny because of the hatred of the previous generations (‘from ancient grudge break to mutiny’). These endless feuds cause destruction and death to the streets of Verona (‘civil blood makes civil hands unclean’). However, two young and naive members of the opposing households; Romeo, son of Lord and Lady Montague, and Juliet, daughter of Lord and Lady Capulet become entwined in a dangerous love rollercoaster, which was to be obstructed by their parents as the cold war of rivalry between the two households continued. This play however does not fit into the genre of romance, but tragedy as although Romeo and Juliet are ‘a pair of star-crossed lovers’, fate had planned events far from the fairy-tale happy ending for the both of them, a fact the audience have known since the prologue of the play- ‘star-crossed lovers take their life. Not only do the two main protagonists die an untimely death, but there are also many other deaths throughout the play, including that of Tybalt’s and Mercutio’s. Other tragic elements of the play include the fact that the two lovers cannot be united because of the brawls of the two families and that the only way to restore peace to Verona is for Romeo and Juliet to die, ‘who with their death bury their parent’s strife…which but their children’s end nought could remove’. There are also many other themes that run throughout the play such as; enmity, marriage, death and mainly- love. Like all pieces of literature, the play has been influenced by the era it was written in. This scene of the play serves as a reminder for us, a reminder that this play, with all its emphasis on love and romance is based in a patriarchal society, a masculine world where honour, pride, and status are prone to erupt in a fury of conflict. Other influences include the age that marriage was considered acceptable as Juliet was only 13 when her marriage proposal arrived and it was also normal for the groom to be considerably older than the bride, as Paris was 18 when he was engaged to Juliet. Marriage was fixed by the choice of the bride’s father, disobeying her father’s wishes would result in a suitable punishment- nunnery or death, which is what her fate would have probably been if she confessed her love for Romeo. The overall viciousness of the play’s social environment is a main tool that Shakespeare employs to make the pair’s love seem ever more fragile and delicate and their relationship is the only respite of the audience’s from the dangerous and brutal world pressing against their love. Act 3 Scene 1 is the scene directly after the marriage of Romeo and Juliet, and is seen as the pivotal point of the play as it is the point where the play transforms from a comedy/romance to a tragedy as the violence results in the banishment of Romeo. It is also the point where the audience see Romeo transform before their very eyes; they see him change from a loving, caring, tender-hearted and gentle person to a violent, destructive and reckless character, all because of the death of his best friend Mercutio. The scene takes place in Verona ‘a public place’. The sort of environment we would be expecting a laugh, maybe a joke and the development of characters in terms of their feelings towards others, but remembering that it is Shakespeare who is the playwright, the audience can expect anything to happen. The characters of Mercutio and Benvolio (who are characters of great friendship) are introduced to us at the beginning of the scene and Shakespeare immediately starts to build tension through his choice of language with the opening line of the scene (spoken by Benvolio) being: ‘the day is hot, the capels abroad, and if we meet we shall not escape a brawl’. Shakespeare again portrays Benvolio as the peacekeeper, a slightly more worried/concerned character than Mercutio. Here Benvolio is trying to explain to Mercutio that a hot day can get a lot of people bothered and is attempting to explain to Mercutio that it would be wise to leave early before any start of trouble begins, tension builds as we- the audience know that they are in a public place, which is the perfect area for someone to be in if they are looking for trouble. Benvolio carries on by saying that he can feel tension building in the atmosphere and senses something bad is going to happen ‘For now, these hot days, is the mad blood stirring’, through this line Benvolio is saying in the heat of this atmosphere it is quite common for young men to lose control, as it can make someone’s blood boil-which hints to the audience that trouble is just around the corner, especially with Mercutio present. Mercutio replies to Benvolio’s words of wisdom by aptly refusing to leave, his exact words being: “Come, come, thou art as hot a Jack in thy mood as any in Italy: and as soon mov’d to be moody and as soon moody to be mov’d. ” Mercutio here is implying that Benvolio is involved with many of the fights between the Montagues and Capulets, trying to make Benvolio retaliate with him. This is an antithesis because Benvolio is always trying to keep the peace as much as possible without being involved, a playful mood and atmosphere is built up with this banter. These opening verses highlight the contrasting personalities of Mercutio and Benvolio. Benvolio’s name originates from the word ‘benevolent’ which means ‘peaceful’ which is reflected in his personality, whereas Mercutio’s name originates from ‘mercury’ or, ‘mercurial’. Mercury being the chemical used in thermometers. Shakespeare chose this name for Mercutio as it reflects his character- volatile, dangerous, changeable in temperament and reacts quickly to provocation and heat in arguments. The structure of Mercutio’s dialogue in the opening verses of the scene also reflects his personality as he uses pros and a strong rhythm in his speech, (with Shakespeare using minimal punctuation in the text) emphasising his loss of control and bringing out the anger and recklessness in his personality. The audience are immediately reminded of the warnings of the Friar, of ‘fire’ and ‘powder’ meeting and the explosion and disaster which follow. Contrasting with the previous scene changing the atmosphere from happy and romantic to tense and dramatic; leaving the audience themselves tense and apprehensive about as to what the rest of the scene will reveal to them- keeping Shakespeare’s audience eager, engaged and very much involved in the plot of the play. Mercutio continues to be fearless and reckless as the scene progresses, seeming unconcerned about confrontation and of the consequences which may follow. Even when Benvolio announces the arrival of the Capulets (‘by my head! Here come the Capulets! ) Mercutio does not seem to care- ‘by my heel…I care not! ’ his comic and fiery character coming across again here with him appearing to look forward to confrontation. When approached by the Capulet’s Mercutio does not hesitate to provoke Tybalt, whose personality is no less volatile than that off Mercutio. It is at this point, under the blazing sun, in a public place, with these two personality’s clashing that the audience know that a fight is unavoidable. Tybalt then insults Mercutio by saying- ‘thou art consortest with Romeo? ’ implying that he is homosexual and referring to his sexuality with Romeo. Mercutio reacts infuriated and weapons are then drawn and it seems that a fourth public brawl will be inescapable. Benvolio then steps in, urging them to go to ‘some private place’, reminding both parties about the Prince’s warnings in Act 1 Scene 1- ‘If ever you disturb our streets again, your lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace’. However, his words of wisdom seemingly fell into deaf ears as Mercutio and Tybalt continued with their contention. Soon after this Romeo arrives at the fray, and is approached by Tybalt, whom he refuses to fight when challenged. Romeo attempts to explain that he could not fight Tybalt, as he had reasons to love him that greatly outweighed the reasons to hate him- reasons that he could not yet reveal to the play’s other protagonists (‘but love thee better than thou canst devise, till thou shalt know the reason of my love; and so good Capulet…’). Shakespeare creates dramatic irony (the audience having greater knowledge of the events of the play than the characters), with these few lines, as the audience of the play know the reason for Romeo’s love is his marriage to Juliet- Tybalt’s cousin. Dramatic irony is an effective technique to be used by Shakespeare in this scene as it makes the audience anxious to know if their interpretation of Romeo’s dialogue matches that of the characters on stage. Romeo would be a fool to get into a fight with his cousin-in-law, so backs down, a gesture which is seen as mature and noble by the audience but perceived as cowardly and weak by the characters in the scene- especially Mercutio. All that Mercutio understood from Romeo’s dialogue was that he was lacking confidence, bravery and was too scared to take on someone as fierce as Tybalt. Mercutio calls Romeo a coward ‘O calm, dishonourable vile submission’, he then tried to coax Tybalt into duelling him in Romeo’s place (‘you rat catcher, will you walk? ’), and he decided. Romeo tries to stop them, he stands in the middle of Mercutio and Tybalt, his attempt to be a saviour however failed and resulted in the death of his best friend- Mercutio was stabbed by Tybalt under Romeo’s arm, mortally wounding him. Mercutio- about to die still cracks jokes ‘Ay a scratch a scratch! however the mood changes completely when it is understood that Mercutio’s wounds were fatal. Before his death Mercutio is seen repeatedly saying the words ‘A plague upon both your houses’, expressing his extreme displeasure with both parties, saying how he views them as the cause of his death. Mercutio is a bystander in the feud and although he is the friend of Romeo he sees both families as being in the wrong and does not intend to take sides. Mercutio’s loyalty to Romeo seems to have gone with this line, which would have heavily impacted the audience. The conflict between the characters would have further engaged the Elizabethan audience, and ensured that their attention was on the plays plot (as the audience needed scenes such as these to keep their minds focused as in the Elizabethan Era plays were quite lengthy and people had to stand for hours on end, which would be frustrating). These conflicts would also serve as a way of informing the audience that more drama and exhilarating scenes awaited for them. This scene also reminds the audience of just how brutal this family feud actually is- Mercutio, neither Montague or Capulet was slain because of the conflict of the two families. It makes the audience fully understand how truly violent this feud is and makes them think about all the innocents who have been severely injured or even lost their lives at the hands of these two foes. It makes us understand how brutal the family’s hatred for each other is. The play pivots on the line ‘O Romeo, Romeo, brave Mercutio is dead! ’, it is at this very line where the play turns from comedy/romance to tragedy. Mercutio’s exit from the play was an extremely significant one, as he was the jester, the character who has overshadowed Romeo with his bawdy humour. It seemed that when Mercutio died all the humour of the play died with it. Characters began to change from this point onwards; the most significant change seen was that of Romeo who changed from Romeo the romantic… to Romeo the violent. Up to this point in this play Romeo had been portrayed as a depressing, dull and negative character, and he had been seen as this since the beginning of the play where we first encountered him as a heartbroken young man. The audience had no reason to be particularly drawn to this rather boring character, and almost instantly fell in love with Mercutio- with his vibrant, interesting and fiery personality. It seemed that only in Mercutio’s death could the spotlight truly be focused on Romeo, and shows us that Romeo was not as dull as we first perceived him to be, he actually has a unique personality with it changing from happy calm and collected to merciless, ruthless and angry almost instantaneously. The spotlight finally arrived to Romeo at this point in the play…in time for a dramatic climax, which no doubt captivated the audience. Romeo, in a quick rage decided that either he or Tybalt must die and barely hesitated to challenge him to a duel. Romeo killed Tybalt him in his stride. He became so blind with fury he murdered his cousin-in-law without a second thought, not taking any of the consequences into account. It is this point in the play where the audience begins to wonder about Romeo’s personality, had he really changed, just like that? Or had this been a part of Romeo’s personality that Shakespeare had been hiding for us, waiting to bring out at the right moment to ensure that all members of his audience were shocked, intrigued and eager to see how the plot unfolded? Another clever technique used by Shakespeare is used here. The scene ends with Romeo fleeing the scene (as advised by Benvolio), and with the arrival of the prince and Lady Capulet. The Prince turns to Benvolio and asks for his account of the events, seeing as he is a peaceful, noble and a trusted source who would give an unbiased recount- which he did. Benvolio throughout the play has cleverly been used by Shakespeare as a narrator, as he provides information for the person who he is directly speaking to on stage (in this case, the Prince) and the audience, ensuring that the events are kept fresh in their mind and are not forgotten. After hearing what had happen Lady Capulet was out for revenge, and was desperate to have Romeo killed. The Prince told Lady Capulet that it was fair that Romeo killed Tybalt, as he had slain Mercutio. But, still views Romeo as a villain and exiles him from Verona and states that if he returns he shall be killed, and no excuses or prayers would influence this decision- ‘I will be deaf to pleading and excuses…’ This captivates the audiences interest as they already know that Romeo and Juliet are now man and wife, and his actions have now cause him to be exiled from Verona- from Juliet. Seeming to have ruined all possible chances of them being together, and poses numerous questions in the minds of the audience, the most common and obvious probably being- ‘How on earth will they get back together? ’ They will also be extremely curious as to how the plot would unfold, would this twist cause their love to end? Dramatic irony again is used by Shakespeare here, a clever dramatic device that he has used multiple times in this scene and has proved extremely successful and effective. I think that this scene is very important in the context of Romeo and Juliet as it is the pivotal point in the play. It helps the audience to understand how important Mercutio was to Romeo, if it wasn’t for their friendship being as strong as it proved to be then Romeo would not have acted in the way he did and slain Tybalt. It also shows us a completely new side to Romeo, a character whom prior to this scene had been perceived as a plain and dull character, but now he seems like an emotionally complex character that is governed by his feelings and is prone to acting impulsively. Which explains why he killed Tybalt, his newly bonded in law, Romeo was blinded by the fury and murdered him in revenge for his best friend, without even considering the impact it would have on his relationship with his newly wed Juliet. Two main protagonists are killed off by Shakespeare in this scene; and it seems that these characters were destined to die for the plot to unravel. Shakespeare contrasts this scene to the mood of the previous scene (Act 2 Scene 6), which had a romantic, relaxed and generally atmosphere. Act 3 Scene 1 was written by Shakespeare and put directly in front of this scene in order to shock the audience and have their attention for the remainder of the play. Shakespeare successfully used a range of dramatic techniques in this scene and had the audience in his grasp throughout the entire scene. In my opinion I think that Act 3 Scene 1 is by far the best scene in Romeo and Juliet because it was unexpected and managed to shock the audience, it leaves everyone asking the same question- what does all this mean for Romeo and Juliet?	3,580	ENGLISH	1
Researchers have found that people more accurately understand mood when they examine body language, rather than facial expressions. “When people rated a whole image, it was clear to them – they saw winners and losers,” said Hillel Aviezer, now an assistant professor of psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. “When you see the faces alone, it is really confusing.” Aviezer was a postdoctoral student at Princeton University and a co-author of a paper on the subject that was presented to the Journal of Science recently. His research was aimed at how accurately the average person is able to gauge mood from facial expressions and body language in others. 45 undergrad students were drafted in for the tests, during which one group were shown photographs of tennis players’ full body and another of faces only. A third group were shown only body shots. In all cases the images were chosen to project a series of emotions such as anger, triumph, frustration and joy. The students were then asked to identify the emotions. The results showed that those groups who studied the full body and body-only images were able to more accurately identify the subject's emotional state, whereas those undergrads who saw only the facial images were only right 50 percent of the time. How poker players experienced in identifying and acting on ‘tells' would fare in such a test would make a truly interesting research project. Interestingly, those students who had access to the full body and face shots did not realise that they had made their assessment based on the whole image. 53 percent of them believed the face part of the image had enabled them to gauge the mood. In another experiment, images that gave conflicting signals were used, such as an angry body but a happy face. In these cases, the students studying the images tended to base their assessment on the body posture, not the face.	<urn:uuid:f61b1d99-da63-4eee-801c-c3d842b9e010>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.recentpoker.com/body-language-in-poker/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00239.warc.gz	en	0.988399	383	3.40625	3	[ -0.13339956104755402, 0.41179412603378296, 0.1928573101758957, 0.04105483740568161, -0.20524345338344574, 0.39449045062065125, 0.590749979019165, -0.19409003853797913, -0.024752389639616013, 0.10353343933820724, 0.379488468170166, -0.5083764791488647, 0.10532458871603012, 0.208030521869659...	9	Researchers have found that people more accurately understand mood when they examine body language, rather than facial expressions. “When people rated a whole image, it was clear to them – they saw winners and losers,” said Hillel Aviezer, now an assistant professor of psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. “When you see the faces alone, it is really confusing.” Aviezer was a postdoctoral student at Princeton University and a co-author of a paper on the subject that was presented to the Journal of Science recently. His research was aimed at how accurately the average person is able to gauge mood from facial expressions and body language in others. 45 undergrad students were drafted in for the tests, during which one group were shown photographs of tennis players’ full body and another of faces only. A third group were shown only body shots. In all cases the images were chosen to project a series of emotions such as anger, triumph, frustration and joy. The students were then asked to identify the emotions. The results showed that those groups who studied the full body and body-only images were able to more accurately identify the subject's emotional state, whereas those undergrads who saw only the facial images were only right 50 percent of the time. How poker players experienced in identifying and acting on ‘tells' would fare in such a test would make a truly interesting research project. Interestingly, those students who had access to the full body and face shots did not realise that they had made their assessment based on the whole image. 53 percent of them believed the face part of the image had enabled them to gauge the mood. In another experiment, images that gave conflicting signals were used, such as an angry body but a happy face. In these cases, the students studying the images tended to base their assessment on the body posture, not the face.	372	ENGLISH	1
An inescapable theme in folk songs is that of lovers about to be parted, but this interpretation was first documented in America in the early twentieth century. During the years 1916 to 1918, Maud Karpeles and Cecil Sharp (pictured) made a number of expeditions to the Southern Appalachian Mountains to make a compilation of folk songs. They collated more than 500 songs, most of which had been brought with European migrants in the 1700s. In those days, the highland region acted as a barrier between the mountain communities and the rest of the world. Extremely isolated, the people were largely illiterate, lived in log cabins, spun and weaved their own clothing, and ate what they grew. Singing was part of everyday life, so there was no such thing as a concert or even a community singalong in the mountains because nearly everyone sang. According to Karpeles, "It would often happen that we would hear a voice in the distance and then, following it up, we would find perhaps a man singing as he hoed his corn patch, or a girl milking a cow, or a woman nursing a baby."My Dearest Dear may have been voiced by any of these people, and many others besides. Indeed, given the ubiquity of the theme of lovers parting, these lyrics could very well have come from almost any culture at any point in history. Twenty-first century Australia, early twentieth century America, first century Palestine; the sentiment is timeless and universal. One wonders, in the context of Iscariot, who might be singing to whom.	<urn:uuid:c605e444-87c6-48a9-86f5-ca25579c6977>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.iscariotstories.com/my-dearest-dear.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00226.warc.gz	en	0.980914	325	3.3125	3	[ -0.04661617428064346, -0.25681746006011963, 0.2446424663066864, 0.18562066555023193, -0.058219000697135925, 0.09587159007787704, -0.07118142396211624, -0.22657106816768646, -0.21692875027656555, -0.2691010534763336, 0.2872524857521057, 0.21230930089950562, 0.31780362129211426, 0.1086243167...	12	An inescapable theme in folk songs is that of lovers about to be parted, but this interpretation was first documented in America in the early twentieth century. During the years 1916 to 1918, Maud Karpeles and Cecil Sharp (pictured) made a number of expeditions to the Southern Appalachian Mountains to make a compilation of folk songs. They collated more than 500 songs, most of which had been brought with European migrants in the 1700s. In those days, the highland region acted as a barrier between the mountain communities and the rest of the world. Extremely isolated, the people were largely illiterate, lived in log cabins, spun and weaved their own clothing, and ate what they grew. Singing was part of everyday life, so there was no such thing as a concert or even a community singalong in the mountains because nearly everyone sang. According to Karpeles, "It would often happen that we would hear a voice in the distance and then, following it up, we would find perhaps a man singing as he hoed his corn patch, or a girl milking a cow, or a woman nursing a baby."My Dearest Dear may have been voiced by any of these people, and many others besides. Indeed, given the ubiquity of the theme of lovers parting, these lyrics could very well have come from almost any culture at any point in history. Twenty-first century Australia, early twentieth century America, first century Palestine; the sentiment is timeless and universal. One wonders, in the context of Iscariot, who might be singing to whom.	336	ENGLISH	1
Two opposing generals and the people of East Tennessee met in the fall of 1863. For James Longstreet, the commander of the Confederate forces, the campaign for Knoxville and East Tennessee marked the nadir of his military career, which climaxed in December 1863, with him submitting a letter of resignation as commander of the First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. For Ambrose Burnside, commander of the Federal forces, the campaign demonstrated his leadership and tactical ability following his December 1862 debacle as commander of the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia. For the region of East Tennessee and Knoxville, the campaign enabled the people to reach the pinnacle they had aspired to since their settlement of the region. They had escaped economic and religious oppression in Europe, negotiated and fought with the Cherokee Indian Nation, created the State of Franklin (which was denied statehood), saw its political power vanish to Middle Tennessee, and was limited in its economic development by the region’s landscape.	<urn:uuid:93496d40-cb8c-4631-bf29-2c43af0194a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/us/book/two-men-and-a-people/id1475649884	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00544.warc.gz	en	0.980989	203	3.421875	3	[ -0.49826154112815857, 0.5758053660392761, 0.3799806833267212, 0.13699045777320862, -0.1433970332145691, 0.1442248672246933, 0.08622080087661743, 0.17864573001861572, -0.47296056151390076, 0.12624438107013702, 0.6132470965385437, -0.09806017577648163, 0.32984939217567444, 0.0636080354452133...	1	Two opposing generals and the people of East Tennessee met in the fall of 1863. For James Longstreet, the commander of the Confederate forces, the campaign for Knoxville and East Tennessee marked the nadir of his military career, which climaxed in December 1863, with him submitting a letter of resignation as commander of the First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. For Ambrose Burnside, commander of the Federal forces, the campaign demonstrated his leadership and tactical ability following his December 1862 debacle as commander of the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia. For the region of East Tennessee and Knoxville, the campaign enabled the people to reach the pinnacle they had aspired to since their settlement of the region. They had escaped economic and religious oppression in Europe, negotiated and fought with the Cherokee Indian Nation, created the State of Franklin (which was denied statehood), saw its political power vanish to Middle Tennessee, and was limited in its economic development by the region’s landscape.	211	ENGLISH	1
A jury is a group of people who decide the answer to a question in a court room. Usually, this question is whether a person is guilty or innocent of committing a crime. A jury may also be responsible for deciding a penalty for the person if he is found guilty. Normally, all members of the jury have to agree on the decision. Sometimes, the jury can still make a decision even if a few members don't agree with it. However, if the jury is quite clearly divided, the result is known as a hung jury and the case is not decided. A member of a jury is called a juror. A juror is supposed to be impartial. This means that he or she is to be fair and listen to both sides of the story without deciding what side they will take ahead of time. Types of juriesEdit Juries by countryEdit A jury in the United Kingdom is made up of 12 people for criminal cases and 10 people for civil cases (or 15 people in Scotland) these people are selected at random and are British citizens with no criminal record. Members are chosen from the electoral register for their local area and those chosen must attend jury duty. In the United States, juries are made up of 12 regular people from the area in which the trial is held and are not members of the court system. They are paid a small amount for their service. - "Types of Juries". United States Courts. Retrieved 28 March 2016.	<urn:uuid:52a9b4c9-b46e-4ee4-9c32-e2a9389b1129>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jury	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00114.warc.gz	en	0.981913	298	3.9375	4	[ -0.1918385624885559, -0.2332509160041809, -0.03810667619109154, -0.36238786578178406, 0.026906777173280716, 0.049083955585956573, 0.8255807757377625, -0.17263223230838776, 0.48603278398513794, 0.1886298805475235, -0.07125472277402878, 0.13063880801200867, -0.1856584995985031, 0.04275211319...	4	A jury is a group of people who decide the answer to a question in a court room. Usually, this question is whether a person is guilty or innocent of committing a crime. A jury may also be responsible for deciding a penalty for the person if he is found guilty. Normally, all members of the jury have to agree on the decision. Sometimes, the jury can still make a decision even if a few members don't agree with it. However, if the jury is quite clearly divided, the result is known as a hung jury and the case is not decided. A member of a jury is called a juror. A juror is supposed to be impartial. This means that he or she is to be fair and listen to both sides of the story without deciding what side they will take ahead of time. Types of juriesEdit Juries by countryEdit A jury in the United Kingdom is made up of 12 people for criminal cases and 10 people for civil cases (or 15 people in Scotland) these people are selected at random and are British citizens with no criminal record. Members are chosen from the electoral register for their local area and those chosen must attend jury duty. In the United States, juries are made up of 12 regular people from the area in which the trial is held and are not members of the court system. They are paid a small amount for their service. - "Types of Juries". United States Courts. Retrieved 28 March 2016.	309	ENGLISH	1
When you picture a royal monarch seated on the throne, you’re probably imagining some strapping royal hunk or bejeweled and beautiful lady seated neatly in a tall throne and wearing a golden crown, right? Would you ever picture a baby taking the throne? Probably not, but it's a thing that's certainly happened throughout history. In fact, some of the youngest people who became monarchs were less than a year old at the time of their ascension. Some were even crowned in utero, but that didn’t necessarily mean they could rule the moment they were born. Until they came of age, baby kings and queens were supported by a regent – someone who would legally rule until the minor monarch came of age – often comprised of mothers, uncles, aunts, or grandparents. Sometimes, these regents did well in keeping the kingdom afloat until the child could take control of the throne, other times, greed and power overtook their desire to rule. So, were all young inheritors of the throne always successful? Sadly, no. However, there were notable monarchs – like Sobhuza II of Swaziland and Liu Zhao of China – who fared better, made strong impacts on their kingdoms, and often ruled for lengthy periods, leaving behind a strong country and many descendants. Others did what they could during their often short-lived rules. They placed a crown on his mother’s pregnant belly to name their leader: Shah Shapur II of Persia. Despite the disasters that befell his elder brothers who were next in line – like murder and blinding – Shah Shapur II became a great king of the Persian Dynasty when he came of age. He raided enemy forces as retaliation, led an expedition through Britain to defeat strong Arab forces, and, after Constantine I died, he retook Armenia. He was known as a strong military leader, though a tyrant to Roman forces. When he died in 379 CE, he left his Persian country stronger than he inherited it, as well as still holding control of Armenia. Age: Dec. at 70 (309-379) Birthplace: Firuzabad, Fars, Iran The Queen of Scots, Mary Stuart, was pronounced Queen at six days old in 1542 CE. Since she was too young to take the throne, several regents – including her mother, the French Mary of Guise – would rule in her stead until she reached adulthood. At the age of five, she was initially betrothed to her great uncle’s son, Prince Edward of England. However, Scotland didn’t approve of the betrothal, and Mary was kept hidden in safe houses to avoid being taken away and forced into the marriage, which is now known as “The Rough Wooing.” Instead, she was sent to France to be raised and educated, and she became betrothed to Prince Francis, the son of the French King Henry II and Catherine de Medicis. Eventually, Mary did become Queen of France for a brief period; however, her rule was short lived, lasting only two years. Mary returned to Scotland in 1561, and, although the once Catholic country was now staunchly Protestant, Mary was able to rule and create an atmosphere of religious tolerance. She had six years of (mostly) peaceful rule before she was – for a number of complicated political reasons that included an injudicious marriage – imprisoned for 18 years for an assassination attempt on England's Queen Elizabeth I, for which she was eventually put to death. Age: Dec. at 45 (1542-1587) Birthplace: Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, United Kingdom In 88 CE, at the tender age of nine, Liu Zhao – who would become Emperor Hedi, known as the “Harmonious Emperor” – became the fourth Emperor of the Eastern Han Dynasty in China. Given his age at the time of his ascension to power, Liu Zhao's grandmother and her brother, his great-uncle, controlled the Empire for much of his youth. It was under the direction of these two regents, in fact, that Emperor Hedi helped his people survive several natural disasters including droughts, reoccurring floods, and locusts. At the same time, Hedi, again with help from his elders, lessened taxes in order to alleviate the common people's stress. He also gave them permission to hunt on the his lands, and he opened government-only grain stores to give to the hungry people. However, as he grew up, Emperor Hedi became resentful of his grandmother and great-uncle and had them removed (some say murdered) by his loyal courtier eunuchs. From there, following on his father’s original promise to the eunuchs, Hedi gave them land and hereditary titles, which they could pass onto adopted sons, thereby remaining a part of history despite their impotence. Regardless of the fact that he potentially had his own grandmother killed, Emperor Hedi is fondly remembered for all the good things that happened during his reign. Age: Dec. at 20 (93 BC-73 BC) In 1995 – upon the death of his father – King Oyo of Toro succeeded the throne at a mere three years old. Uganda is broken up into four historical kingdoms, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole, and Toro; King Oyo's ancestral territory is the last of these. After receiving the throne in his toddler years, Oyo's aunt, mother, and Princess Elizabeth Bagaaya (Ugandan President Museveni) all served as regents to help him rule until he came of age. As ruler, King Oyo has lobbied for donations to be used for social welfare and economic projects. He’s focused heavily on education, health, and culture. Moreover, as a young king, he’s received support and mentoring from other leaders. Plus, the people of his kingdom really like King Oyo, since he’s young and willing to do things and try strategies that older, more established Kings won’t.	<urn:uuid:b94f1f13-238d-4288-a122-f2ef6c20bb19>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ranker.com/list/babies-who-took-the-throne/nida-sea	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00210.warc.gz	en	0.990087	1,257	3.421875	3	[ -0.2866288721561432, 0.541669487953186, 0.48171114921569824, -0.24456720054149628, -0.4242191016674042, 0.07540600001811981, 0.19784098863601685, 0.15258894860744476, 0.025093870237469673, 0.2156832218170166, -0.023420508950948715, -0.05524948239326477, 0.3825380802154541, 0.15338398516178...	1	When you picture a royal monarch seated on the throne, you’re probably imagining some strapping royal hunk or bejeweled and beautiful lady seated neatly in a tall throne and wearing a golden crown, right? Would you ever picture a baby taking the throne? Probably not, but it's a thing that's certainly happened throughout history. In fact, some of the youngest people who became monarchs were less than a year old at the time of their ascension. Some were even crowned in utero, but that didn’t necessarily mean they could rule the moment they were born. Until they came of age, baby kings and queens were supported by a regent – someone who would legally rule until the minor monarch came of age – often comprised of mothers, uncles, aunts, or grandparents. Sometimes, these regents did well in keeping the kingdom afloat until the child could take control of the throne, other times, greed and power overtook their desire to rule. So, were all young inheritors of the throne always successful? Sadly, no. However, there were notable monarchs – like Sobhuza II of Swaziland and Liu Zhao of China – who fared better, made strong impacts on their kingdoms, and often ruled for lengthy periods, leaving behind a strong country and many descendants. Others did what they could during their often short-lived rules. They placed a crown on his mother’s pregnant belly to name their leader: Shah Shapur II of Persia. Despite the disasters that befell his elder brothers who were next in line – like murder and blinding – Shah Shapur II became a great king of the Persian Dynasty when he came of age. He raided enemy forces as retaliation, led an expedition through Britain to defeat strong Arab forces, and, after Constantine I died, he retook Armenia. He was known as a strong military leader, though a tyrant to Roman forces. When he died in 379 CE, he left his Persian country stronger than he inherited it, as well as still holding control of Armenia. Age: Dec. at 70 (309-379) Birthplace: Firuzabad, Fars, Iran The Queen of Scots, Mary Stuart, was pronounced Queen at six days old in 1542 CE. Since she was too young to take the throne, several regents – including her mother, the French Mary of Guise – would rule in her stead until she reached adulthood. At the age of five, she was initially betrothed to her great uncle’s son, Prince Edward of England. However, Scotland didn’t approve of the betrothal, and Mary was kept hidden in safe houses to avoid being taken away and forced into the marriage, which is now known as “The Rough Wooing.” Instead, she was sent to France to be raised and educated, and she became betrothed to Prince Francis, the son of the French King Henry II and Catherine de Medicis. Eventually, Mary did become Queen of France for a brief period; however, her rule was short lived, lasting only two years. Mary returned to Scotland in 1561, and, although the once Catholic country was now staunchly Protestant, Mary was able to rule and create an atmosphere of religious tolerance. She had six years of (mostly) peaceful rule before she was – for a number of complicated political reasons that included an injudicious marriage – imprisoned for 18 years for an assassination attempt on England's Queen Elizabeth I, for which she was eventually put to death. Age: Dec. at 45 (1542-1587) Birthplace: Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, United Kingdom In 88 CE, at the tender age of nine, Liu Zhao – who would become Emperor Hedi, known as the “Harmonious Emperor” – became the fourth Emperor of the Eastern Han Dynasty in China. Given his age at the time of his ascension to power, Liu Zhao's grandmother and her brother, his great-uncle, controlled the Empire for much of his youth. It was under the direction of these two regents, in fact, that Emperor Hedi helped his people survive several natural disasters including droughts, reoccurring floods, and locusts. At the same time, Hedi, again with help from his elders, lessened taxes in order to alleviate the common people's stress. He also gave them permission to hunt on the his lands, and he opened government-only grain stores to give to the hungry people. However, as he grew up, Emperor Hedi became resentful of his grandmother and great-uncle and had them removed (some say murdered) by his loyal courtier eunuchs. From there, following on his father’s original promise to the eunuchs, Hedi gave them land and hereditary titles, which they could pass onto adopted sons, thereby remaining a part of history despite their impotence. Regardless of the fact that he potentially had his own grandmother killed, Emperor Hedi is fondly remembered for all the good things that happened during his reign. Age: Dec. at 20 (93 BC-73 BC) In 1995 – upon the death of his father – King Oyo of Toro succeeded the throne at a mere three years old. Uganda is broken up into four historical kingdoms, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole, and Toro; King Oyo's ancestral territory is the last of these. After receiving the throne in his toddler years, Oyo's aunt, mother, and Princess Elizabeth Bagaaya (Ugandan President Museveni) all served as regents to help him rule until he came of age. As ruler, King Oyo has lobbied for donations to be used for social welfare and economic projects. He’s focused heavily on education, health, and culture. Moreover, as a young king, he’s received support and mentoring from other leaders. Plus, the people of his kingdom really like King Oyo, since he’s young and willing to do things and try strategies that older, more established Kings won’t.	1,261	ENGLISH	1
When you’re in high school, history class isn’t exactly many peoples favorite subject. They go over the larger, highlighted topics and tend to leave out all of the little interesting facts that stimulate our brains. There are quiet a many people from history that we only get to see their moments in the light, and not their whole story. Today I would like to spend some time talking about the life of Adolf Hitler before his gut-wrenching war. Hitler wasn’t known as a nice human being by any means, but there are a lot of things people usually don’t know about his story before World War II began. While many people automatically assume that Hitler is German because of his dictatorship there, he is actually from Austria. He was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria on April 20th, 1889. His father was Alois Hitler, and his mother was Klara Hitler. He had six siblings, yet only two survived to adulthood. Hitler’s father passed away when he was only thirteen, leaving his mother to care for him and his siblings. Times quickly became rough at home, and Hitler dropped out of school at the age of sixteen. Just a few short years later his mother passed away from breast cancer. Hitler then moved to Vienna where he sold post cards of his artwork to get by. Hitler submitted his artwork to the Vienna Academy of Arts multiple times, only to be rejected. During his years in Vienna is when it is believed that he picked up his anti-Semite opinions. World War I begins, and although Hitler was not German he joined their forces. Hitler was a messenger for the four years of his service. During his time at war is when he decided that politics was the right path for him. On October thirteenth a gas shell attack causes Hitler to become temporarily blind. He was transported to Germany. While in recovery Germany was pushed back and many people were taken prisoner. Germany accepted defeat on November 11th, 1918. When Hitler heard of this catastrophe, he was immediately in horror. He stated, “This voice called to me to free the German people and to restore Germany’s greatness.” On June 28th, 1919, the treaty of Versailles was signed. Germany lost thirteen percent of its territories and one tenth of its population. With little going on at this time Hitler was sent by the military to spy on the German worker’s party. He remained in the group after his assignment was complete so that he could become a full time political agitator. On August 13th, 1920 Hitler made his big debut with a lecture entitled “Why are we anti-Semitic?” His answer to this, besides his invalid hatred for Jews since the German defeat, was that anti-Semitism was the best strategy for attracting nationalist militants. On February 27th, 1925, Hitler made a statement with the Munich Beer Hall Putsch. He was taken to prison and not months later he was released for good behavior. During his time in prison Hitler wrote his first book “Mein Kampf”, meaning “my struggle.” His book was a failure only selling twenty...	<urn:uuid:9fa56d94-081f-41d6-b6da-54f048f5ef6e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/hitler-before-world-war-ii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00484.warc.gz	en	0.994072	650	3.265625	3	[ -0.24162030220031738, 0.7757068872451782, 0.12025455385446548, -0.18199142813682556, -0.14279721677303314, -0.030237814411520958, 0.22756221890449524, 0.1077350378036499, 0.07257664203643799, -0.28151625394821167, 0.28385576605796814, -0.044955067336559296, 0.03816421329975128, 0.446718454...	1	When you’re in high school, history class isn’t exactly many peoples favorite subject. They go over the larger, highlighted topics and tend to leave out all of the little interesting facts that stimulate our brains. There are quiet a many people from history that we only get to see their moments in the light, and not their whole story. Today I would like to spend some time talking about the life of Adolf Hitler before his gut-wrenching war. Hitler wasn’t known as a nice human being by any means, but there are a lot of things people usually don’t know about his story before World War II began. While many people automatically assume that Hitler is German because of his dictatorship there, he is actually from Austria. He was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria on April 20th, 1889. His father was Alois Hitler, and his mother was Klara Hitler. He had six siblings, yet only two survived to adulthood. Hitler’s father passed away when he was only thirteen, leaving his mother to care for him and his siblings. Times quickly became rough at home, and Hitler dropped out of school at the age of sixteen. Just a few short years later his mother passed away from breast cancer. Hitler then moved to Vienna where he sold post cards of his artwork to get by. Hitler submitted his artwork to the Vienna Academy of Arts multiple times, only to be rejected. During his years in Vienna is when it is believed that he picked up his anti-Semite opinions. World War I begins, and although Hitler was not German he joined their forces. Hitler was a messenger for the four years of his service. During his time at war is when he decided that politics was the right path for him. On October thirteenth a gas shell attack causes Hitler to become temporarily blind. He was transported to Germany. While in recovery Germany was pushed back and many people were taken prisoner. Germany accepted defeat on November 11th, 1918. When Hitler heard of this catastrophe, he was immediately in horror. He stated, “This voice called to me to free the German people and to restore Germany’s greatness.” On June 28th, 1919, the treaty of Versailles was signed. Germany lost thirteen percent of its territories and one tenth of its population. With little going on at this time Hitler was sent by the military to spy on the German worker’s party. He remained in the group after his assignment was complete so that he could become a full time political agitator. On August 13th, 1920 Hitler made his big debut with a lecture entitled “Why are we anti-Semitic?” His answer to this, besides his invalid hatred for Jews since the German defeat, was that anti-Semitism was the best strategy for attracting nationalist militants. On February 27th, 1925, Hitler made a statement with the Munich Beer Hall Putsch. He was taken to prison and not months later he was released for good behavior. During his time in prison Hitler wrote his first book “Mein Kampf”, meaning “my struggle.” His book was a failure only selling twenty...	646	ENGLISH	1
The 20th Century A New Age At the turn of the century, Carleton Martello Tower was an outdated fortification. It was, however, ready to adopt a new role, that of local attraction. Richard Damery, caretaker of the Tower, was asked to display his collection of antiques and artifacts there. It proved to be popular with the public and existed until 1915. The Tower was also used during the First World War, but not as a defence base. Rather, it operated as a detention center for deserters from the 69th Canadian Infantry Battalion. It has been estimated that over 50 soldiers were confined there for several months until their unit could be sent overseas. With the outbreak of the Second World War, the security of Saint John was a top concern. Although not a major naval base, the city did have a large dry dock, and was the end point for supplies traveling by rail. As a result, gun batteries were installed around the harbour. Despite the Tower's status as a national historic site, it was decided to use it as an observation and fire command post. This meant the addition of a two storey concrete superstructure on the Tower's top. The superstructure was occupied by soldiers from the 3rd New Brunswick Coast Brigade from 1941, until it ceased operations in 1944.	<urn:uuid:a33dd847-04a7-4e8f-b90f-7deb12049cac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/lhn-nhs/nb/carleton/culture/20-siecle-century	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00096.warc.gz	en	0.984308	269	3.296875	3	[ -0.39820948243141174, 0.5504557490348816, 0.17589187622070312, -0.4512041211128235, 0.08691701292991638, 0.057154580950737, -0.1555422693490982, 0.20224632322788239, -0.3713507354259491, -0.2985604405403137, 0.4192628562450409, 0.0052031041122972965, 0.26317864656448364, 0.4634000360965729...	4	The 20th Century A New Age At the turn of the century, Carleton Martello Tower was an outdated fortification. It was, however, ready to adopt a new role, that of local attraction. Richard Damery, caretaker of the Tower, was asked to display his collection of antiques and artifacts there. It proved to be popular with the public and existed until 1915. The Tower was also used during the First World War, but not as a defence base. Rather, it operated as a detention center for deserters from the 69th Canadian Infantry Battalion. It has been estimated that over 50 soldiers were confined there for several months until their unit could be sent overseas. With the outbreak of the Second World War, the security of Saint John was a top concern. Although not a major naval base, the city did have a large dry dock, and was the end point for supplies traveling by rail. As a result, gun batteries were installed around the harbour. Despite the Tower's status as a national historic site, it was decided to use it as an observation and fire command post. This meant the addition of a two storey concrete superstructure on the Tower's top. The superstructure was occupied by soldiers from the 3rd New Brunswick Coast Brigade from 1941, until it ceased operations in 1944.	284	ENGLISH	1
Pearl Harbor was the beginning of a war between two countries that would last nearly 4 years and cost hundreds of thousands of lives. The attack was swift and successful for the Japanese and it caught the Americans totally off guard. The “Day that will live in infamy” drew the United States into a World War in which would change American history forever. The political climate in the pacific area in 1940 was filled with turmoil. The Japanese had extended their empire south through French Indochina and the Japanese Army was invading China, conquering a third of the country. The United States of America was shocked to see this after witnessing Hitler and his Nazi’s conquer most of Europe. So, the American’s had placed embargoes on their extensive trade with Japan and both countries were negotiating to try to solve their differences. The U.S. tried to negotiate with the Japanese to try to avoid war, trying to convince them that if war broke out between Japan and the United States, Japan, in the long run, would be devastated. So, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and Japanese ambassador Namura and Kiruzo talked on how to solve this crisis. These negotiations proceeded into the summer of 1941.By this time, the Japanese had realized that if they wanted to expand their empire, they would have to fight America and, possibly, her allies. So, they decided to fight. But, in order for Japan to fight America on even terms, they would have to move south, into the East Indies (where there was a lot of raw materials for the Japanese War Machine), which, at that time, were controlled by the western powers: Britain, the Netherlands, Australia, and the United States. But, there was another thorn in Japan’s side, the United States Pacific Fleet was moved from San Diego to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This was a knife at Japan’s throat. If they decided to move south, then the Americans would attack. So, the Japanese had to come up with a plan to get rid of this threat. They called upon their new Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. He saw that the British, in 1940, torpedoed the Italian fleet at Toranto using old Fairy Swordfish torpedo bombers. So, Yamamoto thought if the British could use old biplanes to sink three battleships at Toranto, then he could use his modern Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers and Aichi D3A dive bombers to destroy more. So, he came up with a daring plan. He would use his six fleet aircraft carriers to strike Pearl Harbor from the sea and he ordered his invasion fleet to wait until X-Day, the Day of attack. The six aircraft carriers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, would leave the Kurile Islands on November 26th, head towards Hawaii, bomb the airfields, torpedo the American ships, and destroy Pearl Harbor. While they were planning for war, Prime Minister Hideki Tojo instructed his ambassadors in Washington, D.C. to keep up negotiations for as long as they could, to try to deceive the Americans. But what Tojo didn’t know was that American cryptographers had cracked the Japanese Imperial Code and were reading every message that was coming from Tokyo to all of the ambassadors in Washington and Berlin. So, the Americans knew the negotiations were not sincere and that they were planning so kind of moved on the Pacific. But, they didn’t know where. It could’ve been the Philippines, Guam, Wake, or the East Indies (Little did they know that it was to be all of them). So, finally, the Americans started building up its armed forces, just in case. On November 26, 1941, the First Air Fleet left Japan en route to Hawaii. This cruise had to be of the utmost secrecy. If the American found out about this force, they might destroy it and Japan would lose the war automatically. On December 6, the officials in Hawaii, Admiral Husband Kimmel and General Walter Short, received a war warning from Washington and they went on alert. But the next day, December 7, the alert didn’t take effect, because it was Sunday and everybody had the day off. Meanwhile, in Washington, American intelligence intercepted a 14-part message to the Japanese ambassadors stating for them to break diplomatic relations with the U.S. With this, the Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall sent another war warning to all of his oversea bases in the Pacific. But, this message was not received until too late. At 8:00am, Hawaiian time, just as the island of Oahu started to wake up, 230 Japanese Zero fighter, Kate torpedo bombers, and Val Dive Bombers, appeared out of the north, and attacked everything; warships, airfields, and even people on the ground. In 110 minutes, the United States Navy suffered its worst disaster in history and the cost was staggering 2,403 American sailors and soldiers were killed 1,178 people were wounded Nearly 200 airplanes were destroyed 7 battleships sunk 3 light cruisers,3 destroyers,and 5 other vessels were either sunk of damaged severely The Japanese attackers last less than 100 men: 5 of their midget subs and 1 larger one was sunk outside the Harbor entrance and 29 of their planes were destroyed by American P-40 Warhawk fighters or to anti-aircaft fire. The Japanese attack was the most successful operation in military history, but they made some mistakes. Even with all the Japanese success, the damage could have been much more extensive. While they concentrated their attacks on U.S. ships and airfields, they completely missed the dry-docks and the American carriers that had arrived later that day. And Nagumo was too afraid to risk his task force anymore than he had to. Over half the U.S. Pacific fleet was out to sea, including the carriers. Simultaneously, nearby Hickam Field was also the victim of the surprise attack by the Japanese. 18 Army Aircorps aircraft including bombers and fighters and attack bombers were destroyed or damaged on the ground. A few U.S. fighters struggled into the air against the invaders and gave a good account of themselves. As great a disaster Pearl Harbor was since a declaration of war was not given it outraged the US. The attack caused rage within the American people and they rallied quickly to bear arms against the Japanese. Also, most ships damaged at Pearl Harbor were rebuilt within a year. So, this attack can be summed up by what Admiral Yamamoto said after the attack, “I fear all we have done is to awaken the sleeping giant, and fill him with terrible resolve.”	<urn:uuid:b8a78800-c207-4cd1-bbfd-674bc67eca94>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/pearl-harbor/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00273.warc.gz	en	0.985828	1,377	3.265625	3	[ -0.2956674098968506, 0.08884956687688828, 0.03947962820529938, -0.32781457901000977, 0.20884446799755096, 0.2275913953781128, 0.04690481722354889, 0.2700068950653076, -0.1894078105688095, -0.14282715320587158, 0.42379528284072876, -0.07333607226610184, 0.13851119577884674, 0.57392632961273...	4	Pearl Harbor was the beginning of a war between two countries that would last nearly 4 years and cost hundreds of thousands of lives. The attack was swift and successful for the Japanese and it caught the Americans totally off guard. The “Day that will live in infamy” drew the United States into a World War in which would change American history forever. The political climate in the pacific area in 1940 was filled with turmoil. The Japanese had extended their empire south through French Indochina and the Japanese Army was invading China, conquering a third of the country. The United States of America was shocked to see this after witnessing Hitler and his Nazi’s conquer most of Europe. So, the American’s had placed embargoes on their extensive trade with Japan and both countries were negotiating to try to solve their differences. The U.S. tried to negotiate with the Japanese to try to avoid war, trying to convince them that if war broke out between Japan and the United States, Japan, in the long run, would be devastated. So, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and Japanese ambassador Namura and Kiruzo talked on how to solve this crisis. These negotiations proceeded into the summer of 1941.By this time, the Japanese had realized that if they wanted to expand their empire, they would have to fight America and, possibly, her allies. So, they decided to fight. But, in order for Japan to fight America on even terms, they would have to move south, into the East Indies (where there was a lot of raw materials for the Japanese War Machine), which, at that time, were controlled by the western powers: Britain, the Netherlands, Australia, and the United States. But, there was another thorn in Japan’s side, the United States Pacific Fleet was moved from San Diego to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This was a knife at Japan’s throat. If they decided to move south, then the Americans would attack. So, the Japanese had to come up with a plan to get rid of this threat. They called upon their new Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. He saw that the British, in 1940, torpedoed the Italian fleet at Toranto using old Fairy Swordfish torpedo bombers. So, Yamamoto thought if the British could use old biplanes to sink three battleships at Toranto, then he could use his modern Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers and Aichi D3A dive bombers to destroy more. So, he came up with a daring plan. He would use his six fleet aircraft carriers to strike Pearl Harbor from the sea and he ordered his invasion fleet to wait until X-Day, the Day of attack. The six aircraft carriers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, would leave the Kurile Islands on November 26th, head towards Hawaii, bomb the airfields, torpedo the American ships, and destroy Pearl Harbor. While they were planning for war, Prime Minister Hideki Tojo instructed his ambassadors in Washington, D.C. to keep up negotiations for as long as they could, to try to deceive the Americans. But what Tojo didn’t know was that American cryptographers had cracked the Japanese Imperial Code and were reading every message that was coming from Tokyo to all of the ambassadors in Washington and Berlin. So, the Americans knew the negotiations were not sincere and that they were planning so kind of moved on the Pacific. But, they didn’t know where. It could’ve been the Philippines, Guam, Wake, or the East Indies (Little did they know that it was to be all of them). So, finally, the Americans started building up its armed forces, just in case. On November 26, 1941, the First Air Fleet left Japan en route to Hawaii. This cruise had to be of the utmost secrecy. If the American found out about this force, they might destroy it and Japan would lose the war automatically. On December 6, the officials in Hawaii, Admiral Husband Kimmel and General Walter Short, received a war warning from Washington and they went on alert. But the next day, December 7, the alert didn’t take effect, because it was Sunday and everybody had the day off. Meanwhile, in Washington, American intelligence intercepted a 14-part message to the Japanese ambassadors stating for them to break diplomatic relations with the U.S. With this, the Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall sent another war warning to all of his oversea bases in the Pacific. But, this message was not received until too late. At 8:00am, Hawaiian time, just as the island of Oahu started to wake up, 230 Japanese Zero fighter, Kate torpedo bombers, and Val Dive Bombers, appeared out of the north, and attacked everything; warships, airfields, and even people on the ground. In 110 minutes, the United States Navy suffered its worst disaster in history and the cost was staggering 2,403 American sailors and soldiers were killed 1,178 people were wounded Nearly 200 airplanes were destroyed 7 battleships sunk 3 light cruisers,3 destroyers,and 5 other vessels were either sunk of damaged severely The Japanese attackers last less than 100 men: 5 of their midget subs and 1 larger one was sunk outside the Harbor entrance and 29 of their planes were destroyed by American P-40 Warhawk fighters or to anti-aircaft fire. The Japanese attack was the most successful operation in military history, but they made some mistakes. Even with all the Japanese success, the damage could have been much more extensive. While they concentrated their attacks on U.S. ships and airfields, they completely missed the dry-docks and the American carriers that had arrived later that day. And Nagumo was too afraid to risk his task force anymore than he had to. Over half the U.S. Pacific fleet was out to sea, including the carriers. Simultaneously, nearby Hickam Field was also the victim of the surprise attack by the Japanese. 18 Army Aircorps aircraft including bombers and fighters and attack bombers were destroyed or damaged on the ground. A few U.S. fighters struggled into the air against the invaders and gave a good account of themselves. As great a disaster Pearl Harbor was since a declaration of war was not given it outraged the US. The attack caused rage within the American people and they rallied quickly to bear arms against the Japanese. Also, most ships damaged at Pearl Harbor were rebuilt within a year. So, this attack can be summed up by what Admiral Yamamoto said after the attack, “I fear all we have done is to awaken the sleeping giant, and fill him with terrible resolve.”	1,391	ENGLISH	1
- Created by: Rosalitaaaaa - Created on: 20-03-13 11:51 The Liberal Attitude "PEACE, RETRENCHMENT and REFORM" - this had been their views in the late 19th Century. They were quite 'Gladstonian'. They wanted progressive change, but at the same time didn't want to intrude on peoples conomic and social liberties. This is why they supported FREE TRADE By 1890 - this approach was too RESTRICTIVE. Progressive and radical liberals were trying to oppose Gladstone, as he was very dominant until his death. Chamberlain was one of those who couldn't convince the Liberals of his progressive views. He left the party to join the conservatives after Gladstone attempted to grant Home Rule to Ireland. He was concerned about pushing policies on National Poverty. He feared those in poverty would turn to socialism. Despite his leaving, he still left a legacy on the Liberals - one that caused them to turn to NEW LIBERALISM. Gladstone died in 1898. David Lloyd George took over as Party Leader. His political hero was Chamberlain. He agreed that to stop the rise of socialism they needed to broaden their political appeal. To do this, he pursued a policy of SOCIAL REFORM. He allied himself with Winston Churchill, who believed that new state services were in order. SOCIAL REFORM became the Liberal Party's main policy, but this didn't mean they were moving away from personal freedom. They felt equal opportunity needed to be provided in reform. The Liberal Reforms: 1906 - 1911 1905-1908: the PM was Campbell Bannerman - set the Liberals on the path of Social Reform. In 1908: Asquith replaced CB as PM - appointed DLG, who gained a reputation as a social reformer. 1906 - Trade Disputes Act, Education Act 1907 - Education Act 1907-12 - Set of measures improving Prison conditions, creating the probation service and ending imprisonment debt. 1908 - Childrens Act, Old Aged Pensions Act 1909 - People's Budget, Trade Board Act, Labour Exchanges Act, Development Commission 1911 - National Insurance Act, Shops Act (SEE SEPARATE DOCUMENT DETAILING EACH REFORM) The People's Budget - The Propertied class were against the Death Duties and the tax increase on land values. They claimed DLG was waging Class War. - He responded that he was waging war on poverty. This also met opposition, as only some of the money went towards pensions. The rest went towards funding the Navy warships. - The Free Trade vs. Protection argument made matters worse: Being for FREE TRADE, the liberals couldn't pay for welfare through tariffs. And, the conservatives knew they'd lose the PROTECTIONIST argument if the Liberals could fund their budget domestically. They organised a Budget Protest League, delaying the budget for 10 weeks. - It got through commons eventually, but they knew their people in Lords would protest. The National Insurance Act Despite it being aimed at helping people, it met strong resistance from the very people the liberals were trying to help. They didn't like the fact that they had to pay compulsory contributions. 5 1/2 million people were already paying into private schemes, and they didn't want to pay twice. The Popular Press attacked the Liberals for this, but Lloyd George responded that he was giving them "9d for 4d". He managed to ease resistance from insurance companies, who were afraid they would lose money, by making them an integral part of the scheme. He also appeased Labour, who wanted it to be paid for with higher taxes on the wealthy by promising to get payment from MPs. he honoured this committment in 1911. The suspicious response is understanderble, as most workers distrusted the State after their tretment throughout the 19th Century through the workhouse, compulsory education and vaccination - none of which had really helped them very much. Many thought the Act was designed to put them in their place. The Liberal's Achievements - success? Their Scoial reform Programme was a key step to Britain becoming a welfare state: - It met RESISTANCE, and wasn't as radical as some would've liked - It was collectivelt a CONSIDERABLE ACHIEVEMENT - Established the RESPONSIBILITY of the government to provide for those who couldn't provide for themselves. - They had the INTENTION, but not the RESOURCES to achieve their aims immediately.	<urn:uuid:17c26f68-bfd6-46a6-a69c-2273a9b498e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/the_liberal_party_1906_1911_as_british_domestic	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00532.warc.gz	en	0.983711	953	3.453125	3	[ -0.5688077211380005, -0.03496149182319641, -0.038878392428159714, -0.12587323784828186, 0.026848584413528442, 0.09916375577449799, -0.09373506158590317, 0.12233529984951019, -0.21904875338077545, 0.023768655955791473, 0.2389180064201355, -0.10400910675525665, 0.363741934299469, 0.090821564...	1	- Created by: Rosalitaaaaa - Created on: 20-03-13 11:51 The Liberal Attitude "PEACE, RETRENCHMENT and REFORM" - this had been their views in the late 19th Century. They were quite 'Gladstonian'. They wanted progressive change, but at the same time didn't want to intrude on peoples conomic and social liberties. This is why they supported FREE TRADE By 1890 - this approach was too RESTRICTIVE. Progressive and radical liberals were trying to oppose Gladstone, as he was very dominant until his death. Chamberlain was one of those who couldn't convince the Liberals of his progressive views. He left the party to join the conservatives after Gladstone attempted to grant Home Rule to Ireland. He was concerned about pushing policies on National Poverty. He feared those in poverty would turn to socialism. Despite his leaving, he still left a legacy on the Liberals - one that caused them to turn to NEW LIBERALISM. Gladstone died in 1898. David Lloyd George took over as Party Leader. His political hero was Chamberlain. He agreed that to stop the rise of socialism they needed to broaden their political appeal. To do this, he pursued a policy of SOCIAL REFORM. He allied himself with Winston Churchill, who believed that new state services were in order. SOCIAL REFORM became the Liberal Party's main policy, but this didn't mean they were moving away from personal freedom. They felt equal opportunity needed to be provided in reform. The Liberal Reforms: 1906 - 1911 1905-1908: the PM was Campbell Bannerman - set the Liberals on the path of Social Reform. In 1908: Asquith replaced CB as PM - appointed DLG, who gained a reputation as a social reformer. 1906 - Trade Disputes Act, Education Act 1907 - Education Act 1907-12 - Set of measures improving Prison conditions, creating the probation service and ending imprisonment debt. 1908 - Childrens Act, Old Aged Pensions Act 1909 - People's Budget, Trade Board Act, Labour Exchanges Act, Development Commission 1911 - National Insurance Act, Shops Act (SEE SEPARATE DOCUMENT DETAILING EACH REFORM) The People's Budget - The Propertied class were against the Death Duties and the tax increase on land values. They claimed DLG was waging Class War. - He responded that he was waging war on poverty. This also met opposition, as only some of the money went towards pensions. The rest went towards funding the Navy warships. - The Free Trade vs. Protection argument made matters worse: Being for FREE TRADE, the liberals couldn't pay for welfare through tariffs. And, the conservatives knew they'd lose the PROTECTIONIST argument if the Liberals could fund their budget domestically. They organised a Budget Protest League, delaying the budget for 10 weeks. - It got through commons eventually, but they knew their people in Lords would protest. The National Insurance Act Despite it being aimed at helping people, it met strong resistance from the very people the liberals were trying to help. They didn't like the fact that they had to pay compulsory contributions. 5 1/2 million people were already paying into private schemes, and they didn't want to pay twice. The Popular Press attacked the Liberals for this, but Lloyd George responded that he was giving them "9d for 4d". He managed to ease resistance from insurance companies, who were afraid they would lose money, by making them an integral part of the scheme. He also appeased Labour, who wanted it to be paid for with higher taxes on the wealthy by promising to get payment from MPs. he honoured this committment in 1911. The suspicious response is understanderble, as most workers distrusted the State after their tretment throughout the 19th Century through the workhouse, compulsory education and vaccination - none of which had really helped them very much. Many thought the Act was designed to put them in their place. The Liberal's Achievements - success? Their Scoial reform Programme was a key step to Britain becoming a welfare state: - It met RESISTANCE, and wasn't as radical as some would've liked - It was collectivelt a CONSIDERABLE ACHIEVEMENT - Established the RESPONSIBILITY of the government to provide for those who couldn't provide for themselves. - They had the INTENTION, but not the RESOURCES to achieve their aims immediately.	980	ENGLISH	1
Franklin Pierce: 14th President of the United States Franklin Pierce’s charm, family connections, and his desire to please made him a leading figure in New Hampshire politics in the early 19th century, but on the national stage he was more content to follow than to lead. Before becoming president, he had a successful career as an attorney and served as a brigadier general in the U.S. Army during the Mexican-American War. His political career began at the young age of 26 when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Despite his average talent as a politician, Pierce won the nomination for the presidential slot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention as a “dark horse” outsider candidate. A loyal Democrat, Pierce began his presidency under the presumption that he would bring more unity to the Democratic Party and the nation. His decisions as a president were deeply affected by his pro-slavery stance. For him, the abolitionist movement was a tremendous danger for the unity of the nation, but his attempts to curb the inevitable conflict between the North and South only seemed to stoke an already hot fire. By the time the 1856 Democratic Party held its convention for president, Pierce had fallen out of favor and became the first sitting president to be denied the nomination by his own party. Early Life and Education One of a family of nine children, Franklin Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, to Benjamin Pierce and Anna Kendrick. At the time of Franklin’s birth, his father was busy working on the family farm and serving as a local sheriff. Over the years, Benjamin Pierce became an influential state legislator deeply involved in state politics, eventually rising to the office of governor of the state. Politics was an integral part of the life of the family, and Pierce grew up in this climate, developing an interest in both politics and military life. As an active and charismatic boy, Pierce enjoyed roaming the land, swimming, fishing, and hunting. His father ensured that all the children benefited from a good education. In 1820, Pierce enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. While in college, he joined the Athenian Society, a literary club where he formed a lasting friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne, the future famous novelist. Hawthorne would go on to write a biography of Pierce that was used in his presidential campaign. In his first years of study, Pierce was among the last in his class, but he gradually improved his grades and graduated with honors in 1824. Upon graduation, he began studying law with various local attorneys. In 1827, he was admitted to the New Hampshire bar and began to practice as a lawyer in Hillsborough. Although he wasn’t exactly inclined to scholarly study, Pierce was a capable and charismatic lawyer who inspired trust, so he slowly carved a path for himself in the legal field. Early Political Career In 1827, Benjamin Pierce was elected governor of New Hampshire. Although busy building his law career, Franklin became fully invested in politics, first as a supporter of his father and then as a committed Democrat. Only a year later, he won his first election, becoming Hillsborough town moderator. The following year he won a legislative seat in the New Hampshire House of Representatives while his father was once again elected as governor. Gradually, Pierce moved to more important roles. In 1831, at the young age of twenty-seven, he was elected Speaker of the House and became one of the most influential Democrats in New Hampshire. He and his father continued to support each other, and the party became a central aspect of their lives. They both identified as Jacksonian Democrats due to their high regard for President Andrew Jackson and his platform. In 1833, at the age of twenty-nine, Pierce was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. His rise to national politics coincided with the growth of New Hampshire as one of the most important Democratic states in the North, which provided Pierce with a great career boost. Even though he was a charming and likable man, many considered him unremarkable as a politician, arguing that his family connections stood behind his success and influence. In November 1834, Franklin Pierce married Jane Appleton, the shy daughter of a congressional minister and prominent Whig. The Pierces had very different personalities; he was comfortable around people, finding it easy to put aside differences, but his wife was withdrawn and held staunchly to her beliefs. As Jane Pierce didn’t feel at home in Hillsborough, the young couple moved in 1838 to the state capital, Concord. Unfortunately, their family life was plagued by tragedy as all their children died in childhood. Their first son died in infancy, the second son contracted the lethal epidemic typhus at age four, and their third son died tragically at the age of eleven. U.S. Senator From New Hampshire In December 1836, Franklin Pierce was elected to the U.S. Senate. He became one of the youngest senators in the history of the United States. As a loyal Democrat, he was always willing to support the policies of the party which was organized around the policies of Andrew Jackson. The Democrats believed that the states had the right to operate with minimal interference from the federal government. As his detractors predicted, Pierce did not distinguish himself in the Senate. However, this was partly due to personal issues as his wife and father suffered from poor health during this period. He was also overshadowed by more popular figures like Henry Clay and John Calhoun, who were highly competent and prominent politicians. When Pierce took his seat in the Senate, slavery was a heated issue that sparked a lot of dissension among Congressmen, with various groups pushing petitions to restrict slavery in the Union. Pierce often criticized the vocal abolitionists for disrupting the peace in the country. Although he personally believed that slavery was a social and political evil, he realized that any federal action against slavery would deny the rights of the Southern states to govern themselves. He developed an intense dislike for abolitionists and regularly expressed sympathy for the South, never retreating from these feelings over the years. Pierce’s views over slavery affected his reputation among Northern Democrats. During his time in Congress, he also acquired a reputation for being a heavy drinker. As news of his alcoholism spread among colleagues, Pierce found it hard to regain his confidence as a politician. For a politician in Washington, there were many reunions, parties, and social functions, which made it easy for him to fall into the temptation of drinking. After a long period of doubt and urging from his wife, Pierce decided to resign from the Senate and return home. In 1842, he and his wife, who hated Washington, returned home to New Hampshire, settling in Concord. Since the Democrats lacked a majority in Congress, Pierce had also been frustrated by an inability to carry out his legislative ideas and thus preferred to dedicate his time to his family and law practice. He did not intend, however, to renounce public life. For the next couple of years, life was peaceful for the Pierce family. Jane found a community and Franklin found new opportunities for law practice. His career as a lawyer flourished after his stint in the Senate. With his eloquence and charisma, he easily found affluent clients. He also remained very involved in the Democratic Party. Since the party was divided over many crucial issues, this prompted him to assume a leadership position and mediate between different factions. He continued to have considerable political clout in his own state and kept in touch with his political friends in Washington. The Mexican-American War Coming from a family with a history in the military, his father having served in the Revolutionary War, Pierce had always been interested in the military and was involved throughout his life with the local militias. When the U.S. declared war against Mexico in May 1846, Pierce felt it was his moral duty to join the war efforts. He refused the appointment for U.S. Attorney General proposed by President James K. Polk and instead took command of an infantry regiment. Pierce raised two companies of New Hampshire volunteers to join the army of General Winfield Scott in Mexico. In March 1847, Pierce’s commission was elevated to the rank of brigadier general. The troops under Pierce set off to join Scott’s army at Vera Cruz, Mexico, and be part of the assault on Mexico City. By the time the volunteers from New England reached Vera Cruz, Scott’s army was on the move to Mexico City. Pierce’s next responsibility was to transport supplies for Scott’s army and march the 2,500 solders under his command, along with dozens of wagons of supplies and heavy artillery, 150 miles through hostile territory to rendezvous with Scott. During the journey inland, Pierce’s men came under attack six times, though they suffered few casualties. After three weeks Pierce’s men and supplies reached General Scott’s army. In Pierce’s first serious battle at Contreras outside Mexico City, his horse was frightened by artillery and bucked him violently, thrusting his groin forcefully against the saddle pommel. Peirce briefly lost consciousness, fell from the horse, and his knee was seriously injured by his horse landing on him. Shaken and injured, Peirce ordered one of the regimental commanders to lead the attack. Pierce fainted during the ensuing melee, which inspired one of his men to shout, “Take command of the brigade. General Pierce is a dammed coward.” During the next battle, this time on foot, he twisted the same knee that had been injured and collapse in acute pain. Pierce managed to hobble after his men but missed the main thrust of the action. Once Mexico City was captured the fighting was over, and all that remained was to broker the peace treaty. Pierce grew bored with army life and formed a social club with fellow officers. Here Pierce would develop some lifelong friends and political allies. General Scott granted Pierce’s leave of absence request and he left Mexico in December 1847, bound for home. When he returned to Concord, he received a hero’s welcome. His military exploits elevated his status in New Hampshire, but did not bring him the military glory he had hoped for. On a personal level, his military service proved disastrous as he was left with severe wounds that troubled him for the rest of his life. Upon his return from the battlefield, Pierce resumed his law practice. The Presidential Election of 1852 Going into the election of 1852, Pierce didn’t have any open presidential aspirations. The Democratic Party had several well qualified candidates, including Stephen A. Douglas, James Buchanan, and Lewis Cass. During the Democratic Convention, after several ballots with not a single vote for Pierce, the party members unexpectedly turned in his favor and he won the Democratic nomination for president on the 49th ballot. Pierce, who had been out of the political limelight for nearly a decade, was considered a political outsider or “dark horse” candidate that was acceptable to both the northern and southern delegates. When he found out the news, Pierce reacted in disbelief and his wife was so shocked that she fainted. Adding fuel to the flames of family discord over the nomination, their eleven-year-old son Benjamin wrote to his mother: “I hope he won’t be elected for I should not like to be at Washington and I know you would not either.” The Democratic U.S. Senator from Alabama William Rufus King was named the vice presidential running mate. Publicly, Pierce expressed his disinterest towards the presidential seat, but privately, he allowed his supporters to carry on with the campaign. His opponent was General Winfield Scott, his former commander in the Mexican-American war, who came from the Whig Party. At that time, it was not common for candidates to be openly involved in their campaigns so Pierce and Scott both remained out of the public eye during this period. Pierce ran as “Young Hickory form the Granite State,” a reference to the popular former Democratic president Andrew Jackson. The central issue in the election was the Compromise of 1850, in which California was admitted as a free state, New Mexico and Arizona were established as territories open to slavery, the border dispute between Texas and New Mexico was settled, the District of Columbia was closed to the slave trade, and what would turn out to be the most controversial law, the Fugitive Slave Act was toughened. The Whigs attacked Pierce for his apparent “fainting fit” during a battle in Mexico. Ignoring the fact that Pierce was in severe pain from his knee injury, the Whigs called Pierce the “Fainting General” and asked voters if they wanted a coward for president. The Democrats fired back, assailing Scott, known as “Old Fuss and Feathers,” as a pompous ass. Scott also waffled on the issue of the Compromise of 1850, which cost him votes. With thirty-one states voting, Franklin Peirce took all but four–the election was his. Figure 5 - Cartoon on the presidential election of 1852, showing Winfield Scott, Daniel Webster, and Franklin Pierce competing in a footrace before a crowd of onlookers for a $100,000 prize (the four-year salary for a president) and "pickings." I believe that involuntary servitude [slavery], as it exists in different states of the Confederacy, is recognized by the Constitution. I believe that it stands like any other admitted right, and that the states where it exists are entitled to efficient remedies to enforce the constitutional provisions.— Franklin Pierce 14th President of the United States In January 1853, as president elect, Pierce and his family suffered a terrible tragedy. Pierce had been traveling with his wife and only remaining son, Benjamin, from Boston to Concord by train when suddenly the train car in which they were riding toppled off the tracks. Franklin and his wife were only slightly injured, but their eleven-year-old son was killed before their eyes. Seeing their child gruesomely killed had a devastating effect on Franklin and Jane; both were affected by severe depression for many years afterward. The sense of tragedy haunted Pierce and ended up affecting his ability to perform as president to the level he wanted. His wife became a recluse, avoiding public life and social functions. Although she had supported her husband’s career in the past, the successive deaths of her sons led Jane to severe depression, and she couldn’t find the power to fulfill her duties as First Lady. In his inauguration speech, President Franklin Pierce talked about the tragedy in his family, asking people to have patience with him and give him strength, telling the crowd, “You have summoned me in my weakness; you must sustain me by your strength.” He also talked about his desire to maintain peace in the Union, saying, “I fervently hope that the question [of slavery] is at rest, and that no sectional or ambitious fanatical excitement may again threaten the durability of our institutions.” Since he hadn’t had full support for the nomination, Pierce discovered once he took office that Democrats had already split into factions, with some supporting him and others showing a deep skepticism for his administration. To avoid conflict, he focused on improving government and administration by implementing a system of civil service examinations where positions would be awarded on true merit. He also focused on the reorganization of the military and allocated more resources to the Army and Navy, pushing for newer technologies and better management. The vice president, William Rufus King, was sworn into office in a hospital bed in Havana, Cuba, where he was undergoing treatment for tuberculosis. King died one month after the inauguration, leaving Pierce to serve out the rest of his term without a vice president. The Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was one of the bills that made up the Compromise of 1850. The Act authorized newly appointed fugitive slave commissioners for the arrest of runaway slaves even in Northern states. But by the 1850s, white abolitionists and free African Americans as well as former slaves such as Frederick Douglass had formed the Underground Railroad. This secretive organization helped runaway slaves escape to Canada through a series of safe houses along the way. Following the example of his predecessor, Millard Fillmore, Pierce enforced the Fugitive Slave Act, which enraged the Northern abolitionists. The 1852 novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stove, told the story of the plight of runaway slaves trying to save their children from a life of slavery. The novel became the bestselling book of the period and helped a growing movement to repeal the Fugitive Slave law. Pierce was unmoved, making several fateful decisions that widened the gap between the North and the South. President Pierce made it clear in his inaugural speech that he was an expansionist, stating “…the policy of my administration will not be controlled by any timid forebodings of evil from expansion. Indeed, it is not to be disguised that our attitude as a nation and our position on the globe render the acquisition of certain possessions not with our jurisdiction eminently important for our protection, if not in the future essential for the preservation of the rights of commerce and the peace of the world.” Pursuing his plan of expansion, he offered $50 million to Mexico for much of the northern area of that country and for lower California. Out of the negotiations came the Gadsden Purchase of 1854. The U.S. paid Mexico $10 million for a strip of land across southern Arizona and New Mexico to be used for a new railroad to the Pacific Coast. The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War annexed California and the Southwest to the nation; however, little of this new land held prospects for the expansion of slavery. Wanting to add new slave states and increase their representation in Congress, Southerners lobbied to acquire the Spanish-held Cuba. The secretary of state under Pierce, William Marcy, bowed to Southern pressure and convened a secret meeting in Ostend, Belgium, to develop a plan to acquire Cuba. Out of the meeting came the Ostend Manifesto, which stated that Cuba was vital to U.S. domestic interests and if Spain would not sell Cuba to the United States it had no other choice but to take it by force. When the manifesto became public it caused a political firestorm at home and abroad, bolstering foreign fears of aggressive American expansionist plans. Pierce and Marcy tried to distance the administration from the manifesto, but the damage had been done domestically and with the European community. This incident would become a black mark on Pierce’s presidency, caused him to curtail his expansionist plans, and it became a rallying cry for anti-slavery Northerners The Kansas-Nebraska Act One of the most difficult challenges of the Pierce administration was posed by the slavery issue. While Pierce naively thought that the Compromise of 1850 had settled all disagreements in this regard, things got heated again when the need to organize the unsettled Kansas and Nebraska Territories brought up a new conflict. While Southern states wanted to expand slavery into territories that were procured mostly through their efforts, the Northern states wanted to let the settlers decide whether they wanted slavery or not. This led to the formulation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which mandated that the unsettled territories would be split into two, Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. The issue of slavery would be settled by “popular sovereignty”--the policy of letting the voters of a territory decide if slavery would be allowed. Although Pierce was not convinced of the efficacy of the bill and wanted to organize the territory without consideration for slavery at all, he was persuaded to sign it. He knew this would result in fierce opposition from Northern Democrats, who saw it as a sign of aggression on the part of the Southerners. Unable to reach a compromise with any of the parts, Pierce decided to support the bill and convince other Democrats to vote in favor. The Kansas-Nebraska Act was signed into law in May 1854, but the result was an unexpected rise in violence and anarchy in the unsettled territories. The law triggered a violent struggle in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” between pro and anti-slavery forces. The fierce abolitionist John Brown was one of the leading anti-slavery leaders who gained notoriety for lynching five pro-slavery men. For Pierce’s political career, the decision to sign the bill proved disastrous as he lost all meager support he had left. Neither Southerners nor Northerners were satisfied with the outcome of his decision. The Kansas-Nebraska issue became one of the most defining moments of his career, with a negative long-term impact for Democrats as well. In the following Congressional election, the Democratic Party lost almost all Northern States. The popularity of the party dropped dramatically, giving rise to the Republican Party. After the unfolding of the Kansas-Nebraska debacle, it became obvious to everyone that Pierce had been overwhelmed by his responsibility and that his ability to make decisions was lacking. Many believed he would have fared better as a loyal follower than a leader. In trying to please everyone, he pleased no one. Within the Democratic Party, many expressed deep regret for having given him the nomination. The Election of 1856 Despite all the negativity surrounding his administration, Franklin Pierce expected to win the Democratic nomination for the presidential election again. However, due to the intense dislike of Northern Democrats for his administration, his chances of winning either the nomination or the election were dim. At the convention held in Cincinnati, the delegates refused to consider his nomination and he was forced to withdraw his candidacy. He became the only sitting president to be denied nomination of his own party for reelection. Although this was a low moment in his career, Pierce remained firm in his position, attacking the abolitionists and defending his choices in the final address to Congress. Franklin Pierce left office on March 4, 1857. After ending their affairs in Washington, D.C., the Pierce family moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Here Pierce became involved in real estate and farming. He and Jane spent the next two years traveling the world, going to places like Madeira and the Bahamas. Even from afar, Pierce stayed informed on the news in the U.S., commenting on political affairs as the threat of civil war grew. The rise of the Republican Party changed the Democratic perception about Pierce’s achievements, and he was proposed for the 1860 Democratic nomination, but he refused. When the Civil War became imminent, Pierce spoke vehemently against the war, calling it cruel and aimless. His vocal opposition to the war put him at the center of many controversies. In December 1863, Jane Pierce died of tuberculosis, leaving her husband in a state of desolation and loneliness. Pierce spent his last years in obscurity, working the land as a farmer and visiting family. He took up drinking again, which affected his health. Around 1869, his health began to decline severely due to heavy drinking. Franklin Pierce died of cirrhosis of the liver on October 8, 1869. Newspapers and politicians paid him tribute, talking about his controversial political career. Many agreed that he had been overwhelmed by historic events that he was not competent enough to handle. His limited leadership skills and bad decision-making skills led to his failure in the political turmoil of the 1850s. Years later President Theodore Roosevelt wrote an apt description of Franklin Pierce: “[He was] a small politician of low capacity and mean surroundings, proud to act as a servile fool of men worse that himself but also stronger and abler. He was ever ready to do any work the slavery leaders set him.” Feelings remined so bitter toward him in his native state of New Hampshire that it would be over fifty years after his death before a statue would be erected in his honor. - Cummings, Joseph. Anything for a Vote: Dirty tricks, Cheap Shots, and October Surprises in U.S Presidential Campaigns. Quirk Books. 2007. - Hamilton, Neil A. Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary, 3rd Edition. Checkmark Books. 2010. - Holt, Michael F. Franklin Pierce. Times Books. 2010. - Matuz, Roger. The Presidents Fact Book: The Achievements, Campaigns, Events, Triumphs, Tragedies, and Legacies of Every President from George Washington to Barack Obama. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. 2009. - Smith, Carter. Presidents Every Question Answered: Everything You Could Possibly Want to Know About the Nation’s Chief Executives. Hylas Publishing. 2005. - Whitney, David C. The American Presidents: Biography of the Chief Executives from George Washington through Barack Obama. 11th Edition. Reader’s Digest Association, Inc. 2009.	<urn:uuid:63942c5a-7fca-4e89-9fa2-873038df8f65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://soapboxie.com/us-politics/Franklin-Pierce-Fourteenth-President-of-the-United-States	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00250.warc.gz	en	0.986312	5,139	3.59375	4	[ 0.14639657735824585, 0.15073905885219574, -0.18780799210071564, -0.28637397289276123, -0.3419421315193176, 0.5231708288192749, 0.3212311565876007, 0.1586562693119049, -0.3647427260875702, -0.2310132384300232, 0.7864359617233276, -0.028718728572130203, 0.07365154474973679, 0.513671517372131...	2	Franklin Pierce: 14th President of the United States Franklin Pierce’s charm, family connections, and his desire to please made him a leading figure in New Hampshire politics in the early 19th century, but on the national stage he was more content to follow than to lead. Before becoming president, he had a successful career as an attorney and served as a brigadier general in the U.S. Army during the Mexican-American War. His political career began at the young age of 26 when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Despite his average talent as a politician, Pierce won the nomination for the presidential slot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention as a “dark horse” outsider candidate. A loyal Democrat, Pierce began his presidency under the presumption that he would bring more unity to the Democratic Party and the nation. His decisions as a president were deeply affected by his pro-slavery stance. For him, the abolitionist movement was a tremendous danger for the unity of the nation, but his attempts to curb the inevitable conflict between the North and South only seemed to stoke an already hot fire. By the time the 1856 Democratic Party held its convention for president, Pierce had fallen out of favor and became the first sitting president to be denied the nomination by his own party. Early Life and Education One of a family of nine children, Franklin Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, to Benjamin Pierce and Anna Kendrick. At the time of Franklin’s birth, his father was busy working on the family farm and serving as a local sheriff. Over the years, Benjamin Pierce became an influential state legislator deeply involved in state politics, eventually rising to the office of governor of the state. Politics was an integral part of the life of the family, and Pierce grew up in this climate, developing an interest in both politics and military life. As an active and charismatic boy, Pierce enjoyed roaming the land, swimming, fishing, and hunting. His father ensured that all the children benefited from a good education. In 1820, Pierce enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. While in college, he joined the Athenian Society, a literary club where he formed a lasting friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne, the future famous novelist. Hawthorne would go on to write a biography of Pierce that was used in his presidential campaign. In his first years of study, Pierce was among the last in his class, but he gradually improved his grades and graduated with honors in 1824. Upon graduation, he began studying law with various local attorneys. In 1827, he was admitted to the New Hampshire bar and began to practice as a lawyer in Hillsborough. Although he wasn’t exactly inclined to scholarly study, Pierce was a capable and charismatic lawyer who inspired trust, so he slowly carved a path for himself in the legal field. Early Political Career In 1827, Benjamin Pierce was elected governor of New Hampshire. Although busy building his law career, Franklin became fully invested in politics, first as a supporter of his father and then as a committed Democrat. Only a year later, he won his first election, becoming Hillsborough town moderator. The following year he won a legislative seat in the New Hampshire House of Representatives while his father was once again elected as governor. Gradually, Pierce moved to more important roles. In 1831, at the young age of twenty-seven, he was elected Speaker of the House and became one of the most influential Democrats in New Hampshire. He and his father continued to support each other, and the party became a central aspect of their lives. They both identified as Jacksonian Democrats due to their high regard for President Andrew Jackson and his platform. In 1833, at the age of twenty-nine, Pierce was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. His rise to national politics coincided with the growth of New Hampshire as one of the most important Democratic states in the North, which provided Pierce with a great career boost. Even though he was a charming and likable man, many considered him unremarkable as a politician, arguing that his family connections stood behind his success and influence. In November 1834, Franklin Pierce married Jane Appleton, the shy daughter of a congressional minister and prominent Whig. The Pierces had very different personalities; he was comfortable around people, finding it easy to put aside differences, but his wife was withdrawn and held staunchly to her beliefs. As Jane Pierce didn’t feel at home in Hillsborough, the young couple moved in 1838 to the state capital, Concord. Unfortunately, their family life was plagued by tragedy as all their children died in childhood. Their first son died in infancy, the second son contracted the lethal epidemic typhus at age four, and their third son died tragically at the age of eleven. U.S. Senator From New Hampshire In December 1836, Franklin Pierce was elected to the U.S. Senate. He became one of the youngest senators in the history of the United States. As a loyal Democrat, he was always willing to support the policies of the party which was organized around the policies of Andrew Jackson. The Democrats believed that the states had the right to operate with minimal interference from the federal government. As his detractors predicted, Pierce did not distinguish himself in the Senate. However, this was partly due to personal issues as his wife and father suffered from poor health during this period. He was also overshadowed by more popular figures like Henry Clay and John Calhoun, who were highly competent and prominent politicians. When Pierce took his seat in the Senate, slavery was a heated issue that sparked a lot of dissension among Congressmen, with various groups pushing petitions to restrict slavery in the Union. Pierce often criticized the vocal abolitionists for disrupting the peace in the country. Although he personally believed that slavery was a social and political evil, he realized that any federal action against slavery would deny the rights of the Southern states to govern themselves. He developed an intense dislike for abolitionists and regularly expressed sympathy for the South, never retreating from these feelings over the years. Pierce’s views over slavery affected his reputation among Northern Democrats. During his time in Congress, he also acquired a reputation for being a heavy drinker. As news of his alcoholism spread among colleagues, Pierce found it hard to regain his confidence as a politician. For a politician in Washington, there were many reunions, parties, and social functions, which made it easy for him to fall into the temptation of drinking. After a long period of doubt and urging from his wife, Pierce decided to resign from the Senate and return home. In 1842, he and his wife, who hated Washington, returned home to New Hampshire, settling in Concord. Since the Democrats lacked a majority in Congress, Pierce had also been frustrated by an inability to carry out his legislative ideas and thus preferred to dedicate his time to his family and law practice. He did not intend, however, to renounce public life. For the next couple of years, life was peaceful for the Pierce family. Jane found a community and Franklin found new opportunities for law practice. His career as a lawyer flourished after his stint in the Senate. With his eloquence and charisma, he easily found affluent clients. He also remained very involved in the Democratic Party. Since the party was divided over many crucial issues, this prompted him to assume a leadership position and mediate between different factions. He continued to have considerable political clout in his own state and kept in touch with his political friends in Washington. The Mexican-American War Coming from a family with a history in the military, his father having served in the Revolutionary War, Pierce had always been interested in the military and was involved throughout his life with the local militias. When the U.S. declared war against Mexico in May 1846, Pierce felt it was his moral duty to join the war efforts. He refused the appointment for U.S. Attorney General proposed by President James K. Polk and instead took command of an infantry regiment. Pierce raised two companies of New Hampshire volunteers to join the army of General Winfield Scott in Mexico. In March 1847, Pierce’s commission was elevated to the rank of brigadier general. The troops under Pierce set off to join Scott’s army at Vera Cruz, Mexico, and be part of the assault on Mexico City. By the time the volunteers from New England reached Vera Cruz, Scott’s army was on the move to Mexico City. Pierce’s next responsibility was to transport supplies for Scott’s army and march the 2,500 solders under his command, along with dozens of wagons of supplies and heavy artillery, 150 miles through hostile territory to rendezvous with Scott. During the journey inland, Pierce’s men came under attack six times, though they suffered few casualties. After three weeks Pierce’s men and supplies reached General Scott’s army. In Pierce’s first serious battle at Contreras outside Mexico City, his horse was frightened by artillery and bucked him violently, thrusting his groin forcefully against the saddle pommel. Peirce briefly lost consciousness, fell from the horse, and his knee was seriously injured by his horse landing on him. Shaken and injured, Peirce ordered one of the regimental commanders to lead the attack. Pierce fainted during the ensuing melee, which inspired one of his men to shout, “Take command of the brigade. General Pierce is a dammed coward.” During the next battle, this time on foot, he twisted the same knee that had been injured and collapse in acute pain. Pierce managed to hobble after his men but missed the main thrust of the action. Once Mexico City was captured the fighting was over, and all that remained was to broker the peace treaty. Pierce grew bored with army life and formed a social club with fellow officers. Here Pierce would develop some lifelong friends and political allies. General Scott granted Pierce’s leave of absence request and he left Mexico in December 1847, bound for home. When he returned to Concord, he received a hero’s welcome. His military exploits elevated his status in New Hampshire, but did not bring him the military glory he had hoped for. On a personal level, his military service proved disastrous as he was left with severe wounds that troubled him for the rest of his life. Upon his return from the battlefield, Pierce resumed his law practice. The Presidential Election of 1852 Going into the election of 1852, Pierce didn’t have any open presidential aspirations. The Democratic Party had several well qualified candidates, including Stephen A. Douglas, James Buchanan, and Lewis Cass. During the Democratic Convention, after several ballots with not a single vote for Pierce, the party members unexpectedly turned in his favor and he won the Democratic nomination for president on the 49th ballot. Pierce, who had been out of the political limelight for nearly a decade, was considered a political outsider or “dark horse” candidate that was acceptable to both the northern and southern delegates. When he found out the news, Pierce reacted in disbelief and his wife was so shocked that she fainted. Adding fuel to the flames of family discord over the nomination, their eleven-year-old son Benjamin wrote to his mother: “I hope he won’t be elected for I should not like to be at Washington and I know you would not either.” The Democratic U.S. Senator from Alabama William Rufus King was named the vice presidential running mate. Publicly, Pierce expressed his disinterest towards the presidential seat, but privately, he allowed his supporters to carry on with the campaign. His opponent was General Winfield Scott, his former commander in the Mexican-American war, who came from the Whig Party. At that time, it was not common for candidates to be openly involved in their campaigns so Pierce and Scott both remained out of the public eye during this period. Pierce ran as “Young Hickory form the Granite State,” a reference to the popular former Democratic president Andrew Jackson. The central issue in the election was the Compromise of 1850, in which California was admitted as a free state, New Mexico and Arizona were established as territories open to slavery, the border dispute between Texas and New Mexico was settled, the District of Columbia was closed to the slave trade, and what would turn out to be the most controversial law, the Fugitive Slave Act was toughened. The Whigs attacked Pierce for his apparent “fainting fit” during a battle in Mexico. Ignoring the fact that Pierce was in severe pain from his knee injury, the Whigs called Pierce the “Fainting General” and asked voters if they wanted a coward for president. The Democrats fired back, assailing Scott, known as “Old Fuss and Feathers,” as a pompous ass. Scott also waffled on the issue of the Compromise of 1850, which cost him votes. With thirty-one states voting, Franklin Peirce took all but four–the election was his. Figure 5 - Cartoon on the presidential election of 1852, showing Winfield Scott, Daniel Webster, and Franklin Pierce competing in a footrace before a crowd of onlookers for a $100,000 prize (the four-year salary for a president) and "pickings." I believe that involuntary servitude [slavery], as it exists in different states of the Confederacy, is recognized by the Constitution. I believe that it stands like any other admitted right, and that the states where it exists are entitled to efficient remedies to enforce the constitutional provisions.— Franklin Pierce 14th President of the United States In January 1853, as president elect, Pierce and his family suffered a terrible tragedy. Pierce had been traveling with his wife and only remaining son, Benjamin, from Boston to Concord by train when suddenly the train car in which they were riding toppled off the tracks. Franklin and his wife were only slightly injured, but their eleven-year-old son was killed before their eyes. Seeing their child gruesomely killed had a devastating effect on Franklin and Jane; both were affected by severe depression for many years afterward. The sense of tragedy haunted Pierce and ended up affecting his ability to perform as president to the level he wanted. His wife became a recluse, avoiding public life and social functions. Although she had supported her husband’s career in the past, the successive deaths of her sons led Jane to severe depression, and she couldn’t find the power to fulfill her duties as First Lady. In his inauguration speech, President Franklin Pierce talked about the tragedy in his family, asking people to have patience with him and give him strength, telling the crowd, “You have summoned me in my weakness; you must sustain me by your strength.” He also talked about his desire to maintain peace in the Union, saying, “I fervently hope that the question [of slavery] is at rest, and that no sectional or ambitious fanatical excitement may again threaten the durability of our institutions.” Since he hadn’t had full support for the nomination, Pierce discovered once he took office that Democrats had already split into factions, with some supporting him and others showing a deep skepticism for his administration. To avoid conflict, he focused on improving government and administration by implementing a system of civil service examinations where positions would be awarded on true merit. He also focused on the reorganization of the military and allocated more resources to the Army and Navy, pushing for newer technologies and better management. The vice president, William Rufus King, was sworn into office in a hospital bed in Havana, Cuba, where he was undergoing treatment for tuberculosis. King died one month after the inauguration, leaving Pierce to serve out the rest of his term without a vice president. The Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was one of the bills that made up the Compromise of 1850. The Act authorized newly appointed fugitive slave commissioners for the arrest of runaway slaves even in Northern states. But by the 1850s, white abolitionists and free African Americans as well as former slaves such as Frederick Douglass had formed the Underground Railroad. This secretive organization helped runaway slaves escape to Canada through a series of safe houses along the way. Following the example of his predecessor, Millard Fillmore, Pierce enforced the Fugitive Slave Act, which enraged the Northern abolitionists. The 1852 novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stove, told the story of the plight of runaway slaves trying to save their children from a life of slavery. The novel became the bestselling book of the period and helped a growing movement to repeal the Fugitive Slave law. Pierce was unmoved, making several fateful decisions that widened the gap between the North and the South. President Pierce made it clear in his inaugural speech that he was an expansionist, stating “…the policy of my administration will not be controlled by any timid forebodings of evil from expansion. Indeed, it is not to be disguised that our attitude as a nation and our position on the globe render the acquisition of certain possessions not with our jurisdiction eminently important for our protection, if not in the future essential for the preservation of the rights of commerce and the peace of the world.” Pursuing his plan of expansion, he offered $50 million to Mexico for much of the northern area of that country and for lower California. Out of the negotiations came the Gadsden Purchase of 1854. The U.S. paid Mexico $10 million for a strip of land across southern Arizona and New Mexico to be used for a new railroad to the Pacific Coast. The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War annexed California and the Southwest to the nation; however, little of this new land held prospects for the expansion of slavery. Wanting to add new slave states and increase their representation in Congress, Southerners lobbied to acquire the Spanish-held Cuba. The secretary of state under Pierce, William Marcy, bowed to Southern pressure and convened a secret meeting in Ostend, Belgium, to develop a plan to acquire Cuba. Out of the meeting came the Ostend Manifesto, which stated that Cuba was vital to U.S. domestic interests and if Spain would not sell Cuba to the United States it had no other choice but to take it by force. When the manifesto became public it caused a political firestorm at home and abroad, bolstering foreign fears of aggressive American expansionist plans. Pierce and Marcy tried to distance the administration from the manifesto, but the damage had been done domestically and with the European community. This incident would become a black mark on Pierce’s presidency, caused him to curtail his expansionist plans, and it became a rallying cry for anti-slavery Northerners The Kansas-Nebraska Act One of the most difficult challenges of the Pierce administration was posed by the slavery issue. While Pierce naively thought that the Compromise of 1850 had settled all disagreements in this regard, things got heated again when the need to organize the unsettled Kansas and Nebraska Territories brought up a new conflict. While Southern states wanted to expand slavery into territories that were procured mostly through their efforts, the Northern states wanted to let the settlers decide whether they wanted slavery or not. This led to the formulation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which mandated that the unsettled territories would be split into two, Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. The issue of slavery would be settled by “popular sovereignty”--the policy of letting the voters of a territory decide if slavery would be allowed. Although Pierce was not convinced of the efficacy of the bill and wanted to organize the territory without consideration for slavery at all, he was persuaded to sign it. He knew this would result in fierce opposition from Northern Democrats, who saw it as a sign of aggression on the part of the Southerners. Unable to reach a compromise with any of the parts, Pierce decided to support the bill and convince other Democrats to vote in favor. The Kansas-Nebraska Act was signed into law in May 1854, but the result was an unexpected rise in violence and anarchy in the unsettled territories. The law triggered a violent struggle in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” between pro and anti-slavery forces. The fierce abolitionist John Brown was one of the leading anti-slavery leaders who gained notoriety for lynching five pro-slavery men. For Pierce’s political career, the decision to sign the bill proved disastrous as he lost all meager support he had left. Neither Southerners nor Northerners were satisfied with the outcome of his decision. The Kansas-Nebraska issue became one of the most defining moments of his career, with a negative long-term impact for Democrats as well. In the following Congressional election, the Democratic Party lost almost all Northern States. The popularity of the party dropped dramatically, giving rise to the Republican Party. After the unfolding of the Kansas-Nebraska debacle, it became obvious to everyone that Pierce had been overwhelmed by his responsibility and that his ability to make decisions was lacking. Many believed he would have fared better as a loyal follower than a leader. In trying to please everyone, he pleased no one. Within the Democratic Party, many expressed deep regret for having given him the nomination. The Election of 1856 Despite all the negativity surrounding his administration, Franklin Pierce expected to win the Democratic nomination for the presidential election again. However, due to the intense dislike of Northern Democrats for his administration, his chances of winning either the nomination or the election were dim. At the convention held in Cincinnati, the delegates refused to consider his nomination and he was forced to withdraw his candidacy. He became the only sitting president to be denied nomination of his own party for reelection. Although this was a low moment in his career, Pierce remained firm in his position, attacking the abolitionists and defending his choices in the final address to Congress. Franklin Pierce left office on March 4, 1857. After ending their affairs in Washington, D.C., the Pierce family moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Here Pierce became involved in real estate and farming. He and Jane spent the next two years traveling the world, going to places like Madeira and the Bahamas. Even from afar, Pierce stayed informed on the news in the U.S., commenting on political affairs as the threat of civil war grew. The rise of the Republican Party changed the Democratic perception about Pierce’s achievements, and he was proposed for the 1860 Democratic nomination, but he refused. When the Civil War became imminent, Pierce spoke vehemently against the war, calling it cruel and aimless. His vocal opposition to the war put him at the center of many controversies. In December 1863, Jane Pierce died of tuberculosis, leaving her husband in a state of desolation and loneliness. Pierce spent his last years in obscurity, working the land as a farmer and visiting family. He took up drinking again, which affected his health. Around 1869, his health began to decline severely due to heavy drinking. Franklin Pierce died of cirrhosis of the liver on October 8, 1869. Newspapers and politicians paid him tribute, talking about his controversial political career. Many agreed that he had been overwhelmed by historic events that he was not competent enough to handle. His limited leadership skills and bad decision-making skills led to his failure in the political turmoil of the 1850s. Years later President Theodore Roosevelt wrote an apt description of Franklin Pierce: “[He was] a small politician of low capacity and mean surroundings, proud to act as a servile fool of men worse that himself but also stronger and abler. He was ever ready to do any work the slavery leaders set him.” Feelings remined so bitter toward him in his native state of New Hampshire that it would be over fifty years after his death before a statue would be erected in his honor. - Cummings, Joseph. Anything for a Vote: Dirty tricks, Cheap Shots, and October Surprises in U.S Presidential Campaigns. Quirk Books. 2007. - Hamilton, Neil A. Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary, 3rd Edition. Checkmark Books. 2010. - Holt, Michael F. Franklin Pierce. Times Books. 2010. - Matuz, Roger. The Presidents Fact Book: The Achievements, Campaigns, Events, Triumphs, Tragedies, and Legacies of Every President from George Washington to Barack Obama. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. 2009. - Smith, Carter. Presidents Every Question Answered: Everything You Could Possibly Want to Know About the Nation’s Chief Executives. Hylas Publishing. 2005. - Whitney, David C. The American Presidents: Biography of the Chief Executives from George Washington through Barack Obama. 11th Edition. Reader’s Digest Association, Inc. 2009.	5,160	ENGLISH	1
The era of the Roaring Twenties, which was the period between World War I and the Wall Street crash of 1929 held many societal changes. Many of these changes were greatly influenced by jazz music. During this time, the country was coming out of World War I and the attitude of most people was dark and dismal. Dance and music clubs became tremendously popular in an effort to improve the quality of life for many people. After experiencing the death and destruction caused by World War I, young men and women were ready for a change. They wanted to forget about misery of wartime and instead, focus on enjoying themselves as much as possible. The youth of this time wanted to rebel against the restrictive pre-war attitudes of their parents …show more content… They were full of nightclubs and roadhouses which specialized in jazz music and stimulated artistic development, racial pride, and a sense of community (The American Republic). Advancements in technology also facilitated the spread of jazz music into mainstream society. Modern appliances allowed for people to have more free time. They filled this free time with entertainment. More disposable income also allowed for the purchase of phonograph records which brought jazz to areas where no bands performed. The radio was also important to the dissemination of jazz. Unlike many clubs, which were still segregated, radio was not. While many African American station owners struggled to survive in a white society they eventually managed to bring jazz music into the homes of both white and black households (Burns). Jazz music gave rise to several subcultures during the 1920’s. One of the most well-known being the flapper. The flapper represented the changing role of women in the post war society. Women during this time wanted greater independence. They entered the workforce in an attempt to break away from parental authority and establish a personal identity (American Republic). Many women began to pursue educations and were able to make significant contributions in the fields of science and law. Often represented as shallow and not very smart, flappers were usually well educated young women who only wanted to break free from the	<urn:uuid:6993c580-b611-4492-bc2d-a983939ee206>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/the-jazz-age/F3TE942AC	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00045.warc.gz	en	0.985446	418	3.71875	4	[ 0.07631951570510864, 0.1310238391160965, 0.40276482701301575, -0.2058863341808319, -0.13818201422691345, 0.2212829291820526, -0.2114018201828003, 0.14454402029514313, 0.23323674499988556, -0.29262465238571167, 0.5156567692756653, 0.511171281337738, 0.12662509083747864, -0.02674049511551857...	1	The era of the Roaring Twenties, which was the period between World War I and the Wall Street crash of 1929 held many societal changes. Many of these changes were greatly influenced by jazz music. During this time, the country was coming out of World War I and the attitude of most people was dark and dismal. Dance and music clubs became tremendously popular in an effort to improve the quality of life for many people. After experiencing the death and destruction caused by World War I, young men and women were ready for a change. They wanted to forget about misery of wartime and instead, focus on enjoying themselves as much as possible. The youth of this time wanted to rebel against the restrictive pre-war attitudes of their parents …show more content… They were full of nightclubs and roadhouses which specialized in jazz music and stimulated artistic development, racial pride, and a sense of community (The American Republic). Advancements in technology also facilitated the spread of jazz music into mainstream society. Modern appliances allowed for people to have more free time. They filled this free time with entertainment. More disposable income also allowed for the purchase of phonograph records which brought jazz to areas where no bands performed. The radio was also important to the dissemination of jazz. Unlike many clubs, which were still segregated, radio was not. While many African American station owners struggled to survive in a white society they eventually managed to bring jazz music into the homes of both white and black households (Burns). Jazz music gave rise to several subcultures during the 1920’s. One of the most well-known being the flapper. The flapper represented the changing role of women in the post war society. Women during this time wanted greater independence. They entered the workforce in an attempt to break away from parental authority and establish a personal identity (American Republic). Many women began to pursue educations and were able to make significant contributions in the fields of science and law. Often represented as shallow and not very smart, flappers were usually well educated young women who only wanted to break free from the	419	ENGLISH	1
There is a bird named Jake and his flock is a type of bird that live by the water and are overall a large bird in many different sizes. There was a mutation in Jake's flock to change shape and size. This made them harder to catch and can't be hunted from humans. When the hunter came he was able to shoot down the larger bird and the ones in Jake's family that did not have the mutation were shot down. After the hunting season the birds where able to make more offspring's. Since most of the larger birds were killed the mutated ones were able to reproduce. This is showing habitability because the offspring had the same genes their parents passed down This is creating a reproductive advantage because since the birds are smaller they are less of a target for the hunters because it makes them harder to hit. Also the hunter does not get as much meat out of killing this bird now. They will survive and be able to reproduce. After thousands of years almost all of Jake's original flock have been killed off and only the ones with the mutations have survived. The allele frequency has changed to where almost all of springs have the mutations.	<urn:uuid:449661da-d8d3-498d-94cc-b57f3b77a593>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/reidvogel/natural-selection	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00406.warc.gz	en	0.987373	233	3.34375	3	[ 0.01938130520284176, -0.3711436092853546, 0.19898812472820282, 0.4179478883743286, 0.14890533685684204, 0.14669828116893768, 0.1505092829465866, 0.15256187319755554, 0.002835662104189396, 0.09596919268369675, -0.13674066960811615, -0.2038498818874359, 0.3144867420196533, -0.137375906109809...	1	There is a bird named Jake and his flock is a type of bird that live by the water and are overall a large bird in many different sizes. There was a mutation in Jake's flock to change shape and size. This made them harder to catch and can't be hunted from humans. When the hunter came he was able to shoot down the larger bird and the ones in Jake's family that did not have the mutation were shot down. After the hunting season the birds where able to make more offspring's. Since most of the larger birds were killed the mutated ones were able to reproduce. This is showing habitability because the offspring had the same genes their parents passed down This is creating a reproductive advantage because since the birds are smaller they are less of a target for the hunters because it makes them harder to hit. Also the hunter does not get as much meat out of killing this bird now. They will survive and be able to reproduce. After thousands of years almost all of Jake's original flock have been killed off and only the ones with the mutations have survived. The allele frequency has changed to where almost all of springs have the mutations.	229	ENGLISH	1
1. There is much evidence of Hassan's feelings for Amir. Provide two example that demonstrate Hassan;s feelings toward Amir. 2. Amri Hopes to win the kite race. what is inferred about Amir's relationship with his father from this passage? " I was going to win, and I was going to run that last kite. Then I'd bring it home and show it to BaBa. Show him once and for all that his son was worthy. Then maybe my life as a ghost in this house would finally be over." 3. When does Amir turn toward religion? Describe event. 4. What does this statement infer about Amir's feelings about his birthday party and Baba? " I was standing in the yard greeting each of the guests personally - Baba made sure of that. My face ached from the strain of the pastered smile." 5. Compare life in America for Baba and General Taheri. Discuss issues related to work, social programs, and their children's education. 6. Soraya announces to Amir to Amir that she has to tell him something. Why is this statement ironic? It is Ironic because.... " She says, "I don't want us to sart out with secrets." 7. For the early years of their lives, Amir and Hassan played together. Give an example of a time when Amir viewed Hassan as a friend. Secondly, describe an instance when social class differences were evident. 8. Although Baba's and Ali grew up in the same house, they held different religious beliefs. Compare their religious beliefs in terms of their Muslim ideas. 9. Explain the difference in attitudes between Baba and Amir's view fo America.	<urn:uuid:ad7f4695-b969-4532-af16-f3539fcac5f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://club.missyusa.com/202torry/hclub_bbs/bbs_content.asp?club_id=202torry&codename=code3124&page=1&num=12&ref=3&l_k=&w_f=&w_val=	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00180.warc.gz	en	0.983087	354	3.28125	3	[ -0.19267483055591583, 0.773836076259613, -0.27927055954933167, -0.04934334382414818, -0.3012670576572418, 0.16054154932498932, 0.7861636877059937, -0.04432862251996994, 0.34513160586357117, -0.2047734558582306, 0.3937734365463257, -0.03798077255487442, 0.19397062063217163, 0.10684073716402...	3	1. There is much evidence of Hassan's feelings for Amir. Provide two example that demonstrate Hassan;s feelings toward Amir. 2. Amri Hopes to win the kite race. what is inferred about Amir's relationship with his father from this passage? " I was going to win, and I was going to run that last kite. Then I'd bring it home and show it to BaBa. Show him once and for all that his son was worthy. Then maybe my life as a ghost in this house would finally be over." 3. When does Amir turn toward religion? Describe event. 4. What does this statement infer about Amir's feelings about his birthday party and Baba? " I was standing in the yard greeting each of the guests personally - Baba made sure of that. My face ached from the strain of the pastered smile." 5. Compare life in America for Baba and General Taheri. Discuss issues related to work, social programs, and their children's education. 6. Soraya announces to Amir to Amir that she has to tell him something. Why is this statement ironic? It is Ironic because.... " She says, "I don't want us to sart out with secrets." 7. For the early years of their lives, Amir and Hassan played together. Give an example of a time when Amir viewed Hassan as a friend. Secondly, describe an instance when social class differences were evident. 8. Although Baba's and Ali grew up in the same house, they held different religious beliefs. Compare their religious beliefs in terms of their Muslim ideas. 9. Explain the difference in attitudes between Baba and Amir's view fo America.	333	ENGLISH	1
The Spanish had no idea how blessed they were that the Aztecs misitreperted who they were and so why they were generally there. The The spanish language conquistadors were hoping to find lands to conquer, gold to capture, and folks to convert to the Catholic religion. The The spanish language were amazed at what they found in the capital city of Tenochtitlan. Everything was clean. There were " eating housesвЂќ and hairdressers. You could purchase medicines and herbs and kinds of food. You could get meat and game. There are streets that sold simply pottery and mats. Painters could choose the paints they will needed for their very own art. In 1519, the Spanish conquistador, Hernan Cortes, traveled the world from Europe to terrain in what is currently Mexico. After having a difficult voyage inland, Cortes and his males entered the Aztec capital city and met, the Aztec leader. Normally, the The spanish language adventurers could have been captured and sacrificed immediately, mainly because that is the actual Aztecs performed to invaders. However the Spanish were lucky. They were allowed to enter the city, and welcomed while valued guests, all because of an old story. This legend told with the god Quetzalcoatl. The Aztecs believed which the god of night had defeated Quetzalcoatl in a game of tlachtli. As the winner, the god of night may decide how to handle Quetzalcoatl. The god of night made a decision to banish Quetzalcoatl to the East. Quetzalcoatl experienced no choice but to leave. He vowed that some day he would return, if the end of the world was around, to save his people. The Aztecs were always worried which the end worldwide was usually near. That's why they sacrificed so many people. That they wanted to retain their gods very happy, therefore they may save all their people. When the Spanish came from the East, the Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl got kept his promise together returned. They will treated the Spanish as if they were gods. Cortes stated in one of letters home that he believed there have been more than 62, 000 persons in the marketplace selling and buying wares. No person used...	<urn:uuid:995d6351-15e1-401b-b0de-7da2d531209b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://natronaschoolsblog.org/the-spanish-cure/64368-essay-within-the-spanish-cure.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00511.warc.gz	en	0.988811	487	3.390625	3	[ -0.10564830154180527, 0.47082433104515076, 0.08174766600131989, 0.22456516325473785, -0.026431318372488022, -0.28375425934791565, 0.30052998661994934, 0.45039102435112, -0.06808802485466003, -0.4259692430496216, -0.01323702372610569, -0.2250596284866333, -0.24265405535697937, 0.10517445206...	1	The Spanish had no idea how blessed they were that the Aztecs misitreperted who they were and so why they were generally there. The The spanish language conquistadors were hoping to find lands to conquer, gold to capture, and folks to convert to the Catholic religion. The The spanish language were amazed at what they found in the capital city of Tenochtitlan. Everything was clean. There were " eating housesвЂќ and hairdressers. You could purchase medicines and herbs and kinds of food. You could get meat and game. There are streets that sold simply pottery and mats. Painters could choose the paints they will needed for their very own art. In 1519, the Spanish conquistador, Hernan Cortes, traveled the world from Europe to terrain in what is currently Mexico. After having a difficult voyage inland, Cortes and his males entered the Aztec capital city and met, the Aztec leader. Normally, the The spanish language adventurers could have been captured and sacrificed immediately, mainly because that is the actual Aztecs performed to invaders. However the Spanish were lucky. They were allowed to enter the city, and welcomed while valued guests, all because of an old story. This legend told with the god Quetzalcoatl. The Aztecs believed which the god of night had defeated Quetzalcoatl in a game of tlachtli. As the winner, the god of night may decide how to handle Quetzalcoatl. The god of night made a decision to banish Quetzalcoatl to the East. Quetzalcoatl experienced no choice but to leave. He vowed that some day he would return, if the end of the world was around, to save his people. The Aztecs were always worried which the end worldwide was usually near. That's why they sacrificed so many people. That they wanted to retain their gods very happy, therefore they may save all their people. When the Spanish came from the East, the Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl got kept his promise together returned. They will treated the Spanish as if they were gods. Cortes stated in one of letters home that he believed there have been more than 62, 000 persons in the marketplace selling and buying wares. No person used...	478	ENGLISH	1
Disclaimer: This paper has been submitted by a student. This is not a sample of the work written by professional academic writers. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of StudySaurus. Topic: Slavery in America Slavery used to be an important resource in America, and the first workers were imported to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. There the African slaves were used to aid in the tobacco and cotton productions. There were many different opinions on this subject, but slavery was here to stay, at least for the next couple of centuries. Around the 1860s, the bloody Civil war broke out and Abraham Lincoln, as the president, ratified a law which would eventually free the nations four million slaves. Five years later, the North won the Civil war, the slaves were freed and slavery was abolished. Even though black people were free at last, life would not be easy for them. Slavery had always had its critics in America, so as the slave trade grew, so did the opposition. The slave labor enabled the colonies to become so profitable, that in 1660 England’s King Charles the second established the royal African company to transport humans from Africa to America. When England finally outlawed its slave trade in 1807, America relied on its own internal slave trade. By 1860, millions of slaves were still moved and sold in the colonies, but no new slaves were imported into the US after 1808. In 1820, the Missouri compromise banned slavery in all new western states, this concluded mostly the southern colonies. The country began to divide around the 18th century over the North and South issue. When Abraham Lincoln was elected for president in 1860, he convinced many southerners that slavery would never be permitted to expand into new territories acquired by the US. He also declared the emancipation declaration during the war, in 1863. Though Lincoln’s antislavery views were well established, the central Union war aim at first was not to abolish slavery but to preserve the United States as a nation. Eventually, the confederate surrendered in 1865 and the Northside won. The 13th Amendment officially abolished slavery, but freed blacks’ status in the post-war South remained problematic. Opinions were based on your beliefs and how the world around you evolved. In the North, people were against slavery, but in the South, they thought something else. In the South, people were taught to think that slavery was a natural concept. The defenders of slavery meant that they could not end servitude, considering that slave labor was the foundation of their economy. They also meant that freeing the slaves would lead to anarchy and chaos, and that slavery had existed throughout history and was a common state of mankind. The Northside didn’t rely on slave work as much as the Southside did. The Northside did not like slavery and meant that it was heartless. Other groups (religious groups), thought that it was gruesome and inhuman, while others were busy thinking about their beliefs. Earn Up to $500+ by Selling Your Papers With StudySaurus, earning money couldn't be easier. Make some cash off (up to $500) of old your essays.Sell your Essay The life of an African-American, after the Civil war, was a world transformed. There were no more of the brutal beatings and the sexual assaults, the selling and forcible relocation of family members, the denial of education, legal marriage, homeownership and so on. Congress enforced laws that promoted civil rights and political rights for African-Americans. The three most important laws the Congress passed was the Amendments. There was the thirteenth amendment which ended slavery, the fourteenth amendment which gave African-Americans the rights of American citizenship, and the fifteenth amendment which gave black men the right to vote. Life after the years of slavery would also prove to be difficult. The South established laws known as the black codes, which meant that they had no right to own land, there were own laws for punishments, they had no rights to carry weapons, no rights to vote and it was illegal not to have work. Most of the African-American, though free, lived in severe poverty. Slavery began in America when the first slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619. The slaves would aid in the production of crops such as tobacco and cotton. Slavery was of central importance to the South side’s economy. The differences between the South and the North would provoke a big debate, that would tear the nation apart in the gruesome Civil war. Slavery ended after the North won the civil war in 1865 after Abraham Lincoln ratified the thirteenth amendment law. There were many opinions, especially in the South. The southerners meant that slavery had always been around and that it was natural. The Northside meant that it was not right, while other religious groups thought it was horrific. After the Civil war, problems would still appear for the freed slaves. Despite that the beatings, the sexual assaults, and the selling were long gone, life would not be easy for the African-Americans. The South made new laws, known as the black code. It indicated that «negroes» were not allowed to do certain things such as own land, or even carry weapons. Although it was a new law and a new era, it would not change peoples hearts.	<urn:uuid:de8d04c9-47db-4031-bdae-539313bb797c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studysaurus.com/essays/slavery-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00271.warc.gz	en	0.986863	1,115	4	4	[ -0.3499053120613098, 0.3723523020744324, 0.19444967806339264, 0.11914898455142975, -0.025424189865589142, 0.12347075343132019, -0.22419652342796326, -0.19968968629837036, -0.27497363090515137, 0.29140836000442505, 0.3172230124473572, 0.15617512166500092, -0.3606984615325928, 0.274697959423...	2	Disclaimer: This paper has been submitted by a student. This is not a sample of the work written by professional academic writers. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of StudySaurus. Topic: Slavery in America Slavery used to be an important resource in America, and the first workers were imported to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. There the African slaves were used to aid in the tobacco and cotton productions. There were many different opinions on this subject, but slavery was here to stay, at least for the next couple of centuries. Around the 1860s, the bloody Civil war broke out and Abraham Lincoln, as the president, ratified a law which would eventually free the nations four million slaves. Five years later, the North won the Civil war, the slaves were freed and slavery was abolished. Even though black people were free at last, life would not be easy for them. Slavery had always had its critics in America, so as the slave trade grew, so did the opposition. The slave labor enabled the colonies to become so profitable, that in 1660 England’s King Charles the second established the royal African company to transport humans from Africa to America. When England finally outlawed its slave trade in 1807, America relied on its own internal slave trade. By 1860, millions of slaves were still moved and sold in the colonies, but no new slaves were imported into the US after 1808. In 1820, the Missouri compromise banned slavery in all new western states, this concluded mostly the southern colonies. The country began to divide around the 18th century over the North and South issue. When Abraham Lincoln was elected for president in 1860, he convinced many southerners that slavery would never be permitted to expand into new territories acquired by the US. He also declared the emancipation declaration during the war, in 1863. Though Lincoln’s antislavery views were well established, the central Union war aim at first was not to abolish slavery but to preserve the United States as a nation. Eventually, the confederate surrendered in 1865 and the Northside won. The 13th Amendment officially abolished slavery, but freed blacks’ status in the post-war South remained problematic. Opinions were based on your beliefs and how the world around you evolved. In the North, people were against slavery, but in the South, they thought something else. In the South, people were taught to think that slavery was a natural concept. The defenders of slavery meant that they could not end servitude, considering that slave labor was the foundation of their economy. They also meant that freeing the slaves would lead to anarchy and chaos, and that slavery had existed throughout history and was a common state of mankind. The Northside didn’t rely on slave work as much as the Southside did. The Northside did not like slavery and meant that it was heartless. Other groups (religious groups), thought that it was gruesome and inhuman, while others were busy thinking about their beliefs. Earn Up to $500+ by Selling Your Papers With StudySaurus, earning money couldn't be easier. Make some cash off (up to $500) of old your essays.Sell your Essay The life of an African-American, after the Civil war, was a world transformed. There were no more of the brutal beatings and the sexual assaults, the selling and forcible relocation of family members, the denial of education, legal marriage, homeownership and so on. Congress enforced laws that promoted civil rights and political rights for African-Americans. The three most important laws the Congress passed was the Amendments. There was the thirteenth amendment which ended slavery, the fourteenth amendment which gave African-Americans the rights of American citizenship, and the fifteenth amendment which gave black men the right to vote. Life after the years of slavery would also prove to be difficult. The South established laws known as the black codes, which meant that they had no right to own land, there were own laws for punishments, they had no rights to carry weapons, no rights to vote and it was illegal not to have work. Most of the African-American, though free, lived in severe poverty. Slavery began in America when the first slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619. The slaves would aid in the production of crops such as tobacco and cotton. Slavery was of central importance to the South side’s economy. The differences between the South and the North would provoke a big debate, that would tear the nation apart in the gruesome Civil war. Slavery ended after the North won the civil war in 1865 after Abraham Lincoln ratified the thirteenth amendment law. There were many opinions, especially in the South. The southerners meant that slavery had always been around and that it was natural. The Northside meant that it was not right, while other religious groups thought it was horrific. After the Civil war, problems would still appear for the freed slaves. Despite that the beatings, the sexual assaults, and the selling were long gone, life would not be easy for the African-Americans. The South made new laws, known as the black code. It indicated that «negroes» were not allowed to do certain things such as own land, or even carry weapons. Although it was a new law and a new era, it would not change peoples hearts.	1,140	ENGLISH	1
Furniture through time Furniture dates back to prehistoric times and some of the earliest furniture ever found comes from a Stone Age village in the Orkney Islands from around 2000 BC. People lived in stone huts and make furniture from stone, such as beds and cupboards. This doesn’t sound particularly comfortable though. Ancient Egypt was a little more glamorous with painted walls and coloured tiled floors. Furniture was made from wood with beds, chairs, tables and drawers. Poorer people lived in houses made from mud and furniture was more basic consisting of reed chests and brick benches. Furniture in Ancient Greece was also fairly basic. The rich would have a wooden cabinet to display items on and there would have been couches to recline on but these would have been a simple affair consisting of wooden frames and webbing or mats laid on top. Roman furniture was more advanced and in colder areas villas often boasted underfloor heating called Hypocaust. Mosaic floors were a common feature and art became apparent, with wall paintings and murals. Finely carved and upholstered furniture was owned by the wealthy but the poor still had sparse and basic furniture. Not much is known about Saxon furniture and it is considered to have been mainly made from wood, such as benches and tables. Upper class Saxons slept on straw mattresses but the poor were on the floor. Most people lived together in one large hall, there was no glass in the windows so they hung tapestries. Medieval furniture was still basic and even chairs were rare. The rich had tables and chests which also acted as beds and were mostly made from Oak. During the Middle Ages, furniture became a little more comfortable for the wealthy. It tended to be made from oak and was heavy and extremely large. It was to last for generations and pieces became family heirlooms. The poor still saw little improvement in their living conditions however. During the 17th century furniture became much more finely decorated and made from walnut or mahogany. Veneering and lacquering were developed to protect wooden chairs and tables. New furniture appeared at this time, such as bookcases and Grandfather clocks. Armchairs appeared in the 1680’s. The Victorian era lived very comfortably and this era saw the first mass produced furniture. Items became cheaper but also lessened in quality. The poor still slept on straw beds as they couldn’t afford beds. AS the century progressed lives improved but furniture was still reserved for the front room of a house, with little elsewhere. Rising living standards during the 20th century have seen all rooms furnished, perhaps for the first time in human history and ordinary furniture has greatly improved in design and quality. Mass produced furniture is now a way of life but for those seeking an entirely personal piece, there are still bespoke furniture makers to satisfy those needs. If you do want a selection of Reception Chairs for your bespoke office then you could look at sites like Reception chairs from Best Buy Office Chairs	<urn:uuid:941dc7a9-1388-4508-ab85-5789a4df0c8b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lc-rent.com/home/furniture-through-time/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00531.warc.gz	en	0.992236	625	3.359375	3	[ 0.03029376082122326, 0.40832141041755676, 0.7744601368904114, -0.1339755654335022, -0.15088093280792236, -0.21311593055725098, -0.5688487887382507, 0.09029920399188995, 0.14671236276626587, 0.1765023171901703, 0.1892862766981125, -0.2923838794231415, -0.20035842061042786, 0.486911505460739...	7	Furniture through time Furniture dates back to prehistoric times and some of the earliest furniture ever found comes from a Stone Age village in the Orkney Islands from around 2000 BC. People lived in stone huts and make furniture from stone, such as beds and cupboards. This doesn’t sound particularly comfortable though. Ancient Egypt was a little more glamorous with painted walls and coloured tiled floors. Furniture was made from wood with beds, chairs, tables and drawers. Poorer people lived in houses made from mud and furniture was more basic consisting of reed chests and brick benches. Furniture in Ancient Greece was also fairly basic. The rich would have a wooden cabinet to display items on and there would have been couches to recline on but these would have been a simple affair consisting of wooden frames and webbing or mats laid on top. Roman furniture was more advanced and in colder areas villas often boasted underfloor heating called Hypocaust. Mosaic floors were a common feature and art became apparent, with wall paintings and murals. Finely carved and upholstered furniture was owned by the wealthy but the poor still had sparse and basic furniture. Not much is known about Saxon furniture and it is considered to have been mainly made from wood, such as benches and tables. Upper class Saxons slept on straw mattresses but the poor were on the floor. Most people lived together in one large hall, there was no glass in the windows so they hung tapestries. Medieval furniture was still basic and even chairs were rare. The rich had tables and chests which also acted as beds and were mostly made from Oak. During the Middle Ages, furniture became a little more comfortable for the wealthy. It tended to be made from oak and was heavy and extremely large. It was to last for generations and pieces became family heirlooms. The poor still saw little improvement in their living conditions however. During the 17th century furniture became much more finely decorated and made from walnut or mahogany. Veneering and lacquering were developed to protect wooden chairs and tables. New furniture appeared at this time, such as bookcases and Grandfather clocks. Armchairs appeared in the 1680’s. The Victorian era lived very comfortably and this era saw the first mass produced furniture. Items became cheaper but also lessened in quality. The poor still slept on straw beds as they couldn’t afford beds. AS the century progressed lives improved but furniture was still reserved for the front room of a house, with little elsewhere. Rising living standards during the 20th century have seen all rooms furnished, perhaps for the first time in human history and ordinary furniture has greatly improved in design and quality. Mass produced furniture is now a way of life but for those seeking an entirely personal piece, there are still bespoke furniture makers to satisfy those needs. If you do want a selection of Reception Chairs for your bespoke office then you could look at sites like Reception chairs from Best Buy Office Chairs	607	ENGLISH	1
Mars was the god of war, death, and protector of the Roman state and its Caesars. He was held as a primary god of the Roman religion and mythology, second only to Jupiter, chief of the gods. Mars is nearly identical to Ares, the Greek god of war. In early Roman history his role was somewhat different; he protected cattle and was regarded as a god of nature and fertility. He is typically depicted wearing armor and carrying a spear. In some portrayals, his reproductive organs are visible, symbolizing manliness. Myths and Stories Myths pertaining to Mars were largely drawn from those of the Greek god Ares. For example, when Jupiter gave birth to Minerva from his head, Jupiter’s wife Juno was jealous. Flora, goddess of flowering plants, gave Juno a magical herb that allowed her to conceive a child without the aid of Jupiter. That child was Mars. In another myth, Mars played a role in the founding of Rome. The story goes that Numitor, king of a nearby city, had been deposed by his younger brother. The former king’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, was forced to become a Vestal Virgin and take a vow of chastity so she would not bear a child that could someday reclaim the throne. However, she was visited by Mars and bore twin sons, Romulus and Remus. The new king attempted to drown the boys in the river, but they were carried downstream to the future site of Rome. There, they were suckled by a wolf and later reared by a herdsman and his wife. Ovid’s Fasti recounts one of the few truly Roman myths, not influenced by Greek culture. In this legend, Mars attempts to seduce Minerva, daughter/wife of Jupiter. Instead, he is tricked into marrying Anna Perenna, a woman of great age. The Roman Empire was built and expanded by the conquest of other nations. Romans were proud of their might in warfare. It is no wonder, then, that the god of war was of great significance to their culture; Romans considered themselves sons of Mars. One temple to Mars was located at the Campus Martius, the training ground and exercise arena of the Roman army, and another near the Porta Capena. At the former, the god was known as Mars Gradivus, “he who proceeds the army in battle.” A sacrarium, or shrine, was located in the former king’s house, called the regia. There were kept the sacred spears of Mars, called hastae Martiae. When war was declared, the Roman consul would shake the spears, shouting “Mars vigila!” meaning, “Mars, wake up!” Augustus Caesar claimed Mars as the guardian of Roman emperors, calling him Mars Ultor, or Mars the Avenger. Festivals dedicated to Mars Festivals to Mars were held in the spring in fall, at the beginning and end of both the agricultural and military season. For this reason, the month of March was named for Mars. Horse races called Equirria were held on February 27 and March 14, and the Feriae Marti on March 1. Weapons and chariots were cleansed during the Quinquatrus and Tubilustrium on March 19 and 23, respectively. Throughout month of March, the Salii, or “jumpers,” representing Mars along with Jupiter and Quirinus, chanted and performed war dances while wearing old-fashioned armor. The fall festivals were held in October. On October 15, a festival called the October Horse was held, in which a race between two-horse chariots took place on the Campus Martius. The Armilustrium was held on October 19, on which implements of war were purified and stored for the winter. Once every five years, fertility rites called Suovetaurilia were observed, involving the sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and cow. Like many ancient deities, Mars’ legacy lives on in the naming of celestial bodies. The planet now called Mars, the forth planet from the sun, has since ancient times been associated with warfare and bloodshed, likely due to the planet’s red appearance. The moons of Mars are named for the mythical sons of Mars and Venus, Phobos, meaning “fear,” and Deimos, meaning “terror.” Facts about Mars Role in Mythology: God of war, protector of Rome, god of nature, fertility, and spring, god of death, protector of cattle Alternate Names: Mars Ultor, Mars Gradivus Family Relationships: Son of Juno, lover of Venus and Rhea Silvia, father of Phobos, Deimos, Romulus, and Remus Symbols: Spear, wolf, woodpecker Greek Equivalent: Ares Norse Similar: Several, including Tyr and Odin Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Mars: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	<urn:uuid:baa4369c-fd9d-45e2-b39b-2d659276610f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/roman/mars/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00194.warc.gz	en	0.983456	1,091	3.71875	4	[ 0.23344337940216064, 0.7486022710800171, 0.11280140280723572, 0.2780173122882843, -0.6461161971092224, -0.023717081174254417, 0.18861030042171478, 0.5887970924377441, 0.1170772910118103, -0.008611338213086128, -0.0576724037528038, -0.4754090905189514, 0.004707855172455311, 0.36023759841918...	1	Mars was the god of war, death, and protector of the Roman state and its Caesars. He was held as a primary god of the Roman religion and mythology, second only to Jupiter, chief of the gods. Mars is nearly identical to Ares, the Greek god of war. In early Roman history his role was somewhat different; he protected cattle and was regarded as a god of nature and fertility. He is typically depicted wearing armor and carrying a spear. In some portrayals, his reproductive organs are visible, symbolizing manliness. Myths and Stories Myths pertaining to Mars were largely drawn from those of the Greek god Ares. For example, when Jupiter gave birth to Minerva from his head, Jupiter’s wife Juno was jealous. Flora, goddess of flowering plants, gave Juno a magical herb that allowed her to conceive a child without the aid of Jupiter. That child was Mars. In another myth, Mars played a role in the founding of Rome. The story goes that Numitor, king of a nearby city, had been deposed by his younger brother. The former king’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, was forced to become a Vestal Virgin and take a vow of chastity so she would not bear a child that could someday reclaim the throne. However, she was visited by Mars and bore twin sons, Romulus and Remus. The new king attempted to drown the boys in the river, but they were carried downstream to the future site of Rome. There, they were suckled by a wolf and later reared by a herdsman and his wife. Ovid’s Fasti recounts one of the few truly Roman myths, not influenced by Greek culture. In this legend, Mars attempts to seduce Minerva, daughter/wife of Jupiter. Instead, he is tricked into marrying Anna Perenna, a woman of great age. The Roman Empire was built and expanded by the conquest of other nations. Romans were proud of their might in warfare. It is no wonder, then, that the god of war was of great significance to their culture; Romans considered themselves sons of Mars. One temple to Mars was located at the Campus Martius, the training ground and exercise arena of the Roman army, and another near the Porta Capena. At the former, the god was known as Mars Gradivus, “he who proceeds the army in battle.” A sacrarium, or shrine, was located in the former king’s house, called the regia. There were kept the sacred spears of Mars, called hastae Martiae. When war was declared, the Roman consul would shake the spears, shouting “Mars vigila!” meaning, “Mars, wake up!” Augustus Caesar claimed Mars as the guardian of Roman emperors, calling him Mars Ultor, or Mars the Avenger. Festivals dedicated to Mars Festivals to Mars were held in the spring in fall, at the beginning and end of both the agricultural and military season. For this reason, the month of March was named for Mars. Horse races called Equirria were held on February 27 and March 14, and the Feriae Marti on March 1. Weapons and chariots were cleansed during the Quinquatrus and Tubilustrium on March 19 and 23, respectively. Throughout month of March, the Salii, or “jumpers,” representing Mars along with Jupiter and Quirinus, chanted and performed war dances while wearing old-fashioned armor. The fall festivals were held in October. On October 15, a festival called the October Horse was held, in which a race between two-horse chariots took place on the Campus Martius. The Armilustrium was held on October 19, on which implements of war were purified and stored for the winter. Once every five years, fertility rites called Suovetaurilia were observed, involving the sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and cow. Like many ancient deities, Mars’ legacy lives on in the naming of celestial bodies. The planet now called Mars, the forth planet from the sun, has since ancient times been associated with warfare and bloodshed, likely due to the planet’s red appearance. The moons of Mars are named for the mythical sons of Mars and Venus, Phobos, meaning “fear,” and Deimos, meaning “terror.” Facts about Mars Role in Mythology: God of war, protector of Rome, god of nature, fertility, and spring, god of death, protector of cattle Alternate Names: Mars Ultor, Mars Gradivus Family Relationships: Son of Juno, lover of Venus and Rhea Silvia, father of Phobos, Deimos, Romulus, and Remus Symbols: Spear, wolf, woodpecker Greek Equivalent: Ares Norse Similar: Several, including Tyr and Odin Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Mars: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	1,078	ENGLISH	1
Family patterns are changing markedly over the time. It is clear that modern family has many changes and differences in comparison with the traditional one. This paper will discuss the differences between the traditional family and the modern one. The first difference is structure of family. The typical size of traditional family has more than two generations living together. A married couple could live with their descendants and their relatives under one roof. Whereas the modern family almost has from three to four people. A couple has only one or two children. And they live separatedly with their relatives. The second difference is the role of family members. In traditional family, the man is always the breadwiner while the woman is the housewife. The man is very patriarchal and makes decision himself. The woman has to do the housework, take care of their children and serve her parents-in-law. In contrast, the role of the man and woman in the modern one is equal. They both work outside. They share their housework and their thoughts. Likewise, children are brought up by their parents. The last difference is the relationship of the family. In the past, the family lives and works together, so the family relationship is attached. Whereas the modern family has no time to gather. The parents work all day and the children learn whole day. They rarely spend time for other members. For this reson, the relationship of the modern family is not close-knit. In conclusion, the traditional family differs from the modern one on many aspects. There are both good and bad differences between the families. Traditional family becomes the modern one, which is the impact of modern society on families.	<urn:uuid:3b2fbaa7-b715-43c6-89a6-87e0ad344889>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayforum.com/writing/differences-traditional-family-modern-one-44617/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00503.warc.gz	en	0.98552	334	3.546875	4	[ 0.2977781593799591, 0.3279168903827667, 0.17521393299102783, -0.275491327047348, 0.14014756679534912, 0.1434827297925949, -0.19009387493133545, -0.2973441779613495, 0.05039333924651146, -0.4234403371810913, 0.22983430325984955, 0.16869933903217316, 0.1602877974510193, 0.051287006586790085,...	1	Family patterns are changing markedly over the time. It is clear that modern family has many changes and differences in comparison with the traditional one. This paper will discuss the differences between the traditional family and the modern one. The first difference is structure of family. The typical size of traditional family has more than two generations living together. A married couple could live with their descendants and their relatives under one roof. Whereas the modern family almost has from three to four people. A couple has only one or two children. And they live separatedly with their relatives. The second difference is the role of family members. In traditional family, the man is always the breadwiner while the woman is the housewife. The man is very patriarchal and makes decision himself. The woman has to do the housework, take care of their children and serve her parents-in-law. In contrast, the role of the man and woman in the modern one is equal. They both work outside. They share their housework and their thoughts. Likewise, children are brought up by their parents. The last difference is the relationship of the family. In the past, the family lives and works together, so the family relationship is attached. Whereas the modern family has no time to gather. The parents work all day and the children learn whole day. They rarely spend time for other members. For this reson, the relationship of the modern family is not close-knit. In conclusion, the traditional family differs from the modern one on many aspects. There are both good and bad differences between the families. Traditional family becomes the modern one, which is the impact of modern society on families.	329	ENGLISH	1
The Alcatraz Indian Occupation European discovery and exploration of the San Francisco Bay Area and its islands began in 1542 and culminated with the mapping of the bay in 1775. Early visitors to the Bay Area were preceded 10,000 to 20,000 years earlier, however, by the native people indigenous to the area. Prior to the coming of the Spanish and Portuguese explorers, over 10,000 indigenous people, later to be called the Ohlone (a Miwok Indian word meaning "western people"), lived in the coastal area between Point Sur and the San Francisco Bay. Early use of Alcatraz Island by the indigenous people is difficult to reconstruct, as most tribal and village history was recorded and passed down generation-to-generation as an oral history of the people. A large portion of this oral history has been lost as a result of the huge reduction of the California Indian population following European contact and exploration. Based on oral history it appears that Alcatraz was used as a place of isolation or ostracization for tribal members who had violated a tribal law or taboo, as a camping spot, an area for gathering foods, especially bird eggs and sea-life, and that Alcatraz was utilized also as a hiding place for many Indians attempting to escape from the California Mission system. Once Alcatraz Island became a prison, both military prisoners and civilians were incarcerated on the island. Among these were many American Indians. The largest single group of Indian prisoners sentenced to confinement on Alcatraz occurred in January 1895 when the U.S. government arrested, tried and shipped nineteen Moqui Hopi to Alcatraz Island. Indian people continued to be confined as prisoners in the disciplinary barracks on the island through the remainder of the 1800s and the early 1900s. November 9, 1969 On this day, Indian people once again came to Alcatraz Island when Richard Oakes, Akwesasne Mohawk, and a group of Indian supporters set out in a chartered boat, the Monte Cristo, to symbolically claim the island for the Indian people. On November 20, 1969, this symbolic occupation turned into a full scale occupation which lasted until June 11, 1971. In actuality, there were three separate occupations of Alcatraz Island, one on March 9, 1964, one on November 9, 1969, and the occupation which lasted nineteen months which began on the 20th of November, 1969. The 1964 occupation lasted for only four hours and was carried out by five Sicangu Lakota, led by Richard McKenzie and wife, Belva Cottier. This short occupation is significant because the demands for the use of the island for a cultural center and an Indian university would resurface almost word for word in the larger, much longer occupation of 1969. The November 9, 1969 occupation was planned by Richard Oakes, a group of Indian students, and a group of urban Indians from the Bay Area. Since many different tribes were represented, the name "Indians of All Tribes" was adopted for the group. They claimed the island in the name of Indians of all tribes and left the island to return later that same evening. In meetings following the November 9th occupation, Oakes and his fellow American Indian students realized that a prolonged occupation was possible. Oakes visited the American Indian Studies Center at UCLA where he recruited Indian students for what would become the longest prolonged occupation of a federal facility by Indian people to this very day. Eighty Indian students from UCLA were among the approximately 100 Indian people who occupied Alcatraz Island. It is important to remember that the occupation force was made up initially of young urban Indian college students. And the most inspirational person was Richard Oakes. Oakes is described by most of those as handsome, charismatic, a talented orator, and a natural leader. Oakes was the most knowledgeable about the landings and the most often sought out and identified as the leader, the Chief, the mayor of Alcatraz. The back and forth with the Government Once the occupiers had established themselves on the island, organization began immediately. An elected council was put into place and everyone on the island had a job; security, sanitation, day-care, school, housing, cooking, laundry, and all decisions were made by unanimous consent of the people. The federal government initially insisted that the Indian people leave the island, placed an ineffective barricade around the island, and eventually agreed to demands by the Indian council that formal negotiations be held. From the Indians side, the negotiations were fixed. They wanted the deed to the island, they wanted to establish an Indian university, a cultural center, and a museum. The government negotiators insisted that the occupiers could have none of these and insisted that they leave the island. By early 1970 the Indian organization began to fall into disarray. Two groups rose in opposition to Richard Oakes and as the Indian students began returning to school in January 1970, they were replaced by Indian people from the urban areas and from reservations who have not been involved in the initial occupation. Additionally, many non-Indians now began taking up residency on the island, many from the San Francisco hippie and drug culture. The final blow to the organized leadership occurred on January 5, 1970, when Oakes's 13 year old stepdaughter fell three floors down a stairwell to her death. Following Yvonne's death, Oakes left the island and the two competing groups maneuvered back and forth for leadership on the island. The federal government responded to the occupation by adopting a position of non-interference. The FBI was directed to remain clear of the island. The Coast Guard was directed not to interfere, and the Government Services Administration (GSA) was instructed not to remove the Indians from the island. While it appeared to those on the island that negotiations were actually taking place, in fact, the federal government was playing a waiting game, hoping that support for the occupation would subside and those on the island would elect to end the occupation. At one point, secret negotiations were held where the occupiers were offered a portion of Fort Miley, in San Francisco, as an alternative site to Alcatraz Island. By this time, mid-1970, however, those on the island had become so entrenched that nothing less than full title to the island, the establishing of a university and cultural center, would suffice. In the meantime, the government shut off all electrical power, and removed the water barge which had provided fresh water to the occupiers. Three days following the removal of the water barge, a fire broke out on the island. Several historic buildings were destroyed. The government blamed the Indians, the Indians blamed undercover government infiltrators trying to turn non-Indian support against them. The new population on the island became a problem as time passed. The daily reports from the government caretaker on the island as well as testimony from the remaining original occupiers complain of the open use of drugs, fighting over authority, and general disarray of the leadership. An egalitarian form of government was supposed to prevail, yet no leadership was visible with which the government could negotiate. The occupation continued on into 1971 with various new problems emerging for the Indian occupiers. In an attempt to raise money to buy food, they allegedly began stripping copper wiring and copper tubing from the buildings and selling it as scrap metal. Three of the occupiers were arrested, tried and found guilt of selling some 600lbs of copper. In early 1971, the press, which had been largely sympathetic to this point turned against them and began publishing stories of alleged beatings and assaults; one case of assault was prosecuted. Soon, little support could be found. Eventually, all things must come to an end... In January 1971, two oil tankers collided in the entrance to the San Francisco Bay. Though it was acknowledged that the lack of an Alcatraz light or fog horn played no part in the collision, it was enough to push the federal government into action. President Nixon gave the go ahead to develop a removal plan -- to take place when the smallest number of people were on the island and to use as little force as possible. On June 10, 1971, armed federal marshals, FBI agents, and special forces police swarmed the island and removed five women, four children, and six unarmed Indian men. The occupation was over. The success or failure of the occupation should not be judged by whether the demands of the occupiers were realized. The underlying goals of the Indians on Alcatraz were to awaken the American public to the reality of the plight of the first Americans and to assert the need for Indian self-determination. As a result of the occupation, either directly or indirectly, the official government policy of termination of Indian tribes was ended and a policy of Indian self-determination became the official US government policy. During the period the occupiers were on Alcatraz Island, President Nixon returned Blue Lake and 48.000 acres of land to the Taos Indians. Occupied lands near Davis California would become home to a Native American university. The occupation of Bureau of Indian Affairs offices in Washington, D.C. would lead to the hiring of Native American's to work in the federal agency that had such a great effect on their lives. Alcatraz may have been lost, but the occupation gave birth to a political movement which continues to today. Last updated: November 26, 2019	<urn:uuid:cc6b43f5-4bdd-4020-b1df-c5e2f6dd6eb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nps.gov/alca/learn/historyculture/we-hold-the-rock.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00092.warc.gz	en	0.981422	1,921	4.03125	4	[ 0.08291755616664886, 0.12151248753070831, 0.0016127096023410559, -0.06956225633621216, -0.35138964653015137, -0.09989923238754272, 0.33924001455307007, -0.036149729043245316, -0.1934361755847931, 0.05757001042366028, 0.2677781581878662, -0.19970683753490448, -0.21805375814437866, 0.6420289...	14	The Alcatraz Indian Occupation European discovery and exploration of the San Francisco Bay Area and its islands began in 1542 and culminated with the mapping of the bay in 1775. Early visitors to the Bay Area were preceded 10,000 to 20,000 years earlier, however, by the native people indigenous to the area. Prior to the coming of the Spanish and Portuguese explorers, over 10,000 indigenous people, later to be called the Ohlone (a Miwok Indian word meaning "western people"), lived in the coastal area between Point Sur and the San Francisco Bay. Early use of Alcatraz Island by the indigenous people is difficult to reconstruct, as most tribal and village history was recorded and passed down generation-to-generation as an oral history of the people. A large portion of this oral history has been lost as a result of the huge reduction of the California Indian population following European contact and exploration. Based on oral history it appears that Alcatraz was used as a place of isolation or ostracization for tribal members who had violated a tribal law or taboo, as a camping spot, an area for gathering foods, especially bird eggs and sea-life, and that Alcatraz was utilized also as a hiding place for many Indians attempting to escape from the California Mission system. Once Alcatraz Island became a prison, both military prisoners and civilians were incarcerated on the island. Among these were many American Indians. The largest single group of Indian prisoners sentenced to confinement on Alcatraz occurred in January 1895 when the U.S. government arrested, tried and shipped nineteen Moqui Hopi to Alcatraz Island. Indian people continued to be confined as prisoners in the disciplinary barracks on the island through the remainder of the 1800s and the early 1900s. November 9, 1969 On this day, Indian people once again came to Alcatraz Island when Richard Oakes, Akwesasne Mohawk, and a group of Indian supporters set out in a chartered boat, the Monte Cristo, to symbolically claim the island for the Indian people. On November 20, 1969, this symbolic occupation turned into a full scale occupation which lasted until June 11, 1971. In actuality, there were three separate occupations of Alcatraz Island, one on March 9, 1964, one on November 9, 1969, and the occupation which lasted nineteen months which began on the 20th of November, 1969. The 1964 occupation lasted for only four hours and was carried out by five Sicangu Lakota, led by Richard McKenzie and wife, Belva Cottier. This short occupation is significant because the demands for the use of the island for a cultural center and an Indian university would resurface almost word for word in the larger, much longer occupation of 1969. The November 9, 1969 occupation was planned by Richard Oakes, a group of Indian students, and a group of urban Indians from the Bay Area. Since many different tribes were represented, the name "Indians of All Tribes" was adopted for the group. They claimed the island in the name of Indians of all tribes and left the island to return later that same evening. In meetings following the November 9th occupation, Oakes and his fellow American Indian students realized that a prolonged occupation was possible. Oakes visited the American Indian Studies Center at UCLA where he recruited Indian students for what would become the longest prolonged occupation of a federal facility by Indian people to this very day. Eighty Indian students from UCLA were among the approximately 100 Indian people who occupied Alcatraz Island. It is important to remember that the occupation force was made up initially of young urban Indian college students. And the most inspirational person was Richard Oakes. Oakes is described by most of those as handsome, charismatic, a talented orator, and a natural leader. Oakes was the most knowledgeable about the landings and the most often sought out and identified as the leader, the Chief, the mayor of Alcatraz. The back and forth with the Government Once the occupiers had established themselves on the island, organization began immediately. An elected council was put into place and everyone on the island had a job; security, sanitation, day-care, school, housing, cooking, laundry, and all decisions were made by unanimous consent of the people. The federal government initially insisted that the Indian people leave the island, placed an ineffective barricade around the island, and eventually agreed to demands by the Indian council that formal negotiations be held. From the Indians side, the negotiations were fixed. They wanted the deed to the island, they wanted to establish an Indian university, a cultural center, and a museum. The government negotiators insisted that the occupiers could have none of these and insisted that they leave the island. By early 1970 the Indian organization began to fall into disarray. Two groups rose in opposition to Richard Oakes and as the Indian students began returning to school in January 1970, they were replaced by Indian people from the urban areas and from reservations who have not been involved in the initial occupation. Additionally, many non-Indians now began taking up residency on the island, many from the San Francisco hippie and drug culture. The final blow to the organized leadership occurred on January 5, 1970, when Oakes's 13 year old stepdaughter fell three floors down a stairwell to her death. Following Yvonne's death, Oakes left the island and the two competing groups maneuvered back and forth for leadership on the island. The federal government responded to the occupation by adopting a position of non-interference. The FBI was directed to remain clear of the island. The Coast Guard was directed not to interfere, and the Government Services Administration (GSA) was instructed not to remove the Indians from the island. While it appeared to those on the island that negotiations were actually taking place, in fact, the federal government was playing a waiting game, hoping that support for the occupation would subside and those on the island would elect to end the occupation. At one point, secret negotiations were held where the occupiers were offered a portion of Fort Miley, in San Francisco, as an alternative site to Alcatraz Island. By this time, mid-1970, however, those on the island had become so entrenched that nothing less than full title to the island, the establishing of a university and cultural center, would suffice. In the meantime, the government shut off all electrical power, and removed the water barge which had provided fresh water to the occupiers. Three days following the removal of the water barge, a fire broke out on the island. Several historic buildings were destroyed. The government blamed the Indians, the Indians blamed undercover government infiltrators trying to turn non-Indian support against them. The new population on the island became a problem as time passed. The daily reports from the government caretaker on the island as well as testimony from the remaining original occupiers complain of the open use of drugs, fighting over authority, and general disarray of the leadership. An egalitarian form of government was supposed to prevail, yet no leadership was visible with which the government could negotiate. The occupation continued on into 1971 with various new problems emerging for the Indian occupiers. In an attempt to raise money to buy food, they allegedly began stripping copper wiring and copper tubing from the buildings and selling it as scrap metal. Three of the occupiers were arrested, tried and found guilt of selling some 600lbs of copper. In early 1971, the press, which had been largely sympathetic to this point turned against them and began publishing stories of alleged beatings and assaults; one case of assault was prosecuted. Soon, little support could be found. Eventually, all things must come to an end... In January 1971, two oil tankers collided in the entrance to the San Francisco Bay. Though it was acknowledged that the lack of an Alcatraz light or fog horn played no part in the collision, it was enough to push the federal government into action. President Nixon gave the go ahead to develop a removal plan -- to take place when the smallest number of people were on the island and to use as little force as possible. On June 10, 1971, armed federal marshals, FBI agents, and special forces police swarmed the island and removed five women, four children, and six unarmed Indian men. The occupation was over. The success or failure of the occupation should not be judged by whether the demands of the occupiers were realized. The underlying goals of the Indians on Alcatraz were to awaken the American public to the reality of the plight of the first Americans and to assert the need for Indian self-determination. As a result of the occupation, either directly or indirectly, the official government policy of termination of Indian tribes was ended and a policy of Indian self-determination became the official US government policy. During the period the occupiers were on Alcatraz Island, President Nixon returned Blue Lake and 48.000 acres of land to the Taos Indians. Occupied lands near Davis California would become home to a Native American university. The occupation of Bureau of Indian Affairs offices in Washington, D.C. would lead to the hiring of Native American's to work in the federal agency that had such a great effect on their lives. Alcatraz may have been lost, but the occupation gave birth to a political movement which continues to today. Last updated: November 26, 2019	2,024	ENGLISH	1
In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark The book I have just read, "In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark", is mainly about a man named Richard, his wife Arlette, and his two children Michele, 6, and Daniel, 4, who follow in almost the exact footsteps of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. While the book talks about the family’s expedition it also, mainly, tells about the Lewis and Clark expedition and the history of it. Meriwether Lewis was born August 18th, 1774 near Charlottesville, Virginia. William Clark was born August 1st, 1770 in Virginia as well. Some people believe that the boys may have played together as children, but this is only a myth. When their lives did join, their names became inseparable as partners of discovery. When Lewis joined the Militia in 1794, he met Clark. In sharing the experiences of the Northwest Campaign against the British and the Indians, Lewis and Clark became fast friends. When Lewis was in Philadelphia he received a letter from President Jefferson with detailed instructions for the expedition to explore the western terrain. Clark would be assisting him. Richard and his wife prepare for their expedition in Philadelphia, as Lewis did, and they visited the library of the American Philosophical Society. The librarian suggested that if they wanted to follow in the exact footsteps of Lewis and Clark they should use a classic eight volume edition of the Lewis and Clark journals. Richard took many notes of the Lewis and Clark expedition for their journey. Lewis and Clark started on August 31, 1803 and floated down the Ohio River to set out for St. Louis where they trained a group of men for the upcoming task. When they started their tour in May 1804, they took a keelboat, two pirogue boats and 29 men to start the exploration of the west. One of those men was Touissant Charbonneau, a man who took one of his Indian wives, Sacagawea, with him. It is said that she was one of the most important reasons the expedition survived. Most of the Indian tribes did not think this a military expedition because a woman and her child, Pompy, who she gave birth to on February 11, 1804, accompanied the group. She knew many secrets of the Indian culture, had knowledge about their medicine and knew local plants and animals foreign to the Easterners. While traveling, the captains and four other men kept diaries where they described nature, the weather, the atmosphere on the boat or the results of their hunting. On their hunting tours, many interesting animals were seen, for example the channel catfish, the cutthroat trout, the prairie rattler and more. Some of them were given names by the expedition itself: The group killed many animals while traveling, which was easy because the animals had little fear of humans. Clark was the first man to kill a prairie wolf and a pronghorn, but Lewis was the first man to kill a grizzly bear. On August 3rd, 1804 the captains meet a group of Oto and Missouri Indians. As...	<urn:uuid:b59ff49f-f51d-4326-b0e1-ca7ec03d3473>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/within-the-footsteps-of-lewis-and-clark	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00533.warc.gz	en	0.985124	635	3.3125	3	[ -0.45314881205558777, 0.4219647943973541, 0.1671915352344513, 0.08325283974409103, -0.5480728149414062, -0.1922571361064911, -0.21648256480693817, 0.06624943763017654, -0.3246693015098572, 0.11403636634349823, 0.2395203411579132, -0.15002846717834473, 0.18991202116012573, -0.10566668957471...	1	In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark The book I have just read, "In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark", is mainly about a man named Richard, his wife Arlette, and his two children Michele, 6, and Daniel, 4, who follow in almost the exact footsteps of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. While the book talks about the family’s expedition it also, mainly, tells about the Lewis and Clark expedition and the history of it. Meriwether Lewis was born August 18th, 1774 near Charlottesville, Virginia. William Clark was born August 1st, 1770 in Virginia as well. Some people believe that the boys may have played together as children, but this is only a myth. When their lives did join, their names became inseparable as partners of discovery. When Lewis joined the Militia in 1794, he met Clark. In sharing the experiences of the Northwest Campaign against the British and the Indians, Lewis and Clark became fast friends. When Lewis was in Philadelphia he received a letter from President Jefferson with detailed instructions for the expedition to explore the western terrain. Clark would be assisting him. Richard and his wife prepare for their expedition in Philadelphia, as Lewis did, and they visited the library of the American Philosophical Society. The librarian suggested that if they wanted to follow in the exact footsteps of Lewis and Clark they should use a classic eight volume edition of the Lewis and Clark journals. Richard took many notes of the Lewis and Clark expedition for their journey. Lewis and Clark started on August 31, 1803 and floated down the Ohio River to set out for St. Louis where they trained a group of men for the upcoming task. When they started their tour in May 1804, they took a keelboat, two pirogue boats and 29 men to start the exploration of the west. One of those men was Touissant Charbonneau, a man who took one of his Indian wives, Sacagawea, with him. It is said that she was one of the most important reasons the expedition survived. Most of the Indian tribes did not think this a military expedition because a woman and her child, Pompy, who she gave birth to on February 11, 1804, accompanied the group. She knew many secrets of the Indian culture, had knowledge about their medicine and knew local plants and animals foreign to the Easterners. While traveling, the captains and four other men kept diaries where they described nature, the weather, the atmosphere on the boat or the results of their hunting. On their hunting tours, many interesting animals were seen, for example the channel catfish, the cutthroat trout, the prairie rattler and more. Some of them were given names by the expedition itself: The group killed many animals while traveling, which was easy because the animals had little fear of humans. Clark was the first man to kill a prairie wolf and a pronghorn, but Lewis was the first man to kill a grizzly bear. On August 3rd, 1804 the captains meet a group of Oto and Missouri Indians. As...	657	ENGLISH	1
Thursday June 5, 2014 \| 2 comments Starting from being welcomed by merchants, that fact that Wabi tea was accepted by samurai seemed to have played a more important role for the development of the Japanese Chanoyu. It seems that Japanese Chanoyu of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was not only the arena where merchants displayed their taste differentiating from the taste of aristocratic tea gatherings, but also in the arena of politics. It is most obvious when Rikyu served as tea master for Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyoto Hideyoshi (1536-1598). As ruthless warriors of that period, and supreme rulers, both were noted as much for their tea proclivities as they were for their military accomplishments. “The tea ceremony was the lord’s (Nobunaga) way of doing politics,” Hideyoshi said. Tea ceremony was a political tool for Nobunaga. Nobunaga’s interest in tea started from the Sakai’s merchants. When he successfully negotiated with Sakai’s prominent tea master Imai Sokyu – who was the owner of ammunition factories, and an influential member of Sakai – and took Sakai under his sway, Nobunaga started his “politics of tea.” Tea not only provided Nobunaga with the opportunity to meet military suppliers and moneylenders, but also allowed him to display his power without force of arms. As Surak said in his book Making Tea, Making Japan, “the tea gathering was a medium for negotiating rivalries, a tool for demonstrating wealth and power, and a space for forging important cross-class contacts, with merchants-cum-tea masters such as Sokyu and Sen Rikyu, serving as his intermediaries off the battlefield.” The relationship between Hideyoshi and Rikyu is complicated. Hideyoshi might have appreciated Wabi tea, but his tastes tended toward the flamboyant and ostentatious. While he did have a hutlike tea room, he also had a tea room embellished with gold, where Rikyu was awarded the tile of “Tea Master of Japan” when he prepared tea for the emperor. This was the high point in the tea career of Rikyu, and represented the highest point of Japanese Tea Ceremony. Rikyu, as Hideyoshi’s tea master, was held in such high regard that after a short while it was discovered that “there is no one other than Rikyu who can even say a word to him (Hideyoshi).” Various epistles prove that Rikyu transmitted secret messages and maps, conducted sensitive negotiations for Hideyoshi in his Chanoyu. In some sense, Hideyoshi and Rikyu each used each other: Rikyu used Hideyoshi to increase his own prestige, fortune, and the fame of his Chanoyu; while for Hideyoshi, the Chanoyu not only brought him the qualification as a man of culture, but also served as a medium of politics. In conclusion, when we look at the Japanese Chanoyu history in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, it is unreasonable to suggest that only Buddhism had influence on the Japanese tea ceremony, considering its relation with politics and merchant pursuits. In this sense, when introducing only the relation of Zen and Japanese tea ceremony, there would appear to be widespread agreement that the meaning of Zen is to be sought in the practice of Japanese Tea Ceremony. This might be the reason some Buddhist scholars recently argued that the relation of Zen and Japanese culture is, in large part, a product of the invention of tradition. Part One of this fascinating discussion can be found here.	<urn:uuid:50c7c9e4-aeeb-4907-9782-d87f8f646cb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tching.com/2014/06/zen-japanese-tea-ceremony-part-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00269.warc.gz	en	0.983569	767	3.671875	4	[ -0.7365798950195312, 0.21971870958805084, -0.07211724668741226, -0.05953671783208847, -0.18870091438293457, 0.09396295994520187, 0.8451638221740723, -0.05509999394416809, -0.10255427658557892, -0.21947349607944489, 0.26728111505508423, -0.24804849922657013, 0.485039621591568, 0.70967125892...	1	Thursday June 5, 2014 \| 2 comments Starting from being welcomed by merchants, that fact that Wabi tea was accepted by samurai seemed to have played a more important role for the development of the Japanese Chanoyu. It seems that Japanese Chanoyu of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was not only the arena where merchants displayed their taste differentiating from the taste of aristocratic tea gatherings, but also in the arena of politics. It is most obvious when Rikyu served as tea master for Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyoto Hideyoshi (1536-1598). As ruthless warriors of that period, and supreme rulers, both were noted as much for their tea proclivities as they were for their military accomplishments. “The tea ceremony was the lord’s (Nobunaga) way of doing politics,” Hideyoshi said. Tea ceremony was a political tool for Nobunaga. Nobunaga’s interest in tea started from the Sakai’s merchants. When he successfully negotiated with Sakai’s prominent tea master Imai Sokyu – who was the owner of ammunition factories, and an influential member of Sakai – and took Sakai under his sway, Nobunaga started his “politics of tea.” Tea not only provided Nobunaga with the opportunity to meet military suppliers and moneylenders, but also allowed him to display his power without force of arms. As Surak said in his book Making Tea, Making Japan, “the tea gathering was a medium for negotiating rivalries, a tool for demonstrating wealth and power, and a space for forging important cross-class contacts, with merchants-cum-tea masters such as Sokyu and Sen Rikyu, serving as his intermediaries off the battlefield.” The relationship between Hideyoshi and Rikyu is complicated. Hideyoshi might have appreciated Wabi tea, but his tastes tended toward the flamboyant and ostentatious. While he did have a hutlike tea room, he also had a tea room embellished with gold, where Rikyu was awarded the tile of “Tea Master of Japan” when he prepared tea for the emperor. This was the high point in the tea career of Rikyu, and represented the highest point of Japanese Tea Ceremony. Rikyu, as Hideyoshi’s tea master, was held in such high regard that after a short while it was discovered that “there is no one other than Rikyu who can even say a word to him (Hideyoshi).” Various epistles prove that Rikyu transmitted secret messages and maps, conducted sensitive negotiations for Hideyoshi in his Chanoyu. In some sense, Hideyoshi and Rikyu each used each other: Rikyu used Hideyoshi to increase his own prestige, fortune, and the fame of his Chanoyu; while for Hideyoshi, the Chanoyu not only brought him the qualification as a man of culture, but also served as a medium of politics. In conclusion, when we look at the Japanese Chanoyu history in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, it is unreasonable to suggest that only Buddhism had influence on the Japanese tea ceremony, considering its relation with politics and merchant pursuits. In this sense, when introducing only the relation of Zen and Japanese tea ceremony, there would appear to be widespread agreement that the meaning of Zen is to be sought in the practice of Japanese Tea Ceremony. This might be the reason some Buddhist scholars recently argued that the relation of Zen and Japanese culture is, in large part, a product of the invention of tradition. Part One of this fascinating discussion can be found here.	762	ENGLISH	1
Lee- Richards Annular Monoplanes Model tests of a new design at the National Physics Laboratory gave promising results, suggesting that an annular monoplane would be aerodynamically stable and have benign stalling characteristics. The first full-size monoplane was taken for its maiden flight in 1913 by Gordon England. It was found to be stable in the air but was tail-heavy and crashed when the engine failed. England survived to fly the next one. A second example was built with modified tail surfaces. It was flown by England, C. Gordon Bell and N. S. Percival. It too was stable and was reported to be pleasant to fly. Bell subsequently crashed it, also surviving. The third and last monoplane to fly was further modified and was also pleasant to fly. It was used regularly until the outbreak of war in 1914. Lee himself then tried to fly it but succeeded only in crashing it into a lake before swimming to the shore. Two further examples were under construction in 1914, with the intention of competing in the next planned Gordon Bennett air race, however they were never completed.	<urn:uuid:c0ed00f1-e6a0-4d14-93e3-22a7a9d38d17>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nevingtonwarmuseum.com/lee-richards-annular-monoplane.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00169.warc.gz	en	0.989618	223	3.359375	3	[ -0.20758852362632751, -0.05862855538725853, 0.15902017056941986, -0.1265539824962616, -0.36124739050865173, 0.6804322600364685, -0.17567776143550873, 0.31974852085113525, -0.11861088126897812, 0.06785815954208374, -0.13654424250125885, -0.180632084608078, 0.12454364448785782, 0.38214331865...	11	Lee- Richards Annular Monoplanes Model tests of a new design at the National Physics Laboratory gave promising results, suggesting that an annular monoplane would be aerodynamically stable and have benign stalling characteristics. The first full-size monoplane was taken for its maiden flight in 1913 by Gordon England. It was found to be stable in the air but was tail-heavy and crashed when the engine failed. England survived to fly the next one. A second example was built with modified tail surfaces. It was flown by England, C. Gordon Bell and N. S. Percival. It too was stable and was reported to be pleasant to fly. Bell subsequently crashed it, also surviving. The third and last monoplane to fly was further modified and was also pleasant to fly. It was used regularly until the outbreak of war in 1914. Lee himself then tried to fly it but succeeded only in crashing it into a lake before swimming to the shore. Two further examples were under construction in 1914, with the intention of competing in the next planned Gordon Bennett air race, however they were never completed.	235	ENGLISH	1
Beneath the heart of Mexico City, a group of archaeologists has unearthed a terrifying tower. It is no ordinary tower, but one made of human skulls. It’s called the Tzompantli, and it is the Aztec skull tower. More than 650 skulls caked in lime have unearthed by researchers offer unprecedented views into Aztec rituals and religious practices. Not far from the gruesome tower, thousands of other fragments were found near the site of “The Templo Mayor“, one of the most important temples in Tenochtitlan; the Aztec Capital that later evolved into present-day Mexico City. The ancient Aztecs—Mexica—erected their capital city on an island in the now-drained Lake Texcoco. At its zenith, the city is believed to have had a population of about 250,000 inhabitants and was the seat of an ancient empire that extended as far away as southern Mexico. The temple complex in the middle of the island is thought to have been the political and religious heart of the city-state of Tenochtitlan. The terrifying skull tower is believed to form part of the Huey Tzompantli, a massive array of skulls that struck fear into the hearts of the Spanish conquistadores when they seized the city under the leadership of Hernan Cortes. The tower of skulls, identified as the Huey Tzompantli was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara in ‘History of the conquests of Hernan Cortes. The skull rack of the Aztecs, which served as a remained of death struck fear into the hearts of the Spanish. Scholars argue that the Aztecs expertly decapitated victims and carved standardized holes in the side of their skulls so they could be mounted onto the posts of a rack called the tzompantli which held thousands of skulls. A terrifying skull tower Outside the temple and in front of the main gate, although farther than a stone’s throw, there was a skull rack with the heads of men captured in war and sacrificed by knife. Shaped like a theater, longer than it was wide, the skull rack was made of stone masonry with tiers where the skulls were inset between stones with their teeth showing. The theater was flanked by two towers made of limestone and skulls facing outward. Since the walls did not show any stones or other material, they were strange and colorful. At the tip of the theater, there were seventy or more tall beams, separated from one another by about four or five palmos, and the space was filled with as many poles as they could fit from top to bottom, leaving some space between them. These poles crossed through the beams, and each third of a pole had five. hears pierced through the temples. Around 500 years passed by until researchers finally found the massive ossuary of which Lopez de Gomara was talking about in his book. As history went by, scholars theorized that the skulls used in the terrifying skull tower were those belonging to the enemies of the Aztec Empire. However, archeological discoveries shed light onto the Huey Tzompantli suggesting that many of the skulls re those of women and children which may indicate that some of the skulls belonged to people that were sacrificed. The Huey Tzompantli discovered in Tenochtitlan is one of the most important Aztec-related discoveries in recent times, as it sheds important clues onto the religious and sacrificial ideology of not only the Aztecs but other related ancient Mesoamerican cultures. It is known that such skull towers were common among many Mesoamerica Cultures. However, the one discovered in Tenochtitlan is one of the largest ever found. In fact, not only did Lopez de Gomora write about it, but Andres de Tapia, a Spanish soldier who accompanied Cortes on his conquest of Mexico in 1521 also saw the need to document what he had seen. In his account, de Tapia said the rack included as many as tens of thousands of skulls “that were intricately placed on a very large theater made of lime and stone, and on the steps of it were many heads of the dead stuck in the lime with the teeth facing outward.” According to the testimony of de Tapia, the structure was composed of tens of thousands of skulls; archeological data, however, provides a rough number ranging between 30,000 and 136,000. Human sacrifices in pre-Columbian cultures are well documented, although their exact purpose has not yet become clear in many cases, especially since the codices where their existence is reported were written by disciples. It is likely, in the light of the modern findings, that the skulls did not belong only to enemies of the Aztecs and, therefore, did not have a sobering function, but religious or ritualistic one. Studies of the recovered skulls show that most of the skulls of the Tzompantli were deformed–elongated?–which is a very common cultural practice in Mesoamerica through which people obtained a certain affiliation to a specific community. As to the function, given the latest findings, the tower of skulls most likely had a religious function, related to the process of life and death. As revealed by archaeologist Raul Barrera Rodriguez, from INAH. It is this element that claims the identity of the Mexican people’s war and its center of political, religious and economic power, and the discovery can be considered as one of the most important that have occurred in the Templo Mayor. “It is, therefore, a cult of life, not a rite of death.” The fact that the exposed skulls were placed facing the Huitzilopochtli temple probably meant that it was an offering to the deity of war, sun, human sacrifice, and the patron of the city of Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan and the Tzompantli The discovery of the massive Tzompantli at Tenochtitlan took experts by surprise. Although they expected that the skulls would belong to young male warriors, they were surprised to have found the skulls of women and children that obviously did not participate in the wars. Before the skulls were placed onto the Tzompantli, scholars argue that the skulls were displayed publicly in other, although much smaller racks across the city of Tenochtitlan. It is noteworthy to mention that in the ancient Aztec view, death was seen as just one state that takes to the next. However, in Tenochtitlan, the Spanish Conquistadors saw in the sacrifice of the Aztecs an argument that would eventually justify their conquest. To the ancient Aztecs, the sacrifice of people was seen as aa display of barbarity and was the ideal excuse used by the Spanish to legitimize their conquest and the birth of a new society. The Aztecs were not the only ancient Mesoamerican culture to have constructed skull towers. Other ancient cultures like the Maya and the Toltec also had similar customs where they found build skull towers as the Tzompantli from the heads of captured war enemies. However, the discoveries at Tenochtitlan point to the possibilities that other Tzompantli from the Maya or Toltecs may also have featured the skulls of women and children pointing towards a ritual meaning of the structure.	<urn:uuid:e6298059-82c2-4026-b5a4-8ecb9382bd72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://curiosmos.com/unwritten-mystery-3-things-you-should-know-about-the-terrifying-ancient-aztec-skull-tower/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00202.warc.gz	en	0.981673	1,552	3.40625	3	[ 0.0515359565615654, 0.43369001150131226, 0.25168508291244507, 0.28823190927505493, -0.25625079870224, -0.08039958029985428, 0.20998981595039368, 0.070441834628582, -0.2364979386329651, -0.4057280123233795, -0.06828669458627701, -0.05012907460331917, 0.009672719985246658, 0.0704593807458877...	7	Beneath the heart of Mexico City, a group of archaeologists has unearthed a terrifying tower. It is no ordinary tower, but one made of human skulls. It’s called the Tzompantli, and it is the Aztec skull tower. More than 650 skulls caked in lime have unearthed by researchers offer unprecedented views into Aztec rituals and religious practices. Not far from the gruesome tower, thousands of other fragments were found near the site of “The Templo Mayor“, one of the most important temples in Tenochtitlan; the Aztec Capital that later evolved into present-day Mexico City. The ancient Aztecs—Mexica—erected their capital city on an island in the now-drained Lake Texcoco. At its zenith, the city is believed to have had a population of about 250,000 inhabitants and was the seat of an ancient empire that extended as far away as southern Mexico. The temple complex in the middle of the island is thought to have been the political and religious heart of the city-state of Tenochtitlan. The terrifying skull tower is believed to form part of the Huey Tzompantli, a massive array of skulls that struck fear into the hearts of the Spanish conquistadores when they seized the city under the leadership of Hernan Cortes. The tower of skulls, identified as the Huey Tzompantli was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara in ‘History of the conquests of Hernan Cortes. The skull rack of the Aztecs, which served as a remained of death struck fear into the hearts of the Spanish. Scholars argue that the Aztecs expertly decapitated victims and carved standardized holes in the side of their skulls so they could be mounted onto the posts of a rack called the tzompantli which held thousands of skulls. A terrifying skull tower Outside the temple and in front of the main gate, although farther than a stone’s throw, there was a skull rack with the heads of men captured in war and sacrificed by knife. Shaped like a theater, longer than it was wide, the skull rack was made of stone masonry with tiers where the skulls were inset between stones with their teeth showing. The theater was flanked by two towers made of limestone and skulls facing outward. Since the walls did not show any stones or other material, they were strange and colorful. At the tip of the theater, there were seventy or more tall beams, separated from one another by about four or five palmos, and the space was filled with as many poles as they could fit from top to bottom, leaving some space between them. These poles crossed through the beams, and each third of a pole had five. hears pierced through the temples. Around 500 years passed by until researchers finally found the massive ossuary of which Lopez de Gomara was talking about in his book. As history went by, scholars theorized that the skulls used in the terrifying skull tower were those belonging to the enemies of the Aztec Empire. However, archeological discoveries shed light onto the Huey Tzompantli suggesting that many of the skulls re those of women and children which may indicate that some of the skulls belonged to people that were sacrificed. The Huey Tzompantli discovered in Tenochtitlan is one of the most important Aztec-related discoveries in recent times, as it sheds important clues onto the religious and sacrificial ideology of not only the Aztecs but other related ancient Mesoamerican cultures. It is known that such skull towers were common among many Mesoamerica Cultures. However, the one discovered in Tenochtitlan is one of the largest ever found. In fact, not only did Lopez de Gomora write about it, but Andres de Tapia, a Spanish soldier who accompanied Cortes on his conquest of Mexico in 1521 also saw the need to document what he had seen. In his account, de Tapia said the rack included as many as tens of thousands of skulls “that were intricately placed on a very large theater made of lime and stone, and on the steps of it were many heads of the dead stuck in the lime with the teeth facing outward.” According to the testimony of de Tapia, the structure was composed of tens of thousands of skulls; archeological data, however, provides a rough number ranging between 30,000 and 136,000. Human sacrifices in pre-Columbian cultures are well documented, although their exact purpose has not yet become clear in many cases, especially since the codices where their existence is reported were written by disciples. It is likely, in the light of the modern findings, that the skulls did not belong only to enemies of the Aztecs and, therefore, did not have a sobering function, but religious or ritualistic one. Studies of the recovered skulls show that most of the skulls of the Tzompantli were deformed–elongated?–which is a very common cultural practice in Mesoamerica through which people obtained a certain affiliation to a specific community. As to the function, given the latest findings, the tower of skulls most likely had a religious function, related to the process of life and death. As revealed by archaeologist Raul Barrera Rodriguez, from INAH. It is this element that claims the identity of the Mexican people’s war and its center of political, religious and economic power, and the discovery can be considered as one of the most important that have occurred in the Templo Mayor. “It is, therefore, a cult of life, not a rite of death.” The fact that the exposed skulls were placed facing the Huitzilopochtli temple probably meant that it was an offering to the deity of war, sun, human sacrifice, and the patron of the city of Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan and the Tzompantli The discovery of the massive Tzompantli at Tenochtitlan took experts by surprise. Although they expected that the skulls would belong to young male warriors, they were surprised to have found the skulls of women and children that obviously did not participate in the wars. Before the skulls were placed onto the Tzompantli, scholars argue that the skulls were displayed publicly in other, although much smaller racks across the city of Tenochtitlan. It is noteworthy to mention that in the ancient Aztec view, death was seen as just one state that takes to the next. However, in Tenochtitlan, the Spanish Conquistadors saw in the sacrifice of the Aztecs an argument that would eventually justify their conquest. To the ancient Aztecs, the sacrifice of people was seen as aa display of barbarity and was the ideal excuse used by the Spanish to legitimize their conquest and the birth of a new society. The Aztecs were not the only ancient Mesoamerican culture to have constructed skull towers. Other ancient cultures like the Maya and the Toltec also had similar customs where they found build skull towers as the Tzompantli from the heads of captured war enemies. However, the discoveries at Tenochtitlan point to the possibilities that other Tzompantli from the Maya or Toltecs may also have featured the skulls of women and children pointing towards a ritual meaning of the structure.	1,512	ENGLISH	1
The British Museum is based in the Bloomsbury area of London, United Kingdom, and is a publicly owned institution that is dedicated to art, culture, and human history. The museum houses a permanent collection of over eight million works, making it one of the largest and most comprehensive in existence. Most, though not all, of the pieces in the museum, were curated during the era of the British Empire. This has caused some controversy in more recent years as a number of countries have begun the process of attempting to take back artifacts that were allegedly stolen rather than given voluntarily. The British Museum was established in 1753 and was first opened to the public in 1759 on the same site of the current building. The curation that took place for the museum led to a number of other museums being opened to cater to specific pieces that were curated for the museum, notably the Natural History Museum that was opened in 1881 to cater to ancient history. The library section of the museum was detached from the British Museum during the early 1970s, becoming the British Library and a museum in its own right.	<urn:uuid:3db9018b-0f06-4914-a957-99bef3e11895>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://marthavista.com/british-museum/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00149.warc.gz	en	0.98812	222	3.3125	3	[ 0.5070875287055969, 0.15630905330181122, 0.7147076725959778, -0.34363916516304016, 0.10520117729902267, -0.21336011588573456, 0.07715292274951935, -0.29850125312805176, -0.10957160592079163, 0.05497591197490692, 0.0012535529676824808, -0.2742815315723419, -0.02576528675854206, 0.4899528622...	7	The British Museum is based in the Bloomsbury area of London, United Kingdom, and is a publicly owned institution that is dedicated to art, culture, and human history. The museum houses a permanent collection of over eight million works, making it one of the largest and most comprehensive in existence. Most, though not all, of the pieces in the museum, were curated during the era of the British Empire. This has caused some controversy in more recent years as a number of countries have begun the process of attempting to take back artifacts that were allegedly stolen rather than given voluntarily. The British Museum was established in 1753 and was first opened to the public in 1759 on the same site of the current building. The curation that took place for the museum led to a number of other museums being opened to cater to specific pieces that were curated for the museum, notably the Natural History Museum that was opened in 1881 to cater to ancient history. The library section of the museum was detached from the British Museum during the early 1970s, becoming the British Library and a museum in its own right.	232	ENGLISH	1
Rebel with a cause - Three pioneering female travellers 08/03/2019 · By Sukie Chapman Ferdinand Magellan, Captain James Cook, Marco Polo, Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Ranulph Fiennes. What do they all have in common?Read more Perched on a rocky outcrop some distance above the Mulde River, the Renaissance castle at Colditz was built in its strategic position to defend the town from invaders. Yet in its defensive position it was also difficult to escape from at speed, and for this reason it was chosen by the Nazis as one of their most infamous high-security prisons. The castle was first used as a prison in 1933, when the Nazis came to power. Communists, Jews and other "undesirables" were kept there. Then, with the outbreak of World War II, it became Oflag IV-C, a maximum-security prison for Allied prisoners of war (POWs). Each POW held there had attempted escape from at least one other prison. With so many people determined to escape, many ideas were pooled and then put into practice. Hundreds were foiled almost instantly, and in the end just 31 Allied POWs made it out before Colditz was liberated in April 1945. Of the British escapees, Peter Allen, Patrick Reid and Airey Neave are perhaps the most famous. Experiencing the past In the post-war years Colditz became part of East Germany, and the notorious castle was largely neglected. It was used as a nursing home for a number of years before reunification, when it was restored with a museum detailing its incredible history. Today, the moving museum includes a variety of escape devices made and used by the prisoners.	<urn:uuid:80718d12-c9bf-4492-9723-58c1c1375bfc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greatrail.com/holiday-destinations/europe/germany/colditz/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00076.warc.gz	en	0.982741	351	3.296875	3	[ -0.4094625413417816, 0.2919045090675354, 0.11831782758235931, 0.26768016815185547, 0.16052231192588806, -0.10845207422971725, 0.29935362935066223, -0.12189808487892151, -0.2627250850200653, -0.14711785316467285, 0.3200271427631378, -0.344900518655777, 0.15808063745498657, 0.182331025600433...	7	Rebel with a cause - Three pioneering female travellers 08/03/2019 · By Sukie Chapman Ferdinand Magellan, Captain James Cook, Marco Polo, Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Ranulph Fiennes. What do they all have in common?Read more Perched on a rocky outcrop some distance above the Mulde River, the Renaissance castle at Colditz was built in its strategic position to defend the town from invaders. Yet in its defensive position it was also difficult to escape from at speed, and for this reason it was chosen by the Nazis as one of their most infamous high-security prisons. The castle was first used as a prison in 1933, when the Nazis came to power. Communists, Jews and other "undesirables" were kept there. Then, with the outbreak of World War II, it became Oflag IV-C, a maximum-security prison for Allied prisoners of war (POWs). Each POW held there had attempted escape from at least one other prison. With so many people determined to escape, many ideas were pooled and then put into practice. Hundreds were foiled almost instantly, and in the end just 31 Allied POWs made it out before Colditz was liberated in April 1945. Of the British escapees, Peter Allen, Patrick Reid and Airey Neave are perhaps the most famous. Experiencing the past In the post-war years Colditz became part of East Germany, and the notorious castle was largely neglected. It was used as a nursing home for a number of years before reunification, when it was restored with a museum detailing its incredible history. Today, the moving museum includes a variety of escape devices made and used by the prisoners.	361	ENGLISH	1
- 0,49 € Beschreibung des Verlags Marco Polo (1254 to January 8, 1324) was a Venetian explorer known for the book "The Travels of Marco Polo", which describes his voyage to and experiences in Asia. Polo traveled extensively with his family, journeying from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295 and remaining in China for 17 of those years. Marco Polo’s stories about his travels in Asia were published as a book called "The Description of the World", later known as "The Travels of Marco Polo". Just a few years after returning to Venice from China, Marco commanded a ship in a war against the rival city of Genoa. He was eventually captured and sentenced to a Genoese prison, where he met a fellow prisoner and writer named Rustichello. As the two men became friends, Marco told Rustichello about his time in Asia, what he'd seen, where he'd travelled and what he'd accomplished. The book made Marco a celebrity. It was printed in French, Italian and Latin, becoming the most popular read in Europe. But few readers allowed themselves to believe Marco's tale. They took it to be fiction, the construct of a man with a wild imagination.	<urn:uuid:7c52362d-ea6e-4e6a-b2ab-994812864bb8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/de/book/the-travels-of-marco-polo/id1484428257	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00502.warc.gz	en	0.986942	260	3.625	4	[ 0.14848172664642334, -0.11626748740673065, 0.15233811736106873, -0.281124085187912, -0.4778865575790405, -0.34482187032699585, 0.2123507261276245, 0.037610236555337906, 0.04439594969153404, -0.2685796618461609, 0.29965972900390625, -0.5696108341217041, 0.11648771166801453, 0.58375567197799...	1	- 0,49 € Beschreibung des Verlags Marco Polo (1254 to January 8, 1324) was a Venetian explorer known for the book "The Travels of Marco Polo", which describes his voyage to and experiences in Asia. Polo traveled extensively with his family, journeying from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295 and remaining in China for 17 of those years. Marco Polo’s stories about his travels in Asia were published as a book called "The Description of the World", later known as "The Travels of Marco Polo". Just a few years after returning to Venice from China, Marco commanded a ship in a war against the rival city of Genoa. He was eventually captured and sentenced to a Genoese prison, where he met a fellow prisoner and writer named Rustichello. As the two men became friends, Marco told Rustichello about his time in Asia, what he'd seen, where he'd travelled and what he'd accomplished. The book made Marco a celebrity. It was printed in French, Italian and Latin, becoming the most popular read in Europe. But few readers allowed themselves to believe Marco's tale. They took it to be fiction, the construct of a man with a wild imagination.	269	ENGLISH	1
Since there had not been any offensives launched by either side against the other, why declare war just because Japan had attacked the USA? There was an 88-minute long speech made by Hitler to the Reichstag on December 11th, 1941, which was four days after the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, where he officially declared that Germany would join Japan in the war against the USA. In this speech, he mentioned a few of his personal reasons for this decision. That decision to declare war had been delivered to the Americans two hours before the speech by his foreign minister. About two hours before Hitler began his address to the Reichstag, Germany formally declared war against the United States when Reich Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop delivered a diplomatic note to the American Charge d'Affaires in Berlin, Leland B. Morris. I think this would be an interesting read regarding this question, and there's a translation by a Mr. Mark Weber on the Website of the Institute of Historical Review Institute of Historical Review is considered by many to be a revisionist, Holocaust-denying institution with links to neo-Nazi organizations. Their translation of Hitler's speech might have been manipulated for propaganda purposes. The US was already in a naval war with Germany (and not doing real well), was supplying all sorts of arms, supplies, and even warships to Britain, and was flagrantly violating the laws of war applicable to neutrals. Hitler was expecting war at some time in the near future, and chose to declare war first. Hitler was also counting on the Japanese Navy to at least neutralize the US Navy, and considered the US to be a racially mixed and hence weak nation. During World War II, American aid to the Allies fell under three categories: - Lend-lease aid to Britain and Russia, of an amount roughly equal to the whole of the German war production, - Fighting Japan, Germany's major ally, and - the introduction of ground troops into western Europe. American "Lend Lease" efforts had troubled Hitler and his admirals all through 1941. This was particularly true after American forces occupied Iceland, and the U.S. extended its zone of protection that far east, meaning that Britain would have to "cover" a relatively short part of the North Atlantic route on its own. Hitler could barely restrain his admirals from attacking U.S. ships. Basically, Hitler could not win the war without the aid of Japan, because Germany was not strong enough to fight Britain and the Soviet Union alone (at least not after the latter received Lend Lease aid). Hitler could win if Japan could break the back of Britain (in India) or the Soviet Union (in Siberia). And it appeared to Hitler that Japan had, in fact, done this to the United States with its stunning (if incomplete) victory at Pearl Harbor. Journalist William L.Shirer reported in "the Rise and Fall of the Third Reich" that Hitler exulted, "we cannot lose this war, for we have an ally that has not been defeated in 350 years." Hitler believed that the Japanese had started the process of destroying the U.S. navy, and that his submarines could finish the job. With the U.S. supposedly helpless, Germany and Japan could divide up the eastern hemisphere before finishing their dealings with the Americas. On the other hand, if the United States fought Japan, that country would not be able to help Hitler finish off Britain and the Soviet Union. If the United States defeated Japan, and allied with China and/or India, Hitler could not win the war even if he conquered Britain and the Soviet Union. Hitler's "best chance" was to help Japan contain the United States in exchange for Japan's help in the eastern hemisphere. Because Germany, Italy and Japan were allies, and fighting common enemies together is exactly what a military alliance is about. By the way, the USA actually wanted to get involved in WWII, because they really didn't like how Germany was conquering most/all of Europe. Pearl Harbour and the Germany/Japan alliance acted as the classic casus belli. In addition to the lend-lease reasons given by others, Japan had declared war on Britain at the same time as it declared war on the United States. Japan including the British Empire on the war declaration against the United States had to be reciprocated on the German side of the alliance with a declaration of war against the United States (since Britain and Germany had already been at war since 1939 at that point). With Japanese attacks on Malaya and Singapore, threatening Australia further south and India to the west, British ships and imperial troops (mostly from Australia) had to be withdrawn from the Mediterranean and North Africa and redeployed to the Pacific. It continued the pressure on Britain's links to its imperial possessions and dominions in the Indian and Pacific Ocean, which had been a major objective of the North Africa campaign (i.e. cut off the Suez Canal). With the Empire in the Pacific largely unprotected, Germany may have hoped Japan would be able to quickly neutralize the British Empire in the Asia Pacific region. At the same time, in the Atlantic, Germany could now target American shipping to Britain far more openly. If the Japanese could win quick victories in the Pacific, and the US was slower to react in the Atlantic, the "tit for tat" war declarations (Japan on Britain, Germany on the USA) could have forced Britain out of the war through cutting it off from the Empire and the USA alike. With Britain out of the war, it would have been much harder for the USA to actually become involved in the European theater, and as for the Pacific - well that was always going to be Japan's problem anyway. I think you have to consider Hitler's decision in conjunction with his antisemitism and the issues with which he was struggling in early December 1941. Hitler did not believe that it was in Britain's interest to fight Germany, and that leading government figures, such as Churchill, were backed by "the Jews" of London and manipulating the country. Likewise he believed the USA to be in thrall to "the Jews" of New York. Hitler also believed that "the Jews" were behind "Bolshevism" in the Soviet Union. Communism was the primal victory of "Jewry's" drive for state decomposition. Consider the purpose of the original Einsatzgruppen was to follow the Wehrmacht and kill "political commissars" which also meant "male Jews" and soon also women and children. In this ideological space there was a direct push and pull between bombs dropping over Bremen, for example, and the Eastern Front. Or Lend-Lease aid to the Soviets, and so forth. The nexus of that "push and pull" was, for Hitler and all too many Germans, "the Jews." In the time between October and December, Hitler and co. were debating whether to unleash the "Final Solution" ASAP or "in the spring, after the war." Meanwhile they were "researching" the ways and means of mass death in Auschwitz. A conference was scheduled in Wannsee on December 8 to discuss the coordination of the effort. First came the Soviet counteroffensive in Moscow on December 5 and then Pearl Harbor on December 7, both of which came as a surprise to Hitler, and threw Hitler into a bit of a stun. It is not known whether it was a euphoric stun or depressive stun - different reputable historians have it going either way with equally convincing arguments. The historian I trust most on this matter, Christopher Browning, is on the euprhoricist side. It rings true with my own impressions that Nazis were optimistic about the war through 1942, got kicked in the stomach at the start of February 1943, and were glum by August 1943. Hitler emerged from this stun talking for the first time of Weltkrieg (world war). He accepted that the war would last into 1942 and beyond. He declared war on the USA so that his U-boats could get to work, and gave his go-ahead to begin the Final Solution of the Jewish Question while the military aspect of the war was still underway. The Wannsee Conference was rescheduled for January 20, 1942, and work commenced on building the death camps. In case you were wondering how it makes "military sense" for Germany to devote so many resources to the murder of millions of Jews, remember for the Nazis that was the entire point of the war: to "liberate" Germany from the "Jewish world conspiracy" and win the Lebensraum needed to ensure national survival. It was not a side issue - it all hangs together. Hitler, while he had a vision and a goal, didn't plan things far out; rather, he wanted to take advantage of opportunities. He saw the attack on Pearl Harbor as one. Expecting that America would focus on the more direct aggressor, Japan, he declared war on America. In the war to that point, Pres. Roosevelt wanted to help Britain, and did not want to see her defeated. There were various types of aid, but not much direct involvement. He could not go to war against Germany without good reason, which Hitler handed him. The rest, as they say, is history. Hitler truly believed that if he went ahead and took on the United States now that that his ally (Japan) was at war with them that they would do the same with his enemy the Soviet Union. At that point he very badly needed to relieve the pressure on his soviet front lines. However the leaders of Japan were nowhere as rash & impulsive (and may I say stupid) as Hitler. They were not about to do something like declare war on two super powers in the same week. As it would have it the tactic might have worked. So I think what is most critical in understanding December 7th, 1941 is that Japan itself did NOT declare War on the United States but instead did knowingly launch a "sneak attack" on the US Navy and Army Air Forces on that day. There are those even at the time that the whole thing was a "contrivance" created by the Roosevelt Administration but the fact remains as FDR pointed out in his dramatic address that a "State of War now EXISTS" (emphasis mine) "between the United States and Japan." This did give pause to the 3rd Reich as indeed they were under no obligation to support a "sneak attack" and indeed had many reasons to oppose an outright Declaration of War on the USA given such a circumstance. That makes this a very valid question from an Historical point of view relating to any War but especially World War 2. I'm not sure there is any answer actually other than there were mutual declarations of War by the 3rd Reich and the USA against each other....which was great news for Russia and Great Britain....both of whom looked on the verge of defeat in the Winter of 1941. There was nothing that came out during the Nuremberg Trials that I am aware of either on this question...even though the Nazi "Secretary of State" Von Ribbentrop was one of the captured and accused and was directly questioned by the English Jurist on this matter. Hitler did anything to avoid war with America, up to a limit. Effectively, the USA was already at war with Germany. They extended their coastal zone of control to half way the Atlantic ocean. US warships interfered with U boat actions. Position of U boats were transmitted in clear text, so convoys could act on it. Sometimes that lead to open warfare. When Japan struck at Pearl Harbor Hitler probably thought open war was preferable to armed US neutrality. Given the effectiveness of operation Drum beat, not really a bad decision.	<urn:uuid:0d120abe-e5b5-4875-9de8-a1590d7b6b0d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/64/why-did-hitler-declare-war-on-the-usa	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00513.warc.gz	en	0.982882	2,437	3.375	3	[ -0.28579288721084595, 0.3682065010070801, 0.05275854095816612, 0.054265230894088745, 0.25353479385375977, 0.27056533098220825, 0.04976716637611389, 0.15348437428474426, 0.11274728178977966, -0.2238175868988037, 0.31240540742874146, 0.004845654126256704, 0.034219760447740555, 0.558573365211...	15	Since there had not been any offensives launched by either side against the other, why declare war just because Japan had attacked the USA? There was an 88-minute long speech made by Hitler to the Reichstag on December 11th, 1941, which was four days after the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, where he officially declared that Germany would join Japan in the war against the USA. In this speech, he mentioned a few of his personal reasons for this decision. That decision to declare war had been delivered to the Americans two hours before the speech by his foreign minister. About two hours before Hitler began his address to the Reichstag, Germany formally declared war against the United States when Reich Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop delivered a diplomatic note to the American Charge d'Affaires in Berlin, Leland B. Morris. I think this would be an interesting read regarding this question, and there's a translation by a Mr. Mark Weber on the Website of the Institute of Historical Review Institute of Historical Review is considered by many to be a revisionist, Holocaust-denying institution with links to neo-Nazi organizations. Their translation of Hitler's speech might have been manipulated for propaganda purposes. The US was already in a naval war with Germany (and not doing real well), was supplying all sorts of arms, supplies, and even warships to Britain, and was flagrantly violating the laws of war applicable to neutrals. Hitler was expecting war at some time in the near future, and chose to declare war first. Hitler was also counting on the Japanese Navy to at least neutralize the US Navy, and considered the US to be a racially mixed and hence weak nation. During World War II, American aid to the Allies fell under three categories: - Lend-lease aid to Britain and Russia, of an amount roughly equal to the whole of the German war production, - Fighting Japan, Germany's major ally, and - the introduction of ground troops into western Europe. American "Lend Lease" efforts had troubled Hitler and his admirals all through 1941. This was particularly true after American forces occupied Iceland, and the U.S. extended its zone of protection that far east, meaning that Britain would have to "cover" a relatively short part of the North Atlantic route on its own. Hitler could barely restrain his admirals from attacking U.S. ships. Basically, Hitler could not win the war without the aid of Japan, because Germany was not strong enough to fight Britain and the Soviet Union alone (at least not after the latter received Lend Lease aid). Hitler could win if Japan could break the back of Britain (in India) or the Soviet Union (in Siberia). And it appeared to Hitler that Japan had, in fact, done this to the United States with its stunning (if incomplete) victory at Pearl Harbor. Journalist William L.Shirer reported in "the Rise and Fall of the Third Reich" that Hitler exulted, "we cannot lose this war, for we have an ally that has not been defeated in 350 years." Hitler believed that the Japanese had started the process of destroying the U.S. navy, and that his submarines could finish the job. With the U.S. supposedly helpless, Germany and Japan could divide up the eastern hemisphere before finishing their dealings with the Americas. On the other hand, if the United States fought Japan, that country would not be able to help Hitler finish off Britain and the Soviet Union. If the United States defeated Japan, and allied with China and/or India, Hitler could not win the war even if he conquered Britain and the Soviet Union. Hitler's "best chance" was to help Japan contain the United States in exchange for Japan's help in the eastern hemisphere. Because Germany, Italy and Japan were allies, and fighting common enemies together is exactly what a military alliance is about. By the way, the USA actually wanted to get involved in WWII, because they really didn't like how Germany was conquering most/all of Europe. Pearl Harbour and the Germany/Japan alliance acted as the classic casus belli. In addition to the lend-lease reasons given by others, Japan had declared war on Britain at the same time as it declared war on the United States. Japan including the British Empire on the war declaration against the United States had to be reciprocated on the German side of the alliance with a declaration of war against the United States (since Britain and Germany had already been at war since 1939 at that point). With Japanese attacks on Malaya and Singapore, threatening Australia further south and India to the west, British ships and imperial troops (mostly from Australia) had to be withdrawn from the Mediterranean and North Africa and redeployed to the Pacific. It continued the pressure on Britain's links to its imperial possessions and dominions in the Indian and Pacific Ocean, which had been a major objective of the North Africa campaign (i.e. cut off the Suez Canal). With the Empire in the Pacific largely unprotected, Germany may have hoped Japan would be able to quickly neutralize the British Empire in the Asia Pacific region. At the same time, in the Atlantic, Germany could now target American shipping to Britain far more openly. If the Japanese could win quick victories in the Pacific, and the US was slower to react in the Atlantic, the "tit for tat" war declarations (Japan on Britain, Germany on the USA) could have forced Britain out of the war through cutting it off from the Empire and the USA alike. With Britain out of the war, it would have been much harder for the USA to actually become involved in the European theater, and as for the Pacific - well that was always going to be Japan's problem anyway. I think you have to consider Hitler's decision in conjunction with his antisemitism and the issues with which he was struggling in early December 1941. Hitler did not believe that it was in Britain's interest to fight Germany, and that leading government figures, such as Churchill, were backed by "the Jews" of London and manipulating the country. Likewise he believed the USA to be in thrall to "the Jews" of New York. Hitler also believed that "the Jews" were behind "Bolshevism" in the Soviet Union. Communism was the primal victory of "Jewry's" drive for state decomposition. Consider the purpose of the original Einsatzgruppen was to follow the Wehrmacht and kill "political commissars" which also meant "male Jews" and soon also women and children. In this ideological space there was a direct push and pull between bombs dropping over Bremen, for example, and the Eastern Front. Or Lend-Lease aid to the Soviets, and so forth. The nexus of that "push and pull" was, for Hitler and all too many Germans, "the Jews." In the time between October and December, Hitler and co. were debating whether to unleash the "Final Solution" ASAP or "in the spring, after the war." Meanwhile they were "researching" the ways and means of mass death in Auschwitz. A conference was scheduled in Wannsee on December 8 to discuss the coordination of the effort. First came the Soviet counteroffensive in Moscow on December 5 and then Pearl Harbor on December 7, both of which came as a surprise to Hitler, and threw Hitler into a bit of a stun. It is not known whether it was a euphoric stun or depressive stun - different reputable historians have it going either way with equally convincing arguments. The historian I trust most on this matter, Christopher Browning, is on the euprhoricist side. It rings true with my own impressions that Nazis were optimistic about the war through 1942, got kicked in the stomach at the start of February 1943, and were glum by August 1943. Hitler emerged from this stun talking for the first time of Weltkrieg (world war). He accepted that the war would last into 1942 and beyond. He declared war on the USA so that his U-boats could get to work, and gave his go-ahead to begin the Final Solution of the Jewish Question while the military aspect of the war was still underway. The Wannsee Conference was rescheduled for January 20, 1942, and work commenced on building the death camps. In case you were wondering how it makes "military sense" for Germany to devote so many resources to the murder of millions of Jews, remember for the Nazis that was the entire point of the war: to "liberate" Germany from the "Jewish world conspiracy" and win the Lebensraum needed to ensure national survival. It was not a side issue - it all hangs together. Hitler, while he had a vision and a goal, didn't plan things far out; rather, he wanted to take advantage of opportunities. He saw the attack on Pearl Harbor as one. Expecting that America would focus on the more direct aggressor, Japan, he declared war on America. In the war to that point, Pres. Roosevelt wanted to help Britain, and did not want to see her defeated. There were various types of aid, but not much direct involvement. He could not go to war against Germany without good reason, which Hitler handed him. The rest, as they say, is history. Hitler truly believed that if he went ahead and took on the United States now that that his ally (Japan) was at war with them that they would do the same with his enemy the Soviet Union. At that point he very badly needed to relieve the pressure on his soviet front lines. However the leaders of Japan were nowhere as rash & impulsive (and may I say stupid) as Hitler. They were not about to do something like declare war on two super powers in the same week. As it would have it the tactic might have worked. So I think what is most critical in understanding December 7th, 1941 is that Japan itself did NOT declare War on the United States but instead did knowingly launch a "sneak attack" on the US Navy and Army Air Forces on that day. There are those even at the time that the whole thing was a "contrivance" created by the Roosevelt Administration but the fact remains as FDR pointed out in his dramatic address that a "State of War now EXISTS" (emphasis mine) "between the United States and Japan." This did give pause to the 3rd Reich as indeed they were under no obligation to support a "sneak attack" and indeed had many reasons to oppose an outright Declaration of War on the USA given such a circumstance. That makes this a very valid question from an Historical point of view relating to any War but especially World War 2. I'm not sure there is any answer actually other than there were mutual declarations of War by the 3rd Reich and the USA against each other....which was great news for Russia and Great Britain....both of whom looked on the verge of defeat in the Winter of 1941. There was nothing that came out during the Nuremberg Trials that I am aware of either on this question...even though the Nazi "Secretary of State" Von Ribbentrop was one of the captured and accused and was directly questioned by the English Jurist on this matter. Hitler did anything to avoid war with America, up to a limit. Effectively, the USA was already at war with Germany. They extended their coastal zone of control to half way the Atlantic ocean. US warships interfered with U boat actions. Position of U boats were transmitted in clear text, so convoys could act on it. Sometimes that lead to open warfare. When Japan struck at Pearl Harbor Hitler probably thought open war was preferable to armed US neutrality. Given the effectiveness of operation Drum beat, not really a bad decision.	2,447	ENGLISH	1
Before a passing ship had rescued the remaining inhabitants of the island, four women and seven children, the world knew nothing of the lonely atoll known as Clipperton Island. With the rescue of the emaciated inhabitants, the true and horrific story of Clipperton came to be known. Off the coast of Colima Mexico, across acres Before a passing ship had rescued the remaining inhabitants of the island, four women and seven children, the world knew nothing of the lonely atoll known as Clipperton Island. With the rescue of the emaciated inhabitants, the true and horrific story of Clipperton came to be known. Off the coast of Colima Mexico, across acres and acres of deep, blue pacific water sits a lonely island, an atoll, whose only inhabitants consists of crabs, birds, iguanas, and the hundreds of sharks that patrol its glassy waters. With scarce vegetation and a toxic lake that makes up most of Clipperton, the island is hardly a place you’d consider paradise. Yet throughout the ages there has been attempt after attempt to colonize Clipperton and capitalize on its abundant supply of fresh guano. Mining for guano had grown into a lucrative market and by 1899, with permission by the Mexican government, The British Pacific Island Company acquired the rights to the several guano deposits across Clipperton. Within weeks of signing the mining company had built a settlement and began work. That same year Mexico’s president Porfirio Diaz ordered that a lighthouse be erected on the island. It was to be manned at all times and a lighthouse keeper was eventually placed on the island with the rest. Within months, a few dozen men and their families became the first and only residents of the lonely speck of land amongst an endless shimmering blue field. The British had started to work on the land planting palm trees, a vegetable garden with imported soil, and several homes scattered across the ring. It had become an ongoing effort to cultivate the arid land. The adventurous families and workers were visited by supply ships about every 8 weeks from a port in Acapulco, Mexico. Fearing losing the land, Mexico sent a group of 13 men and their families from the Mexican Army to stand guard on Clipperton in 1906. Acting as the governor of Clipperton was an officer from the same army, a man named Ramon Arnaud. The forgotten governor Ramon Arnaud was a decorated officer in charge of the military garrison on Clipperton. He spoke Spanish, French, and English and had prior experience with French nationals. Captain Arnaud was President Diaz’s first choice for Clipperton. Arnaud came home to a tumultuous Mexico from his travels to Asia. A revolution was tearing throughout Mexico. Greeted by the chaos the rang across the country and an official order to inhabit the desolate island. The captain felt that his order to govern Clipperton was a way to exile him from Mexico. Having arrived in the midst of the revolution might have given the captain a sense of paranoia, however his mind was put at ease when he was told that he had been chosen personally by the President for the job. The captain accepted the order to guard Clipperton and protect Mexico’s sovereignty over the island. Although they were supplied with care packages, food, and tools, the island still fought to keep it’s reputation as an inhospitable place. Within a few years, the mines that provided endless amount of quality guano were becoming too much of a financial burden on the British Pacific Island Company. The world market had a growing number of guano providers, making the colonization efforts on Clipperton non profitable. In 1910 the British, losing money and effort, decided to remove all but one personnel from Clipperton. There had been around 100 inhabitants on Clipperton island. Most of them were British employees, Mexican soldiers and their families except for a German, Gustav Shultz (Representative of the mining company) who had suffered from a mental breakdown, and also the lighthouse keeper remained. Little by little the British ships began leaving, taking with them those who had enough of the island. Then the conflict of the Mexican Revolution escalated. Which only brought worry and despair to the island’s inhabitants. Because of the escalating conflict of the Mexican Revolution, The families in Clipperton were soon forgotten. The ships that they had come to rely upon for survival had stopped coming. With failed agricultural projects, food became the islander’s top concern. It was then that an American ship landed on Clipperton, bringing supplies, provisions, and much relievement to all. The Americans advised Arnaud and his soldiers that it would be best to abandon the island, given that the Revolution was Mexico’s top and only priority and not the few dozen families guarding Clipperton. Gustav Shultz boarded the American ship and left with the crew. Abandoning Arnaud, his soldiers, and the lonely lighthouse keeper. Although there was talk of abandonment by their country, Arnaud and his men stayed true to their sworn duty to protect Mexico’s claim of Clipperton. Clipperton had now been completely abandoned by the British and the Mexican government. By then, there were around 26 people left on the island. It would be months before some of the inhabitants began to suffer from the lack of food and proper medical care. Surviving mainly on crabs, birds, coconuts, and the occasional fish, many began to perish from the effects of scurvy. By 1917 most of the males had died. Only Arnaud and a couple of other men remained. Around this time Captain Arnaud claimed to have spotted a passing ship. However he was too weak and sick to row out by himself. He instructed his remaining men to help him row out into the ocean to flag down the ship. It would be the last time the women would ever see their men. Whether the Captain saw an actual ship or hallucinated one will never be known. The only thing that is known is that after they rowed out into the water, they never returned. The women, including Arnaud’s pregnant widow, had no time to mourn. For they had spotted a large hurricane heading towards the island and needed to find shelter quickly. It was Alicia Arnaud who gathered all the remaining women and children inside the basement of her home. That night, amidst violent winds and thundering rain, she gave birth to their fourth child. When the hurricane broke and all appeared calm, the women and children emerged from the basement only to find that their settlement had been destroyed, completely obliterated by the hurricane. They huddled together, trying to figure out what they could do next when out stepped the lighthouse keeper. Victoriano Alvarez was essentially the last man on Clipperton. The women watched as he collected all the weapons he could find and threw them all out into the water. Keeping only one rifle for himself. Alvarez soon claimed himself as ‘the king of Clipperton’ and would unleash terror across the island. For the next year or so, Alvarez ruled with complete control. He enslaved the women and used them as sexual slaves. He would constantly rape, threaten and beat them and there was no one to stop him. No one really thought about the hermit that lived in the lighthouse until it was too late. Alvarez, suffering from some sort of mental breakdown killed a mother and daughter who refused to sleep with him. He used fear and violence to subdue the women and children and would constantly apply beatings to keep them all in check. As the months passed and with no signs of rescue, the king of Clipperton ruled with impunity. He would grab whichever women or young child he wanted and raped them at gunpoint. When he was finished with 20-year-old Altagracia Quiroz, he moved onto a 13-year-old named Rosalia Nava. And so on and so on. It was 20-year-old Tirza Randon who was the most outspoken of the women. She spoke out against the barbaric crime and rule Alvarez possessed on Clipperton and wanted him dead. Alvarez knew this and would constantly beat and rape her. He would tell her (in front of the others) that if any rescue ship were to arrive, she would be the first one dead so that she could not talk about the atrocities he was committing. The lighthouse keeper, the man once referred to as a hermit, was now a blood-thirsty, sexually depraved psychopath. And there was no one to stop him. Around 1917, fighting against disease, starvation, and a sexual predator, Tirza Randon decided that enough was enough. That Alvarez had to go. One July day Alvarez returned to the main settlement with Tirza. He held her captive in his lighthouse all night, beating and raping her. Alvarez then told Arnaud’s widow to present herself at his hut near the lighthouse first thing in the morning. Sensing this as an opportunity, Alicia Arnaud and Tirza Randon began plotting Alvarez’s death. On the 18th of July 1917, Arnaud and her 7-year-old son (Ramón Arnaud Jr), as well as Tirza Randon left the main settlement and headed over to the lighthouse keeper’s hut. There they found Alvarez sitting outside. He was roasting a bird when the two women surprised him and began their attack. Tirza grabbed a hammer from the hut and began attacking Alvarez. Alicia then grabbed an axe and swung wildly at Alvarez. A hammer to the head knocked Alvarez to the ground. It was there that the women unleashed their rage against the king. Alicia Arnaud told her son to run into the hut and fetch the rifle. While he left, the two stabbed, kicked, and chopped away at the king’s body. Slashing his face until completely mutilated and stabbing his body until it was completely drenched in blood. It was a death tailored only for a mad king. Ramón Arnaud Jr. could only stand aside and watch as the two women unleashed their wrath on the lifeless body. It was then that Ramón spotted a ship. It had been over two years since they had laid their eyes upon a vessel and there it stood. A gleaming beacon of hope. The Americans made their first attempt at reaching Clipperton. They sent a smaller boat ashore, but given the tumultuous waves and the high and sharp rocks that surrounded the atoll, it made their rescue mission seem almost impossible. The small boat had no other choice but to return. Leaving the women and children in the island to speculate that they had been abandoned once again. The women and their children now knew that they were going to face certain starvation. Seeing their rescue boat head back into the ocean brought upon a somber mood. They all stood and watched as the boat sailed away, essentially signing their death certificates. Equipped with a rifle and bullets, whispers of suicide began making rounds amongst the doomed mothers. Unbeknownst to the grieving women and children, the Americans attempted a second rescue mission to which they had succeeded in landing on the shores of Clipperton. The American sailors met the malnourished inhabitants and what was left of the settlement. They noted that the children appeared small for their ages, which was due to the rampant disease and starvation that loomed over the island. The sailors then boarded alongside with the Clipperton survivors and they left the island. Leaving the Mad King’s body to rot in the sun, becoming a meal for the crabs. Four women and seven children were all that remained of the attempt at colonizing Clipperton. The official report written by Navigator Lieutenant Kerr of the USS Yorktown, only talked about the rescue of the inhabitants of Clipperton. In its entirety, there was no mention of the lighthouse keeper or the rapes and murders that took place on the island. The men figured that it would be best to protect the survivors from any potential legal actions of what really happened on Clipperton Island. When the Yorktown ship pulled onto a Mexican harbor, they were greeted by stunned officials and family members who had been told that all of the inhabitants of Clipperton had perished. For 17 years the sailors and survivors of Clipperton kept silent about what really happened on Clipperton Island between 1914 and 1917.	<urn:uuid:679e00f7-b892-4c11-a8e0-f54ec8391ad1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ghosttheory.com/2016/07/06/the-mad-king-of-clipperton-island	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00293.warc.gz	en	0.984219	2,572	3.453125	3	[ 0.11193512380123138, -0.01766958273947239, 0.15258339047431946, -0.24021144211292267, 0.10534940659999847, -0.1941825896501541, 0.2324410080909729, 0.27661728858947754, -0.030953476205468178, 0.08823204040527344, 0.3621692657470703, -0.39464086294174194, 0.14768096804618835, 0.397536277770...	1	Before a passing ship had rescued the remaining inhabitants of the island, four women and seven children, the world knew nothing of the lonely atoll known as Clipperton Island. With the rescue of the emaciated inhabitants, the true and horrific story of Clipperton came to be known. Off the coast of Colima Mexico, across acres Before a passing ship had rescued the remaining inhabitants of the island, four women and seven children, the world knew nothing of the lonely atoll known as Clipperton Island. With the rescue of the emaciated inhabitants, the true and horrific story of Clipperton came to be known. Off the coast of Colima Mexico, across acres and acres of deep, blue pacific water sits a lonely island, an atoll, whose only inhabitants consists of crabs, birds, iguanas, and the hundreds of sharks that patrol its glassy waters. With scarce vegetation and a toxic lake that makes up most of Clipperton, the island is hardly a place you’d consider paradise. Yet throughout the ages there has been attempt after attempt to colonize Clipperton and capitalize on its abundant supply of fresh guano. Mining for guano had grown into a lucrative market and by 1899, with permission by the Mexican government, The British Pacific Island Company acquired the rights to the several guano deposits across Clipperton. Within weeks of signing the mining company had built a settlement and began work. That same year Mexico’s president Porfirio Diaz ordered that a lighthouse be erected on the island. It was to be manned at all times and a lighthouse keeper was eventually placed on the island with the rest. Within months, a few dozen men and their families became the first and only residents of the lonely speck of land amongst an endless shimmering blue field. The British had started to work on the land planting palm trees, a vegetable garden with imported soil, and several homes scattered across the ring. It had become an ongoing effort to cultivate the arid land. The adventurous families and workers were visited by supply ships about every 8 weeks from a port in Acapulco, Mexico. Fearing losing the land, Mexico sent a group of 13 men and their families from the Mexican Army to stand guard on Clipperton in 1906. Acting as the governor of Clipperton was an officer from the same army, a man named Ramon Arnaud. The forgotten governor Ramon Arnaud was a decorated officer in charge of the military garrison on Clipperton. He spoke Spanish, French, and English and had prior experience with French nationals. Captain Arnaud was President Diaz’s first choice for Clipperton. Arnaud came home to a tumultuous Mexico from his travels to Asia. A revolution was tearing throughout Mexico. Greeted by the chaos the rang across the country and an official order to inhabit the desolate island. The captain felt that his order to govern Clipperton was a way to exile him from Mexico. Having arrived in the midst of the revolution might have given the captain a sense of paranoia, however his mind was put at ease when he was told that he had been chosen personally by the President for the job. The captain accepted the order to guard Clipperton and protect Mexico’s sovereignty over the island. Although they were supplied with care packages, food, and tools, the island still fought to keep it’s reputation as an inhospitable place. Within a few years, the mines that provided endless amount of quality guano were becoming too much of a financial burden on the British Pacific Island Company. The world market had a growing number of guano providers, making the colonization efforts on Clipperton non profitable. In 1910 the British, losing money and effort, decided to remove all but one personnel from Clipperton. There had been around 100 inhabitants on Clipperton island. Most of them were British employees, Mexican soldiers and their families except for a German, Gustav Shultz (Representative of the mining company) who had suffered from a mental breakdown, and also the lighthouse keeper remained. Little by little the British ships began leaving, taking with them those who had enough of the island. Then the conflict of the Mexican Revolution escalated. Which only brought worry and despair to the island’s inhabitants. Because of the escalating conflict of the Mexican Revolution, The families in Clipperton were soon forgotten. The ships that they had come to rely upon for survival had stopped coming. With failed agricultural projects, food became the islander’s top concern. It was then that an American ship landed on Clipperton, bringing supplies, provisions, and much relievement to all. The Americans advised Arnaud and his soldiers that it would be best to abandon the island, given that the Revolution was Mexico’s top and only priority and not the few dozen families guarding Clipperton. Gustav Shultz boarded the American ship and left with the crew. Abandoning Arnaud, his soldiers, and the lonely lighthouse keeper. Although there was talk of abandonment by their country, Arnaud and his men stayed true to their sworn duty to protect Mexico’s claim of Clipperton. Clipperton had now been completely abandoned by the British and the Mexican government. By then, there were around 26 people left on the island. It would be months before some of the inhabitants began to suffer from the lack of food and proper medical care. Surviving mainly on crabs, birds, coconuts, and the occasional fish, many began to perish from the effects of scurvy. By 1917 most of the males had died. Only Arnaud and a couple of other men remained. Around this time Captain Arnaud claimed to have spotted a passing ship. However he was too weak and sick to row out by himself. He instructed his remaining men to help him row out into the ocean to flag down the ship. It would be the last time the women would ever see their men. Whether the Captain saw an actual ship or hallucinated one will never be known. The only thing that is known is that after they rowed out into the water, they never returned. The women, including Arnaud’s pregnant widow, had no time to mourn. For they had spotted a large hurricane heading towards the island and needed to find shelter quickly. It was Alicia Arnaud who gathered all the remaining women and children inside the basement of her home. That night, amidst violent winds and thundering rain, she gave birth to their fourth child. When the hurricane broke and all appeared calm, the women and children emerged from the basement only to find that their settlement had been destroyed, completely obliterated by the hurricane. They huddled together, trying to figure out what they could do next when out stepped the lighthouse keeper. Victoriano Alvarez was essentially the last man on Clipperton. The women watched as he collected all the weapons he could find and threw them all out into the water. Keeping only one rifle for himself. Alvarez soon claimed himself as ‘the king of Clipperton’ and would unleash terror across the island. For the next year or so, Alvarez ruled with complete control. He enslaved the women and used them as sexual slaves. He would constantly rape, threaten and beat them and there was no one to stop him. No one really thought about the hermit that lived in the lighthouse until it was too late. Alvarez, suffering from some sort of mental breakdown killed a mother and daughter who refused to sleep with him. He used fear and violence to subdue the women and children and would constantly apply beatings to keep them all in check. As the months passed and with no signs of rescue, the king of Clipperton ruled with impunity. He would grab whichever women or young child he wanted and raped them at gunpoint. When he was finished with 20-year-old Altagracia Quiroz, he moved onto a 13-year-old named Rosalia Nava. And so on and so on. It was 20-year-old Tirza Randon who was the most outspoken of the women. She spoke out against the barbaric crime and rule Alvarez possessed on Clipperton and wanted him dead. Alvarez knew this and would constantly beat and rape her. He would tell her (in front of the others) that if any rescue ship were to arrive, she would be the first one dead so that she could not talk about the atrocities he was committing. The lighthouse keeper, the man once referred to as a hermit, was now a blood-thirsty, sexually depraved psychopath. And there was no one to stop him. Around 1917, fighting against disease, starvation, and a sexual predator, Tirza Randon decided that enough was enough. That Alvarez had to go. One July day Alvarez returned to the main settlement with Tirza. He held her captive in his lighthouse all night, beating and raping her. Alvarez then told Arnaud’s widow to present herself at his hut near the lighthouse first thing in the morning. Sensing this as an opportunity, Alicia Arnaud and Tirza Randon began plotting Alvarez’s death. On the 18th of July 1917, Arnaud and her 7-year-old son (Ramón Arnaud Jr), as well as Tirza Randon left the main settlement and headed over to the lighthouse keeper’s hut. There they found Alvarez sitting outside. He was roasting a bird when the two women surprised him and began their attack. Tirza grabbed a hammer from the hut and began attacking Alvarez. Alicia then grabbed an axe and swung wildly at Alvarez. A hammer to the head knocked Alvarez to the ground. It was there that the women unleashed their rage against the king. Alicia Arnaud told her son to run into the hut and fetch the rifle. While he left, the two stabbed, kicked, and chopped away at the king’s body. Slashing his face until completely mutilated and stabbing his body until it was completely drenched in blood. It was a death tailored only for a mad king. Ramón Arnaud Jr. could only stand aside and watch as the two women unleashed their wrath on the lifeless body. It was then that Ramón spotted a ship. It had been over two years since they had laid their eyes upon a vessel and there it stood. A gleaming beacon of hope. The Americans made their first attempt at reaching Clipperton. They sent a smaller boat ashore, but given the tumultuous waves and the high and sharp rocks that surrounded the atoll, it made their rescue mission seem almost impossible. The small boat had no other choice but to return. Leaving the women and children in the island to speculate that they had been abandoned once again. The women and their children now knew that they were going to face certain starvation. Seeing their rescue boat head back into the ocean brought upon a somber mood. They all stood and watched as the boat sailed away, essentially signing their death certificates. Equipped with a rifle and bullets, whispers of suicide began making rounds amongst the doomed mothers. Unbeknownst to the grieving women and children, the Americans attempted a second rescue mission to which they had succeeded in landing on the shores of Clipperton. The American sailors met the malnourished inhabitants and what was left of the settlement. They noted that the children appeared small for their ages, which was due to the rampant disease and starvation that loomed over the island. The sailors then boarded alongside with the Clipperton survivors and they left the island. Leaving the Mad King’s body to rot in the sun, becoming a meal for the crabs. Four women and seven children were all that remained of the attempt at colonizing Clipperton. The official report written by Navigator Lieutenant Kerr of the USS Yorktown, only talked about the rescue of the inhabitants of Clipperton. In its entirety, there was no mention of the lighthouse keeper or the rapes and murders that took place on the island. The men figured that it would be best to protect the survivors from any potential legal actions of what really happened on Clipperton Island. When the Yorktown ship pulled onto a Mexican harbor, they were greeted by stunned officials and family members who had been told that all of the inhabitants of Clipperton had perished. For 17 years the sailors and survivors of Clipperton kept silent about what really happened on Clipperton Island between 1914 and 1917.	2,581	ENGLISH	1
An inspector calls was written in 1945 and was set the week the titanic sunk in 1912. It was written by J.B Priestly, J.B Priestly was born in 1894. He wrote the play in 1945 and set it in 1912 because he wanted people to see what life was like when class divisions all looked down on each other and politics was a big role in society. Edwardian Britain in 1912 was a lot different from today; there was a huge conflict between Capital versus Labour. It was a time when prices rose, and wages couldn’t keep up with the pace. One million miners went on strike in the biggest industrial walk out of that time; this was a big threat to businessmen because work wasn’t being done. It was also a year when the titanic first set sailed; this was a symbol of Britain’s wealth, power and might. The titanic also sank the same year. There was a lot of class division the upper class looked down on the middle class and they all looked down on the lower class. Women didn’t have power, as they couldn’t cote, so men thought they were the superior sex. Women in 1912 were not bothered about politics and society, they were fonder of how much money they had and materialistic things. In ‘an inspector calls’ Sheila is one of these women, and all she cares about is what size of diamond Gerald her fiancï¿½ is going to get her. Most of the women Sheila knows are into fashion, just like any normal woman, but Sheila thinks she is better than the women in the lower class. We see this through her actions especially in Milwards, when Eva/Daisy was meant to of offended Sheila, but Sheila is a very jealous paranoid woman who thinks she is always the centre of attention. In Milwards Sheila thought Eva/Daisy was laughing at her, Sheila said “If Eva/Daisy had been some miserable plain little creature, I don’t suppose I’d have done it” here we see Sheila is jealous because a dress she liked didn’t look nice on her, this is how pathetic Sheila can be. J.B Priestly has put this scene in the play very carefully as this leads the life of Eva/Daisy to a whole host of events, this is the turning point in the play. Throughout the play Sheila’s character changes dramatically, she starts off quite excited about her engagement to Gerald, then the inspector arrives and he makes her break down and tell the truth, she feels responsible for the suicide of Eva/Daisy. Sheila then tries to get her parents to tell the truth to stop them from getting into trouble with the inspector, but Sheila’s parents font realise that Sheila is only trying to stop them from getting into more trouble with the inspector. J.B Priestly has made Sheila’s character different from all the other characters in the play, he is trying to use her as a way of making people realise what they were like and how their views affected people. An inspector calls was written not just for personal amusement it has a reason, it’s written to teach people. After world war two had ended, J.B Priestly decided he wanted to teach people that the war and fighting wouldn’t end unless people changed their ways. J.B Priestly has gone about this by introducing the character of Sheila Birling into his play as an example of how people can change their ways for the better, we see Sheila change her ways when she converts from being the selfish immature girl she was at the start of the play to a sensible mature young woman by the end of the play. In the play Sheila and Eric seem to be the only ones influenced by what the inspector says. Their attitudes change by the end of the play and they come to realise what they take for granted. Sheila comes across as a very snobby, spoilt young woman, we see her like this when she refers to her mother and father as “mummy and daddy” this phrase is used a lot through the play, as Sheila tends to say it when she wants something of her mother and father. Sheila mostly cares about fashion, she has never done a hard days work in her life and has just relied on her parent; she has never had to experience the life that Eva/Daisy has. Sheila has quite a close relationship with her family, at the start of the play when they are having the engagement party they are all happy and there are no arguments between them, but then when the inspector arrives the Birling family begins to come apart in front of our eyes. By the end of the play Sheila is closer to Eric (her younger brother) as they decided to change their ways. Their parents, on the other hand, just laugh about it. As they believed that they had fooled the inspector, and therefore don’t need to change their ways. Sheila and Gerald aren’t as close by the end of the play; this is because Sheila finds out the truth about Gerald’s relationship with Eva/Daisy and that he wasn’t faithful, Sheila says “you and I aren’t the same people who sat down to dinner here before. We’d have to start all over again, getting to know each other. Sheila says this as she begins to think that it would be better if they didn’t get married as she start all over again and she could begin to trust him again. The inspector, has a huge affect on Sheila’s behaviour, she begins to go against what he parents say, and Sheila shows her parents up in front of the inspector as they are lying to the inspector. Her parents realise what Sheila is trying to do and they try and send her out the room, but she insists in staying. When the inspector is questioning Mrs Birling, Sheila is in the room and she knows her mum is lying so she says to her mother “don’t build up a wall for yourself, because the inspector will just break it down”, these are powerful words coming from Sheila, but her mother is too proud to realise Sheila is right, and Mrs Birling continues to take no notice of Sheila and carries on lying to the inspector. By the end of the play the inspector’s visit has had a huge effect on Sheila’s attitude, views on society and her relationship with her family, by influencing her views onto her other people and helping them realise what life was like for the people less well off than the Birlings. J.B. Priestly has made Sheila’s character special by reflecting her views and responsibilities on to her parents at the end of the play. Sheila’s attitude on society had changed by the end of the play; she realises to respect everyone less well off than her and she doesn’t want to take anything for granted anymore. Sheila has made a big transformation, she has changed her views about society and she has learnt to respect people in the lower classes, she isn’t the jealous stuck up woman she was, and she has realised that she needed to change her ways. The inspector has taught Sheila that what she’s says affects people in such dramatic ways; Sheila is trying to get her parents to understand what she believes, by telling her parents her opinion and getting them to realise that she is right.	<urn:uuid:e4925645-e2ed-43c9-a7cc-74acec26faa3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/purpose-ways-j-b-priestly-present-effect-inspectors-visit-sheila-birling/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00258.warc.gz	en	0.987517	1,549	3.375	3	[ 0.11303343623876572, 0.08470439910888672, -0.07075375318527222, -0.5503190755844116, 0.14169426262378693, -0.15780134499073029, 0.1759038269519806, 0.10110341012477875, -0.1884211003780365, -0.39280563592910767, 0.04325549304485321, 0.07803522050380707, 0.09490282088518143, 0.1877804547548...	2	An inspector calls was written in 1945 and was set the week the titanic sunk in 1912. It was written by J.B Priestly, J.B Priestly was born in 1894. He wrote the play in 1945 and set it in 1912 because he wanted people to see what life was like when class divisions all looked down on each other and politics was a big role in society. Edwardian Britain in 1912 was a lot different from today; there was a huge conflict between Capital versus Labour. It was a time when prices rose, and wages couldn’t keep up with the pace. One million miners went on strike in the biggest industrial walk out of that time; this was a big threat to businessmen because work wasn’t being done. It was also a year when the titanic first set sailed; this was a symbol of Britain’s wealth, power and might. The titanic also sank the same year. There was a lot of class division the upper class looked down on the middle class and they all looked down on the lower class. Women didn’t have power, as they couldn’t cote, so men thought they were the superior sex. Women in 1912 were not bothered about politics and society, they were fonder of how much money they had and materialistic things. In ‘an inspector calls’ Sheila is one of these women, and all she cares about is what size of diamond Gerald her fiancï¿½ is going to get her. Most of the women Sheila knows are into fashion, just like any normal woman, but Sheila thinks she is better than the women in the lower class. We see this through her actions especially in Milwards, when Eva/Daisy was meant to of offended Sheila, but Sheila is a very jealous paranoid woman who thinks she is always the centre of attention. In Milwards Sheila thought Eva/Daisy was laughing at her, Sheila said “If Eva/Daisy had been some miserable plain little creature, I don’t suppose I’d have done it” here we see Sheila is jealous because a dress she liked didn’t look nice on her, this is how pathetic Sheila can be. J.B Priestly has put this scene in the play very carefully as this leads the life of Eva/Daisy to a whole host of events, this is the turning point in the play. Throughout the play Sheila’s character changes dramatically, she starts off quite excited about her engagement to Gerald, then the inspector arrives and he makes her break down and tell the truth, she feels responsible for the suicide of Eva/Daisy. Sheila then tries to get her parents to tell the truth to stop them from getting into trouble with the inspector, but Sheila’s parents font realise that Sheila is only trying to stop them from getting into more trouble with the inspector. J.B Priestly has made Sheila’s character different from all the other characters in the play, he is trying to use her as a way of making people realise what they were like and how their views affected people. An inspector calls was written not just for personal amusement it has a reason, it’s written to teach people. After world war two had ended, J.B Priestly decided he wanted to teach people that the war and fighting wouldn’t end unless people changed their ways. J.B Priestly has gone about this by introducing the character of Sheila Birling into his play as an example of how people can change their ways for the better, we see Sheila change her ways when she converts from being the selfish immature girl she was at the start of the play to a sensible mature young woman by the end of the play. In the play Sheila and Eric seem to be the only ones influenced by what the inspector says. Their attitudes change by the end of the play and they come to realise what they take for granted. Sheila comes across as a very snobby, spoilt young woman, we see her like this when she refers to her mother and father as “mummy and daddy” this phrase is used a lot through the play, as Sheila tends to say it when she wants something of her mother and father. Sheila mostly cares about fashion, she has never done a hard days work in her life and has just relied on her parent; she has never had to experience the life that Eva/Daisy has. Sheila has quite a close relationship with her family, at the start of the play when they are having the engagement party they are all happy and there are no arguments between them, but then when the inspector arrives the Birling family begins to come apart in front of our eyes. By the end of the play Sheila is closer to Eric (her younger brother) as they decided to change their ways. Their parents, on the other hand, just laugh about it. As they believed that they had fooled the inspector, and therefore don’t need to change their ways. Sheila and Gerald aren’t as close by the end of the play; this is because Sheila finds out the truth about Gerald’s relationship with Eva/Daisy and that he wasn’t faithful, Sheila says “you and I aren’t the same people who sat down to dinner here before. We’d have to start all over again, getting to know each other. Sheila says this as she begins to think that it would be better if they didn’t get married as she start all over again and she could begin to trust him again. The inspector, has a huge affect on Sheila’s behaviour, she begins to go against what he parents say, and Sheila shows her parents up in front of the inspector as they are lying to the inspector. Her parents realise what Sheila is trying to do and they try and send her out the room, but she insists in staying. When the inspector is questioning Mrs Birling, Sheila is in the room and she knows her mum is lying so she says to her mother “don’t build up a wall for yourself, because the inspector will just break it down”, these are powerful words coming from Sheila, but her mother is too proud to realise Sheila is right, and Mrs Birling continues to take no notice of Sheila and carries on lying to the inspector. By the end of the play the inspector’s visit has had a huge effect on Sheila’s attitude, views on society and her relationship with her family, by influencing her views onto her other people and helping them realise what life was like for the people less well off than the Birlings. J.B. Priestly has made Sheila’s character special by reflecting her views and responsibilities on to her parents at the end of the play. Sheila’s attitude on society had changed by the end of the play; she realises to respect everyone less well off than her and she doesn’t want to take anything for granted anymore. Sheila has made a big transformation, she has changed her views about society and she has learnt to respect people in the lower classes, she isn’t the jealous stuck up woman she was, and she has realised that she needed to change her ways. The inspector has taught Sheila that what she’s says affects people in such dramatic ways; Sheila is trying to get her parents to understand what she believes, by telling her parents her opinion and getting them to realise that she is right.	1,475	ENGLISH	1
The first celebration of Black History Month took place in February 1970. Within six years, it was recognized nationally. The month-long celebration gives all Americans a chance to reflect on the history of African Americans, from their many achievements to the struggles they endure to this day. 50 years later, we continue to set this time aside to praise black Americans who have excelled, overcome, and made history. Of course, there is much more history to celebrate than can fit in one month's time. Join us as we honor the African American men and women who made history with these important facts that you may not already know. 1. Phillis Wheatley was only 12 when she became the first female African American author published. Despite Phillis Wheatley’s fame, we know surprisingly little about her early life. She was taken from her home in Africa when she was seven or eight, and sold to the Wheatley family in Boston. The family taught her to read and write, and encouraged her to write poetry as soon as they witnessed her talent for it. In 1773, Phillis published her first poem, making her the first African American to be published. She was only 12 at the time. Her work was praised by high-ranking members of society, including, perhaps most notably, George Washington. Her writing made her famous throughout the colonies. Not long after her poems were first published, the family that owned Wheatley emancipated her. Unfortunately, her life took a turn from there, especially after the deaths of many of the Wheatleys who had helped support her. She was stricken with poverty. The fame she earned from her writing did little to sustain her husband and children. She fell ill and died at the age of 31. 2. MLK improvised the most iconic part of his “I Have a Dream” speech. This fact may be the most surprising you'll find here. When King was originally drafting his speech, the “dream” language was considered but ultimately edited out. He was only allotted five minutes to speak, and he didn’t think he’d have enough time to fit those words. When he handed the speech into the press, the words “I have a dream” were not included. When they arrived at the march that morning, King was disappointed at the numbers the media was reporting—only about 25,000 had showed to protest. But by the time they reached the Lincoln Memorial, the numbers had swelled. Maybe this is what inspired King to suddenly change his speech. Whatever the reason, King’s improvisation made history. 3. Hattie McDaniel, the first African American to win an Oscar, wasn’t allowed to attend Gone With the Wind's national premiere. Hattie McDaniel was able to carve out a place for herself in Hollywood despite rampant racism and a consignment to bit parts. She paved the way for many African American women, but not without her fair share of obstacles. Her performance as “Mammy” in Gone With the Wind (1939) won her Best Supporting Actress at the Oscars that year. However, the national movie premiere was in Atlanta. Because of Georgia’s Jim Crow Laws, she was prohibited from attending the event. Hattie went on to star in over 300 films, was inducted into the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame in 2006, and was the first Oscar winner to appear on a postage stamp. Despite her ultimate success, her choices (insofar as she had any) in roles were often criticized. The NAACP said Hollywood’s roles for African Americans were narrowed to servants or characters whose main purpose was being comically slow and dim-witted. Hattie was criticized for settling for lesser roles than her white colleagues. Despite this, Hattie went on to have a stellar career. 4. Josephine Baker was a spy for the French during WWII. Josephine Baker, one of showbiz’s most iconic performers, left the United States due to the overt racism she encountered in 1937. After marrying a Frenchman, Jean Lion, she moved to Paris and renounced her U.S. citizenship. In 1940, when the Nazis began their occupation of Paris, Baker showed just how deep her loyalty to her adopted nation was, becoming a spy for the Allies. During her travels across Europe to perform, Baker would conceal messages within her costumes or her sheet music for other Allied spies. She also used her status as a desired society presence to eavesdrop at various embassy events and balls. 5. The ban on interracial marriage in the U.S. was overturned because of one couple in 1967. Mildred and Richard Loving left their home state of Virginia to get married. They were warned by Virginia state officials that getting married would be a violation of state law, as Richard was white and Mildred was not. When they returned home, Mildred was promptly arrested. When she was finally released, the couple was referred to the American Civil Liberties Union by Robert Kennedy. The ACLU, seeing an opportunity to end anti-miscegenation laws, jumped at the chance. After making their way through local and state courts, Loving v Virginia was put before the Supreme Court, and the bans on interracial marriage were deemed unconstitutional. It was a landmark victory for couples of different races, and the Lovings are often heralded as being the catalysts for making it happen. The last law formally prohibiting interracial marriage was overturned in Alabama in 2000. The Lovings were featured in a 2016 biopic, Loving, starring Ruth Negga and Joel Edgerton. 6. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on Maya Angelou’s 40th birthday. It may not be entirely surprising that Martin Luther King Jr. and Maya Angelou became friends during the Civil Rights era. Two prominent voices in the Civil Rights Movement, their paths crossed when Angelou was the coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and King paid the group a visit. In one of her autobiographies, she recalls MLK being shorter and younger than she expected but also said that he was friendly and constantly cracking jokes. When King died on Angelou’s birthday, the writer was devastated. She stopped celebrating her birthday for many years following his death and sent flowers to King’s widow, Coretta Scott King, for more than 30 years, until Coretta died in 2006. 7. Nine months before Rosa Parks, there was a young woman named Claudette Colvin. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to relinquish her seat on a public bus. Parks' protest sparked the Montgomery bus protests and galvanized the Civil Rights Movement. Yet she was not the first African American individual in Montgomery to stand up against injustice in such a manner. On March 2, 1955, fifteen-year-old Claudette Colvin was riding home on a city bus after a long day at school. A white passenger boarded, and the bus driver ordered Claudette to give up her seat. Claudette refused. As she later told Newsweek "I felt like Sojourner Truth was pushing down on one shoulder and Harriet Tubman was pushing down on the other. I was glued to my seat." Related: On This Day: Rosa Parks Was Born Colvin was arrested for her civil disobedience and briefly put in jail. The NAACP and other civil rights groups considered rallying around Colvin's case in their campaign against Alabama's segregation laws before focusing efforts on Rosa Parks' protest nine months later. Nevertheless, Colvin was one of four plaintiffs in the landmark Browder v. Gayle case of 1956, which ruled that the segregation laws of Montgomery and Alabama state were unconstitutional. 8. Anna Murray was the first African-American woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest. This fiery woman exchanged letters with both Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt for many years and was considered one of Eleanor’s dear friends. Although her work has rather sadly faded from view, Murray’s expertise in law was a vital part of the Civil Rights movement. She worked closely with icons like Thurgood Marshall and Rosa Parks, and was appointed by President Kennedy to the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in the 1960s, where her work focused on “Jane Crow”: how discrimination against black people particularly and deeply affected black women, and the ways in which sexism and racism combined to affect black women. Murray died of cancer in 1985. In the last decade or so, her work has been brought back to light through various efforts, including making her childhood home a National Historic Landmark, and a blockbuster dual biography of Murray and Eleanor Roosevelt, The Firebrand and the First Lady. 9. Matthew Henson was a key member of the first successful expedition to the North Pole and made seven separate voyages to the Arctic. On April 9, 1909, Matthew Henson and Robert Peary arrived at the true North Pole. But getting there was no easy feat. The pair had made former attempts, but all had failed, including one where six members of the expedition team died of starvation. After they finally made it in 1909, Henson and Peary went on to explore the arctic for another two decades. However, because this was the early 1900s, upon their return home from the North Pole, Peary was met with extensive praise, while Henson was barely noticed. In 1912, Henson published a memoir titled A Negro Explorer in the North Pole that detailed his Arctic adventures. It helped call attention to his role in the achievement, but he was still mostly forgotten. In 1937, he finally received long-deserved recognition when he was invited to join the New York Explorer’s Club. It wasn’t until 2000, after his death, that Henson was awarded the National Geographic Hubbard Medal. 10. Madam C.J. Walker was an African American entrepreneur who became America's first female self-made millionaire. Born in 1867 to former slaves on a Louisiana cotton plantation, Madam Walker rose in power to become America's first female self-made millionaire. She did so through the creation of the Madam C.J. Walker Company. Headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, her company was a cosmetics manufacturer that specialized in beauty and haircare products for African American women. Walker's business prowess was matched only by her philanthropy and activism. She helped establish a YMCA in the black community of Indianapolis and contributed funds to the Tuskegee Institute. Upon moving to New York, she joined the NAACP, donated generously to the NAACP's anti-lynching fund, and commissioned the first black architect in New York City to build Villa Lewaro, her home on the Hudson where great minds such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington gathered to discuss social matters important to the African American community. By the time of her death in 1919, she was known not only as a remarkably successful African American business owner, but one of America's most successful entrepreneurs of all time. 11. Billie Holiday’s famous “Strange Fruit” was originally a poem written by a school teacher. In 1936, Lewis Allan published an anti-lynching poem called “Strange Fruit” in the Teacher Union magazine. Lewis Allan was a pseudonym for Abel Meeropol, a Jewish school teacher from the Bronx. At the height of American lynchings, there were as many as 1,953 people killed by lynching a year. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, lynching had hit a peak, encouraged by the Jim Crow era, Reconstruction, and the Great Migration of black Southern workers to northern cities. Meeropol eventually set the poem to music. A few younger artists had picked up the song before, but it was Holiday who ultimately made it famous. She sang and recorded a version in 1939 that was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Holiday and Meeropol both were met with high praise. “Strange Fruit” is one of the most iconic songs of the Civil Rights Movement and retains its power to this day. 12. Octavia E. Butler was dyslexic. The woman who would become the first science-fiction writer to receive a MacArthur Fellowship and who would win countless awards for her work over a 40-odd year long career struggled with a “mild” case of dyslexia as a child. Octavia E. Butler was raised primarily by her mother and grandmother after the early death of her father. A shy child whose dyslexia made her feel stupid, Butler took to hiding out in the library in her hometown of Pasadena. There, she discovered iconic science fiction magazines that sparked her desire to write. By the age of 12, she was at work on a story that would become the basis of one of her major series. Seventeen years later, her first book, Patternmaster, the first of that very series, was published. 13. Benjamin Banneker taught himself astronomy and math to become America's "First Known African American Man of Science". Benjamin Banneker was born a free man in 1731. He lived in Maryland with his mother, a free African American woman, and his father, a former slave. While researchers believe young Benjamin spent some time attending a Quaker school, he had little opportunity for formal education. So the young man taught himself—and soon revealed his brilliant mind. Flexing his ability to calculate the positions of celestial objects at regular intervals, Banneker began publishing almanacs from 1792 through 1797. Each issue included Banneker's astronomical calculations, weather predictions and tide tables, as well as poetry and writing on literature, medicine, and politics. A digital scan of Banneker's almanac from 1793 can be found here. Banneker's scholarly pursuits led to his correspondence with Thomas Jefferson. In a letter from 1791, Banneker respectfully challenged the then-Secretary of State's view on slavery and the intellectual capacity of black people. Jefferson responded, and Banneker later published their correspondence. 1791 also saw Banneker join a survey team tasked with establishing the boundaries of the nation's capital. However, given the lack of historical documents, the exact nature of Banneker's participation is difficult to discern. 14. During her run for president, three separate assassination attempts were made on Shirley Chisholm. “Unbought and unbossed.” Those words ring loudly as a mere speck of Shirley Chisholm’s legacy. Chisholm, born and raised in Brooklyn, became the first black woman elected to Congress in 1968. After four years as the New York representative for the 12th congressional district (primarily the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood), Chisholm announced her run for the presidency. In that moment, she became the first black candidate for president from a major party, and the first female candidate to run for the Democratic Party’s nomination. Chisholm's life was endangered as she vied for our nation's highest office. The representative won a total of 28 delegates during her run. After stepping down from Congress, Chisholm taught at Mount Holyoke and Spelman College, both all-women colleges (Spelman is also a historically black institution). In 2015, she was awarded a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. In 2020, a statue of Chisholm is scheduled to be erected in Brooklyn’s Prospect Park. 15. Dr. Mayme Clayton founded the Mayme A. Clayton Library & Museum in 1975. Home to the Mayme Agnew Collection of African-American History and Culture, the MCLM contains millions of books, films, documents, artifacts, and art pieces which are products of black contributions to the United States. The museum was first started as the Western States Black Research Center; Dr. Clayton spent decades curating her historical collection on her own. Set up in a large garage within Clayton’s Los Angeles home, the collection was a library open to all. After some of the artifacts were damaged due to poor storage conditions, a campaign to rescue and relocate Dr. Clayton’s work finally paid off when the collection found its permanent home inside the former Los Angeles County Superior Courthouse in Culver City. It remains open for guided tours to this day. 16. The 6888th Battalion was an all-black, all-female unit of the military that delivered mail to World War II troops across England. In February 1945, the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion was established to deliver mail to American troops, government personnel, and volunteers abroad in England. At the time, many packages and letters were poorly addressed or sent to individuals with common names and little further direction. Members of the service weren’t getting their mail, which had an outsized impact on morale. Officials estimated that, with the disarray of the postal warehouse, it would take around six months for the harrowing backlog to be sorted and delivered. African-American women were granted the opportunity to travel to serve overseas in late 1944, and the 6888th Battalion was full of eager, well-trained recruits. Led by Major Charity Edna Adams, the women of the “Six Triple Eight” spent time in Oglethorpe, Georgia preparing for service—jumping over trenches, identifying enemy crafts, and marching. Mail delivery in a war zone did not come not without danger, and the women of the Battalion faced several close calls, injuries, and even some instances of death. Though the reaction to this battalion was mixed, the Six Triple Eight was outstandingly efficient. The battalion worked in long shifts seven days a week and created a brand new tracking system for the mail they received. Rather than accomplishing the sorting of mail in the projected six months, the recruits blew through the task in three. 17. Allensworth, California was an all-black township—and the first of its kind. The township was founded in 1908 by Colonel Allen Allensworth and a group of other African-American men. Allensworth was meant to be a refuge away from the oppression that black people faced amidst society and aimed to be wholly self-reliant. The town of Allensworth ran largely off of agricultural pursuits, but contained its own small businesses and school district by 1912. At the height of Allensworth’s success in the 1920s, there were around 300 residents. Severe drought and the discovery of arsenic in the water supply led to the loss of residents in the 1960s and 70s. In 1976, now empty, the town became a state historic park. You can visit its site daily between 9 am and sunset. 18. The charity single "We Are the World" owes its creation and success to black artists. While most people today look back on the 1985 track as a cheesy supergroup relic of a different era, “We Are the World” sold over 20 million copies. The song swept across the world, raking in accolades and revenue and becoming the first single to ever be certified as multi-platinum. Three Grammys, an American Music Award, and a People’s Choice Award were bestowed upon the single, but most importantly it raised more than $63 million for aid in Africa and the United States. The idea for the single was originated by activist Harry Belafonte. The King of Calypso was a key contributor moving forward as well, responsible in part for bringing Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie on board to write the single. One of the song’s two producers was legendary 28-time Grammy Award winner Quincy Jones. Among the singers on the track were soloists Stevie Wonder, Tina Turner, Diana Ross, and Dionne Warwick, as well as chorus members like Smokey Robinson, The Pointer Sisters, and several of the Jackson siblings. After the earthquake that devastated Haiti in 2010, the song was re-recorded. Notable black artists for the new release included Jennifer Hudson, Mary J. Blige, Janet Jackson, Usher, T-Pain, Kanye West, and many more. 19. John Baxter Taylor was the first African-American to win an Olympic gold medal. While Taylor attended Central High School in Philadelphia, he ran track as the only black athlete on the team. From there, he attended the Moses Brown Preparatory School in Rhode Island, flourishing on a team with an undefeated streak. When he enrolled in the Wharton School of Finance one year later, he joined the varsity track team, where he would come to break the intercollegiate record for the 440-yard run. In the 1908 Olympics, Taylor competed in both the 400-meter relay final and the 1600-meter medley relay. The 400-meter relay was steeped in controversy, with officials claiming that one of the American runners fouled a British competitor—causing the gold medal to ultimately go to Britain. However, in the 1600-meter medley relay, Taylor ran the third leg of the race for his team and went down in history when he brought home the gold. Sadly, only five months after his triumph, Taylor passed away from typhoid fever complications. Featured photo: Wikimedia Commons	<urn:uuid:4b01e441-6ede-4be8-8547-7e52bf27058c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://explorethearchive.com/black-history-month-facts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00203.warc.gz	en	0.980421	4,382	3.875	4	[ -0.34164923429489136, 1.016584873199463, 0.21247698366641998, 0.13074015080928802, -0.6995729207992554, 0.2856926918029785, -0.020887240767478943, -0.10491150617599487, -0.10525725781917572, 0.08685941249132156, 0.1250900775194168, 0.29717496037483215, -0.3634679913520813, 0.06113909184932...	1	The first celebration of Black History Month took place in February 1970. Within six years, it was recognized nationally. The month-long celebration gives all Americans a chance to reflect on the history of African Americans, from their many achievements to the struggles they endure to this day. 50 years later, we continue to set this time aside to praise black Americans who have excelled, overcome, and made history. Of course, there is much more history to celebrate than can fit in one month's time. Join us as we honor the African American men and women who made history with these important facts that you may not already know. 1. Phillis Wheatley was only 12 when she became the first female African American author published. Despite Phillis Wheatley’s fame, we know surprisingly little about her early life. She was taken from her home in Africa when she was seven or eight, and sold to the Wheatley family in Boston. The family taught her to read and write, and encouraged her to write poetry as soon as they witnessed her talent for it. In 1773, Phillis published her first poem, making her the first African American to be published. She was only 12 at the time. Her work was praised by high-ranking members of society, including, perhaps most notably, George Washington. Her writing made her famous throughout the colonies. Not long after her poems were first published, the family that owned Wheatley emancipated her. Unfortunately, her life took a turn from there, especially after the deaths of many of the Wheatleys who had helped support her. She was stricken with poverty. The fame she earned from her writing did little to sustain her husband and children. She fell ill and died at the age of 31. 2. MLK improvised the most iconic part of his “I Have a Dream” speech. This fact may be the most surprising you'll find here. When King was originally drafting his speech, the “dream” language was considered but ultimately edited out. He was only allotted five minutes to speak, and he didn’t think he’d have enough time to fit those words. When he handed the speech into the press, the words “I have a dream” were not included. When they arrived at the march that morning, King was disappointed at the numbers the media was reporting—only about 25,000 had showed to protest. But by the time they reached the Lincoln Memorial, the numbers had swelled. Maybe this is what inspired King to suddenly change his speech. Whatever the reason, King’s improvisation made history. 3. Hattie McDaniel, the first African American to win an Oscar, wasn’t allowed to attend Gone With the Wind's national premiere. Hattie McDaniel was able to carve out a place for herself in Hollywood despite rampant racism and a consignment to bit parts. She paved the way for many African American women, but not without her fair share of obstacles. Her performance as “Mammy” in Gone With the Wind (1939) won her Best Supporting Actress at the Oscars that year. However, the national movie premiere was in Atlanta. Because of Georgia’s Jim Crow Laws, she was prohibited from attending the event. Hattie went on to star in over 300 films, was inducted into the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame in 2006, and was the first Oscar winner to appear on a postage stamp. Despite her ultimate success, her choices (insofar as she had any) in roles were often criticized. The NAACP said Hollywood’s roles for African Americans were narrowed to servants or characters whose main purpose was being comically slow and dim-witted. Hattie was criticized for settling for lesser roles than her white colleagues. Despite this, Hattie went on to have a stellar career. 4. Josephine Baker was a spy for the French during WWII. Josephine Baker, one of showbiz’s most iconic performers, left the United States due to the overt racism she encountered in 1937. After marrying a Frenchman, Jean Lion, she moved to Paris and renounced her U.S. citizenship. In 1940, when the Nazis began their occupation of Paris, Baker showed just how deep her loyalty to her adopted nation was, becoming a spy for the Allies. During her travels across Europe to perform, Baker would conceal messages within her costumes or her sheet music for other Allied spies. She also used her status as a desired society presence to eavesdrop at various embassy events and balls. 5. The ban on interracial marriage in the U.S. was overturned because of one couple in 1967. Mildred and Richard Loving left their home state of Virginia to get married. They were warned by Virginia state officials that getting married would be a violation of state law, as Richard was white and Mildred was not. When they returned home, Mildred was promptly arrested. When she was finally released, the couple was referred to the American Civil Liberties Union by Robert Kennedy. The ACLU, seeing an opportunity to end anti-miscegenation laws, jumped at the chance. After making their way through local and state courts, Loving v Virginia was put before the Supreme Court, and the bans on interracial marriage were deemed unconstitutional. It was a landmark victory for couples of different races, and the Lovings are often heralded as being the catalysts for making it happen. The last law formally prohibiting interracial marriage was overturned in Alabama in 2000. The Lovings were featured in a 2016 biopic, Loving, starring Ruth Negga and Joel Edgerton. 6. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on Maya Angelou’s 40th birthday. It may not be entirely surprising that Martin Luther King Jr. and Maya Angelou became friends during the Civil Rights era. Two prominent voices in the Civil Rights Movement, their paths crossed when Angelou was the coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and King paid the group a visit. In one of her autobiographies, she recalls MLK being shorter and younger than she expected but also said that he was friendly and constantly cracking jokes. When King died on Angelou’s birthday, the writer was devastated. She stopped celebrating her birthday for many years following his death and sent flowers to King’s widow, Coretta Scott King, for more than 30 years, until Coretta died in 2006. 7. Nine months before Rosa Parks, there was a young woman named Claudette Colvin. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to relinquish her seat on a public bus. Parks' protest sparked the Montgomery bus protests and galvanized the Civil Rights Movement. Yet she was not the first African American individual in Montgomery to stand up against injustice in such a manner. On March 2, 1955, fifteen-year-old Claudette Colvin was riding home on a city bus after a long day at school. A white passenger boarded, and the bus driver ordered Claudette to give up her seat. Claudette refused. As she later told Newsweek "I felt like Sojourner Truth was pushing down on one shoulder and Harriet Tubman was pushing down on the other. I was glued to my seat." Related: On This Day: Rosa Parks Was Born Colvin was arrested for her civil disobedience and briefly put in jail. The NAACP and other civil rights groups considered rallying around Colvin's case in their campaign against Alabama's segregation laws before focusing efforts on Rosa Parks' protest nine months later. Nevertheless, Colvin was one of four plaintiffs in the landmark Browder v. Gayle case of 1956, which ruled that the segregation laws of Montgomery and Alabama state were unconstitutional. 8. Anna Murray was the first African-American woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest. This fiery woman exchanged letters with both Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt for many years and was considered one of Eleanor’s dear friends. Although her work has rather sadly faded from view, Murray’s expertise in law was a vital part of the Civil Rights movement. She worked closely with icons like Thurgood Marshall and Rosa Parks, and was appointed by President Kennedy to the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in the 1960s, where her work focused on “Jane Crow”: how discrimination against black people particularly and deeply affected black women, and the ways in which sexism and racism combined to affect black women. Murray died of cancer in 1985. In the last decade or so, her work has been brought back to light through various efforts, including making her childhood home a National Historic Landmark, and a blockbuster dual biography of Murray and Eleanor Roosevelt, The Firebrand and the First Lady. 9. Matthew Henson was a key member of the first successful expedition to the North Pole and made seven separate voyages to the Arctic. On April 9, 1909, Matthew Henson and Robert Peary arrived at the true North Pole. But getting there was no easy feat. The pair had made former attempts, but all had failed, including one where six members of the expedition team died of starvation. After they finally made it in 1909, Henson and Peary went on to explore the arctic for another two decades. However, because this was the early 1900s, upon their return home from the North Pole, Peary was met with extensive praise, while Henson was barely noticed. In 1912, Henson published a memoir titled A Negro Explorer in the North Pole that detailed his Arctic adventures. It helped call attention to his role in the achievement, but he was still mostly forgotten. In 1937, he finally received long-deserved recognition when he was invited to join the New York Explorer’s Club. It wasn’t until 2000, after his death, that Henson was awarded the National Geographic Hubbard Medal. 10. Madam C.J. Walker was an African American entrepreneur who became America's first female self-made millionaire. Born in 1867 to former slaves on a Louisiana cotton plantation, Madam Walker rose in power to become America's first female self-made millionaire. She did so through the creation of the Madam C.J. Walker Company. Headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, her company was a cosmetics manufacturer that specialized in beauty and haircare products for African American women. Walker's business prowess was matched only by her philanthropy and activism. She helped establish a YMCA in the black community of Indianapolis and contributed funds to the Tuskegee Institute. Upon moving to New York, she joined the NAACP, donated generously to the NAACP's anti-lynching fund, and commissioned the first black architect in New York City to build Villa Lewaro, her home on the Hudson where great minds such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington gathered to discuss social matters important to the African American community. By the time of her death in 1919, she was known not only as a remarkably successful African American business owner, but one of America's most successful entrepreneurs of all time. 11. Billie Holiday’s famous “Strange Fruit” was originally a poem written by a school teacher. In 1936, Lewis Allan published an anti-lynching poem called “Strange Fruit” in the Teacher Union magazine. Lewis Allan was a pseudonym for Abel Meeropol, a Jewish school teacher from the Bronx. At the height of American lynchings, there were as many as 1,953 people killed by lynching a year. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, lynching had hit a peak, encouraged by the Jim Crow era, Reconstruction, and the Great Migration of black Southern workers to northern cities. Meeropol eventually set the poem to music. A few younger artists had picked up the song before, but it was Holiday who ultimately made it famous. She sang and recorded a version in 1939 that was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Holiday and Meeropol both were met with high praise. “Strange Fruit” is one of the most iconic songs of the Civil Rights Movement and retains its power to this day. 12. Octavia E. Butler was dyslexic. The woman who would become the first science-fiction writer to receive a MacArthur Fellowship and who would win countless awards for her work over a 40-odd year long career struggled with a “mild” case of dyslexia as a child. Octavia E. Butler was raised primarily by her mother and grandmother after the early death of her father. A shy child whose dyslexia made her feel stupid, Butler took to hiding out in the library in her hometown of Pasadena. There, she discovered iconic science fiction magazines that sparked her desire to write. By the age of 12, she was at work on a story that would become the basis of one of her major series. Seventeen years later, her first book, Patternmaster, the first of that very series, was published. 13. Benjamin Banneker taught himself astronomy and math to become America's "First Known African American Man of Science". Benjamin Banneker was born a free man in 1731. He lived in Maryland with his mother, a free African American woman, and his father, a former slave. While researchers believe young Benjamin spent some time attending a Quaker school, he had little opportunity for formal education. So the young man taught himself—and soon revealed his brilliant mind. Flexing his ability to calculate the positions of celestial objects at regular intervals, Banneker began publishing almanacs from 1792 through 1797. Each issue included Banneker's astronomical calculations, weather predictions and tide tables, as well as poetry and writing on literature, medicine, and politics. A digital scan of Banneker's almanac from 1793 can be found here. Banneker's scholarly pursuits led to his correspondence with Thomas Jefferson. In a letter from 1791, Banneker respectfully challenged the then-Secretary of State's view on slavery and the intellectual capacity of black people. Jefferson responded, and Banneker later published their correspondence. 1791 also saw Banneker join a survey team tasked with establishing the boundaries of the nation's capital. However, given the lack of historical documents, the exact nature of Banneker's participation is difficult to discern. 14. During her run for president, three separate assassination attempts were made on Shirley Chisholm. “Unbought and unbossed.” Those words ring loudly as a mere speck of Shirley Chisholm’s legacy. Chisholm, born and raised in Brooklyn, became the first black woman elected to Congress in 1968. After four years as the New York representative for the 12th congressional district (primarily the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood), Chisholm announced her run for the presidency. In that moment, she became the first black candidate for president from a major party, and the first female candidate to run for the Democratic Party’s nomination. Chisholm's life was endangered as she vied for our nation's highest office. The representative won a total of 28 delegates during her run. After stepping down from Congress, Chisholm taught at Mount Holyoke and Spelman College, both all-women colleges (Spelman is also a historically black institution). In 2015, she was awarded a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. In 2020, a statue of Chisholm is scheduled to be erected in Brooklyn’s Prospect Park. 15. Dr. Mayme Clayton founded the Mayme A. Clayton Library & Museum in 1975. Home to the Mayme Agnew Collection of African-American History and Culture, the MCLM contains millions of books, films, documents, artifacts, and art pieces which are products of black contributions to the United States. The museum was first started as the Western States Black Research Center; Dr. Clayton spent decades curating her historical collection on her own. Set up in a large garage within Clayton’s Los Angeles home, the collection was a library open to all. After some of the artifacts were damaged due to poor storage conditions, a campaign to rescue and relocate Dr. Clayton’s work finally paid off when the collection found its permanent home inside the former Los Angeles County Superior Courthouse in Culver City. It remains open for guided tours to this day. 16. The 6888th Battalion was an all-black, all-female unit of the military that delivered mail to World War II troops across England. In February 1945, the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion was established to deliver mail to American troops, government personnel, and volunteers abroad in England. At the time, many packages and letters were poorly addressed or sent to individuals with common names and little further direction. Members of the service weren’t getting their mail, which had an outsized impact on morale. Officials estimated that, with the disarray of the postal warehouse, it would take around six months for the harrowing backlog to be sorted and delivered. African-American women were granted the opportunity to travel to serve overseas in late 1944, and the 6888th Battalion was full of eager, well-trained recruits. Led by Major Charity Edna Adams, the women of the “Six Triple Eight” spent time in Oglethorpe, Georgia preparing for service—jumping over trenches, identifying enemy crafts, and marching. Mail delivery in a war zone did not come not without danger, and the women of the Battalion faced several close calls, injuries, and even some instances of death. Though the reaction to this battalion was mixed, the Six Triple Eight was outstandingly efficient. The battalion worked in long shifts seven days a week and created a brand new tracking system for the mail they received. Rather than accomplishing the sorting of mail in the projected six months, the recruits blew through the task in three. 17. Allensworth, California was an all-black township—and the first of its kind. The township was founded in 1908 by Colonel Allen Allensworth and a group of other African-American men. Allensworth was meant to be a refuge away from the oppression that black people faced amidst society and aimed to be wholly self-reliant. The town of Allensworth ran largely off of agricultural pursuits, but contained its own small businesses and school district by 1912. At the height of Allensworth’s success in the 1920s, there were around 300 residents. Severe drought and the discovery of arsenic in the water supply led to the loss of residents in the 1960s and 70s. In 1976, now empty, the town became a state historic park. You can visit its site daily between 9 am and sunset. 18. The charity single "We Are the World" owes its creation and success to black artists. While most people today look back on the 1985 track as a cheesy supergroup relic of a different era, “We Are the World” sold over 20 million copies. The song swept across the world, raking in accolades and revenue and becoming the first single to ever be certified as multi-platinum. Three Grammys, an American Music Award, and a People’s Choice Award were bestowed upon the single, but most importantly it raised more than $63 million for aid in Africa and the United States. The idea for the single was originated by activist Harry Belafonte. The King of Calypso was a key contributor moving forward as well, responsible in part for bringing Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie on board to write the single. One of the song’s two producers was legendary 28-time Grammy Award winner Quincy Jones. Among the singers on the track were soloists Stevie Wonder, Tina Turner, Diana Ross, and Dionne Warwick, as well as chorus members like Smokey Robinson, The Pointer Sisters, and several of the Jackson siblings. After the earthquake that devastated Haiti in 2010, the song was re-recorded. Notable black artists for the new release included Jennifer Hudson, Mary J. Blige, Janet Jackson, Usher, T-Pain, Kanye West, and many more. 19. John Baxter Taylor was the first African-American to win an Olympic gold medal. While Taylor attended Central High School in Philadelphia, he ran track as the only black athlete on the team. From there, he attended the Moses Brown Preparatory School in Rhode Island, flourishing on a team with an undefeated streak. When he enrolled in the Wharton School of Finance one year later, he joined the varsity track team, where he would come to break the intercollegiate record for the 440-yard run. In the 1908 Olympics, Taylor competed in both the 400-meter relay final and the 1600-meter medley relay. The 400-meter relay was steeped in controversy, with officials claiming that one of the American runners fouled a British competitor—causing the gold medal to ultimately go to Britain. However, in the 1600-meter medley relay, Taylor ran the third leg of the race for his team and went down in history when he brought home the gold. Sadly, only five months after his triumph, Taylor passed away from typhoid fever complications. Featured photo: Wikimedia Commons	4,487	ENGLISH	1
The Resolute Presidential Desk An oak desk in the White House is made from wood that was once part of a British naval ship. Queen Victoria had the desk built and shipped to America as a gift to President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1880. Most presidents since have used what is known as the Resolute desk. In 1845, a British expedition under the leadership of Sir John Franklin set out to discover a Northwest Passage through the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean. The two ships and their crews were never heard from again. Several expeditions were sent into the Arctic to try to discover what happened to Franklin; in 1852, HMS Resolute was part of one such search. However, Resolute became locked in ice and had to be abandonned in May 1854. A year and a half later, the vessel was discovered by Captain James Buddington aboard the U.S. whaler George Henry. The Resolute was floating in open water; it had broken free of the ice during the summer and had drifted about a thousand miles to the east. With some difficulty, the crew of the George Henry were able to sail the Resolute to harbour in New London, Connecticut. The vessel was repaired and sent back to Britain “as a gift to Her Majesty Queen Victoria by the President and People of the United States, as a token of goodwill & friendship (White House Historical Association).” A Gift Is Created In December 1856, the ship arrived at Portsmouth Harbour in England and Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert were there to greet her. HMS Resolute was returned to the Royal Navy and served another 23 years before being decommissioned in 1879. The ship had been built of massive oak timbers in order to withstand the pressures of Arctic ice. So, Queen Victoria ordered that some of the wood should be salvaged and used to build a desk that she wished to give to America to repay its generosity in returning HMS Resolute. Cabinet makers at the Royal Navy dockyard in Chatham went to work and produced a large, double-pedestal, partner’s desk. It measures six feet by four feet, weighs 1,300 pounds, and is ornamented with elaborate carvings. Medallions of Queen Victoria and President Hayes cover the drawers on the presidential side of the desk. The Resolute Desk’s Travels President Hayes used the Resolute desk in his private study. It remained there for about 80 years and was used by those who followed him. In 1901, Theodore Roosevelt took up residence in the White House complete with his wife and six children. The residence needed expansion, so Roosevelt ordered that a west wing be added to the building. When completed, Roosevelt had the Resolute desk moved into his new office. William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing in 1909 and, for the first time, an oval office became part of the structure and the desk was moved in. Just after the Stock Market collapse of 1929, an electrical fire caused significant damage to the West Wing although the desk emerged almost unscathed. Then, it was the turn of Franklin D. Roosevelt to get into the remodelling business. He moved the Oval Office to its present location and the Resolute desk went with him. He also remodelled the desk. Roosevelt was very sensitive about the steel braces on his legs needed because of his crippling bout with polio. So that visitors would be unable to see his legs he had a hinged modesty panel installed in the kneehole. The door was carved with the presidential seal. The Resolute Desk Retired The White House underwent renovations during President Truman’s administration and the clunking great oak desk was deemed no longer fashionable. It was dispatched to another room and forgotten. When the Kennedy family moved in in 1961, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy found the desk hiding under a cloth covering. She read the brass plaque on the desk that details its naval origins and thought that her husband, a navy man, might appreciate its history. He did, and once more the Resolute desk returned to the Oval Office. It was not to remain there long. After President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, President Lyndon Johnson discovered he was too big to comfortably use the desk. Off it went to the Smithsonian’s American Museum of American History, until Jimmy Carter, another ex-navy man, had it returned to the Oval Office in 1977. It has remained in the White House ever since, although not always in the Oval Office. Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama employed the Resolute desk in the Oval Office throughout their terms in office. The current incumbent of the Oval Office gave a tour of his workplace to visiting French President Emmanuel Macron in 2018. He pointed to the Resolute desk saying it dates from 1814; that would be when the wood was still a tree. It’s easy to imagine Queen Victoria being told who is currently using the desk and responding with “I am not amused.” - Replicas of the Resolute desk can be seen in six presidential libraries, as well as several museums. The White House Gift Shop will even sell you one. It is breathlessly described as being “designed for elegance, functionality, and technological sophistication.” $110,000, free shipping in the U.S. - Under the terms of maritime law, HMS Resolute became the property of Capt. Buddington and his crew because she was found abandonned in international waters. The U.S. Congress voted to purchase the vessel for $40,000, to refit it, and return it to Britain. - Two other desks were made from the timbers of HMS Resolute. One was given to the widow of Henry Grinnell, a Massachusetts businessman who funded several expeditions to try to find Sir John Franklin. In 1980s and ‘90s, the remains of Franklin and his crew were found in the Arctic. In 2014 and 2016, the sunken wreckage of Franklin’s two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, were located. - “ ‘Resolute’ Desk.” Office of the Curator, The White House, undated. - “The Resolute Desk.” Robert McNamara, ThoughtCo.com, October 31, 2019. - “West Wing of the White House.” The White House Museum, undated. - “Trump Told the French President That the Resolute Desk Was From 1814. Try Again.” Sarah Polus, Washington Post, April 26, 2018. - The White House Gift Shop. © 2019 Rupert Taylor	<urn:uuid:55e964a8-52f1-4465-87a0-64e63c1338fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Resolute-Presidential-Desk	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00420.warc.gz	en	0.982632	1,378	3.4375	3	[ 0.007116065360605717, 0.5733540058135986, 0.45063820481300354, -0.20902711153030396, -0.09999801963567734, -0.028199397027492523, 0.14002269506454468, 0.15153571963310242, 0.010111276991665363, -0.10601138323545456, 0.42312973737716675, 0.02938428893685341, 0.4549776315689087, 0.6196243762...	3	The Resolute Presidential Desk An oak desk in the White House is made from wood that was once part of a British naval ship. Queen Victoria had the desk built and shipped to America as a gift to President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1880. Most presidents since have used what is known as the Resolute desk. In 1845, a British expedition under the leadership of Sir John Franklin set out to discover a Northwest Passage through the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean. The two ships and their crews were never heard from again. Several expeditions were sent into the Arctic to try to discover what happened to Franklin; in 1852, HMS Resolute was part of one such search. However, Resolute became locked in ice and had to be abandonned in May 1854. A year and a half later, the vessel was discovered by Captain James Buddington aboard the U.S. whaler George Henry. The Resolute was floating in open water; it had broken free of the ice during the summer and had drifted about a thousand miles to the east. With some difficulty, the crew of the George Henry were able to sail the Resolute to harbour in New London, Connecticut. The vessel was repaired and sent back to Britain “as a gift to Her Majesty Queen Victoria by the President and People of the United States, as a token of goodwill & friendship (White House Historical Association).” A Gift Is Created In December 1856, the ship arrived at Portsmouth Harbour in England and Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert were there to greet her. HMS Resolute was returned to the Royal Navy and served another 23 years before being decommissioned in 1879. The ship had been built of massive oak timbers in order to withstand the pressures of Arctic ice. So, Queen Victoria ordered that some of the wood should be salvaged and used to build a desk that she wished to give to America to repay its generosity in returning HMS Resolute. Cabinet makers at the Royal Navy dockyard in Chatham went to work and produced a large, double-pedestal, partner’s desk. It measures six feet by four feet, weighs 1,300 pounds, and is ornamented with elaborate carvings. Medallions of Queen Victoria and President Hayes cover the drawers on the presidential side of the desk. The Resolute Desk’s Travels President Hayes used the Resolute desk in his private study. It remained there for about 80 years and was used by those who followed him. In 1901, Theodore Roosevelt took up residence in the White House complete with his wife and six children. The residence needed expansion, so Roosevelt ordered that a west wing be added to the building. When completed, Roosevelt had the Resolute desk moved into his new office. William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing in 1909 and, for the first time, an oval office became part of the structure and the desk was moved in. Just after the Stock Market collapse of 1929, an electrical fire caused significant damage to the West Wing although the desk emerged almost unscathed. Then, it was the turn of Franklin D. Roosevelt to get into the remodelling business. He moved the Oval Office to its present location and the Resolute desk went with him. He also remodelled the desk. Roosevelt was very sensitive about the steel braces on his legs needed because of his crippling bout with polio. So that visitors would be unable to see his legs he had a hinged modesty panel installed in the kneehole. The door was carved with the presidential seal. The Resolute Desk Retired The White House underwent renovations during President Truman’s administration and the clunking great oak desk was deemed no longer fashionable. It was dispatched to another room and forgotten. When the Kennedy family moved in in 1961, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy found the desk hiding under a cloth covering. She read the brass plaque on the desk that details its naval origins and thought that her husband, a navy man, might appreciate its history. He did, and once more the Resolute desk returned to the Oval Office. It was not to remain there long. After President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, President Lyndon Johnson discovered he was too big to comfortably use the desk. Off it went to the Smithsonian’s American Museum of American History, until Jimmy Carter, another ex-navy man, had it returned to the Oval Office in 1977. It has remained in the White House ever since, although not always in the Oval Office. Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama employed the Resolute desk in the Oval Office throughout their terms in office. The current incumbent of the Oval Office gave a tour of his workplace to visiting French President Emmanuel Macron in 2018. He pointed to the Resolute desk saying it dates from 1814; that would be when the wood was still a tree. It’s easy to imagine Queen Victoria being told who is currently using the desk and responding with “I am not amused.” - Replicas of the Resolute desk can be seen in six presidential libraries, as well as several museums. The White House Gift Shop will even sell you one. It is breathlessly described as being “designed for elegance, functionality, and technological sophistication.” $110,000, free shipping in the U.S. - Under the terms of maritime law, HMS Resolute became the property of Capt. Buddington and his crew because she was found abandonned in international waters. The U.S. Congress voted to purchase the vessel for $40,000, to refit it, and return it to Britain. - Two other desks were made from the timbers of HMS Resolute. One was given to the widow of Henry Grinnell, a Massachusetts businessman who funded several expeditions to try to find Sir John Franklin. In 1980s and ‘90s, the remains of Franklin and his crew were found in the Arctic. In 2014 and 2016, the sunken wreckage of Franklin’s two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, were located. - “ ‘Resolute’ Desk.” Office of the Curator, The White House, undated. - “The Resolute Desk.” Robert McNamara, ThoughtCo.com, October 31, 2019. - “West Wing of the White House.” The White House Museum, undated. - “Trump Told the French President That the Resolute Desk Was From 1814. Try Again.” Sarah Polus, Washington Post, April 26, 2018. - The White House Gift Shop. © 2019 Rupert Taylor	1,413	ENGLISH	1
It is documented that the Cherokee Indians migrated south from the Great Lakes region around the 15th century or later. The Cherokee tribe was one of the largest Native American tribes eventually settling and occupying the southeast portion of what was to become the United States. The tribe was highly religious and spiritual. They considered warfare to be a polluting act and warriors were required to go thru a purification ritual by a priest before they could reenter the Cherokee village. In 1830, the Cherokee Indians were forcibly removed from their homeland by the very government the Cherokee Indians had supported during the Revolutionary War. The Cherokee had fought alongside the Tennessee Militia under then Colonel Andrew Jackson. It was President Andrew Jackson, who through his Indian Removal Act, forced the Cherokees on a 1,000 mile march to the land where they were ordered to live. This journey was later called the Trail of Tears. This paper will tell how the Cherokee lived before their removal, look at events that led up to their removal, explain the conditions of travel, and tell what has happened to the Cherokee after the Trail of Tears. The native people of the North America lived for hundreds of years in peace. However, in 1540 the every day lives of the Native Americans came to an alarming halt. It was in that year that Hernando de Soto came in contact with the native people of North America. From then on the natives, known as Indians, would come in contact with settlers from around the world that would be after their land. They would eventually adopt some of the foreigners’ ways. They would even go as far as to involve themselves in some of the colonial wars. This would not prove good for some because the Indians on the losing side of a war would lose some of their land. During the nineteenth century as many as one hundred thousand Indians were moved westward. The Indians from five different tribes were removed. The removed tribes were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and the Seminoles. The removal of these Indians mostly occurred during the decade of the Indian Removal Act if 1830. The one Indian tribe that was most devastated by this relocation was the Cherokees. This group of people experienced one of the most horrific removals in our nation’s history. “The Cherokee removal was named Nunna dual Tsung( Trail Where They Cried)”. To us it is known as the Trail of Tears. The Cherokee Indians were a unique people. It was said that “they never bow to any other creature”. When they spoke, they did so one at a time. When the speaker was finished, he or she would fall silent and listen to the other. When Europeans began to come on to the scene, the Cherokee came up with name for them, “ugly whites”. Cherokee men loved to do three main things: play ball games, go hunting, and engage in warfare. The ball games would be played “town against town”. The players were subjected to harsh rules which limited their diet before ball games....	<urn:uuid:a85cbea0-4543-4646-b162-85cb16e95a40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/trail-of-tears-7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00329.warc.gz	en	0.991458	621	4.34375	4	[ -0.3088456392288208, 0.1786329746246338, 0.45777571201324463, 0.055998545140028, -0.3531339168548584, -0.46282434463500977, 0.4930649399757385, -0.31745201349258423, -0.36431556940078735, 0.000710907275788486, 0.3077496886253357, 0.11227662861347198, -0.11012355983257294, 0.166048333048820...	1	It is documented that the Cherokee Indians migrated south from the Great Lakes region around the 15th century or later. The Cherokee tribe was one of the largest Native American tribes eventually settling and occupying the southeast portion of what was to become the United States. The tribe was highly religious and spiritual. They considered warfare to be a polluting act and warriors were required to go thru a purification ritual by a priest before they could reenter the Cherokee village. In 1830, the Cherokee Indians were forcibly removed from their homeland by the very government the Cherokee Indians had supported during the Revolutionary War. The Cherokee had fought alongside the Tennessee Militia under then Colonel Andrew Jackson. It was President Andrew Jackson, who through his Indian Removal Act, forced the Cherokees on a 1,000 mile march to the land where they were ordered to live. This journey was later called the Trail of Tears. This paper will tell how the Cherokee lived before their removal, look at events that led up to their removal, explain the conditions of travel, and tell what has happened to the Cherokee after the Trail of Tears. The native people of the North America lived for hundreds of years in peace. However, in 1540 the every day lives of the Native Americans came to an alarming halt. It was in that year that Hernando de Soto came in contact with the native people of North America. From then on the natives, known as Indians, would come in contact with settlers from around the world that would be after their land. They would eventually adopt some of the foreigners’ ways. They would even go as far as to involve themselves in some of the colonial wars. This would not prove good for some because the Indians on the losing side of a war would lose some of their land. During the nineteenth century as many as one hundred thousand Indians were moved westward. The Indians from five different tribes were removed. The removed tribes were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and the Seminoles. The removal of these Indians mostly occurred during the decade of the Indian Removal Act if 1830. The one Indian tribe that was most devastated by this relocation was the Cherokees. This group of people experienced one of the most horrific removals in our nation’s history. “The Cherokee removal was named Nunna dual Tsung( Trail Where They Cried)”. To us it is known as the Trail of Tears. The Cherokee Indians were a unique people. It was said that “they never bow to any other creature”. When they spoke, they did so one at a time. When the speaker was finished, he or she would fall silent and listen to the other. When Europeans began to come on to the scene, the Cherokee came up with name for them, “ugly whites”. Cherokee men loved to do three main things: play ball games, go hunting, and engage in warfare. The ball games would be played “town against town”. The players were subjected to harsh rules which limited their diet before ball games....	620	ENGLISH	1
On September 1, 1849, the Brotherhood of the Union, an early pro-worker organization, formed. The vision of a radical named George Lippard, this organization established priniciples in Ameican working class activism that would be incredibly influential throughout the 19th centry, especially within the Knights of Labor, of which it is a direct predecessor. Lippard grew up in Philadelphia, the son of once prosperous German farming parents somewhat lessened because his father was hurt in a farming accident. He grew up pretty rebellious and wild, especially after his father died. He thought about going into the ministry and studied for the law, but neither took. He decided to live like a hobo for awhile, sleeping in the streets, working odd jobs, and hanging out with the poorest white Americans in Philadelphia, mostly. He got to know Edgar Allan Poe in these years. Living this way, he experienced the true impact of the Panic of 1837 firsthand. For the burgeoning American working classes, at a time when the nation had not yet fully committed to industrial capitalism but was clearly heading in that direction, the Panic was the first sign of how this system would treat workers and how workers might resist this. Ending his time slumming, Lippard began to write for local newspapers to tell the workers’ point of view. He also wrote a bunch of fiction. Much of it was historical romances, but in 1845, he published a novel called The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall. This was an explicitly anti-capitalist novel intended to call out the Philadelphia elites for their hypocrisy and indifference to the suffering of the poor. The novel consists of a variety of characters that prey on the working poor and thus threaten the very future of the republic. This became the nation’s best-selling novel until Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. It spoke to the growing frustration in the working classes over the poverty, corruption, and political indifference that hampered their lives. Now quite financially comfortable, Lippard then started his own newspaper, The Quaker City, to push his vision of working class emancipation. Like many American reformers of this period, Lippard was not comfortable with European-style class conflict. Marx and Engels were starting to lay out their vision of communism and many other writers were articulating ideas around socialism. This scared many Americans. For someone like Lippard, the goal was to alleviate poverty and solve the problems that disempowered working people before that became necessary. Lippard then, again like many reformers, thought that employers and employees had mutual interests that should naturally coexist and that this mutuality should be encouraged. In this, he was not unlike later generations of reformers still struggling with the impact of capitalism, such as Edward Bellamy. To promote this vision, Lippard founded The Brotherhood of the Union on September 1, 1849. The Brotherhood soon had 20 chapters around the nation. It took its inspiration as “the principle of Brotherly Love in the Gospel of Nazareth, and the affirmation of the Right of Man to life, liberty, land, and home in the Declaration of Independence.” The idea was to keep it pretty apolitical and then appeal to the broad artisan classes in the country’s cities. At first, he tried to ally with other social movements, including one early 1850s effort to guarantee everyone a homestead if they wanted one, but by 1852 or so, he believed that his organization was the only path to saving the nation from destruction. The organization itself was full of the symbolism so common in 19th century organizations, from the Masons to the Ku Klux Klan to the Knights of Labor, including insignia, rituals, and complicated levels of engagement that could lead someone to rise into leadership. The various chapters did all sorts of things, vaguely related to republicanism, but not always about the working-class exactly. Some of them sent volunteers to help free Cuba from Spanish colonialism in the early 1850s, for example. It attracted a lot of land reform advocates as well. Some chapters welcomed black members. Lippard attacked the anti-Catholicism that divided the working classes, though this sentiment was certainly not shared by all the leaders of this organization. He also criticized acting in the political realm, especially the Democratic Party that already dominated many cities, but does not seem to have criticized chapters that did engage closely with one or the other of the major political parties. Lippard, who looks like a movie star, died in 1854, only 32 years old, possibly of pneumonia. What is significant about The Brotherhood of the Union is that it survived his death and became a sort of catch-all organization for concerned artisans that remained semi-relevant until the rise of the Knights of Labor, which, as referenced above, took a lot of the rituals and organizational principles and vision of mutuality from the Brotherhood. By the Civil War, the remnants of the group was identified mostly with the needle trades and created forms of working together that included people later involved with the founding of the Knights. This post borrowed from Mark A. Lause, A Secret Society History of the Civil War, from 2011. For those of you would who like to read more about Lippard’s vision, more in his writings than the Brotherhood itself, check out Michael Denning’s book from 1987, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America. This is the 327th post in this series. Previous posts are archived here.	<urn:uuid:e8c6dc1d-980a-4c11-86e0-6b293b20a621>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2019/09/this-day-in-labor-history-september-1-1849	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00163.warc.gz	en	0.980334	1,145	3.609375	4	[ -0.056608572602272034, 0.3948821425437927, 0.21239370107650757, 0.16459816694259644, -0.06959637999534607, -0.15951910614967346, -0.010767956264317036, 0.17402495443820953, -0.0007700012065470219, -0.1347557008266449, 0.03192590922117233, 0.18696753680706024, -0.012582838535308838, 0.15376...	6	On September 1, 1849, the Brotherhood of the Union, an early pro-worker organization, formed. The vision of a radical named George Lippard, this organization established priniciples in Ameican working class activism that would be incredibly influential throughout the 19th centry, especially within the Knights of Labor, of which it is a direct predecessor. Lippard grew up in Philadelphia, the son of once prosperous German farming parents somewhat lessened because his father was hurt in a farming accident. He grew up pretty rebellious and wild, especially after his father died. He thought about going into the ministry and studied for the law, but neither took. He decided to live like a hobo for awhile, sleeping in the streets, working odd jobs, and hanging out with the poorest white Americans in Philadelphia, mostly. He got to know Edgar Allan Poe in these years. Living this way, he experienced the true impact of the Panic of 1837 firsthand. For the burgeoning American working classes, at a time when the nation had not yet fully committed to industrial capitalism but was clearly heading in that direction, the Panic was the first sign of how this system would treat workers and how workers might resist this. Ending his time slumming, Lippard began to write for local newspapers to tell the workers’ point of view. He also wrote a bunch of fiction. Much of it was historical romances, but in 1845, he published a novel called The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall. This was an explicitly anti-capitalist novel intended to call out the Philadelphia elites for their hypocrisy and indifference to the suffering of the poor. The novel consists of a variety of characters that prey on the working poor and thus threaten the very future of the republic. This became the nation’s best-selling novel until Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. It spoke to the growing frustration in the working classes over the poverty, corruption, and political indifference that hampered their lives. Now quite financially comfortable, Lippard then started his own newspaper, The Quaker City, to push his vision of working class emancipation. Like many American reformers of this period, Lippard was not comfortable with European-style class conflict. Marx and Engels were starting to lay out their vision of communism and many other writers were articulating ideas around socialism. This scared many Americans. For someone like Lippard, the goal was to alleviate poverty and solve the problems that disempowered working people before that became necessary. Lippard then, again like many reformers, thought that employers and employees had mutual interests that should naturally coexist and that this mutuality should be encouraged. In this, he was not unlike later generations of reformers still struggling with the impact of capitalism, such as Edward Bellamy. To promote this vision, Lippard founded The Brotherhood of the Union on September 1, 1849. The Brotherhood soon had 20 chapters around the nation. It took its inspiration as “the principle of Brotherly Love in the Gospel of Nazareth, and the affirmation of the Right of Man to life, liberty, land, and home in the Declaration of Independence.” The idea was to keep it pretty apolitical and then appeal to the broad artisan classes in the country’s cities. At first, he tried to ally with other social movements, including one early 1850s effort to guarantee everyone a homestead if they wanted one, but by 1852 or so, he believed that his organization was the only path to saving the nation from destruction. The organization itself was full of the symbolism so common in 19th century organizations, from the Masons to the Ku Klux Klan to the Knights of Labor, including insignia, rituals, and complicated levels of engagement that could lead someone to rise into leadership. The various chapters did all sorts of things, vaguely related to republicanism, but not always about the working-class exactly. Some of them sent volunteers to help free Cuba from Spanish colonialism in the early 1850s, for example. It attracted a lot of land reform advocates as well. Some chapters welcomed black members. Lippard attacked the anti-Catholicism that divided the working classes, though this sentiment was certainly not shared by all the leaders of this organization. He also criticized acting in the political realm, especially the Democratic Party that already dominated many cities, but does not seem to have criticized chapters that did engage closely with one or the other of the major political parties. Lippard, who looks like a movie star, died in 1854, only 32 years old, possibly of pneumonia. What is significant about The Brotherhood of the Union is that it survived his death and became a sort of catch-all organization for concerned artisans that remained semi-relevant until the rise of the Knights of Labor, which, as referenced above, took a lot of the rituals and organizational principles and vision of mutuality from the Brotherhood. By the Civil War, the remnants of the group was identified mostly with the needle trades and created forms of working together that included people later involved with the founding of the Knights. This post borrowed from Mark A. Lause, A Secret Society History of the Civil War, from 2011. For those of you would who like to read more about Lippard’s vision, more in his writings than the Brotherhood itself, check out Michael Denning’s book from 1987, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America. This is the 327th post in this series. Previous posts are archived here.	1,173	ENGLISH	1
Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; born Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and of American literature as a whole, and he was one of the country’s earliest practitioners of the short story. He is generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.Poe was born in Boston, the second child of actors David and Elizabeth “Eliza” Arnold Hopkins Poe. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year. Thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but he was with them well into young adulthood. Tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar Poe repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of Poe’s secondary education. He attended the University of Virginia but left after a year due to lack of money. Edgar Poe quarreled with John Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at this time that his publishing career began with the anonymous collection Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827), credited only to “a Bostonian”. Edgar Poe and John Allan reached a temporary rapprochement after the death of Frances Allan in 1829. Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the next several years working for literary journals and periodicals, becoming known for his own style of literary criticism. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City. He married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm, in 1836. In January 1845, Poe published his poem “The Raven” to instant success, but Virginia died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. Poe planned for years to produce his own journal The Penn (later renamed The Stylus), but before it could be produced, he died in Baltimore on October 7, 1849, at age 40. The cause of his death is unknown and has been variously attributed to alcohol, “brain congestion”, cholera, drugs, heart disease, rabies, suicide, tuberculosis, and other causes.Poe and his works influenced literature around the world, as well as specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. He and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, and television. A number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an annual award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre.	<urn:uuid:8ccb26ef-623f-4411-8a17-f047e42d3934>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/edgar-allan-poe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00288.warc.gz	en	0.989134	652	3.484375	3	[ -0.12518039345741272, 0.34251272678375244, 0.36920690536499023, 0.287470281124115, -0.34540414810180664, -0.012594827450811863, 0.14683613181114197, -0.26067304611206055, -0.062095195055007935, -0.21760743856430054, 0.21398073434829712, 0.2637123763561249, -0.05828249081969261, 0.003980672...	1	Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; born Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and of American literature as a whole, and he was one of the country’s earliest practitioners of the short story. He is generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.Poe was born in Boston, the second child of actors David and Elizabeth “Eliza” Arnold Hopkins Poe. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year. Thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but he was with them well into young adulthood. Tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar Poe repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of Poe’s secondary education. He attended the University of Virginia but left after a year due to lack of money. Edgar Poe quarreled with John Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at this time that his publishing career began with the anonymous collection Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827), credited only to “a Bostonian”. Edgar Poe and John Allan reached a temporary rapprochement after the death of Frances Allan in 1829. Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the next several years working for literary journals and periodicals, becoming known for his own style of literary criticism. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City. He married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm, in 1836. In January 1845, Poe published his poem “The Raven” to instant success, but Virginia died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. Poe planned for years to produce his own journal The Penn (later renamed The Stylus), but before it could be produced, he died in Baltimore on October 7, 1849, at age 40. The cause of his death is unknown and has been variously attributed to alcohol, “brain congestion”, cholera, drugs, heart disease, rabies, suicide, tuberculosis, and other causes.Poe and his works influenced literature around the world, as well as specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. He and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, and television. A number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an annual award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre.	664	ENGLISH	1
James Abram Garfield never intended to become the 20th President of the United States and, after his inauguration, he had little opportunity to show his brand of leadership. Today, Garfield mostly registers as a blip within the wider sweep of American history. But his life and death offer the story of a man who both shaped his era while falling victim to its limitations. Garfield was born on Nov. 19, 1831, in a log cabin in Orange Township, Ohio. His childhood was heavy with challenges. His father died when he was 2, and he was raised in poverty by his mother. Garfield worked as a carpenter’s assistant and a janitor to finance his education and pursued careers as a teacher, lawyer and Republican state senator in Ohio before joining the Union Army in August 1861 with a colonel’s commission. His leadership at the Battle of Middle Creek in January 1862 resulted in a promotion to brigadier general. Garfield was convinced by friends to seek the vacant seat for Ohio’s 19th Congressional District in 1862. He left the military for Congress and quickly became an influential political figure, backing civil rights for the freed slaves in the Southern states and the Gold Standard as the foundation of the U.S. currency. He showed no interest in higher office, although he was part of the Republican-majority commission that tilted the disputed Electoral College votes in the 1876 election to Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes. But Hayes — today judged an average president, despite his commitment to civil rights — had pledged not to seek a second term, and by 1880 the Republicans were in the hunt for a successor. Garfield arrived at the Republican presidential convention to nominate Treasury Secretary John Sherman but other factions were pushing for Sen. James G. Blaine of Maine and the return of former President Ulysses S. Grant. No candidate could secure a majority of support, and Garfield’s name was put forth to break the stalemate. To Garfield’s utter horror, the convention delegates quickly warmed to having him as their standard bearer. By the 34th ballot, Garfield was within reach of gaining the nomination. He rose to address the convention, arguing, “I rise to a question of order. I challenge the correctness of the announcement. The announcement contains votes for me. No man has a right, without the consent of the person voted for, to announce that person’s name and vote for him in this convention. Such consent I have not given.” The convention delegates ignored his protests and Garfield was selected as their nominee on the 36th ballot. “This honor comes to me unsought,” he lamented. “I have never had the Presidential fever, not even for a day.” Garfield defeated his Democratic challenger, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, by approximately 1,900 popular votes, the tightest margin in history. The electoral vote count was more lopsided, with Garfield polling 214 and Hancock 155. Garfield was inaugurated on March 4, 1881 and almost immediately came to loathe the job. “My God! What is there in this place that a man should ever want to get into it?” he wrote in his diary. He would later confide to an aide, “My day is frittered away by the personal seeking of people, when it ought to be given to the great problems which concern the whole country.” One of those people Garfield encountered was Charles Guiteau, a failed lawyer and writer dealing with mental illness. Guiteau was convinced that he was responsible for Garfield’s election and sought out a foreign service position from the new president. Garfield opted not to hire Guiteau, who began stalking the president’s forays into public. Despite the Lincoln assassination of 1865, no one at the White House thought it was necessary to assign a security detail to the president. Garfield and his Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, walked by themselves from the White House to the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington on July 2, 1881, where the president was planning to take a train to the New Jersey seashore to visit his wife Lucretia, who was recovering from a bout of malaria. Guiteau trailed the men and fired two shots at close range from behind — one bullet grazed Garfield’s arm and the other passed the first lumbar vertebra of his spine and lodged in his abdomen. “My God, what is this?” Garfield yelled as he fell to the floor. Guiteau, in his panic to escape, wound up running smack into a police officer at the station and was apprehended. The fallen Garfield was immediately attended by several physicians who were at the railroad station, including Charles Burleigh Purvis, an African-American and a co-founder of the medical school at Howard University. However, another physician was summoned to handle the president’s care. Doctor Willard Bliss (his first name was Doctor), a childhood friend of Garfield, began examining the fallen leader on the train station floor by probing the wound with his unwashed fingers. Purvis openly questioned Bliss’ actions but was rebuffed — not because of racism, as Bliss was expelled from the Medical Society of the District of Columbia for denouncing its refusal to admit black doctors — but because Bliss did not embrace the then-controversial theory of antiseptic medicine that was being popularized by British surgeon Joseph Lister. Garfield was returned to the White House and, over the next two months, Bliss would conduct multiple efforts to locate the lodged bullet using his unwashed hands and unsterilized equipment. Alexander Graham Bell was brought in with a metal detection device, but it failed to pinpoint the bullet’s location. Bliss widened the three-inch deep bullet wound to 20 inches, carving open Garfield from his ribs and to his groin. And while Bliss was aware of the increased levels of pus within the wound, he assumed it was evidence that the body was healing itself. Throughout the ordeal, Garfield was bedridden and unable to consume solid food. His robust 210-pound frame withered to 130 pounds and the affairs of the Executive Branch were put on indefinite hold as the president suffered through fevers, chills and excruciating pain. The blistering heat of the Washington summer did not help, and on Sept. 5 Garfield was moved to the New Jersey location where his wife recuperated. But Garfield’s condition worsened into a bout of pneumonia and he complained of chest pains. On Sept. 19, Garfield passed, two months shy of his 50th birthday. In the aftermath of Garfield’s death, Bliss submitted a claim to the federal government for $25,000 for his services. He was offered only $6,500, which he rejected. Guiteau was brought to trial and blamed Garfield’s death on medical malpractice rather than his gunshots. He was found guilty and hanged on June 30, 1882. Parts of his brain are on display in a jar at The Mütter Museum of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Garfield’s vice president, Chester A. Arthur, was sworn in as president after Garfield’s death. Their working relation was often testy before Garfield was assassinated, but Arthur made no effort to assume the presidential authority. There was no precedent on how the nation would be governed when the head of state became incapacitated. That issue would remain unresolved until the passage of the 25th Amendment to the Constitution in 1967. Despite the assassinations of two presidents within 16 years, the concept of a security detail to guard the president would only become reality after the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station was demolished in 1908. The West Building of the National Gallery of Art is located at the station’s former site. Two temporary panels identifying the history of the site were installed in November 2018 just south of the West Building, but they are scheduled to be removed on July 2, 2021. Garfield remains the only slain president whose assassination site is without an official memorial. Nevertheless, his life — and particularly his death — helped define the presidency he was so reluctant to assume. For more, visit the James A. Garfield National Historic Site at nps.gov/jaga/index.htm.	<urn:uuid:222b0fee-8dab-4e62-922c-28a5a66927b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wagmag.com/the-reluctant-president/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00093.warc.gz	en	0.984548	1,720	3.84375	4	[ -0.17235666513442993, 0.42884016036987305, 0.1815491020679474, -0.1022409200668335, -0.4372901916503906, 0.5041526556015015, 0.27182382345199585, -0.011311887763440609, -0.3234836459159851, -0.07184462249279022, 0.17845240235328674, 0.06036420166492462, 0.2543732821941376, 0.49287745356559...	7	James Abram Garfield never intended to become the 20th President of the United States and, after his inauguration, he had little opportunity to show his brand of leadership. Today, Garfield mostly registers as a blip within the wider sweep of American history. But his life and death offer the story of a man who both shaped his era while falling victim to its limitations. Garfield was born on Nov. 19, 1831, in a log cabin in Orange Township, Ohio. His childhood was heavy with challenges. His father died when he was 2, and he was raised in poverty by his mother. Garfield worked as a carpenter’s assistant and a janitor to finance his education and pursued careers as a teacher, lawyer and Republican state senator in Ohio before joining the Union Army in August 1861 with a colonel’s commission. His leadership at the Battle of Middle Creek in January 1862 resulted in a promotion to brigadier general. Garfield was convinced by friends to seek the vacant seat for Ohio’s 19th Congressional District in 1862. He left the military for Congress and quickly became an influential political figure, backing civil rights for the freed slaves in the Southern states and the Gold Standard as the foundation of the U.S. currency. He showed no interest in higher office, although he was part of the Republican-majority commission that tilted the disputed Electoral College votes in the 1876 election to Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes. But Hayes — today judged an average president, despite his commitment to civil rights — had pledged not to seek a second term, and by 1880 the Republicans were in the hunt for a successor. Garfield arrived at the Republican presidential convention to nominate Treasury Secretary John Sherman but other factions were pushing for Sen. James G. Blaine of Maine and the return of former President Ulysses S. Grant. No candidate could secure a majority of support, and Garfield’s name was put forth to break the stalemate. To Garfield’s utter horror, the convention delegates quickly warmed to having him as their standard bearer. By the 34th ballot, Garfield was within reach of gaining the nomination. He rose to address the convention, arguing, “I rise to a question of order. I challenge the correctness of the announcement. The announcement contains votes for me. No man has a right, without the consent of the person voted for, to announce that person’s name and vote for him in this convention. Such consent I have not given.” The convention delegates ignored his protests and Garfield was selected as their nominee on the 36th ballot. “This honor comes to me unsought,” he lamented. “I have never had the Presidential fever, not even for a day.” Garfield defeated his Democratic challenger, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, by approximately 1,900 popular votes, the tightest margin in history. The electoral vote count was more lopsided, with Garfield polling 214 and Hancock 155. Garfield was inaugurated on March 4, 1881 and almost immediately came to loathe the job. “My God! What is there in this place that a man should ever want to get into it?” he wrote in his diary. He would later confide to an aide, “My day is frittered away by the personal seeking of people, when it ought to be given to the great problems which concern the whole country.” One of those people Garfield encountered was Charles Guiteau, a failed lawyer and writer dealing with mental illness. Guiteau was convinced that he was responsible for Garfield’s election and sought out a foreign service position from the new president. Garfield opted not to hire Guiteau, who began stalking the president’s forays into public. Despite the Lincoln assassination of 1865, no one at the White House thought it was necessary to assign a security detail to the president. Garfield and his Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, walked by themselves from the White House to the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington on July 2, 1881, where the president was planning to take a train to the New Jersey seashore to visit his wife Lucretia, who was recovering from a bout of malaria. Guiteau trailed the men and fired two shots at close range from behind — one bullet grazed Garfield’s arm and the other passed the first lumbar vertebra of his spine and lodged in his abdomen. “My God, what is this?” Garfield yelled as he fell to the floor. Guiteau, in his panic to escape, wound up running smack into a police officer at the station and was apprehended. The fallen Garfield was immediately attended by several physicians who were at the railroad station, including Charles Burleigh Purvis, an African-American and a co-founder of the medical school at Howard University. However, another physician was summoned to handle the president’s care. Doctor Willard Bliss (his first name was Doctor), a childhood friend of Garfield, began examining the fallen leader on the train station floor by probing the wound with his unwashed fingers. Purvis openly questioned Bliss’ actions but was rebuffed — not because of racism, as Bliss was expelled from the Medical Society of the District of Columbia for denouncing its refusal to admit black doctors — but because Bliss did not embrace the then-controversial theory of antiseptic medicine that was being popularized by British surgeon Joseph Lister. Garfield was returned to the White House and, over the next two months, Bliss would conduct multiple efforts to locate the lodged bullet using his unwashed hands and unsterilized equipment. Alexander Graham Bell was brought in with a metal detection device, but it failed to pinpoint the bullet’s location. Bliss widened the three-inch deep bullet wound to 20 inches, carving open Garfield from his ribs and to his groin. And while Bliss was aware of the increased levels of pus within the wound, he assumed it was evidence that the body was healing itself. Throughout the ordeal, Garfield was bedridden and unable to consume solid food. His robust 210-pound frame withered to 130 pounds and the affairs of the Executive Branch were put on indefinite hold as the president suffered through fevers, chills and excruciating pain. The blistering heat of the Washington summer did not help, and on Sept. 5 Garfield was moved to the New Jersey location where his wife recuperated. But Garfield’s condition worsened into a bout of pneumonia and he complained of chest pains. On Sept. 19, Garfield passed, two months shy of his 50th birthday. In the aftermath of Garfield’s death, Bliss submitted a claim to the federal government for $25,000 for his services. He was offered only $6,500, which he rejected. Guiteau was brought to trial and blamed Garfield’s death on medical malpractice rather than his gunshots. He was found guilty and hanged on June 30, 1882. Parts of his brain are on display in a jar at The Mütter Museum of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Garfield’s vice president, Chester A. Arthur, was sworn in as president after Garfield’s death. Their working relation was often testy before Garfield was assassinated, but Arthur made no effort to assume the presidential authority. There was no precedent on how the nation would be governed when the head of state became incapacitated. That issue would remain unresolved until the passage of the 25th Amendment to the Constitution in 1967. Despite the assassinations of two presidents within 16 years, the concept of a security detail to guard the president would only become reality after the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station was demolished in 1908. The West Building of the National Gallery of Art is located at the station’s former site. Two temporary panels identifying the history of the site were installed in November 2018 just south of the West Building, but they are scheduled to be removed on July 2, 2021. Garfield remains the only slain president whose assassination site is without an official memorial. Nevertheless, his life — and particularly his death — helped define the presidency he was so reluctant to assume. For more, visit the James A. Garfield National Historic Site at nps.gov/jaga/index.htm.	1,776	ENGLISH	1
In the twentieth century, one of the most important and celebrated British artists was Henry Moore. Renowned for his semi-abstract monumental bronzes, these sculptures can be seen all around the world. Usually a reclining figure and more often than not suggested as feminine, his work evokes analogies between the body and the landscape, curving, flowing and ever moving. The materials Henry Moore used for his sculptures were mainly bronze or marble. He was born in Yorkshire in 1898 and although he showed interest and talent for art as a child, he was encouraged to train to be a teacher. Henry Moore was unhappy in that profession but left to serve in the British Army and upon his return, studied at the Leeds School of Art before the Royal College of Art in London. By the 1930’s Henry Moore had already begun to make a name for himself in the UK with numerous commissions and exhibitions. During the war he was engaged as an official war artist where he created his famous drawings of people sheltering in the London Underground during bombing raids. In the 50’s he was already receiving a number of highly-paid international commissions. He passed away at his home in Perry Green in 1986.	<urn:uuid:ae0934d7-a2dd-40fc-bc1e-59974740162f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/henry-moore/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00557.warc.gz	en	0.990897	242	3.484375	3	[ 0.11228427290916443, 0.16259384155273438, 0.3773635923862457, 0.24158741533756256, -0.46015864610671997, 0.002984238788485527, 0.4779585897922516, 0.11050020903348923, -0.4109714925289154, -0.4776676595211029, 0.2215328812599182, -0.533113420009613, -0.07963098585605621, 0.4229685962200165...	5	In the twentieth century, one of the most important and celebrated British artists was Henry Moore. Renowned for his semi-abstract monumental bronzes, these sculptures can be seen all around the world. Usually a reclining figure and more often than not suggested as feminine, his work evokes analogies between the body and the landscape, curving, flowing and ever moving. The materials Henry Moore used for his sculptures were mainly bronze or marble. He was born in Yorkshire in 1898 and although he showed interest and talent for art as a child, he was encouraged to train to be a teacher. Henry Moore was unhappy in that profession but left to serve in the British Army and upon his return, studied at the Leeds School of Art before the Royal College of Art in London. By the 1930’s Henry Moore had already begun to make a name for himself in the UK with numerous commissions and exhibitions. During the war he was engaged as an official war artist where he created his famous drawings of people sheltering in the London Underground during bombing raids. In the 50’s he was already receiving a number of highly-paid international commissions. He passed away at his home in Perry Green in 1986.	250	ENGLISH	1
Saint Nicholas was a Christian bishop He was born in about 280 in Patara, Lycia Which is in modern-day Turkey His parents both died when he was young And he used his inheritance to help The poor and the sick. There are many legends surrounding Saint Nicholas He is supposed to have saved three men Who had been falsely accused and sentenced to death. He is said to have died on 6th December 343. His reputation went before him as a gift-giver As well as the protector of children and sailors. So how does that explain where Santa Claus cames from? Well, his story as a Saint became popular in Europe Until the Reformation when Saints became unpopular. However, the Dutch kept celebrating his feast day On 6th December – children put out their shoes at night and In the morning would discover the gifts he had left for them. In the 1700s, Dutch immigrants took the legend To the Americas where he was known as “Sint Nikolaas” Or more commonly by his nickname “Sinterklaas” There, he went through many transformations to become Known by his present-day name of Santa Claus, although The present-giving was moved to the Christmas festival. Clement Clarke Moore wrote a poem in 1820 called “An Account of a Visit from Saint Nicholas”. He described Santa Claus as a jolly, heavy man Who comes down the chimney to leave presents For deserving children. He also drove a sleigh pulled by Magical Reindeer flying through the sky. Cartoonist Thomas Nast added to the legend in 1881 Drawing Santa with a red suit trimmed with white fur. In the early 1930s, Haddon Sundblom illustrated A marketing campaign for the Coca-Cola Company. And so the kind, charitable bishop from Turkey morphed To became the jolly Christmas icon we know so well today.	<urn:uuid:1a738885-4926-4469-828b-304904ce30ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lornemitchell.com/?p=2012	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00437.warc.gz	en	0.988362	415	3.640625	4	[ 0.4966869056224823, 0.31352439522743225, 0.2619556486606598, -0.08385167270898819, 0.1546012908220291, -0.48361504077911377, 0.42345747351646423, 0.22951775789260864, 0.12693177163600922, -0.08302938938140869, -0.1529710739850998, 0.25487226247787476, -0.037623081356287, 0.2617065310478210...	16	Saint Nicholas was a Christian bishop He was born in about 280 in Patara, Lycia Which is in modern-day Turkey His parents both died when he was young And he used his inheritance to help The poor and the sick. There are many legends surrounding Saint Nicholas He is supposed to have saved three men Who had been falsely accused and sentenced to death. He is said to have died on 6th December 343. His reputation went before him as a gift-giver As well as the protector of children and sailors. So how does that explain where Santa Claus cames from? Well, his story as a Saint became popular in Europe Until the Reformation when Saints became unpopular. However, the Dutch kept celebrating his feast day On 6th December – children put out their shoes at night and In the morning would discover the gifts he had left for them. In the 1700s, Dutch immigrants took the legend To the Americas where he was known as “Sint Nikolaas” Or more commonly by his nickname “Sinterklaas” There, he went through many transformations to become Known by his present-day name of Santa Claus, although The present-giving was moved to the Christmas festival. Clement Clarke Moore wrote a poem in 1820 called “An Account of a Visit from Saint Nicholas”. He described Santa Claus as a jolly, heavy man Who comes down the chimney to leave presents For deserving children. He also drove a sleigh pulled by Magical Reindeer flying through the sky. Cartoonist Thomas Nast added to the legend in 1881 Drawing Santa with a red suit trimmed with white fur. In the early 1930s, Haddon Sundblom illustrated A marketing campaign for the Coca-Cola Company. And so the kind, charitable bishop from Turkey morphed To became the jolly Christmas icon we know so well today.	413	ENGLISH	1
The Raven is one of Edgar Allen Poe’s most impressive works, a long narrative poem centered on a talking raven that makes a nocturnal visit to a distraught lover, who is mourning the death of his beloved Lenore. Noted for its seamless weaving of popular myth, folk tales, classical imagery, and the supernatural, the poem remains a widely acclaimed and popular classic.However, Poe’s raven has a little known and significant literary heritage. Historians and literary critics have long speculated that the talking bird in his famous poem was actually inspired by Charles Dickens’ own pet raven, Grip.Illustration by Édouard Manet for a French translation by Stéphane Mallarmé of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven,” 1875. Digitally restored.This real-life raven was responsible for spawning not one, but two literary greats, as he was also the basis for the bird depicted in Dickens’ own novel, Barnaby Rudge.According to the BBC, Dickens was particularly fond of birds and owned several pet ravens, all affectionately named Grip.His first and favorite bird had a distinctive, imperious character, and would frequently harass Dickens’ children and other pets, nipping their ankles.Dickens in New York, 1867.Dickens was fascinated by Grip, and resolved to include him in his next novel.In 1841, he published Barnaby Rudge, and indeed, the title character was constantly accompanied by a talking pet raven, which was far more intelligent than the man himself.Dickens widely acknowledged that the character was based on his own bird, which had unfortunately died shortly before the publication of the novel.The Raven depicts a mysterious raven’s midnight visit to a mourning narrator, as illustrated by John Tenniel (1858).Dickens was deeply saddened by Grip’s death, and continued to acquire birds; first an eagle, and then two more ravens in succession, both also named Grip.The third Grip had an even more distinctive and domineering character than the first, and was even able to keep the family dog, a bullmastiff named Turk, under control.Turk would sit patiently as Grip helped himself to all of the best pieces of meat from the dog’s dinner plate.Cropped photograph of Charles Dickens.According to the BBC, it was around this time that Dickens and Poe became acquainted. Poe had written an approving review of Barnaby Rudge, and the two arranged to meet when Dickens and his wife were on tour in the United States.Reportedly, Poe saw a picture of Grip that Dickens carried with him, and was delighted to learn that the bird he had admired in Barnaby Rudge was based on a real-life animal.Portrait of Poe by William Abbot Pratt from September 1849, a month before his death.Shortly after, Poe composed his most notable work, a narrative poem with an imperious raven at its heart. The main character, a love-struck and sorrowful young man, is struck by the visitation of a raven, whose croaking refrain, “Nevermore,” simply adds to his grief.Although Poe never stated it explicitly, it is widely thought that The Raven is based on Dickens’ bird.Manet’s illustration of the raven flying through the window.The disdainful character of the bird, described as standing proudly on the window ledge, perfectly matches the raven belonging to Barnaby Rudge, and thus, to Dickens’ own bird. Poe’s raven is also seen tapping at the window, just as the raven in Barnaby Rudge had been prone to do.Soon after the poem’s publication, other readers and literary critics also noted the similarity, with some even accusing Poe of plagiarism. Always a controversial character, Poe attracted a considerable amount of criticism and ridicule from his literary peers.Original burial spot of Edgar Allan Poe in Westminster Burial Ground, Baltimore. Photo by JefferyGoldman CC BY-SA 4.0In 1848 the writer James Russell Lowell wrote, “Here comes Poe with his raven, like Barnaby Rudge / Three-fifths of him genius, two fifths sheer fudge.” Poe’s sad and untimely death just one year later cemented his legacy, and The Raven remains his best-known and most-loved work.When the original Grip died, Dickens was so upset that he had him stuffed by a taxidermist and kept him in his office, allowing him to keep watching over the family.Read another story from us: Nevermore…The Unanswered Questions Surrounding the Final Days of Edgar Allan PoeAfter Dickens’ death he was sold at auction and is now a permanent resident at the Free Library of Philadelphia’s Rare Books department. A fitting end for a bird that inspired not one, but two literary geniuses.	<urn:uuid:a8e783e2-d3f7-4d34-bd59-8e723d414682>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://zslanto.com/qigcwtag/%E7%88%B1%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7419mx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00070.warc.gz	en	0.984214	1,011	3.375	3	[ -0.1785506159067154, 0.058176636695861816, 0.3219938278198242, 0.3672841191291809, -0.17750398814678192, 0.0026178909465670586, 0.616959810256958, 0.023716656491160393, -0.36126410961151123, -0.29172641038894653, -0.22825101017951965, -0.05119253322482109, -0.17652693390846252, 0.031185574...	2	The Raven is one of Edgar Allen Poe’s most impressive works, a long narrative poem centered on a talking raven that makes a nocturnal visit to a distraught lover, who is mourning the death of his beloved Lenore. Noted for its seamless weaving of popular myth, folk tales, classical imagery, and the supernatural, the poem remains a widely acclaimed and popular classic.However, Poe’s raven has a little known and significant literary heritage. Historians and literary critics have long speculated that the talking bird in his famous poem was actually inspired by Charles Dickens’ own pet raven, Grip.Illustration by Édouard Manet for a French translation by Stéphane Mallarmé of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven,” 1875. Digitally restored.This real-life raven was responsible for spawning not one, but two literary greats, as he was also the basis for the bird depicted in Dickens’ own novel, Barnaby Rudge.According to the BBC, Dickens was particularly fond of birds and owned several pet ravens, all affectionately named Grip.His first and favorite bird had a distinctive, imperious character, and would frequently harass Dickens’ children and other pets, nipping their ankles.Dickens in New York, 1867.Dickens was fascinated by Grip, and resolved to include him in his next novel.In 1841, he published Barnaby Rudge, and indeed, the title character was constantly accompanied by a talking pet raven, which was far more intelligent than the man himself.Dickens widely acknowledged that the character was based on his own bird, which had unfortunately died shortly before the publication of the novel.The Raven depicts a mysterious raven’s midnight visit to a mourning narrator, as illustrated by John Tenniel (1858).Dickens was deeply saddened by Grip’s death, and continued to acquire birds; first an eagle, and then two more ravens in succession, both also named Grip.The third Grip had an even more distinctive and domineering character than the first, and was even able to keep the family dog, a bullmastiff named Turk, under control.Turk would sit patiently as Grip helped himself to all of the best pieces of meat from the dog’s dinner plate.Cropped photograph of Charles Dickens.According to the BBC, it was around this time that Dickens and Poe became acquainted. Poe had written an approving review of Barnaby Rudge, and the two arranged to meet when Dickens and his wife were on tour in the United States.Reportedly, Poe saw a picture of Grip that Dickens carried with him, and was delighted to learn that the bird he had admired in Barnaby Rudge was based on a real-life animal.Portrait of Poe by William Abbot Pratt from September 1849, a month before his death.Shortly after, Poe composed his most notable work, a narrative poem with an imperious raven at its heart. The main character, a love-struck and sorrowful young man, is struck by the visitation of a raven, whose croaking refrain, “Nevermore,” simply adds to his grief.Although Poe never stated it explicitly, it is widely thought that The Raven is based on Dickens’ bird.Manet’s illustration of the raven flying through the window.The disdainful character of the bird, described as standing proudly on the window ledge, perfectly matches the raven belonging to Barnaby Rudge, and thus, to Dickens’ own bird. Poe’s raven is also seen tapping at the window, just as the raven in Barnaby Rudge had been prone to do.Soon after the poem’s publication, other readers and literary critics also noted the similarity, with some even accusing Poe of plagiarism. Always a controversial character, Poe attracted a considerable amount of criticism and ridicule from his literary peers.Original burial spot of Edgar Allan Poe in Westminster Burial Ground, Baltimore. Photo by JefferyGoldman CC BY-SA 4.0In 1848 the writer James Russell Lowell wrote, “Here comes Poe with his raven, like Barnaby Rudge / Three-fifths of him genius, two fifths sheer fudge.” Poe’s sad and untimely death just one year later cemented his legacy, and The Raven remains his best-known and most-loved work.When the original Grip died, Dickens was so upset that he had him stuffed by a taxidermist and kept him in his office, allowing him to keep watching over the family.Read another story from us: Nevermore…The Unanswered Questions Surrounding the Final Days of Edgar Allan PoeAfter Dickens’ death he was sold at auction and is now a permanent resident at the Free Library of Philadelphia’s Rare Books department. A fitting end for a bird that inspired not one, but two literary geniuses.	987	ENGLISH	1
The ancient region known in antiquity as Illyria was situated in the western Balkan peninsula. Comprising an area roughly stretching from the lower alps in what is now Croatia, south along the Dalmatian coast from Istria to the Albanian town of Vlore and the mainland known as Epirus, the region was made up of many various feuding tribes and clans who all spoke the Illyrian language, a now extinct member of the Indo European language family. The Illyro Thracian family of languages, once spoken throughout the Balkans into Asia Minor, fell out of use over time, and many scholars argue that only modern Albanian survives as a testimony to Illyrian, though this language has been highly modified over time with the addition of Latin and Greek loan words, and later in the middle ages by Slavic and Turkish words as well. The language was not written down at great length as Greek or later as Latin was, so records of the past are dim and not so well defined. Not to mention that the stories and accounts of the Illyrians, like their relatives the Thracians to the east, were left to their neighbors who on many occasions were their enemies. Thus, what we know of these ancient peoples are shady accounts at best. The Illyrians are said to have come down from the Alps of central Europe and imposed themselves on the Pelasgians to the south. Of course, as in all migrations and invasions of one people upon another, they intermarried. They brought with them the ancient Hallstatt culture which learned to smelt metal at an early period, all of this happening in the pre bronze and actual bronze age. They also were known for mining salt and other minerals, and they loved gold, which they held in high esteem and worked into intricately beautiful jewelry and ornate armor. The Illyro Thracian language group included a number of languages such as Illyrian in the west, and Thracian in what is nor Bulgaria and northeastern Greece. Phrygia was one member of the group as was Pannonian, spoken near the Hungarian plain in the north of the Balkans. The peoples known as Macedonians and Epirots were partially Illyro speaking peoples who's languages eventually became increasingly Hellenized and thus part of the Greek world. For example, while Alexander the Great and his father Philip spoke Greek at court and identified as Greeks due to being part of the Greek cultural world, Alexander's mother was a Molossian princess, a tribe of what Philip called varvaros- foreigners, indicating her non Greek origin. From the Greek varvaros we get the word barbarian. In this period it should be remembered that Illyria and the Illyrian language as a cultural definition was being overshadowed by the rise of Greek civilization which was able to maintain records due to it's creation of an alphabet, of which illiterate Illyria in some ways was and in other ways was not a part. But the two worlds did blend and overlap, of this there can be no argument. Illyrians were around long before the rise of classical Greece, and it was due to the rise of that great civilization that Illyria began to fade, just as later Greece would sink into the abyss as Rome would become ascendant. All this happened long, long ago. Perhaps language can unravel some of the mysteries of the past. In the Greek language, these people call themselves Ellenes. Yet in the Albanian language gryka means a valley. We know that the Illyrians tended to settle in mountainous regions and build their fortified citadels on rocky hilltops, and tended their sheep, goats and cattle. Is it possible that the gryka were the industrious people of the valleys who perfected farming techniques which encouraged the more settled lives of townspeople who would go on to create one of the world's great civilizations? In Albanian the word for house shtpi, as in Greek house is spiti, both sounding amazingly similar. In fact it is the very same word stemming from the word for cave, the Albanian shpyll and the Greek spilia. My guess is that it was the the hardy mountain dwelling Illyrians who first used the word for a stone house which was the offshoot of prehistoric cave dwellings. At some point in time, the mountain folk came down to the seashore and and the rocky harbors of the western Balkans where they met the seafaring Greeks and blended with them. Interestingly, if we take modern Albanian as our guide to ancient Illyrian, most of the seafaring and nautical words in that language are of Greek origin: port is limani, waves are thalassa, boat is vapora, a whale is a baleena, a porpoise a delfini, ocean is okean...the list goes on. So, we can safely conclude that the Illyrians were an inland people who eventually came down to the sea. What is also interesting is that the Illyrians became fierce pirates and marauders on the high seas, the very terror of the Mediterranean. Perhaps living in the harsh and rocky Balkan interior with a soil that was difficult to farm which failed to provide enough food for the expanding population caused the Illyrians to migrate down to the sea. They saw the relative ease and high culture of Greek civilization in the stately towns of the Adriatic and became acquainted with that culture, adopting elements of it as their own. However, rather than turn to trade and commerce as the Greeks did the Illyrians sailed their ships for other reasons, namely for plunder and theft. With Greek civilization dominating the coastal regions and with Rome in the ascendant, the Illyrians chose to present themselves as daring and confrontational rather than as coexisting neighbors. Different societies produce different customs and lifestyles based on their geography and climate and how a people react to to the forces of nature. Divided into herding clans who feuded with each other for good grazing space and the meager fertility of the mountain valleys, the various Illyrian tribes could not develop a sense of unity or common nation. This was also the case of the Greek city states, though these states could identify as one people when a foreign invader approached threatening their very existence. The Illyrians had no such sense of unity based on language or culture. They knew they were Illyri, which many linguists believe is a name that stems from from i liri, or the free. Some claimed that they were descended from the gods themselves, as hyll i lir means free star. At any rate, it was the Illyrian zyt (god) which may have become the Greek Zeus just as Achilles, known by the Trojans as Ispetus (i Shpejti, in Alb. the quick one) was dunked into the river Aous (the Vijose river in Albania) by his mother for protection against sword blows, or Dardanus procreated and was granted dominion over the Earth ruling from his capital Dardania or Dardhe, the land of the pear trees and name for the region we now know by the Slav-based name of Kossova. The Greeks knew well the origins of their myths and where many of these myths had their beginnings, as did the Illyrians who called these myths their own. However, Illyria and Thrace were considered foreign and semi barbaric lands by the Greeks, whom they identified as Aegis, meaning Aegean, the sea where they formed this great ancient civilization that was unique in the world. This word Aegis is still used by modern Albanians as a nick name for their Greek neighbors who live to the south. Living in the fastness of their high fortresses and competing for food and grazing land begat confrontation, and this confrontation became constant feuding which was done on a grand scale. The competitive tradition of the Greek city states or even the later Italian Renaissance cities who vied with one another for power and mercantile control can be compared to the ancient Illyrian lifestyle, as a culture developed based on honor and loyalty to family and clan. In such a warlike environment, all inhabitants learn the arts of war and fighting, heroism is lauded and cowardice frowned upon. In such ancient societies strict codes of behavior develop to ensure that succeeding generations will be ever ready to go to war at a moments notice, since weakness might result in a tribe being wiped out or starved to death due to losing precious grazing or farmed land. In such a patriarchal society males ranging in ages from the very young to those quite old go to war. Many are killed or taken as captives, which in the ancient world meant a merciless death or a life of slavery serving the victors. When a family or clan would lose their fighting men the need for a leader to guide them was a priority. The only law that was known or held any pertinence in Illyrian society was an unwritten code of honor, known to this day in Albanian as the Besa, related to the ancient Spartan gerousia, the Sicilian code of omerta or the Pashtunwali of the Pathans. At the core of such codes is the importance of the solemn word, which is indicative of a family's honor and dignity. Bes is the Albanian root for belief, trust, faith. It was in this legal atmosphere that an archaic tradition would be utilized for the purpose of preserving the name of a clan. Growing up and living in such an atmosphere of militancy, warfare and conflict women could be as formidable as men, even though they would normally play subservient roles in that society in times of relative peace. But when the survival of a family was at stake, the Illyrians could call on their strongest, bravest and most daring women to lead the clan to success and victory. This tradition required a woman to take an oath of sworn virginity, and by doing this she could fill the role of tribal chief or leader. If her father, husband or brother was such a chief and was killed in battle the wife or sister could vow to dedicate herself to protecting, leading and guiding the clan. She could lead bands of armed warriors into battle and throw herself into the fray, and exact vengeance on those who challenged the honor of the fis, the unit of extended families related by blood and intermarriage that comprised the clan. This custom of the sworn virgin has survived in the Albanian mountains into the 20th century and it is said that there are even a few such women yet alive now, in the 21st. While the custom is finally dying out as the isolated herding and small plot farming lifestyle of the mountaineer has been transformed by the internet and the cell phone, the tradition of the sworn virgin can be traced back to the days of the Illyrians who, like the Spartans, encouraged their women in the arts of war and fighting skills. Perhaps we could similarly note the role of virgin queens, as in the example of England's virgin queen Elizabeth I who united the warring Protestant and Catholic religious factions in her country, lead England in war to defeat the mighty Spanish Armada- making her nation a force to be reckoned with in the politically tumultuous world of the 16th century, and who ushered in an era of literature, art and music noting the names of two 'Williams' such as Shakespeare and the composer Byrd that rivaled the glory of Renaissance Italy. It was under her reign that England would become known not simply as Britain, but Great Britain. The Illyrian settlements were becoming overpopulated and the crowded mountain citadels could no longer support the increase in human population, as blood feuds among the clans and war with the neighboring Greeks, Thracians and Celts on their borders became the norm for the people living in the mountains. Driven by necessity as the predominantly rocky soil was difficult to farm and provide enough food for all they were forced to move and migrate as ancient people did and modern people still do, and find new prospects. To do this and succeed, however, they needed organization and the unity that only a genius leader could provide. The unwritten code of the mountains provided a sense of order in that environment but it didn't unite warring clans and tribes into a nation with common goals and aspirations. The Greek city states, though divided, already achieved that sense of cultural unity and linguistic identity and across the Adriatic sea the Latin tribes came together and created what was to become the new power in the Mediterranean and indeed much of Europe and the Near East- Rome. Our word piracy is from the ancient Greek language, meaning a brigand, this in turn stemming from the Hellenic verb word for 'attempt'. There has always been piracy in the Mediterranean but in particular Illyrian piracy was condoned by the kings and queens of that ancient society. What the Illyrians began to do was claim their waters as their own, as in the transliteration of the Ionian Sea, Deti Jone (lit. our sea) and demand tribute as their neighbors did for plying those waters. More than just demanding tribute though, the Illyrians became fierce and aggressive pirates who would not only stop vessels and demand tribute, but would attack and board ships at will, taking cargo and booty as well as slaves back to their rocky ports along the Dalmatian coast. Their tactic was to set out of their well concealed harbors, surround a ship with their smaller craft like hornets. These vessels were quite speedy as they utilized both sail and oars. Sometimes four or five of these ships would be tied together and attack as one, abreast. The impact of the unified galleys ramming into a larger one was enough to frighten the victim, as such an impact would disable the vessel. If the ship being attacked refused to acknowledge the danger the other Illyrian vessels would attack from all directions, board the galley and engage in fierce hand to hand combat until most of the crew was either killed or enslaved. If the merchant galley was damaged due to the tactic of ramming it was abandoned, otherwise it would be taken as booty and added to the Illyrian fleet. The historian Polybius wrote of the effects of Illyrian piracy in his records, which covered the tumultuous era from 240 BC to about 146 BC: “So powerful did the Illyrians become that by 230 BC no honest traders wished to participate in maritime commerce.” Needless to say, this became an annoying problem to Greek and Roman business as supplies and profits from the east- from Phoenicia, Egypt and Persia were threatened. No vessel sailing the Mediterranean from any nation at the time was immune from Illyrian attacks and plundering. To counter the threat the new rising power in the West called Rome chose to lead and take advantage of the opportunity so as to be seen the vanguard and savior who would vanquish the pirates and bring stability and safety to Mediterranean shipping. Of course, Rome was on the rise and this endeavor was for imperialistic purposes in as much as it was for the display of moral principle. Agron, chief of the Ardaiean clan, ruled from 250 to 231BC. He endeavored to unite the tribes and extend the reaches of the kingdom of Illyria. He vanquished all those Illyrian clans who stood in his way but succeeded in uniting many more by defeating the Greek Aoelians and others who sought the throne of the kingdom of Epirus, a border kingdom famed for it's brilliant former king Pyrrhus who attempted to conquer Rome itself but failed to bring that rising nation to it's knees. This was a time when the Mediterranean nations were locked in a struggle for power among themselves and none could have known the outcome. Greece was wracked by political chaos and war, the neighboring Illyrians, Macedonians and Thracians siding with each other or against each other, randomly giving their support to one city state or another hoping to be on the winning side so as to be the victor. Epirus was was conquered by Agron and added to his Adriatic empire. He then focused on increasing the plunder of both merchant and naval military ships of any nation, allowing his loyal captains to engage in piracy. They could keep much of the captured booty as long as a portion was sent to Agron in his capital city of Skodra. Many coastal port cities of the western Balkans submitted to his rule as the threat of state sanctioned piracy imposed on shipping was now at an all time high under the rule of Agron the king. Coastal towns in the Italian peninsula were forced to pay tribute. Illyria as a kingdom seemed to on the verge of becoming that power that everyone in the time period was expecting. Pyrrhus of Epirus already failed, and Hannibal and Carthage would take on Rome in a last bit to stop the rise of the empire founded by two brothers nursed by a she wolf. The Roman army was a war machine that was well funded and supplied and so far, unstoppable. The Illyrians, rather than fight the Romans in pitched land battles, cleverly sought to defeat and weaken Rome by attacking their very source of trade and business, and forcing them to acknowledge those who would leave them alone if a regular payment of tribute was secured. Proud Rome of course, would have none of this and soon they knew that if they were going to expand their empire they would have to deal with this piracy problem once and for all, and eliminate the threat and ever present danger. Agron was given to bouts of drinking and in 231BC after his victory over the Aoelians he developed pleurisy, which eventually lead to his death. The circumstances of his death are shrouded in mystery as some maintain that he was poisoned. His young son Pinnes succeeded him but it was his beautiful wife Teuta who would rule in his stead. Illyria was at the height of her power and well entrenched in the ongoing power struggle for supremacy in the Mediterranean and the kingdom needed a strong ruler who would not be shaken by the boasts of neighboring kings and monarchs with their threats of invasion and enslavement. It seemed that the future of the Mediterranean was about to be revealed and something prophetic was about to happen. Teuta, her fate thrust before her, would be one of those who dared to stand against the power of a rising Rome, and prove herself to be one of the fiercest and bravest of ancient warrior queens. Teuta commanded that all ships which were confiscated by her pirates and forces be turned over to her command alone. In this way she created a huge navy with galleys numbering in the hundreds. She demanded that her subject cities in Illyria and Greece send her troops and supplies, with the promise of a share in the spoils of war and raiding. There were many who feared her as they feared Rome but nonetheless did give support at least half heartedly. Roman rule or Teuta? This was a major question at the time as Illyrian piracy was both feared and respected, while Rome was seen as a somewhat stable albeit an aggressive force in this chaotic era. In battle Teuta gained a reputation as a brilliant and daring naval commander and a ferocious warrior, having been taught from a young age how to use a sword quite proficiently. In hand to hand combat upon the decks of galleys Teuta slew dozens of opponents and boasted that any who dared to cross their sword with hers would be guaranteed of a quick and immediate death. She was renown for her martial prowess, agility and rapidity of movement as friend and foe alike compared her to the war goddesses Athena, Minerva or Diana. Brave warriors were rewarded and to be praised by Teuta was considered the highest honor, while those who might show cowardice were dressed as women or sheep and paraded before their comrades. Her people claimed she was directly descended from Perit, the Illyrian goddess who hammered the mountains and carved the river valleys, who then after formulating and shaping the world we live in and see around us, separated her male half from her female half, Shiva like, thus creating man solely to keep her company. Teuta herself claimed descent and lineage from Dardanus and Achilles. On the day she was born it is said that the powerful rays of the Sun goddess Dielli burst open a huge dark water cloud that lingered over the then parched and dry citadel of her native Skodra, causing a flood of great proportions which eventually became the massive lake of the same city's name. This act of nature drowned the race of giants and their allies the jindi spirits who ruled the earth in those days. From atop the holy mountain of Tomorr her name could be heard chanted by Zana and Ora, the fairies of the forests, her name echoing in the folk songs of her people as the rhapsode bards composed hymns in her honor. Teuta was aggressive, hot headed and impetuous, and was not one to parley or compromise. She made a demand or gave an order and expected it to be respected and heeded. However, to ambassadors and those visiting her she showed the utmost respect and reverence as Illyrian rules of hospitality were considered to be an extension of the conscience of the besa. In 229 BC Rome, weary of Illyrian piracy and eager to expand their empire into the east, sent two ambassadors to demand that Teuta put an end to the piracy and recognize Rome. She replied to their demand that "it is against the custom of Illyrian royalty to interfere with the doings of our subjects". Surprised and angered by her dismissive comment, one of the ambassadors used vile language and cursed her, telling all in the court that she Teuta was "no more fit to rule a nation than the ox who bedded her mother." She ordered the ambassador's heads to be cut off and sent back to Rome in a basket with the message that "only excellent fruit is to be had in Illyria, please accept our rejects. Visit us after you learn respect and humility. Until then, Roman pigs are not welcome here." With that, Rome now had an excuse for the long awaited invasion of the Balkans and wasted no time in mobilizing their legions. They landed in Apollonia and were met with resistance in a land battle but were victorious nonetheless. The Illyrians, though individually hardy mountain fighters were a marine power at the time and all their organization and tactical endeavor was concentrated in their navy and maritime expeditions, and not so much in their land forces. In the area of naval attacks and ship boarding they were experts, yet they lacked the cohesion of disciplined and well organized armies. So individualistic was the Illyrian personality that often no two commanders could agree on what action to take when confronting an enemy. The Romans on the other hand were masters of the land battle, and the disciplined Roman war machine smashed through the brave but chaotic ranks of the Illyrians and Macedonians. The phalanxes of the Macedonian allies, those large squares consisting of hundreds of men marching with their 16 foot long sarissa pikes bristling in front and on the sides were not flexible enough to maneuver as the Roman cohorts were. While a danger to anyone in front of the phalanx, these huge human squares were incapable of turning around in time to confront the sudden charge of the more flexible Roman legions that might attack their flank or come from behind. It was while taking part in these battles that Teuta saw the terrible effects of the new personal Roman weapon of choice, the Iberian/Spanish sword known as the gladius and it's deadly precision. The Greek/Illyrian kopis sword was an excellent and deadly slashing weapon but the gladius could be used for both the slash and stab, inflicting horrific wounds on adversaries who were lightly armed, thus less protected and more vulnerable than the Roman legionnaires who were all provided with armor. In a great naval battle Teuta risked all and led her navy into the fray herself, shouting orders from her command post on the deck of her galley. Drummers would beat their drums and set the pace as the rowers, all slaves, would work the oars and set the speed at which the vessel would move. The job of the rowing slave was indeed dangerous, as an enemy ship might decide to ram their vessel and the impact of a galley at full speed; the bows of ancient galleys were fortified with a metal prow that was designed for such a purpose. The impact would certainly crush all those poor souls who happened to be chained to their posts on the rowing benches. The Illyrian ships were sometimes tied and lashed together in groups of four or five. They rammed the Roman ships and sunk a number of them. In many instances of naval warfare in the past there was always the danger that the rowing slaves might mutiny and attempt to escape their posts, and even join the enemy. The slaves who rowed and powered those galleys however were reluctant to join and support the Illyrians as they knew that they would simply become their slaves if the ship was captured. If there was any promise of freedom on the part of the Illyrians perhaps the slave rowers would have willingly joined them and turned on their Roman masters. But Illyrian warfare was intent on plunder, not promises of freedom and most of the slave rowers simply remained where they were and didn't get in the way of the Romans fighting on the deck. In fact most willingly rowed extra hard to help the Romans win the battle, for to be a slave of an Illyrian or a Roman master made little difference. The promise of freedom perhaps could have decided the outcome of the battle but the haughty Illyrians, intent on plunder as a way of life, hadn't taken the time to apply psychological warfare to their arsenal. As the navies strove to come closer to each other the Romans shot great balls of flame from catapults on the decks of their galleys causing the sails on the ships of the Illyrian ships to catch fire. Stones shot from ballistas smashed the decks, severed the masts and cut down all who stood in their path as long shafts shot from these war machines pierced and impaled the tightly packed opposing warriors on deck. Seeing her once orderly and strategically placed fleet now become a jumble of wooden vessels scurrying to escape the Roman artillery barrage, Teuta knew she had to make a quick decision if she was to save her fleet from annihilation. Standing on the prow of her flagship waving her sword, her fellow soldiers could see her figure urging her ships onward, ordering her soldiers to board the enemy vessels and engage the Romans in hand to hand combat. She ordered her own galley to steer for the Roman flagship which, if their admiral was captured, the rest of the Roman fleet might flee. She leapt onto the deck of the Roman flagship at the head of her warriors, slashing with her fearsome sword and moving forward seeking out the Roman admiral himself. At one point she spotted the admiral and in her ambitious endeavor slipped and fell, as the deck was covered in blood. A Roman soldier was about to bring his sword down upon her head when a cousin of hers named Ujkus saved her life by throwing a spear and hitting the the centurion in the neck. "Ujkus" she cried..."there is none braver then you, nor one more loved by me". In the heat of the battle she embraced her cousin and kissed him for saving her life. Teuta and her comrades fought on but soon more Roman ships came to the aid of the besieged flagship. After a hard fight the Illyrian fleet was forced to withdraw into one of the rocky harbors closely followed by the Romans who, having achieved a costly victory at sea now secured and consolidated their forces on land. The fall of Illyria would now be only a matter of time. While the Illyrian and Macedonian forces began to disband due to chaotic planning and as argumentative, disgruntled commanders were plagued by a severe lack of cohesion and mass desertions, Teuta attempted to flee from the port of Lissus but the the port was blocked by the Roman fleet. She returned to her fortress city of Skodra where she awaited their arrival. Unable to withstand, her generals arguing and her forces scattered Teuta sent word that she might be willing talk terms of peace. The clever Romans decided to keep Teuta alive if she would acknowledge their rule and send them tribute. This was meant to subdue the tribes and clans into finally accepting Roman domination. However, Teuta knew well that when she was no longer needed or served Roman purposes she would be instantly killed. While the historical records are unclear, perhaps erased by the Roman historians themselves, in the folklore of her people Teuta's fate is remembered and kept alive in a number of stories about her. She one day gathered her loyal supporters and asked them what was more important to them, living out their miserable existence as subjects or achieving fame and immortality by standing against tyranny. They agreed that to stand against tyranny is a guarantee of immortality itself as life is short and death never far away. Only one of the companions, the same one who saved her life and whom she praised, her beloved cousin Ujkus (Lit. 'son of the wolf') surprisingly refused to partake in the oath of allegiance that all agreed to give as their solemn word to fight and if need be die together. Teuta and her companions once more armed themselves and planned to escape by boat so as to gather foreign support then come back to liberate Shkoder from Roman rule, all of the companions making a besa to fight and die in the process if need be. Yet all the while Teuta was pondering as to whether Ujkus was a traitor: "you act strange dear cousin, and I do not understand the sudden lack of fire in your soul. If you will not come with me, dear cousin, then convince me that you will stay here and defend our city, as I have loved you and sung your praise time and again. Give me your besa, your solemn word that you are still my ally and confidant, as we were children once you and I, playing together in the shade of the olive trees. I fear that I am in doubt as to your loyalty, but today I grant you life because you once saved mine. I trust you will stand firm.Farewell." On their way to the port Teuta and her small entourage were intercepted by a Roman cohort on the road. The road to the port was now blocked by this Roman force. Shockingly, Teuta's worst fears came true in front of her eyes. Sitting on a horse next to the grinning Roman consul was Teuta's own cousin, the beloved Ujkus, who offered her that if she lay down her arms she would be spared as promised by the Roman general, though all her companions must be killed as an example must be made of those who defy the power of Rome. Teuta stared directly at Ujkus, amazed and angered by his infidelity for he had broken the law of the besa. She continued to stare, not blinking an eye or showing the least bit of emotion or concern as the Roman general urged her to lay down her arms and surrender. Ujkus at first pleaded, then demanded an answer from her, again and again. Angry at her defiance yet desperate to save her, he begged her with tears in his eyes to surrender. Teuta in her rage for which she was known let out a scream then drew her weapon, urging on her horse and speedily riding up next to Ujkus and cutting off his head with one swoop of her kopis sword. She then stabbed the Roman consul and slashed at his bodyguard, killing the two of them instantly. Trapped and surrounded by hundreds of legionnaires, with her handful of companions she sought refuge on a high barren, rocky limestone height. There the Romans attacked the group, climbing up the steep rocks as Teuta and her comrades threw down stones and spears and shot arrows at them. Eventually the Romans succeeded in reaching the top of the rock where a bloody hand to hand battle ensued that eventually saw all her warriors killed to the last. Teuta fought like the Illyrian lioness she was emitting roars, screams and hisses as she killed one legionnaire after another. With her sword still in her hand, her armor besmeared with blood and her comrades now all dead she climbed to the very tip of the rocky cliff. Rather than be taken as a captive and have her body abused by raping and torture as was the custom of the time or perhaps suffer the terrible death of crucifixion, she leaped from the cliff onto the rocks in the chasm below, screaming with her last breath as she fell down into the gorge below- "I defy thee...freedom!" The queen remained defiant and triumphant, even in death. Illyria was reduced to a conquered province of the Roman empire. The neighboring nations who all feared Illyrian piracy nonetheless knew that Teuta was a last defense against the expanding imperialism of mighty Rome. The sons of Romulus and Remus defeated the mighty queen of the Adriatic, the daughter of the mythical heroes of the past. The era and glory of ancient Greece finally came to an end as Roman armies added province after province to their empire, marching on to colonize Dacia and leave their language and their genes in a region which would become known as Romania. Then they would march on to confront Persia in a series of wars that would in a few centuries set the stage for a new epoch in Mediterranean history, the age of late antiquity marked by the rise of Christianity and eventually Islam. There in the Syrian state of Palmyra Rome would be confronted by another warrior queen named Zenobia, her armies would defeat the mighty Roman legions again and again. But for now, Rome would be the master of that region and expand north as well into Germany and into Britain. Within those Roman armies marching east, south, north and west conquering or quelling rebellions were many Illyrian soldiers recruited in the Balkans and known for their determination and steadfast, bulldog defense. Their sense of loyalty, stemming from the code of besa would guarantee that a number of the Praetorian bodyguards of the Caesars would be from Illyria. They would eventually provide the empire with four emperors including Diocletian and a good number of generals. Centuries later when Christianity would become the state religion of the empire the first Pope named Elefterios and one scribe named Jerome, who would translate the Bible from the original Greek into Latin, would dominate the religious and intellectual life of the later Roman state. Illyrian will and determination as exemplified by Teuta was well understood by the Romans as she clearly left her mark on their consciences. The story of Teuta is an example of how the victors wrote the story which would become history according to their accounts. There is little documented historical evidence of Teuta's career in the Roman accounts yet among her people her name is still known and in fact is a popular name for girls in modern Albania, Croatia and Montenegro. In the illiterate world of the past the vanquished were represented in a negative fashion by the victors, who sought to persuade the masses to forget that person who may have actually proved to the victor to be more than a mere annoyance. As one can plainly see in modern politics, it remains customary for the victor to eradicate what he or she can of their opponent's deeds and legacy. We haven't changed all that much. The folklore of these peoples of the western Balkans is replete with tales of Teuta's bravery and her mighty reign, her exploits and her personality. These are tales, true, but we must take into account the tales that have survived or were created over the centuries about this remarkable woman who chose to manifest her will and defy the inevitable fate which succeeded in bringing about her end. Like the ancient Amazon warrior of Illiad fame Penthesilea, or the Syrian Palmyran queen Zenobia, Boadicca queen of the Britains or the fabled warrior of India Rani of Jhansi, Teuta has earned a place in the roster of brave women who have confronted their fate with dignity and honor and remain an example of those human values which can be applied to our own modern though somewhat comfortable and less colorful lives. Such people continue to inspire and encourage us, as the constructed stories propagated by their enemies sink into an abyss and the heroine once again rises to manifest glory through the efforts of those who loved and continue to love her. The folk tales and songs that sing of Teuta's bravery are the alternative history to what has been officially recorded by the victors who were the masters of war. For the centuries of listeners however, her ballad was and remains the only history that is true. Above, Lizza Hasan, photo by Jay Richards	<urn:uuid:cbe0ce2c-f19f-4e0b-973d-a55e25f676e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.echoesofantiquity.net/single-post/2017/08/14/Teuta-Ancient-Pirate-Queen-of-Illyria	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00493.warc.gz	en	0.983093	7,607	3.3125	3	[ -0.1274930238723755, 0.14187034964561462, 0.29554489254951477, 0.16733010113239288, -0.08403396606445312, -0.6857300996780396, -0.04723219946026802, 0.08768151700496674, -0.31690168380737305, -0.1061238944530487, -0.011456847190856934, -0.9110900163650513, 0.02176261693239212, 0.0480643734...	2	The ancient region known in antiquity as Illyria was situated in the western Balkan peninsula. Comprising an area roughly stretching from the lower alps in what is now Croatia, south along the Dalmatian coast from Istria to the Albanian town of Vlore and the mainland known as Epirus, the region was made up of many various feuding tribes and clans who all spoke the Illyrian language, a now extinct member of the Indo European language family. The Illyro Thracian family of languages, once spoken throughout the Balkans into Asia Minor, fell out of use over time, and many scholars argue that only modern Albanian survives as a testimony to Illyrian, though this language has been highly modified over time with the addition of Latin and Greek loan words, and later in the middle ages by Slavic and Turkish words as well. The language was not written down at great length as Greek or later as Latin was, so records of the past are dim and not so well defined. Not to mention that the stories and accounts of the Illyrians, like their relatives the Thracians to the east, were left to their neighbors who on many occasions were their enemies. Thus, what we know of these ancient peoples are shady accounts at best. The Illyrians are said to have come down from the Alps of central Europe and imposed themselves on the Pelasgians to the south. Of course, as in all migrations and invasions of one people upon another, they intermarried. They brought with them the ancient Hallstatt culture which learned to smelt metal at an early period, all of this happening in the pre bronze and actual bronze age. They also were known for mining salt and other minerals, and they loved gold, which they held in high esteem and worked into intricately beautiful jewelry and ornate armor. The Illyro Thracian language group included a number of languages such as Illyrian in the west, and Thracian in what is nor Bulgaria and northeastern Greece. Phrygia was one member of the group as was Pannonian, spoken near the Hungarian plain in the north of the Balkans. The peoples known as Macedonians and Epirots were partially Illyro speaking peoples who's languages eventually became increasingly Hellenized and thus part of the Greek world. For example, while Alexander the Great and his father Philip spoke Greek at court and identified as Greeks due to being part of the Greek cultural world, Alexander's mother was a Molossian princess, a tribe of what Philip called varvaros- foreigners, indicating her non Greek origin. From the Greek varvaros we get the word barbarian. In this period it should be remembered that Illyria and the Illyrian language as a cultural definition was being overshadowed by the rise of Greek civilization which was able to maintain records due to it's creation of an alphabet, of which illiterate Illyria in some ways was and in other ways was not a part. But the two worlds did blend and overlap, of this there can be no argument. Illyrians were around long before the rise of classical Greece, and it was due to the rise of that great civilization that Illyria began to fade, just as later Greece would sink into the abyss as Rome would become ascendant. All this happened long, long ago. Perhaps language can unravel some of the mysteries of the past. In the Greek language, these people call themselves Ellenes. Yet in the Albanian language gryka means a valley. We know that the Illyrians tended to settle in mountainous regions and build their fortified citadels on rocky hilltops, and tended their sheep, goats and cattle. Is it possible that the gryka were the industrious people of the valleys who perfected farming techniques which encouraged the more settled lives of townspeople who would go on to create one of the world's great civilizations? In Albanian the word for house shtpi, as in Greek house is spiti, both sounding amazingly similar. In fact it is the very same word stemming from the word for cave, the Albanian shpyll and the Greek spilia. My guess is that it was the the hardy mountain dwelling Illyrians who first used the word for a stone house which was the offshoot of prehistoric cave dwellings. At some point in time, the mountain folk came down to the seashore and and the rocky harbors of the western Balkans where they met the seafaring Greeks and blended with them. Interestingly, if we take modern Albanian as our guide to ancient Illyrian, most of the seafaring and nautical words in that language are of Greek origin: port is limani, waves are thalassa, boat is vapora, a whale is a baleena, a porpoise a delfini, ocean is okean...the list goes on. So, we can safely conclude that the Illyrians were an inland people who eventually came down to the sea. What is also interesting is that the Illyrians became fierce pirates and marauders on the high seas, the very terror of the Mediterranean. Perhaps living in the harsh and rocky Balkan interior with a soil that was difficult to farm which failed to provide enough food for the expanding population caused the Illyrians to migrate down to the sea. They saw the relative ease and high culture of Greek civilization in the stately towns of the Adriatic and became acquainted with that culture, adopting elements of it as their own. However, rather than turn to trade and commerce as the Greeks did the Illyrians sailed their ships for other reasons, namely for plunder and theft. With Greek civilization dominating the coastal regions and with Rome in the ascendant, the Illyrians chose to present themselves as daring and confrontational rather than as coexisting neighbors. Different societies produce different customs and lifestyles based on their geography and climate and how a people react to to the forces of nature. Divided into herding clans who feuded with each other for good grazing space and the meager fertility of the mountain valleys, the various Illyrian tribes could not develop a sense of unity or common nation. This was also the case of the Greek city states, though these states could identify as one people when a foreign invader approached threatening their very existence. The Illyrians had no such sense of unity based on language or culture. They knew they were Illyri, which many linguists believe is a name that stems from from i liri, or the free. Some claimed that they were descended from the gods themselves, as hyll i lir means free star. At any rate, it was the Illyrian zyt (god) which may have become the Greek Zeus just as Achilles, known by the Trojans as Ispetus (i Shpejti, in Alb. the quick one) was dunked into the river Aous (the Vijose river in Albania) by his mother for protection against sword blows, or Dardanus procreated and was granted dominion over the Earth ruling from his capital Dardania or Dardhe, the land of the pear trees and name for the region we now know by the Slav-based name of Kossova. The Greeks knew well the origins of their myths and where many of these myths had their beginnings, as did the Illyrians who called these myths their own. However, Illyria and Thrace were considered foreign and semi barbaric lands by the Greeks, whom they identified as Aegis, meaning Aegean, the sea where they formed this great ancient civilization that was unique in the world. This word Aegis is still used by modern Albanians as a nick name for their Greek neighbors who live to the south. Living in the fastness of their high fortresses and competing for food and grazing land begat confrontation, and this confrontation became constant feuding which was done on a grand scale. The competitive tradition of the Greek city states or even the later Italian Renaissance cities who vied with one another for power and mercantile control can be compared to the ancient Illyrian lifestyle, as a culture developed based on honor and loyalty to family and clan. In such a warlike environment, all inhabitants learn the arts of war and fighting, heroism is lauded and cowardice frowned upon. In such ancient societies strict codes of behavior develop to ensure that succeeding generations will be ever ready to go to war at a moments notice, since weakness might result in a tribe being wiped out or starved to death due to losing precious grazing or farmed land. In such a patriarchal society males ranging in ages from the very young to those quite old go to war. Many are killed or taken as captives, which in the ancient world meant a merciless death or a life of slavery serving the victors. When a family or clan would lose their fighting men the need for a leader to guide them was a priority. The only law that was known or held any pertinence in Illyrian society was an unwritten code of honor, known to this day in Albanian as the Besa, related to the ancient Spartan gerousia, the Sicilian code of omerta or the Pashtunwali of the Pathans. At the core of such codes is the importance of the solemn word, which is indicative of a family's honor and dignity. Bes is the Albanian root for belief, trust, faith. It was in this legal atmosphere that an archaic tradition would be utilized for the purpose of preserving the name of a clan. Growing up and living in such an atmosphere of militancy, warfare and conflict women could be as formidable as men, even though they would normally play subservient roles in that society in times of relative peace. But when the survival of a family was at stake, the Illyrians could call on their strongest, bravest and most daring women to lead the clan to success and victory. This tradition required a woman to take an oath of sworn virginity, and by doing this she could fill the role of tribal chief or leader. If her father, husband or brother was such a chief and was killed in battle the wife or sister could vow to dedicate herself to protecting, leading and guiding the clan. She could lead bands of armed warriors into battle and throw herself into the fray, and exact vengeance on those who challenged the honor of the fis, the unit of extended families related by blood and intermarriage that comprised the clan. This custom of the sworn virgin has survived in the Albanian mountains into the 20th century and it is said that there are even a few such women yet alive now, in the 21st. While the custom is finally dying out as the isolated herding and small plot farming lifestyle of the mountaineer has been transformed by the internet and the cell phone, the tradition of the sworn virgin can be traced back to the days of the Illyrians who, like the Spartans, encouraged their women in the arts of war and fighting skills. Perhaps we could similarly note the role of virgin queens, as in the example of England's virgin queen Elizabeth I who united the warring Protestant and Catholic religious factions in her country, lead England in war to defeat the mighty Spanish Armada- making her nation a force to be reckoned with in the politically tumultuous world of the 16th century, and who ushered in an era of literature, art and music noting the names of two 'Williams' such as Shakespeare and the composer Byrd that rivaled the glory of Renaissance Italy. It was under her reign that England would become known not simply as Britain, but Great Britain. The Illyrian settlements were becoming overpopulated and the crowded mountain citadels could no longer support the increase in human population, as blood feuds among the clans and war with the neighboring Greeks, Thracians and Celts on their borders became the norm for the people living in the mountains. Driven by necessity as the predominantly rocky soil was difficult to farm and provide enough food for all they were forced to move and migrate as ancient people did and modern people still do, and find new prospects. To do this and succeed, however, they needed organization and the unity that only a genius leader could provide. The unwritten code of the mountains provided a sense of order in that environment but it didn't unite warring clans and tribes into a nation with common goals and aspirations. The Greek city states, though divided, already achieved that sense of cultural unity and linguistic identity and across the Adriatic sea the Latin tribes came together and created what was to become the new power in the Mediterranean and indeed much of Europe and the Near East- Rome. Our word piracy is from the ancient Greek language, meaning a brigand, this in turn stemming from the Hellenic verb word for 'attempt'. There has always been piracy in the Mediterranean but in particular Illyrian piracy was condoned by the kings and queens of that ancient society. What the Illyrians began to do was claim their waters as their own, as in the transliteration of the Ionian Sea, Deti Jone (lit. our sea) and demand tribute as their neighbors did for plying those waters. More than just demanding tribute though, the Illyrians became fierce and aggressive pirates who would not only stop vessels and demand tribute, but would attack and board ships at will, taking cargo and booty as well as slaves back to their rocky ports along the Dalmatian coast. Their tactic was to set out of their well concealed harbors, surround a ship with their smaller craft like hornets. These vessels were quite speedy as they utilized both sail and oars. Sometimes four or five of these ships would be tied together and attack as one, abreast. The impact of the unified galleys ramming into a larger one was enough to frighten the victim, as such an impact would disable the vessel. If the ship being attacked refused to acknowledge the danger the other Illyrian vessels would attack from all directions, board the galley and engage in fierce hand to hand combat until most of the crew was either killed or enslaved. If the merchant galley was damaged due to the tactic of ramming it was abandoned, otherwise it would be taken as booty and added to the Illyrian fleet. The historian Polybius wrote of the effects of Illyrian piracy in his records, which covered the tumultuous era from 240 BC to about 146 BC: “So powerful did the Illyrians become that by 230 BC no honest traders wished to participate in maritime commerce.” Needless to say, this became an annoying problem to Greek and Roman business as supplies and profits from the east- from Phoenicia, Egypt and Persia were threatened. No vessel sailing the Mediterranean from any nation at the time was immune from Illyrian attacks and plundering. To counter the threat the new rising power in the West called Rome chose to lead and take advantage of the opportunity so as to be seen the vanguard and savior who would vanquish the pirates and bring stability and safety to Mediterranean shipping. Of course, Rome was on the rise and this endeavor was for imperialistic purposes in as much as it was for the display of moral principle. Agron, chief of the Ardaiean clan, ruled from 250 to 231BC. He endeavored to unite the tribes and extend the reaches of the kingdom of Illyria. He vanquished all those Illyrian clans who stood in his way but succeeded in uniting many more by defeating the Greek Aoelians and others who sought the throne of the kingdom of Epirus, a border kingdom famed for it's brilliant former king Pyrrhus who attempted to conquer Rome itself but failed to bring that rising nation to it's knees. This was a time when the Mediterranean nations were locked in a struggle for power among themselves and none could have known the outcome. Greece was wracked by political chaos and war, the neighboring Illyrians, Macedonians and Thracians siding with each other or against each other, randomly giving their support to one city state or another hoping to be on the winning side so as to be the victor. Epirus was was conquered by Agron and added to his Adriatic empire. He then focused on increasing the plunder of both merchant and naval military ships of any nation, allowing his loyal captains to engage in piracy. They could keep much of the captured booty as long as a portion was sent to Agron in his capital city of Skodra. Many coastal port cities of the western Balkans submitted to his rule as the threat of state sanctioned piracy imposed on shipping was now at an all time high under the rule of Agron the king. Coastal towns in the Italian peninsula were forced to pay tribute. Illyria as a kingdom seemed to on the verge of becoming that power that everyone in the time period was expecting. Pyrrhus of Epirus already failed, and Hannibal and Carthage would take on Rome in a last bit to stop the rise of the empire founded by two brothers nursed by a she wolf. The Roman army was a war machine that was well funded and supplied and so far, unstoppable. The Illyrians, rather than fight the Romans in pitched land battles, cleverly sought to defeat and weaken Rome by attacking their very source of trade and business, and forcing them to acknowledge those who would leave them alone if a regular payment of tribute was secured. Proud Rome of course, would have none of this and soon they knew that if they were going to expand their empire they would have to deal with this piracy problem once and for all, and eliminate the threat and ever present danger. Agron was given to bouts of drinking and in 231BC after his victory over the Aoelians he developed pleurisy, which eventually lead to his death. The circumstances of his death are shrouded in mystery as some maintain that he was poisoned. His young son Pinnes succeeded him but it was his beautiful wife Teuta who would rule in his stead. Illyria was at the height of her power and well entrenched in the ongoing power struggle for supremacy in the Mediterranean and the kingdom needed a strong ruler who would not be shaken by the boasts of neighboring kings and monarchs with their threats of invasion and enslavement. It seemed that the future of the Mediterranean was about to be revealed and something prophetic was about to happen. Teuta, her fate thrust before her, would be one of those who dared to stand against the power of a rising Rome, and prove herself to be one of the fiercest and bravest of ancient warrior queens. Teuta commanded that all ships which were confiscated by her pirates and forces be turned over to her command alone. In this way she created a huge navy with galleys numbering in the hundreds. She demanded that her subject cities in Illyria and Greece send her troops and supplies, with the promise of a share in the spoils of war and raiding. There were many who feared her as they feared Rome but nonetheless did give support at least half heartedly. Roman rule or Teuta? This was a major question at the time as Illyrian piracy was both feared and respected, while Rome was seen as a somewhat stable albeit an aggressive force in this chaotic era. In battle Teuta gained a reputation as a brilliant and daring naval commander and a ferocious warrior, having been taught from a young age how to use a sword quite proficiently. In hand to hand combat upon the decks of galleys Teuta slew dozens of opponents and boasted that any who dared to cross their sword with hers would be guaranteed of a quick and immediate death. She was renown for her martial prowess, agility and rapidity of movement as friend and foe alike compared her to the war goddesses Athena, Minerva or Diana. Brave warriors were rewarded and to be praised by Teuta was considered the highest honor, while those who might show cowardice were dressed as women or sheep and paraded before their comrades. Her people claimed she was directly descended from Perit, the Illyrian goddess who hammered the mountains and carved the river valleys, who then after formulating and shaping the world we live in and see around us, separated her male half from her female half, Shiva like, thus creating man solely to keep her company. Teuta herself claimed descent and lineage from Dardanus and Achilles. On the day she was born it is said that the powerful rays of the Sun goddess Dielli burst open a huge dark water cloud that lingered over the then parched and dry citadel of her native Skodra, causing a flood of great proportions which eventually became the massive lake of the same city's name. This act of nature drowned the race of giants and their allies the jindi spirits who ruled the earth in those days. From atop the holy mountain of Tomorr her name could be heard chanted by Zana and Ora, the fairies of the forests, her name echoing in the folk songs of her people as the rhapsode bards composed hymns in her honor. Teuta was aggressive, hot headed and impetuous, and was not one to parley or compromise. She made a demand or gave an order and expected it to be respected and heeded. However, to ambassadors and those visiting her she showed the utmost respect and reverence as Illyrian rules of hospitality were considered to be an extension of the conscience of the besa. In 229 BC Rome, weary of Illyrian piracy and eager to expand their empire into the east, sent two ambassadors to demand that Teuta put an end to the piracy and recognize Rome. She replied to their demand that "it is against the custom of Illyrian royalty to interfere with the doings of our subjects". Surprised and angered by her dismissive comment, one of the ambassadors used vile language and cursed her, telling all in the court that she Teuta was "no more fit to rule a nation than the ox who bedded her mother." She ordered the ambassador's heads to be cut off and sent back to Rome in a basket with the message that "only excellent fruit is to be had in Illyria, please accept our rejects. Visit us after you learn respect and humility. Until then, Roman pigs are not welcome here." With that, Rome now had an excuse for the long awaited invasion of the Balkans and wasted no time in mobilizing their legions. They landed in Apollonia and were met with resistance in a land battle but were victorious nonetheless. The Illyrians, though individually hardy mountain fighters were a marine power at the time and all their organization and tactical endeavor was concentrated in their navy and maritime expeditions, and not so much in their land forces. In the area of naval attacks and ship boarding they were experts, yet they lacked the cohesion of disciplined and well organized armies. So individualistic was the Illyrian personality that often no two commanders could agree on what action to take when confronting an enemy. The Romans on the other hand were masters of the land battle, and the disciplined Roman war machine smashed through the brave but chaotic ranks of the Illyrians and Macedonians. The phalanxes of the Macedonian allies, those large squares consisting of hundreds of men marching with their 16 foot long sarissa pikes bristling in front and on the sides were not flexible enough to maneuver as the Roman cohorts were. While a danger to anyone in front of the phalanx, these huge human squares were incapable of turning around in time to confront the sudden charge of the more flexible Roman legions that might attack their flank or come from behind. It was while taking part in these battles that Teuta saw the terrible effects of the new personal Roman weapon of choice, the Iberian/Spanish sword known as the gladius and it's deadly precision. The Greek/Illyrian kopis sword was an excellent and deadly slashing weapon but the gladius could be used for both the slash and stab, inflicting horrific wounds on adversaries who were lightly armed, thus less protected and more vulnerable than the Roman legionnaires who were all provided with armor. In a great naval battle Teuta risked all and led her navy into the fray herself, shouting orders from her command post on the deck of her galley. Drummers would beat their drums and set the pace as the rowers, all slaves, would work the oars and set the speed at which the vessel would move. The job of the rowing slave was indeed dangerous, as an enemy ship might decide to ram their vessel and the impact of a galley at full speed; the bows of ancient galleys were fortified with a metal prow that was designed for such a purpose. The impact would certainly crush all those poor souls who happened to be chained to their posts on the rowing benches. The Illyrian ships were sometimes tied and lashed together in groups of four or five. They rammed the Roman ships and sunk a number of them. In many instances of naval warfare in the past there was always the danger that the rowing slaves might mutiny and attempt to escape their posts, and even join the enemy. The slaves who rowed and powered those galleys however were reluctant to join and support the Illyrians as they knew that they would simply become their slaves if the ship was captured. If there was any promise of freedom on the part of the Illyrians perhaps the slave rowers would have willingly joined them and turned on their Roman masters. But Illyrian warfare was intent on plunder, not promises of freedom and most of the slave rowers simply remained where they were and didn't get in the way of the Romans fighting on the deck. In fact most willingly rowed extra hard to help the Romans win the battle, for to be a slave of an Illyrian or a Roman master made little difference. The promise of freedom perhaps could have decided the outcome of the battle but the haughty Illyrians, intent on plunder as a way of life, hadn't taken the time to apply psychological warfare to their arsenal. As the navies strove to come closer to each other the Romans shot great balls of flame from catapults on the decks of their galleys causing the sails on the ships of the Illyrian ships to catch fire. Stones shot from ballistas smashed the decks, severed the masts and cut down all who stood in their path as long shafts shot from these war machines pierced and impaled the tightly packed opposing warriors on deck. Seeing her once orderly and strategically placed fleet now become a jumble of wooden vessels scurrying to escape the Roman artillery barrage, Teuta knew she had to make a quick decision if she was to save her fleet from annihilation. Standing on the prow of her flagship waving her sword, her fellow soldiers could see her figure urging her ships onward, ordering her soldiers to board the enemy vessels and engage the Romans in hand to hand combat. She ordered her own galley to steer for the Roman flagship which, if their admiral was captured, the rest of the Roman fleet might flee. She leapt onto the deck of the Roman flagship at the head of her warriors, slashing with her fearsome sword and moving forward seeking out the Roman admiral himself. At one point she spotted the admiral and in her ambitious endeavor slipped and fell, as the deck was covered in blood. A Roman soldier was about to bring his sword down upon her head when a cousin of hers named Ujkus saved her life by throwing a spear and hitting the the centurion in the neck. "Ujkus" she cried..."there is none braver then you, nor one more loved by me". In the heat of the battle she embraced her cousin and kissed him for saving her life. Teuta and her comrades fought on but soon more Roman ships came to the aid of the besieged flagship. After a hard fight the Illyrian fleet was forced to withdraw into one of the rocky harbors closely followed by the Romans who, having achieved a costly victory at sea now secured and consolidated their forces on land. The fall of Illyria would now be only a matter of time. While the Illyrian and Macedonian forces began to disband due to chaotic planning and as argumentative, disgruntled commanders were plagued by a severe lack of cohesion and mass desertions, Teuta attempted to flee from the port of Lissus but the the port was blocked by the Roman fleet. She returned to her fortress city of Skodra where she awaited their arrival. Unable to withstand, her generals arguing and her forces scattered Teuta sent word that she might be willing talk terms of peace. The clever Romans decided to keep Teuta alive if she would acknowledge their rule and send them tribute. This was meant to subdue the tribes and clans into finally accepting Roman domination. However, Teuta knew well that when she was no longer needed or served Roman purposes she would be instantly killed. While the historical records are unclear, perhaps erased by the Roman historians themselves, in the folklore of her people Teuta's fate is remembered and kept alive in a number of stories about her. She one day gathered her loyal supporters and asked them what was more important to them, living out their miserable existence as subjects or achieving fame and immortality by standing against tyranny. They agreed that to stand against tyranny is a guarantee of immortality itself as life is short and death never far away. Only one of the companions, the same one who saved her life and whom she praised, her beloved cousin Ujkus (Lit. 'son of the wolf') surprisingly refused to partake in the oath of allegiance that all agreed to give as their solemn word to fight and if need be die together. Teuta and her companions once more armed themselves and planned to escape by boat so as to gather foreign support then come back to liberate Shkoder from Roman rule, all of the companions making a besa to fight and die in the process if need be. Yet all the while Teuta was pondering as to whether Ujkus was a traitor: "you act strange dear cousin, and I do not understand the sudden lack of fire in your soul. If you will not come with me, dear cousin, then convince me that you will stay here and defend our city, as I have loved you and sung your praise time and again. Give me your besa, your solemn word that you are still my ally and confidant, as we were children once you and I, playing together in the shade of the olive trees. I fear that I am in doubt as to your loyalty, but today I grant you life because you once saved mine. I trust you will stand firm.Farewell." On their way to the port Teuta and her small entourage were intercepted by a Roman cohort on the road. The road to the port was now blocked by this Roman force. Shockingly, Teuta's worst fears came true in front of her eyes. Sitting on a horse next to the grinning Roman consul was Teuta's own cousin, the beloved Ujkus, who offered her that if she lay down her arms she would be spared as promised by the Roman general, though all her companions must be killed as an example must be made of those who defy the power of Rome. Teuta stared directly at Ujkus, amazed and angered by his infidelity for he had broken the law of the besa. She continued to stare, not blinking an eye or showing the least bit of emotion or concern as the Roman general urged her to lay down her arms and surrender. Ujkus at first pleaded, then demanded an answer from her, again and again. Angry at her defiance yet desperate to save her, he begged her with tears in his eyes to surrender. Teuta in her rage for which she was known let out a scream then drew her weapon, urging on her horse and speedily riding up next to Ujkus and cutting off his head with one swoop of her kopis sword. She then stabbed the Roman consul and slashed at his bodyguard, killing the two of them instantly. Trapped and surrounded by hundreds of legionnaires, with her handful of companions she sought refuge on a high barren, rocky limestone height. There the Romans attacked the group, climbing up the steep rocks as Teuta and her comrades threw down stones and spears and shot arrows at them. Eventually the Romans succeeded in reaching the top of the rock where a bloody hand to hand battle ensued that eventually saw all her warriors killed to the last. Teuta fought like the Illyrian lioness she was emitting roars, screams and hisses as she killed one legionnaire after another. With her sword still in her hand, her armor besmeared with blood and her comrades now all dead she climbed to the very tip of the rocky cliff. Rather than be taken as a captive and have her body abused by raping and torture as was the custom of the time or perhaps suffer the terrible death of crucifixion, she leaped from the cliff onto the rocks in the chasm below, screaming with her last breath as she fell down into the gorge below- "I defy thee...freedom!" The queen remained defiant and triumphant, even in death. Illyria was reduced to a conquered province of the Roman empire. The neighboring nations who all feared Illyrian piracy nonetheless knew that Teuta was a last defense against the expanding imperialism of mighty Rome. The sons of Romulus and Remus defeated the mighty queen of the Adriatic, the daughter of the mythical heroes of the past. The era and glory of ancient Greece finally came to an end as Roman armies added province after province to their empire, marching on to colonize Dacia and leave their language and their genes in a region which would become known as Romania. Then they would march on to confront Persia in a series of wars that would in a few centuries set the stage for a new epoch in Mediterranean history, the age of late antiquity marked by the rise of Christianity and eventually Islam. There in the Syrian state of Palmyra Rome would be confronted by another warrior queen named Zenobia, her armies would defeat the mighty Roman legions again and again. But for now, Rome would be the master of that region and expand north as well into Germany and into Britain. Within those Roman armies marching east, south, north and west conquering or quelling rebellions were many Illyrian soldiers recruited in the Balkans and known for their determination and steadfast, bulldog defense. Their sense of loyalty, stemming from the code of besa would guarantee that a number of the Praetorian bodyguards of the Caesars would be from Illyria. They would eventually provide the empire with four emperors including Diocletian and a good number of generals. Centuries later when Christianity would become the state religion of the empire the first Pope named Elefterios and one scribe named Jerome, who would translate the Bible from the original Greek into Latin, would dominate the religious and intellectual life of the later Roman state. Illyrian will and determination as exemplified by Teuta was well understood by the Romans as she clearly left her mark on their consciences. The story of Teuta is an example of how the victors wrote the story which would become history according to their accounts. There is little documented historical evidence of Teuta's career in the Roman accounts yet among her people her name is still known and in fact is a popular name for girls in modern Albania, Croatia and Montenegro. In the illiterate world of the past the vanquished were represented in a negative fashion by the victors, who sought to persuade the masses to forget that person who may have actually proved to the victor to be more than a mere annoyance. As one can plainly see in modern politics, it remains customary for the victor to eradicate what he or she can of their opponent's deeds and legacy. We haven't changed all that much. The folklore of these peoples of the western Balkans is replete with tales of Teuta's bravery and her mighty reign, her exploits and her personality. These are tales, true, but we must take into account the tales that have survived or were created over the centuries about this remarkable woman who chose to manifest her will and defy the inevitable fate which succeeded in bringing about her end. Like the ancient Amazon warrior of Illiad fame Penthesilea, or the Syrian Palmyran queen Zenobia, Boadicca queen of the Britains or the fabled warrior of India Rani of Jhansi, Teuta has earned a place in the roster of brave women who have confronted their fate with dignity and honor and remain an example of those human values which can be applied to our own modern though somewhat comfortable and less colorful lives. Such people continue to inspire and encourage us, as the constructed stories propagated by their enemies sink into an abyss and the heroine once again rises to manifest glory through the efforts of those who loved and continue to love her. The folk tales and songs that sing of Teuta's bravery are the alternative history to what has been officially recorded by the victors who were the masters of war. For the centuries of listeners however, her ballad was and remains the only history that is true. Above, Lizza Hasan, photo by Jay Richards	7,668	ENGLISH	1
“A Mystery of Heroism” was Stephen Crane’s first published story about war. In this story, a young soldier named Fred Collins must grapple with his previously conceived definitions of heroism. As the story opens, a battle in an unnamed war is raging all around Fred. Two armies are in the midst of a savage confrontation. Cannons are blasting the fields, uprooting the sod in huge clumps of earth. Gunshots exploding from both sides appear as “monstrous” bolts of lightning. Horses and soldiers who are caught in the middle have fallen to the ground. As this is going on, Fred Collins states that he wishes he had a drink and wonders if there is some source of water near him. In the distance, what remains of a house leans in splinters; portions have been torn by shells as well as the axes of soldiers seeking firewood. The well-house off to the side is still smoldering. Farther away, a “frightful duel” is taking place. The men in Fred’s company watch and listen to the sights and sounds of the battle. Officers shout as the white-legged, uniformed soldiers run one way and then another. The sound of steel upon steel echoes across the field. When an officer from another regiment rides by in his horse, the man notices how carefully he holds his right arm in his left hand, as if the arm does not belong to him and might fall away from his body. The man’s face is dirty and wet with perspiration. Ironically, he smiles grimly when he notices the soldiers looking at him. Again Fred states that he wishes he had a drink. When he stares across at the all-but-destroyed house, he adds that he bets the old well still has water in it. Someone agrees but asks Fred how he plans on getting it; the meadow between them and the house is under heavy fire. The wounded officer on the horse exclaims that the enemy is shooting at the field as if it were filled with soldiers, which it is not. Just then, a large shell explodes on the house, lowering even more of it to the ground. Someone teases Fred, asking him why he does not go get some water if he is so thirsty. The wounded officer on the horse is hit with yet another shell. He falls from his horse and lies with his face pointed to the ground, one foot still in the stirrup of his saddle. His horse is on its side and looks dead. Shells are still falling all around them. Fred is not paying much attention to the officer. Rather, he is busy arguing with his fellow soldiers, who are teasing him about running across to the bombed-out house. He tells them he is not afraid to go. Then he sees his captain and goes to the officer to ask permission to go. The captain asks if Fred can wait. Fred says he cannot. The captain explains that he thinks it is foolish but if it is what Fred wants to do, he should take some of his comrades’ canteens with him and fill them all up. As he crosses the field, Fred feels as if he is in a dream. He can barely believe he is walking out there so unprotected. He has little understanding of why he felt compelled to get the water; he was not that thirsty. He also wonders... (The entire section is 887 words.)	<urn:uuid:e7966abe-7848-49bd-b0fc-42d6170f9f7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/a-mystery-of-heroism	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00415.warc.gz	en	0.985992	705	3.328125	3	[ -0.2694026827812195, 0.42309319972991943, 0.008623378351330757, 0.38240861892700195, -0.3562466502189636, -0.24153101444244385, 0.8385136723518372, 0.24237790703773499, -0.13341429829597473, -0.0828075036406517, -0.046790167689323425, -0.27014535665512085, 0.08197056502103806, 0.2566700577...	2	“A Mystery of Heroism” was Stephen Crane’s first published story about war. In this story, a young soldier named Fred Collins must grapple with his previously conceived definitions of heroism. As the story opens, a battle in an unnamed war is raging all around Fred. Two armies are in the midst of a savage confrontation. Cannons are blasting the fields, uprooting the sod in huge clumps of earth. Gunshots exploding from both sides appear as “monstrous” bolts of lightning. Horses and soldiers who are caught in the middle have fallen to the ground. As this is going on, Fred Collins states that he wishes he had a drink and wonders if there is some source of water near him. In the distance, what remains of a house leans in splinters; portions have been torn by shells as well as the axes of soldiers seeking firewood. The well-house off to the side is still smoldering. Farther away, a “frightful duel” is taking place. The men in Fred’s company watch and listen to the sights and sounds of the battle. Officers shout as the white-legged, uniformed soldiers run one way and then another. The sound of steel upon steel echoes across the field. When an officer from another regiment rides by in his horse, the man notices how carefully he holds his right arm in his left hand, as if the arm does not belong to him and might fall away from his body. The man’s face is dirty and wet with perspiration. Ironically, he smiles grimly when he notices the soldiers looking at him. Again Fred states that he wishes he had a drink. When he stares across at the all-but-destroyed house, he adds that he bets the old well still has water in it. Someone agrees but asks Fred how he plans on getting it; the meadow between them and the house is under heavy fire. The wounded officer on the horse exclaims that the enemy is shooting at the field as if it were filled with soldiers, which it is not. Just then, a large shell explodes on the house, lowering even more of it to the ground. Someone teases Fred, asking him why he does not go get some water if he is so thirsty. The wounded officer on the horse is hit with yet another shell. He falls from his horse and lies with his face pointed to the ground, one foot still in the stirrup of his saddle. His horse is on its side and looks dead. Shells are still falling all around them. Fred is not paying much attention to the officer. Rather, he is busy arguing with his fellow soldiers, who are teasing him about running across to the bombed-out house. He tells them he is not afraid to go. Then he sees his captain and goes to the officer to ask permission to go. The captain asks if Fred can wait. Fred says he cannot. The captain explains that he thinks it is foolish but if it is what Fred wants to do, he should take some of his comrades’ canteens with him and fill them all up. As he crosses the field, Fred feels as if he is in a dream. He can barely believe he is walking out there so unprotected. He has little understanding of why he felt compelled to get the water; he was not that thirsty. He also wonders... (The entire section is 887 words.)	686	ENGLISH	1
Don't forget the computer that landed Apollo 11 astronauts on the moon From the first steps to the leap forward, Mashable is commemorating the 50th anniversary of the moon landing with a series that examines its significance — and why we haven’t been back. The Soviets launched the first satellite into space. And the first man. Also the first woman. So when NASA astronauts rapidly approached the moon 50 years ago, a lot was riding on a computer with less than 80 kilobytes of memory. By today's standards, it's a dinosaur. The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) weighed 70 pounds. Programs were literally woven into the hardware by hand — it was called "core rope memory." But it was revolutionary for its time. Back in the 1950s, when the prototype was conceived for a hypothetical mission to Mars, there weren't many tech companies NASA could turn to for help. In fact, it was the other way around. "It was these kinds of programs that were pushing the technology that created Silicon Valley," said Philip Hattis, currently on the technical staff of the Draper Laboratory, formerly known as the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. As a graduate student, he worked with the MIT team that developed the AGC. The challenges were immense. In an age of massive IBM mainframes, they had to design a computer small enough to fit on a cutting-edge spaceship with a limited amount of fuel. Even today, it costs around $10,000 to put a pound of cargo into orbit. Not only did it have to be light, the AGC needed to consume as little power as possible. It ended up needing around 70 watts — around the same as a lightbulb. And it had to be tough enough to survive the rigors of space travel. "When you go through launch, it's shaking like crazy, you're pulling lots of Gs," Hattis explained. "So it's got to be rugged." Building a revolutionary, lightweight, super-tough computer took a lot of time and manpower. As in the equivalent of 2,000 years of engineering labor. That meant that once the custom AGC was finally completed, some of the technology was already out of date. There were actually two of these computers on the Apollo 11 mission: one on the Command Module that housed the astronauts during most of their journey, and one on the Lunar Module that took Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong down to the moon's surface. The astronauts controlled the computers through the DSKY (short for “display and keyboard"), which was barely more than a numeric keypad. They had to remember which number corresponded with the "verbs" and "nouns" that made up every command. (Yes, someone made a simulator if you want to try it out. Good luck.) To put its computing power into perspective, the AGC could perform around 40,000 instructions per second, according to American Scientist. That's far less than the 10 billion of a typical laptop. This is what the astronauts used to navigate to the moon, along with a sextant. "They could look out and see the positions of stars," Hattis said. "Based on the size of the disc of the moon or Earth, and based on the angle of certain stars relative to the surface, they could get a position fix." And yes, plenty of people and computers were guiding them from Mission Control. But they needed to make course corrections on the fly. (There were also fears the Soviets and their lunar probe would interfere with communications.) These days, your laptop, phone, and possibly even lightbulb or toilet have more computing power than the Apollo Guidance Computer. But this machine was efficient and totally ahead of its time. And without it the space program — and consumer technology as we know it — wouldn't have traveled nearly so far.	<urn:uuid:fb1f6736-e21b-4238-9593-190198650bba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://me.mashable.com/tech/6194/dont-forget-the-computer-that-landed-apollo-11-astronauts-on-the-moon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00027.warc.gz	en	0.980114	795	3.9375	4	[ -0.2193242907524109, 0.28177404403686523, 0.17589962482452393, -0.6018570065498352, -0.590618908405304, 0.18370404839515686, -0.23319236934185028, 0.26177966594696045, 0.11177662760019302, -0.31810513138771057, 0.3818920850753784, 0.2774471044540405, 0.20659217238426208, 0.1743679791688919...	5	Don't forget the computer that landed Apollo 11 astronauts on the moon From the first steps to the leap forward, Mashable is commemorating the 50th anniversary of the moon landing with a series that examines its significance — and why we haven’t been back. The Soviets launched the first satellite into space. And the first man. Also the first woman. So when NASA astronauts rapidly approached the moon 50 years ago, a lot was riding on a computer with less than 80 kilobytes of memory. By today's standards, it's a dinosaur. The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) weighed 70 pounds. Programs were literally woven into the hardware by hand — it was called "core rope memory." But it was revolutionary for its time. Back in the 1950s, when the prototype was conceived for a hypothetical mission to Mars, there weren't many tech companies NASA could turn to for help. In fact, it was the other way around. "It was these kinds of programs that were pushing the technology that created Silicon Valley," said Philip Hattis, currently on the technical staff of the Draper Laboratory, formerly known as the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. As a graduate student, he worked with the MIT team that developed the AGC. The challenges were immense. In an age of massive IBM mainframes, they had to design a computer small enough to fit on a cutting-edge spaceship with a limited amount of fuel. Even today, it costs around $10,000 to put a pound of cargo into orbit. Not only did it have to be light, the AGC needed to consume as little power as possible. It ended up needing around 70 watts — around the same as a lightbulb. And it had to be tough enough to survive the rigors of space travel. "When you go through launch, it's shaking like crazy, you're pulling lots of Gs," Hattis explained. "So it's got to be rugged." Building a revolutionary, lightweight, super-tough computer took a lot of time and manpower. As in the equivalent of 2,000 years of engineering labor. That meant that once the custom AGC was finally completed, some of the technology was already out of date. There were actually two of these computers on the Apollo 11 mission: one on the Command Module that housed the astronauts during most of their journey, and one on the Lunar Module that took Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong down to the moon's surface. The astronauts controlled the computers through the DSKY (short for “display and keyboard"), which was barely more than a numeric keypad. They had to remember which number corresponded with the "verbs" and "nouns" that made up every command. (Yes, someone made a simulator if you want to try it out. Good luck.) To put its computing power into perspective, the AGC could perform around 40,000 instructions per second, according to American Scientist. That's far less than the 10 billion of a typical laptop. This is what the astronauts used to navigate to the moon, along with a sextant. "They could look out and see the positions of stars," Hattis said. "Based on the size of the disc of the moon or Earth, and based on the angle of certain stars relative to the surface, they could get a position fix." And yes, plenty of people and computers were guiding them from Mission Control. But they needed to make course corrections on the fly. (There were also fears the Soviets and their lunar probe would interfere with communications.) These days, your laptop, phone, and possibly even lightbulb or toilet have more computing power than the Apollo Guidance Computer. But this machine was efficient and totally ahead of its time. And without it the space program — and consumer technology as we know it — wouldn't have traveled nearly so far.	802	ENGLISH	1
Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Nineteenth-Century African American concert singer Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield was born into slavery around 1820. She came into existence in Natchez, Mississippi, where her parents worked in the plantations as a slave. Her mother Anna Greenfield hailed from an Indian descent whereas her father Taylor was an African. Elizabeth H. Greenfield, the wife of the plantation owner, was an abolitionist. She divorced her husband, moved to Philadelphia and freed all her slaves. Working with the American Emancipation Society, she sent 18 of these emancipated slaves to Liberia. This group included Anna Greenfield along with her other two daughters. However, Elizabeth remained in Philadelphia with her mistress. Elizabeth had an inborn musical talent. With encouragement from her foster mother Mrs. Greenfield, she studied and practiced music mostly by herself. Passionate about singing, she eventually began performing as a Church vocalist. Soon, she developed excellent skills in playing instruments like guitar, piano, and harp. She learned all these instruments on her own. The prevailing discriminatory racist ideology of her country continuously hindered her musical training. In spite of all the odds, she was able to develop her musical talent exceedingly well. She possessed a full, resonant voice with a stunningly marvelous range. Her first public performance happened in the fall of 1851. During the 1840s, she performed in a number of private events. Thereafter, she traveled to Buffalo. She made her debut public appearance performing on behalf of the Buffalo Musical Association. At her debut appearance, she captivated the audience with her multi-octave range singing. After her enthralling debut performance in Buffalo, she embarked upon a concert tour of multiple cities of America. She toured the likes of Chicago and Boston during 1851-52. The print media, critics and the people, in general, applauded her performance profusely. Her exceptional performance all over the United States made her the first nationally acknowledged African-American concert singer. The friends and well-wishers of Elizabeth arranged a testimonial concert in March 1853 featuring her performance. The main aim of the concert was to raise funds for her proposed tour of Europe for further training. In May 1853, she appeared for her first London performance. The timely patronage of the Duchess of Sutherland and Harriet Beecher Stowe made her London tour possible. On May 10, 1854, she became the first African-American singer to perform before the British royalty including the Queen at Buckingham Palace. She toured extensively and performed in several cities of England and Ireland before finally performing in front of the Queen. Her performance received the same enthusiasm and applauds in Europe as well, as was received in her native country. The media was effusive in her praise. They initially hailed her as the ‘African Nightingale’ and later nicknamed her as the ‘Black Swan’. In July 1854, Elizabeth returned to America after the conclusion of her Europe tour. Upon her arrival, she began her second extensive concert tour of the North Eastern parts of the United States and Canada. Proper advertisements were the highlights of this tour. Her success in Europe, the multi-octave range of her singing and the musical maturity she achieved through her mentor Sir George Smart was prominently mentioned in these advertisements. She settled in Philadelphia after the end of her second tour and began to work as a vocal teacher. Thomas Bowers, later nicknamed "The Colored Mario" and "The American Mario" and Carrie Thomas were among her exceptionally successful pupils. In 1856, she undertook another concert tour which lasted for around a year. Her last concert tour occurred during 1863. She arranged and participated in a number of charity concerts. The proceeds of these charity concerts were donated to the orphanages in New York, Detroit, Buffalo and her hometown Philadelphia. She organized a common platform for the upcoming African-American singers in the form of Black Swan Opera Troupe. Besides, she began directing the choirs of her church, Shiloh Baptist during her later years. Elizabeth suffered an illness during 1874. She had to restrict all her activities due to this illness. On March 31, 1876, she breathed her last after having failed to recover from her illness. The reason for her death was cited as Apoplexy. She died at her Philadelphia home at the age of 57.	<urn:uuid:ca4a909f-fa04-45f0-b86e-8ae39f72b775>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/elizabeth-taylor-greenfield/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00264.warc.gz	en	0.981091	895	3.375	3	[ 0.05985106900334358, -0.11864020675420761, 0.4399147629737854, 0.09214167296886444, -0.651260495185852, 0.28769704699516296, -0.26007312536239624, -0.11335933208465576, -0.15193265676498413, 0.07487338781356812, -0.14670540392398834, -0.3013690412044525, 0.3636319041252136, 0.2166264653205...	3	Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Nineteenth-Century African American concert singer Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield was born into slavery around 1820. She came into existence in Natchez, Mississippi, where her parents worked in the plantations as a slave. Her mother Anna Greenfield hailed from an Indian descent whereas her father Taylor was an African. Elizabeth H. Greenfield, the wife of the plantation owner, was an abolitionist. She divorced her husband, moved to Philadelphia and freed all her slaves. Working with the American Emancipation Society, she sent 18 of these emancipated slaves to Liberia. This group included Anna Greenfield along with her other two daughters. However, Elizabeth remained in Philadelphia with her mistress. Elizabeth had an inborn musical talent. With encouragement from her foster mother Mrs. Greenfield, she studied and practiced music mostly by herself. Passionate about singing, she eventually began performing as a Church vocalist. Soon, she developed excellent skills in playing instruments like guitar, piano, and harp. She learned all these instruments on her own. The prevailing discriminatory racist ideology of her country continuously hindered her musical training. In spite of all the odds, she was able to develop her musical talent exceedingly well. She possessed a full, resonant voice with a stunningly marvelous range. Her first public performance happened in the fall of 1851. During the 1840s, she performed in a number of private events. Thereafter, she traveled to Buffalo. She made her debut public appearance performing on behalf of the Buffalo Musical Association. At her debut appearance, she captivated the audience with her multi-octave range singing. After her enthralling debut performance in Buffalo, she embarked upon a concert tour of multiple cities of America. She toured the likes of Chicago and Boston during 1851-52. The print media, critics and the people, in general, applauded her performance profusely. Her exceptional performance all over the United States made her the first nationally acknowledged African-American concert singer. The friends and well-wishers of Elizabeth arranged a testimonial concert in March 1853 featuring her performance. The main aim of the concert was to raise funds for her proposed tour of Europe for further training. In May 1853, she appeared for her first London performance. The timely patronage of the Duchess of Sutherland and Harriet Beecher Stowe made her London tour possible. On May 10, 1854, she became the first African-American singer to perform before the British royalty including the Queen at Buckingham Palace. She toured extensively and performed in several cities of England and Ireland before finally performing in front of the Queen. Her performance received the same enthusiasm and applauds in Europe as well, as was received in her native country. The media was effusive in her praise. They initially hailed her as the ‘African Nightingale’ and later nicknamed her as the ‘Black Swan’. In July 1854, Elizabeth returned to America after the conclusion of her Europe tour. Upon her arrival, she began her second extensive concert tour of the North Eastern parts of the United States and Canada. Proper advertisements were the highlights of this tour. Her success in Europe, the multi-octave range of her singing and the musical maturity she achieved through her mentor Sir George Smart was prominently mentioned in these advertisements. She settled in Philadelphia after the end of her second tour and began to work as a vocal teacher. Thomas Bowers, later nicknamed "The Colored Mario" and "The American Mario" and Carrie Thomas were among her exceptionally successful pupils. In 1856, she undertook another concert tour which lasted for around a year. Her last concert tour occurred during 1863. She arranged and participated in a number of charity concerts. The proceeds of these charity concerts were donated to the orphanages in New York, Detroit, Buffalo and her hometown Philadelphia. She organized a common platform for the upcoming African-American singers in the form of Black Swan Opera Troupe. Besides, she began directing the choirs of her church, Shiloh Baptist during her later years. Elizabeth suffered an illness during 1874. She had to restrict all her activities due to this illness. On March 31, 1876, she breathed her last after having failed to recover from her illness. The reason for her death was cited as Apoplexy. She died at her Philadelphia home at the age of 57.	933	ENGLISH	1
Mention of the "Roaring Twenties" might conjure images of flappers and extravagant spending, but this wasn't the norm for the average family during this decade. While daily activities were different for people living in rural and urban areas, family values in the 1920s remained relatively constant. Typical Family Values U.S. Census Bureau statistics, presented in a report on Historical Statistics from the Colonial Era to the 1970s, say a lot about what American families looked like throughout history. In the 1920s marriage was still a goal and priority for most, but smaller household sizes began to take shape as men and women sought to have fewer children. At home, families with a battery-powered radio could listen to radio shows. These early radios often only had one headphone instead of a speaker, so kids would fight over who got to listen to which shows. Although many aspects of the 1920s lifestyle were changing, men and women still mostly held the traditional roles of decades passed. Men typically worked long hours in professions involving hard labor. Despite the image of the 1920s woman as independent and rebellious, a 1920s mother still took on caring for children and taking care of household tasks as her primary job. Each person within a household had male or female roles and saw the value in these tasks as a means to meet all the needs of the family as a whole. Marriage in the 1920s In 1920, nearly two-thirds of all people over age 14 were married (page 20 of the Historical Statistics Report) while only around 250,000 out of 37 million people were divorced. The average age at first marriage in 1920 was 24 for men and 21 for women (page 19 of the Historical Statistics Report). Although marriage rates were high for most people, by 1920 black women were more likely to be married than white women. In general, men and women wanted to be married and stay married. For many non-white families, cultural identity and racial pride were important values as minorities sought to gain better treatment. Because of their job opportunities, in terms of economics and dangerous work conditions, minority families included more extended family living together. Thanks to advances in birth control, like the legalization of condoms and availability of the diaphragm, couples had more control over how many kids they had. An average household during this decade consisted of about four people (page 41 of the Historical Statistics Report). Parents started to shift their thinking from traditional views of the family as a hierarchy to a more emotional approach. Affectionate views of immediate family members meant husbands and wives saw each other as friends and saw their kids as friends too. Changes for Rural Families Up until 1920, the majority of white Americans lived in rural areas. However, according to Census.gov, by 1920 more than half of Americans were living in cities and towns. While there were now technically more urban dwellers, nearly half of all families still lived on farms. In contrast, while many African American families did move north during this decade, they were still more likely to reside in rural areas. The same is true for people identified as being from "other races" by the U.S. Census Bureau. Rural families embraced farm life amid the changing landscape of the world. Because there was so much work to do all the time, every member of a farm family worked on the farm. Men mostly worked in the fields or on building and repairing the homestead and equipment. Although the production industry was making strides in the invention and mass production of machines, this movement had not yet reached farms. Since most farmers were still completing all work by hand, neighbors helped each other with large harvests to get the work done before seasons changed. Wives and mothers still tended to household chores like sewing, cooking, canning, and caring for babies. But, they also helped with work in the fields when needed. Farm women made sure everyone, especially the hardworking men, was taken care of as a means to keep the family prepared for long days. Children on farms in this decade were called upon to help with the workload as soon as they were able. Chores like feeding animals, gathering eggs, or chopping wood were common for younger children. Once the chores were done for the day, kids would walk or ride a horse up to two miles to get to the closest school. Children spent about eight years in primary school, with summers off, memorizing poems and playing games. Older children could attend high school in the nearest town if there was a high school and if they could get there. Life in 1920s rural America wasn't all work although that is how people spent most of their time. Families enjoyed school presentations or end of the year picnics where they could gather with neighbors. Churches held gatherings, potluck dinners, and ice cream socials as a way to bring people together for fun. Trips to town were also a favorite pastime for families. In the summer when they had goods to sell, families could visit the town and watch movies projected on the side of a building. Other popular town events were horse races or the Chautauqua, a tent with lectures, plays, and music open to the public. In the country, kids could go swimming in nearby creeks and streams or go fishing. Changes for Urban Families Thanks to electricity and indoor plumbing household chores were made easier for those who could afford vacuum cleaners and similar inventions. Lights also made it possible for people to stay up later in cities and partake in more activities. Town and city workforces took on a more diverse look during the 1920s. At this time there was a large-scale relocation of black families from the rural South to the urban north because of their need to find better jobs, although they still served as a source of cheaper labor. In 1890 about 10 percent of African Americans lived in the north, but by 1930 about 20 percent lived there. Black women whose husbands worked outside the home were twice as likely as white women in the same scenario to work outside the home. These women were also more likely to be the head of a household, not because of low marriage rates, but because black men had higher mortality rates due to occupational hazards and other factors than white men. The prevalence of women in the workforce rose 25 percent during this time because many women had taken jobs outside the home during WWI. Millions of women in cities and towns worked in jobs like a stenographer, secretary, telephone operator, store clerk, or factory worker. Roughly 15 percent of white women whose husband worked outside the also worked outside the home in the 1920s. City kids worked in jobs outside the home like selling newspapers, shining shoes, or in factories to help support their family. It wasn't until 1938 that child labor laws were well-regulated by the government. When they weren't working or helping their parents, all kids ages 8-14 were required by all states to attend school for part of each year. City schools were separated into school districts with public school funded by state and local taxes. This allowed inequality in educational standards based on the area where a child lived. Wealthy school districts had access to well-trained teachers and better books while poor school districts had few resources. Although enrollment in schools was on the rise during this decade, these stark differences in educational supplies and resources were evident in the fact that about 15 percent of whites older than 14, native or foreign-born, were illiterate in 1920 while 23 percent of blacks and people of other races were illiterate. City families had better access to real movie theaters often called "picture palaces" because they were so large and extravagant. Theaters included extras like a children's nursery, lounges, and even dance floors to entice people to visit regularly. By the end of the 1920s, about three-fourths of Americans visited movie theaters on a weekly basis. A Balancing Act Families of all types were looking to improve their individual and collective lives during the 1920s. This decade supported a variety of lifestyles, but most family units were striving to stay intact, work together for common goals, and find time for fun.	<urn:uuid:c2b6d5b5-8dfb-452b-8d3e-57835384b49c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://family.lovetoknow.com/about-family-values/family-life-1920s	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00439.warc.gz	en	0.98875	1,664	3.8125	4	[ 0.3447360694408417, 0.47201642394065857, -0.03718467429280281, -0.3511549234390259, 0.042135268449783325, 0.3722565770149231, -0.37443041801452637, 0.03924594819545746, -0.015677284449338913, -0.331437885761261, 0.37082406878471375, 0.5014625787734985, 0.3857917785644531, 0.126150161027908...	6	Mention of the "Roaring Twenties" might conjure images of flappers and extravagant spending, but this wasn't the norm for the average family during this decade. While daily activities were different for people living in rural and urban areas, family values in the 1920s remained relatively constant. Typical Family Values U.S. Census Bureau statistics, presented in a report on Historical Statistics from the Colonial Era to the 1970s, say a lot about what American families looked like throughout history. In the 1920s marriage was still a goal and priority for most, but smaller household sizes began to take shape as men and women sought to have fewer children. At home, families with a battery-powered radio could listen to radio shows. These early radios often only had one headphone instead of a speaker, so kids would fight over who got to listen to which shows. Although many aspects of the 1920s lifestyle were changing, men and women still mostly held the traditional roles of decades passed. Men typically worked long hours in professions involving hard labor. Despite the image of the 1920s woman as independent and rebellious, a 1920s mother still took on caring for children and taking care of household tasks as her primary job. Each person within a household had male or female roles and saw the value in these tasks as a means to meet all the needs of the family as a whole. Marriage in the 1920s In 1920, nearly two-thirds of all people over age 14 were married (page 20 of the Historical Statistics Report) while only around 250,000 out of 37 million people were divorced. The average age at first marriage in 1920 was 24 for men and 21 for women (page 19 of the Historical Statistics Report). Although marriage rates were high for most people, by 1920 black women were more likely to be married than white women. In general, men and women wanted to be married and stay married. For many non-white families, cultural identity and racial pride were important values as minorities sought to gain better treatment. Because of their job opportunities, in terms of economics and dangerous work conditions, minority families included more extended family living together. Thanks to advances in birth control, like the legalization of condoms and availability of the diaphragm, couples had more control over how many kids they had. An average household during this decade consisted of about four people (page 41 of the Historical Statistics Report). Parents started to shift their thinking from traditional views of the family as a hierarchy to a more emotional approach. Affectionate views of immediate family members meant husbands and wives saw each other as friends and saw their kids as friends too. Changes for Rural Families Up until 1920, the majority of white Americans lived in rural areas. However, according to Census.gov, by 1920 more than half of Americans were living in cities and towns. While there were now technically more urban dwellers, nearly half of all families still lived on farms. In contrast, while many African American families did move north during this decade, they were still more likely to reside in rural areas. The same is true for people identified as being from "other races" by the U.S. Census Bureau. Rural families embraced farm life amid the changing landscape of the world. Because there was so much work to do all the time, every member of a farm family worked on the farm. Men mostly worked in the fields or on building and repairing the homestead and equipment. Although the production industry was making strides in the invention and mass production of machines, this movement had not yet reached farms. Since most farmers were still completing all work by hand, neighbors helped each other with large harvests to get the work done before seasons changed. Wives and mothers still tended to household chores like sewing, cooking, canning, and caring for babies. But, they also helped with work in the fields when needed. Farm women made sure everyone, especially the hardworking men, was taken care of as a means to keep the family prepared for long days. Children on farms in this decade were called upon to help with the workload as soon as they were able. Chores like feeding animals, gathering eggs, or chopping wood were common for younger children. Once the chores were done for the day, kids would walk or ride a horse up to two miles to get to the closest school. Children spent about eight years in primary school, with summers off, memorizing poems and playing games. Older children could attend high school in the nearest town if there was a high school and if they could get there. Life in 1920s rural America wasn't all work although that is how people spent most of their time. Families enjoyed school presentations or end of the year picnics where they could gather with neighbors. Churches held gatherings, potluck dinners, and ice cream socials as a way to bring people together for fun. Trips to town were also a favorite pastime for families. In the summer when they had goods to sell, families could visit the town and watch movies projected on the side of a building. Other popular town events were horse races or the Chautauqua, a tent with lectures, plays, and music open to the public. In the country, kids could go swimming in nearby creeks and streams or go fishing. Changes for Urban Families Thanks to electricity and indoor plumbing household chores were made easier for those who could afford vacuum cleaners and similar inventions. Lights also made it possible for people to stay up later in cities and partake in more activities. Town and city workforces took on a more diverse look during the 1920s. At this time there was a large-scale relocation of black families from the rural South to the urban north because of their need to find better jobs, although they still served as a source of cheaper labor. In 1890 about 10 percent of African Americans lived in the north, but by 1930 about 20 percent lived there. Black women whose husbands worked outside the home were twice as likely as white women in the same scenario to work outside the home. These women were also more likely to be the head of a household, not because of low marriage rates, but because black men had higher mortality rates due to occupational hazards and other factors than white men. The prevalence of women in the workforce rose 25 percent during this time because many women had taken jobs outside the home during WWI. Millions of women in cities and towns worked in jobs like a stenographer, secretary, telephone operator, store clerk, or factory worker. Roughly 15 percent of white women whose husband worked outside the also worked outside the home in the 1920s. City kids worked in jobs outside the home like selling newspapers, shining shoes, or in factories to help support their family. It wasn't until 1938 that child labor laws were well-regulated by the government. When they weren't working or helping their parents, all kids ages 8-14 were required by all states to attend school for part of each year. City schools were separated into school districts with public school funded by state and local taxes. This allowed inequality in educational standards based on the area where a child lived. Wealthy school districts had access to well-trained teachers and better books while poor school districts had few resources. Although enrollment in schools was on the rise during this decade, these stark differences in educational supplies and resources were evident in the fact that about 15 percent of whites older than 14, native or foreign-born, were illiterate in 1920 while 23 percent of blacks and people of other races were illiterate. City families had better access to real movie theaters often called "picture palaces" because they were so large and extravagant. Theaters included extras like a children's nursery, lounges, and even dance floors to entice people to visit regularly. By the end of the 1920s, about three-fourths of Americans visited movie theaters on a weekly basis. A Balancing Act Families of all types were looking to improve their individual and collective lives during the 1920s. This decade supported a variety of lifestyles, but most family units were striving to stay intact, work together for common goals, and find time for fun.	1,750	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Greece: Chares of Athens Ancient Athenian general who lived during 4th Chares in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities 1. An Athenian general, who succeeded to the command after the condemnation and death of Leosthenes. He was sent by the Athenians against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, but, instead of coming to action with the foe, he harassed the Athenian allies to such a degree by his extortions and oppression that the Social War was the result (B.C. 358). Some time after, he was sent to aid Byzantium against Philip of Macedon, but he only incurred the contempt of his foe, and excited the discontent of the allies, so that the Athenians finally recalled him, and put Phocion in his place. This, however, did not prevent them from choosing him for their general at the battle of Chaeronaea, where his ignorance and incapacity mainly contributed to the loss of the day. He was one of those whom Alexander ordered to be delivered up to him after the destruction of Thebes; but he succeeded in mollifying the conqueror, and was permitted to live at Athens. Of Mitylené. A Greek historian, chamberlain of Alexander the Great. He was the author of a comprehensive work, containing at least ten books, upon the life-chiefly the domestic life-of this monarch. This history had the reputation of being trustworthy and interesting. Only a few fragments of it remain, ed. by Geier (Leipzig, 1844). Of Lindos in Rhodes. A Greek artist, a pupil of Lysippus. In B.C. 280 he produced the largest statue known in antiquity-the colossal image of the Sun, 120 feet high, placed at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, and generally known as the Colossus of Rhodes. This was destroyed by an earthquake as early as B.C. 224. The thumbs were thicker than the average span of a man's hand, the fingers larger than many ordinary statues. See Colossus; Seven Wonders of the World. Chares of Athens in Wikipedia Chares (Greek: Χάρης, lived in the 4th century BC) and was an Athenian general, who for a number of years was a key commander of Athenian forces. Chares, an Athenian general, is first mentioned in historical records in 367 BC, when he was sent to the aid of the city of Phlius. The city was hard pressed by the Arcadians and Argives, assisted by the Theban commander at Sicyon. His forces were successful in relieving the city. (It was during this campaign that Aeschines, the orator, first distinguished himself.) After this successful action, Chares was recalled to take the command against Oropus; and the recovery of their harbour by the Sicyonians from the Spartan garrison, immediately on his departure, shows how important his presence had been for the support of the Spartan cause in the north of the Peloponnese. In 361 BC, Chares was appointed to succeed the Athenian admiral Leosthenes, following the Leosthenes' defeat by Alexander of Pherae. Sailing to Corcyra, he supported the city's oligarchic party. With Chares' support, the oligarchs gained control but with much bloodshed. However, his action not only created hostility amongst Corcyra's democratic parties but he failed to maintain good relations with the oligarchs. As a result, the island was later lost to the Athenians when the Social War broke out. In 358 BC Chares was sent to Thrace as general with full power. He was able to force Charidemus to ratify the treaty which he had made with Athenodorus. In the following year, with the start of the Social War, he was appointed one of Athen's generals. In the second campaign of the War in 356 BC, following the death of Chabrias, he had joint command of the Athenian forces with Iphicrates and Timotheus. According to Diodorus, when, because of a bad storm, his colleagues refused to fight the enemy despite Chares eagerness to do so, Chares reported their failings to Athens, and they were recalled and subsequently brought to trial. In contrast to Diodorus, Cornelius Nepos considered that Chares did attack the enemy in spite of the weather, but was defeated. Then, in order to protect himself, he accused his colleagues of not supporting him. In the subsequent prosecution he was aided by Aristophon. Being now left in the sole command, and needing funds, which he was unwilling to seek from Athens, with the support of his mercenary troops, he responded by entering into the service of Artabazus, the rebellious satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. The Athenians at first approved of this action, but afterwards ordered him to drop his connection with Artabazus following complaints from the Persian king Artaxerxes III Ochus. In this regard, it is probable that the threat from Artaxerxes III to support the confederates against Athens hastened the termination of the Social War. The quick end to the war was supported by Eubulus and Isocrates, by opposed by Chares and his party. In 353 BC, Chares was sent against Sestus, which, along with Cardia, had been unwilling to submit to Athens notwithstanding the ceding of the Thracian Chersonese to Athens in 357 BC. He took the town, massacred the men, and sold the women and children for slaves. Wars against the Macedonians In the Olynthian War (349 BC), he was appointed general of the mercenaries sent from Athens to the aid of Olynthus; but he seems to have achieved very little . His command was then passed to Charidemus, who in the ensuing year, 348 BC, was himself replaced as commander by Chares. In this campaign he gained some slight success on one occasion over King Philip II of Macedon's mercenaries, and celebrated it by a feast given to the Athenians with a portion of the money which had been sacrilegiously taken from Delphi, and some of which had found its way into his hands. On his euthyne (the public scrutiny to which every public officer was submitted after having discharged his duties) he was impeached by Cephisodotus, who complained, that "he was endeavouring to give his account after having got the people tight by the throat",. In 346 BC he was in command of Athenian forces again, this time in Thrace. When the Macedonian king, Philip, was preparing to march against Cersobleptes, complaints arrived at Athens from the Chersonese that Chares had withdrawn and was nowhere to be found. Athens was obliged to send a squadron in search of him with the extraordinary message, that "the Athenians were surprised that, while Philip was marching against the Chersonese, they did not know where their general and his forces were." It is likely that he had been engaged in some private expedition seeking plunder. In the same year, and before the departure of the second embassy from Athens to Macedonia to discuss peace, a dispatch arrived from Chares discussing the hopeless condition of the affairs of Cersobleptes. After this, there are no historical records about Chares for several years, during which he probably resided at Sigeum, which, according to Theopompus, was his favourite residence. But in a speech by Demosthenes delivered in 341 BC, Chares is spoken of as possessing much influence at that time in the Athenian councils. Therefore, it is possible that Chares may have been one of those who authorized and defended the proceedings of Diopeithes against king Philip in Thrace. In 340 BC, he was appointed to the command of the force which was sent to aid Byzantium against Philip; but he was distrusted by the Byzantines, and they refused to receive him. Chares was ineffective against the Macedonians-his only exploits it is said were against the allies of Athens, whom he appears to plundered unscrupulously. He was accordingly superseded by Phocion, who was very successful. In 338 BC, Chares was sent to aid Amphissa against Philip, who was defeated by Philip together with the Theban general, Proxenus. Of this defeat, which is mentioned by Aeschines, Demosthenes in his reply says nothing, but speaks of two battles in which the Athenians were victorious. In the same year, Chares was one of the commanders of the Athenian forces at the Battle of Chaeronea. Despite the disastrous result, Chares escaped censure, or at least prosecution, though Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was tried and condemned to death. Chares is mentioned by Arrian among the Athenian orators and generals whom Alexander required to be surrendered to him in 335 BC, although Demades persuaded Alexander not to press the demand against any but Charidemus. Plutarch, however, omits the name of Chares in his list. When Alexander invaded Asia Minor in 334 BC, Chares was living at Sigeum, and he is mentioned again by Arrian as one of those who came to meet the king and pay their respects to him on his way to Troy. After this Chares was a mercenary commander for Darius Codomannus at Mytilene, which had been captured in 333 BC by Pharnabazus and Autophradates, but which Chares was compelled to surrender in the ensuing year. After this event, no further information is available about Chares, but it is likely that he ended his days at Sigeum. As a general, Chares has been charged with rashness, especially in the needless exposure of his own person; this said he appears to have been, during the greater portion of his career, the best commander that Athens had. In politics, we see him connected throughout with Demosthenes. Morally he must have been an incubus on any party to which he attached himself, notwithstanding the assistance he might sometimes render it through the orators whom he is said to have kept constantly in pay. His alleged profligacy, which was measureless, he unblushingly avowed and gloried in, openly ridiculing the austere Phocion. His bad faith passed into a proverb; and his rapacity was extraordinary, even amidst the system then prevailing, when the citizens of Athens would neither fight their own battles nor pay the men who fought them, and her commanders had to support their mercenaries as best they could. His triumphal career under the banners of the republic may be seen as a symptom of the decline of Athens' values and power.	<urn:uuid:cbb4fe2b-6df8-433f-8b3e-655b74779b67>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=3850&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Chares+of+Athens	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00126.warc.gz	en	0.987459	2,264	3.46875	3	[ -0.2082456648349762, 0.5975049734115601, 0.6130435466766357, -0.13487763702869415, -1.0026204586029053, -0.8163498044013977, 0.033674824982881546, 0.266998827457428, -0.377214640378952, 0.047200337052345276, -0.35908690094947815, -0.307882696390152, -0.008351203054189682, 0.523745715618133...	1	People - Ancient Greece: Chares of Athens Ancient Athenian general who lived during 4th Chares in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities 1. An Athenian general, who succeeded to the command after the condemnation and death of Leosthenes. He was sent by the Athenians against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, but, instead of coming to action with the foe, he harassed the Athenian allies to such a degree by his extortions and oppression that the Social War was the result (B.C. 358). Some time after, he was sent to aid Byzantium against Philip of Macedon, but he only incurred the contempt of his foe, and excited the discontent of the allies, so that the Athenians finally recalled him, and put Phocion in his place. This, however, did not prevent them from choosing him for their general at the battle of Chaeronaea, where his ignorance and incapacity mainly contributed to the loss of the day. He was one of those whom Alexander ordered to be delivered up to him after the destruction of Thebes; but he succeeded in mollifying the conqueror, and was permitted to live at Athens. Of Mitylené. A Greek historian, chamberlain of Alexander the Great. He was the author of a comprehensive work, containing at least ten books, upon the life-chiefly the domestic life-of this monarch. This history had the reputation of being trustworthy and interesting. Only a few fragments of it remain, ed. by Geier (Leipzig, 1844). Of Lindos in Rhodes. A Greek artist, a pupil of Lysippus. In B.C. 280 he produced the largest statue known in antiquity-the colossal image of the Sun, 120 feet high, placed at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, and generally known as the Colossus of Rhodes. This was destroyed by an earthquake as early as B.C. 224. The thumbs were thicker than the average span of a man's hand, the fingers larger than many ordinary statues. See Colossus; Seven Wonders of the World. Chares of Athens in Wikipedia Chares (Greek: Χάρης, lived in the 4th century BC) and was an Athenian general, who for a number of years was a key commander of Athenian forces. Chares, an Athenian general, is first mentioned in historical records in 367 BC, when he was sent to the aid of the city of Phlius. The city was hard pressed by the Arcadians and Argives, assisted by the Theban commander at Sicyon. His forces were successful in relieving the city. (It was during this campaign that Aeschines, the orator, first distinguished himself.) After this successful action, Chares was recalled to take the command against Oropus; and the recovery of their harbour by the Sicyonians from the Spartan garrison, immediately on his departure, shows how important his presence had been for the support of the Spartan cause in the north of the Peloponnese. In 361 BC, Chares was appointed to succeed the Athenian admiral Leosthenes, following the Leosthenes' defeat by Alexander of Pherae. Sailing to Corcyra, he supported the city's oligarchic party. With Chares' support, the oligarchs gained control but with much bloodshed. However, his action not only created hostility amongst Corcyra's democratic parties but he failed to maintain good relations with the oligarchs. As a result, the island was later lost to the Athenians when the Social War broke out. In 358 BC Chares was sent to Thrace as general with full power. He was able to force Charidemus to ratify the treaty which he had made with Athenodorus. In the following year, with the start of the Social War, he was appointed one of Athen's generals. In the second campaign of the War in 356 BC, following the death of Chabrias, he had joint command of the Athenian forces with Iphicrates and Timotheus. According to Diodorus, when, because of a bad storm, his colleagues refused to fight the enemy despite Chares eagerness to do so, Chares reported their failings to Athens, and they were recalled and subsequently brought to trial. In contrast to Diodorus, Cornelius Nepos considered that Chares did attack the enemy in spite of the weather, but was defeated. Then, in order to protect himself, he accused his colleagues of not supporting him. In the subsequent prosecution he was aided by Aristophon. Being now left in the sole command, and needing funds, which he was unwilling to seek from Athens, with the support of his mercenary troops, he responded by entering into the service of Artabazus, the rebellious satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. The Athenians at first approved of this action, but afterwards ordered him to drop his connection with Artabazus following complaints from the Persian king Artaxerxes III Ochus. In this regard, it is probable that the threat from Artaxerxes III to support the confederates against Athens hastened the termination of the Social War. The quick end to the war was supported by Eubulus and Isocrates, by opposed by Chares and his party. In 353 BC, Chares was sent against Sestus, which, along with Cardia, had been unwilling to submit to Athens notwithstanding the ceding of the Thracian Chersonese to Athens in 357 BC. He took the town, massacred the men, and sold the women and children for slaves. Wars against the Macedonians In the Olynthian War (349 BC), he was appointed general of the mercenaries sent from Athens to the aid of Olynthus; but he seems to have achieved very little . His command was then passed to Charidemus, who in the ensuing year, 348 BC, was himself replaced as commander by Chares. In this campaign he gained some slight success on one occasion over King Philip II of Macedon's mercenaries, and celebrated it by a feast given to the Athenians with a portion of the money which had been sacrilegiously taken from Delphi, and some of which had found its way into his hands. On his euthyne (the public scrutiny to which every public officer was submitted after having discharged his duties) he was impeached by Cephisodotus, who complained, that "he was endeavouring to give his account after having got the people tight by the throat",. In 346 BC he was in command of Athenian forces again, this time in Thrace. When the Macedonian king, Philip, was preparing to march against Cersobleptes, complaints arrived at Athens from the Chersonese that Chares had withdrawn and was nowhere to be found. Athens was obliged to send a squadron in search of him with the extraordinary message, that "the Athenians were surprised that, while Philip was marching against the Chersonese, they did not know where their general and his forces were." It is likely that he had been engaged in some private expedition seeking plunder. In the same year, and before the departure of the second embassy from Athens to Macedonia to discuss peace, a dispatch arrived from Chares discussing the hopeless condition of the affairs of Cersobleptes. After this, there are no historical records about Chares for several years, during which he probably resided at Sigeum, which, according to Theopompus, was his favourite residence. But in a speech by Demosthenes delivered in 341 BC, Chares is spoken of as possessing much influence at that time in the Athenian councils. Therefore, it is possible that Chares may have been one of those who authorized and defended the proceedings of Diopeithes against king Philip in Thrace. In 340 BC, he was appointed to the command of the force which was sent to aid Byzantium against Philip; but he was distrusted by the Byzantines, and they refused to receive him. Chares was ineffective against the Macedonians-his only exploits it is said were against the allies of Athens, whom he appears to plundered unscrupulously. He was accordingly superseded by Phocion, who was very successful. In 338 BC, Chares was sent to aid Amphissa against Philip, who was defeated by Philip together with the Theban general, Proxenus. Of this defeat, which is mentioned by Aeschines, Demosthenes in his reply says nothing, but speaks of two battles in which the Athenians were victorious. In the same year, Chares was one of the commanders of the Athenian forces at the Battle of Chaeronea. Despite the disastrous result, Chares escaped censure, or at least prosecution, though Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was tried and condemned to death. Chares is mentioned by Arrian among the Athenian orators and generals whom Alexander required to be surrendered to him in 335 BC, although Demades persuaded Alexander not to press the demand against any but Charidemus. Plutarch, however, omits the name of Chares in his list. When Alexander invaded Asia Minor in 334 BC, Chares was living at Sigeum, and he is mentioned again by Arrian as one of those who came to meet the king and pay their respects to him on his way to Troy. After this Chares was a mercenary commander for Darius Codomannus at Mytilene, which had been captured in 333 BC by Pharnabazus and Autophradates, but which Chares was compelled to surrender in the ensuing year. After this event, no further information is available about Chares, but it is likely that he ended his days at Sigeum. As a general, Chares has been charged with rashness, especially in the needless exposure of his own person; this said he appears to have been, during the greater portion of his career, the best commander that Athens had. In politics, we see him connected throughout with Demosthenes. Morally he must have been an incubus on any party to which he attached himself, notwithstanding the assistance he might sometimes render it through the orators whom he is said to have kept constantly in pay. His alleged profligacy, which was measureless, he unblushingly avowed and gloried in, openly ridiculing the austere Phocion. His bad faith passed into a proverb; and his rapacity was extraordinary, even amidst the system then prevailing, when the citizens of Athens would neither fight their own battles nor pay the men who fought them, and her commanders had to support their mercenaries as best they could. His triumphal career under the banners of the republic may be seen as a symptom of the decline of Athens' values and power.	2,308	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Egyptian Cities There were Egyptian areas that were similar to states and in each of these areas were cities. Most of the cities had official capital cities. Two of the major cities were Memphis and Thebes. These are two cities that were very important in Ancient Egyptian history. There were also many other cities and people worked in them and had places of worship and other things. Many of the cities were based around building and other projects such as building temples and pyramids. The cities that were the most important cities in Ancient Egypt would at some point be made into the capital of that state. Some of the capitals included Memphis, Tanis, Sais, Thebes and Alexandria. These places were capital cities that pharaohs and kings would appoint people to be in charge of. Memphis was a very important capital and existed from the yare 2950 B.C. to 2180 B.C. Memphis was at one point one of the biggest cities that existed in the whole world. Memphis was important because it was a big trade area. Memphis was so important that they even built a temple to the god of Memphis named Ptah. He is considered the god of crafting and is a god that creates. Memphis stayed the capital for a long time, but it later changed to Thebes. Even though the capital changed, Memphis still remained an important city to the Egyptians. Tanis is a city that is sometimes called the “Lost City,” but it was an important city because it was part of Ancient Egypt and was even a place where King Tuts rival lived. Historians do not have a lot of information about this city. Sais was a city that was found on the Nile River. It was an important place to trade because it is where the Egyptians could meet with other areas and was an important trade port city. This city was dedicated to Neith, the goddess of war. Thebes became the capital in 2135 B.C. after Memphis. This was a place where there was a lot of religion and politics that happened. This is where the Temple of Luxor and the Temple of Karnak were. Thebes also housed the Valley of the Kings, a place where many important pharaohs and kings were buried. Alexandria was the capital even when the Greeks conquered Egypt. This was the capital from 332 B.C. to 641 A.D. The city was very popular when Alexander the Great took over Egypt. This city was part of the Ptolemy Dynasty and stayed the capital for many, many years. Alexandria was considered a place where people were growing, and ideas were growing. This city had the largest library in the world. Alexandria was also famous for a Lighthouse that was located in the city. Alexandria is located right on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and is the second largest city in Egypt. There were other cities that were important in Ancient Egypt that were not capital cities but still were equally important. The city of Abydos was part of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. This city was considered a holy city because the Egyptians believed that Osiris, a god, was buried there. There were different temples that were built in the city that were given to the gods. One of the first pharaohs of Egypt was buried close to this city. The city of Crocodilopolis was also called Shedet. This was named this because it was named after the god of crocodiles, Sobek. Some believe that this city was named in 4000 B.C. and is considered one of the oldest cities in Egyptian history. One of the biggest trade cities was Komo Ombo. This later was known as Nubt because it was thought that gold was found in this city and Nubt means the “city of gold.” More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Cities: - Most of the cities were named after gods. - Elephantine was another Ancient Egyptian city named after Khnum, the god of water. - The city Hermopolis was found on the border of Upper and Lower Egypt and it was a myth that the first sunrise happened over this city. - When Pharaoh Akhenaten was pharaoh, he made his own religion and made there be one god called Aten. He built the city called Amarna and it only lasted until he died. What Did You Learn? - What were two very important capital cities in Ancient Egypt? Two very important capitals in Ancient Egypt were Thebes and Memphis. - What were many of the cities of Ancient Egypt named after? Many of the cities of Ancient Egypt were named after gods. - What city was named after the crocodile god, Sobek? Crocodilopolis was the city that was named after the crocodile god, Sobek. - Which was the capital of Egypt first, Thebes or Memphis? Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and Thebes was the second capital. - Why was it important to have cities that were located on the Nile River? It was important to have cities that were located on the Nile River so that the Egyptians could trade with other areas.	<urn:uuid:f58b403f-4860-4e02-9071-5aac845eb6af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-cities.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00234.warc.gz	en	0.994519	1,059	3.703125	4	[ -0.11583925783634186, 0.3027026653289795, 0.37672752141952515, 0.013926170766353607, -0.4923182725906372, 0.046895042061805725, 0.4190387427806854, -0.004823919385671616, -0.2826198637485504, 0.45633673667907715, -0.12003520131111145, -0.6222565174102783, -0.016445260494947433, 0.011397330...	14	Ancient Egyptian Cities There were Egyptian areas that were similar to states and in each of these areas were cities. Most of the cities had official capital cities. Two of the major cities were Memphis and Thebes. These are two cities that were very important in Ancient Egyptian history. There were also many other cities and people worked in them and had places of worship and other things. Many of the cities were based around building and other projects such as building temples and pyramids. The cities that were the most important cities in Ancient Egypt would at some point be made into the capital of that state. Some of the capitals included Memphis, Tanis, Sais, Thebes and Alexandria. These places were capital cities that pharaohs and kings would appoint people to be in charge of. Memphis was a very important capital and existed from the yare 2950 B.C. to 2180 B.C. Memphis was at one point one of the biggest cities that existed in the whole world. Memphis was important because it was a big trade area. Memphis was so important that they even built a temple to the god of Memphis named Ptah. He is considered the god of crafting and is a god that creates. Memphis stayed the capital for a long time, but it later changed to Thebes. Even though the capital changed, Memphis still remained an important city to the Egyptians. Tanis is a city that is sometimes called the “Lost City,” but it was an important city because it was part of Ancient Egypt and was even a place where King Tuts rival lived. Historians do not have a lot of information about this city. Sais was a city that was found on the Nile River. It was an important place to trade because it is where the Egyptians could meet with other areas and was an important trade port city. This city was dedicated to Neith, the goddess of war. Thebes became the capital in 2135 B.C. after Memphis. This was a place where there was a lot of religion and politics that happened. This is where the Temple of Luxor and the Temple of Karnak were. Thebes also housed the Valley of the Kings, a place where many important pharaohs and kings were buried. Alexandria was the capital even when the Greeks conquered Egypt. This was the capital from 332 B.C. to 641 A.D. The city was very popular when Alexander the Great took over Egypt. This city was part of the Ptolemy Dynasty and stayed the capital for many, many years. Alexandria was considered a place where people were growing, and ideas were growing. This city had the largest library in the world. Alexandria was also famous for a Lighthouse that was located in the city. Alexandria is located right on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and is the second largest city in Egypt. There were other cities that were important in Ancient Egypt that were not capital cities but still were equally important. The city of Abydos was part of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. This city was considered a holy city because the Egyptians believed that Osiris, a god, was buried there. There were different temples that were built in the city that were given to the gods. One of the first pharaohs of Egypt was buried close to this city. The city of Crocodilopolis was also called Shedet. This was named this because it was named after the god of crocodiles, Sobek. Some believe that this city was named in 4000 B.C. and is considered one of the oldest cities in Egyptian history. One of the biggest trade cities was Komo Ombo. This later was known as Nubt because it was thought that gold was found in this city and Nubt means the “city of gold.” More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Cities: - Most of the cities were named after gods. - Elephantine was another Ancient Egyptian city named after Khnum, the god of water. - The city Hermopolis was found on the border of Upper and Lower Egypt and it was a myth that the first sunrise happened over this city. - When Pharaoh Akhenaten was pharaoh, he made his own religion and made there be one god called Aten. He built the city called Amarna and it only lasted until he died. What Did You Learn? - What were two very important capital cities in Ancient Egypt? Two very important capitals in Ancient Egypt were Thebes and Memphis. - What were many of the cities of Ancient Egypt named after? Many of the cities of Ancient Egypt were named after gods. - What city was named after the crocodile god, Sobek? Crocodilopolis was the city that was named after the crocodile god, Sobek. - Which was the capital of Egypt first, Thebes or Memphis? Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and Thebes was the second capital. - Why was it important to have cities that were located on the Nile River? It was important to have cities that were located on the Nile River so that the Egyptians could trade with other areas.	1,045	ENGLISH	1
The 1919 race riots in Great Britain’s seaport areas such as Liverpool, Cardiff, and Salford were stoked by social, economic, and political anxieties and anger by white union workers and demobilized white servicemen against blacks, Arabs, Chinese, and ethnic minority communities and businesses. It was one of Britain’s most violent periods of racial upheaval in the 20th century. Since the 16th century, the black presence in Liverpool and London had been noticeable but increased dramatically following World War I at a time when the nation entered a period of economic downturn. Labour shortage and shrinking industries in port areas such as Cardiff and Liverpool were widespread. White working-class union workers and former servicemen who lacked the resources to challenge shipping magnates, largely blamed, targeted, and took out their frustrations on blacks and other ethnic minorities who they saw as foreign competitors for jobs and for the attention of white women, thus threatening Britain’s post-war national identity. The race riots took place between January and August 1919 and were sporadic throughout the year. In Glasgow from January 23 to 30, the British Seafarers Union and the National Sailors’ and Fireman’s Union (NSFU) held anti-immigrant labour meetings blaming foreigners for undercutting white British employment. At one dock in January 1919, black and white seamen, waiting to see if they would be hired, started jostling each other and soon a fight broke out and spilled into the yard. White bystanders joined in, using knives and makeshift weapons to attack black labourers. Liverpool, well known for its black population, experienced the most “ferocious and sustained” rioting in June 1919. Police arrested dozens of rioters. White rioters lynched Charles Wootton, a young Afro-Caribbean. Liverpool’s rioting crowd reached up to 10,000. Out of fear from their safety, 700 ethnic minorities were temporarily removed from their homes and sought police protection. Black workers were also fired during the riots while black, Arab, and Chinese homes and businesses were damaged or set ablaze by angry white rioters. The government often did not reimburse victims for property damages. By mid-June, blacks in Salford were also attacked; their properties were also damaged or destroyed. Police intervention in the riots was also slow. However, when blacks retaliated against white rioters, the police intervened and arrested them. At the end of the riots, five people were killed, many were injured, and at least 250 were arrested. In the aftermath of the June riots, the British government, which had been monitoring black communities, intensified its repatriation scheme. The move to repatriate colonial citizens in Britain was launched in February 1919. However, after the June riots, the government began removing colonial citizens from Britain out of fear of a “black backlash.” The government offered repatriates a resettlement allowance of £2 to £5, plus an additional £5 dis-embankment allowance. Between 1919 and 1921, an estimated 3,000 black and Arab seamen and their families were removed from Britain under the repatriation scheme. Shipping companies that employed Caribbeans also aided the state by firing black labourers and returning them to the West Indies. Further rioting also ensued in 1920 and 1921. Sustained racism, post-war economic hardship, and the reclassification of blacks and Arabs as “aliens” with the 1920 and 1925 immigration mandates further made life difficult for blacks, Arabs, and Asians particularly in seaport areas after the 1919 riots.	<urn:uuid:02f4ea3e-1517-41a5-8c40-395f9850f140>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/events-global-african-history/britain-s-1919-race-riots/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00492.warc.gz	en	0.981855	734	4.0625	4	[ 0.025279482826590538, 0.09171143174171448, 0.07544612884521484, -0.00839514471590519, 0.025909380987286568, 0.18338951468467712, -0.1137729063630104, -0.07851993292570114, 0.029789205640554428, 0.13823217153549194, 0.3965669870376587, -0.11950808763504028, 0.06813375651836395, 0.1743730604...	15	The 1919 race riots in Great Britain’s seaport areas such as Liverpool, Cardiff, and Salford were stoked by social, economic, and political anxieties and anger by white union workers and demobilized white servicemen against blacks, Arabs, Chinese, and ethnic minority communities and businesses. It was one of Britain’s most violent periods of racial upheaval in the 20th century. Since the 16th century, the black presence in Liverpool and London had been noticeable but increased dramatically following World War I at a time when the nation entered a period of economic downturn. Labour shortage and shrinking industries in port areas such as Cardiff and Liverpool were widespread. White working-class union workers and former servicemen who lacked the resources to challenge shipping magnates, largely blamed, targeted, and took out their frustrations on blacks and other ethnic minorities who they saw as foreign competitors for jobs and for the attention of white women, thus threatening Britain’s post-war national identity. The race riots took place between January and August 1919 and were sporadic throughout the year. In Glasgow from January 23 to 30, the British Seafarers Union and the National Sailors’ and Fireman’s Union (NSFU) held anti-immigrant labour meetings blaming foreigners for undercutting white British employment. At one dock in January 1919, black and white seamen, waiting to see if they would be hired, started jostling each other and soon a fight broke out and spilled into the yard. White bystanders joined in, using knives and makeshift weapons to attack black labourers. Liverpool, well known for its black population, experienced the most “ferocious and sustained” rioting in June 1919. Police arrested dozens of rioters. White rioters lynched Charles Wootton, a young Afro-Caribbean. Liverpool’s rioting crowd reached up to 10,000. Out of fear from their safety, 700 ethnic minorities were temporarily removed from their homes and sought police protection. Black workers were also fired during the riots while black, Arab, and Chinese homes and businesses were damaged or set ablaze by angry white rioters. The government often did not reimburse victims for property damages. By mid-June, blacks in Salford were also attacked; their properties were also damaged or destroyed. Police intervention in the riots was also slow. However, when blacks retaliated against white rioters, the police intervened and arrested them. At the end of the riots, five people were killed, many were injured, and at least 250 were arrested. In the aftermath of the June riots, the British government, which had been monitoring black communities, intensified its repatriation scheme. The move to repatriate colonial citizens in Britain was launched in February 1919. However, after the June riots, the government began removing colonial citizens from Britain out of fear of a “black backlash.” The government offered repatriates a resettlement allowance of £2 to £5, plus an additional £5 dis-embankment allowance. Between 1919 and 1921, an estimated 3,000 black and Arab seamen and their families were removed from Britain under the repatriation scheme. Shipping companies that employed Caribbeans also aided the state by firing black labourers and returning them to the West Indies. Further rioting also ensued in 1920 and 1921. Sustained racism, post-war economic hardship, and the reclassification of blacks and Arabs as “aliens” with the 1920 and 1925 immigration mandates further made life difficult for blacks, Arabs, and Asians particularly in seaport areas after the 1919 riots.	785	ENGLISH	1
Tudor dresses were lavish, often with exquisite embroidery and draped in jewels. The fabrics used for the clothing of the Tudor court was rich and luxurious and included silks, satins, velvet and the finest linens available. The Tudor Dresses were put on in several layers, and while today we would view this amount of clothing excessive, each layer of clothing was necessary to achieve the desired look. On average a Tudor lady would put on four layers of clothing, these include a smock, petticoats, her kirtle and then the gown. There were other layers which could be added though, depending upon the fashion of the time she could also add a forepart, partlet or farthingale. Of course, no dress would be complete without matching headwear. The smock would be made from fine linen and was one piece of Tudor clothing common to everyone, rich or poor. Often the smock had embroidered cuffs or would be finished with lace. The petticoat could either be just the skirt or have a bodice attached. The Tudor Gown Most petticoats were red in color as red was believed to be a healthy, life-giving color. The kirtle is the layer that defined the lady’s shape. It was worn over the petticoat (and farthingale) it constituted a stiffened bodice, but unlike a modern corset did not cinch the lady in at the waist. The gown is the only layer of the clothing that is shown in its entirety, as all other layers remain hidden underneath. A lady’s gown was designed to make an impact upon those that saw it. The more wealth the person had the more sumptuous the fabrics and the more expensive the decoration. Tudor Style Fashion It was not uncommon for strings of pearls to be attached to the bodice or sewn into the design. The most common form of headwear during the reign of Henry VIII was the French Hood or the Gable Hood which was the English version. No matter what social status a woman was headwear was always worn, while the wealthy would have theirs adorned with fine jewels and highly decorated the headwear of the common woman would be a simple linen item. The manufacture of a complete gown would include a wide range of people from silk merchants and weavers to tailors, seamstresses, milliners, and embroiderers. The goldsmith would also be involved in the process, adding delicate jewels such as brooches to the bodice of the Tudor Dresses. Tudor style is very distinctive. The fashion of the time was designed to make men appear broad and angular, with the clothing making the body take on a square appearance. Tudor Men’s Fashion This no doubt was intended to make them look strong and powerful. For the Tudor ladies, the clothing was designed to give them a softer, more conical shape, emphasizing their softness and gentility. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth the fashions changed and the deep square neck which had been the most popular look of gown altered and became higher. Lace additions were added which later became the famous Elizabethan ruff.	<urn:uuid:8d0a6bb7-7d55-4a6c-8ffa-2b569621e31a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://elizabethanenglandlife.com/thetudorsfacts/tudor-dresses.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00206.warc.gz	en	0.983181	674	3.4375	3	[ -0.2820168137550354, 0.1805514246225357, -0.10345572233200073, -0.06554996222257614, 0.0022351983934640884, 0.052025116980075836, 0.2555151581764221, 0.035466309636831284, -0.1574399471282959, -0.13617968559265137, 0.1481442153453827, -0.3107481300830841, 0.09235218167304993, 0.19277176260...	2	Tudor dresses were lavish, often with exquisite embroidery and draped in jewels. The fabrics used for the clothing of the Tudor court was rich and luxurious and included silks, satins, velvet and the finest linens available. The Tudor Dresses were put on in several layers, and while today we would view this amount of clothing excessive, each layer of clothing was necessary to achieve the desired look. On average a Tudor lady would put on four layers of clothing, these include a smock, petticoats, her kirtle and then the gown. There were other layers which could be added though, depending upon the fashion of the time she could also add a forepart, partlet or farthingale. Of course, no dress would be complete without matching headwear. The smock would be made from fine linen and was one piece of Tudor clothing common to everyone, rich or poor. Often the smock had embroidered cuffs or would be finished with lace. The petticoat could either be just the skirt or have a bodice attached. The Tudor Gown Most petticoats were red in color as red was believed to be a healthy, life-giving color. The kirtle is the layer that defined the lady’s shape. It was worn over the petticoat (and farthingale) it constituted a stiffened bodice, but unlike a modern corset did not cinch the lady in at the waist. The gown is the only layer of the clothing that is shown in its entirety, as all other layers remain hidden underneath. A lady’s gown was designed to make an impact upon those that saw it. The more wealth the person had the more sumptuous the fabrics and the more expensive the decoration. Tudor Style Fashion It was not uncommon for strings of pearls to be attached to the bodice or sewn into the design. The most common form of headwear during the reign of Henry VIII was the French Hood or the Gable Hood which was the English version. No matter what social status a woman was headwear was always worn, while the wealthy would have theirs adorned with fine jewels and highly decorated the headwear of the common woman would be a simple linen item. The manufacture of a complete gown would include a wide range of people from silk merchants and weavers to tailors, seamstresses, milliners, and embroiderers. The goldsmith would also be involved in the process, adding delicate jewels such as brooches to the bodice of the Tudor Dresses. Tudor style is very distinctive. The fashion of the time was designed to make men appear broad and angular, with the clothing making the body take on a square appearance. Tudor Men’s Fashion This no doubt was intended to make them look strong and powerful. For the Tudor ladies, the clothing was designed to give them a softer, more conical shape, emphasizing their softness and gentility. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth the fashions changed and the deep square neck which had been the most popular look of gown altered and became higher. Lace additions were added which later became the famous Elizabethan ruff.	650	ENGLISH	1
In the religion and mythology of ancient Rome, Vesta was the goddess of the hearth. The hearth is the stone floor surrounding a furnace or fireplace. This was important to the Romans, because sources of fire for cooking, lighting, and heating homes were not easy to acquire. Therefore, once a fire was started, it had to be fueled and maintained so that it could keep burning and other fires could be lit from it. This was done at both public hearths and in those of private homes. The hearth also represented family life, and therefore the community life of the Roman State. Vesta is often seen accompanied by a donkey. This was her animal of choice in her role as patroness to the bakers. Her fire was needed to bake the bread, as was the the donkey’s strength to turn the mill stone, making flour. They braying of the donkey was also said to ward off the lustful advances of other gods. Myths and Stories Few myths of Vesta exist today. Roman poet Ovid relates a story in which the fertility god Priapus attempted to seduce Vesta. He was foiled by the loud braying of her donkey. It is thought that her worship was introduced by Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, between 715 and 673 B.C. Each sanctuary or temple of Vesta was usually a circular building that mirrored the round huts formerly used as dwellings in Italy. The shape was also symbolic of the hearth. One such Temple of Vesta was located in the Roman Forum, on the Pallatine Hill, built in the third century B.C. A fire was kept burning there continually by a group of six priestesses called the Vestal Virgins. These priestesses were selected for service by the pontifex maximus, or chief priest, between the ages of six and ten, and served in the temple for at least 30 years. During that time, they tended the fire, prepared ritual food offerings, drew water from a spring outside Rome, lived in the House of the Vestals near the temple, and had to maintain their virginity. If one of the Virgins broke her vow of chastity, the punishment was to be buried alive. After the 30 years had passed, they were free to marry. The Vestals enjoyed a high social status in Rome. Each year on the Roman New Year, March 1, the perpetual fire in the temple was ritually extinguished and re-lit. If the fire went out at any other time, it was seen as a bad omen for Rome. The festival to Vesta, called the Vestalia, was held on June 7 to 15. Rituals included sweeping out the temple and ritually disposing of the sweepings. The festival was considered a time of bad luck until the sweeping was completed. Normally, the inner sanctuary of the temple, called the penus Vestae, was not open to the public, but on the first day of the festival, women bearing gifts could visit if they entered barefoot. The sacred fire of Vesta was maintained until 394 A.D., when most Roman religious cults were banned. Because of the need for fire in everyday life, Vesta was worshiped in nearly every Roman home as well. Many homes had a household shrine that included an image of Vesta. She was often worshiped alongside the Penates, spirits of the penus, or cupboard where food was stored. Statues and other artwork depicting Vesta typically show her draped in long, full robes, wearing a stern expression and with her head covered. She often holds a scepter in one hand. Interestingly, a statue of the goddess was not included at any of her temples. However, the penus Vestae housed the Palladium, a statue of the Trojan Athena. This object was considered too sacred for a man too look upon. When it was rescued from a fire that destroyed the temple in 241 B.C., the rescuer – Roman Consul L. Caecilius Metellus, was then blinded for having seen the sacred statue. However, he was also afforded great honor for the daring rescue. As with many ancient deities, Vesta’s legacy continues in the naming of interstellar objects. In 1807, the asteroid now called Vesta was discovered by Wilhelm Olbers. It is the brightest and second largest asteroid in our solar system’s asteroid belt. Facts about Vesta Role in Mythology: Goddess of the hearth Alternative Names: None Family Relationships: Daughter of Saturn Greek Equivalent: Hestia Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Vesta: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	<urn:uuid:c51e9c96-1742-450a-bd63-bfe25e80689c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/roman/vesta/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00486.warc.gz	en	0.98349	1,023	4.03125	4	[ -0.11955174058675766, 0.6425631046295166, 0.39015424251556396, 0.1874888837337494, -0.4406089782714844, 0.0512738861143589, 0.14838513731956482, 0.27544498443603516, 0.25946858525276184, -0.09337460994720459, -0.27169209718704224, -0.7176242470741272, -0.30654647946357727, 0.12543663382530...	1	In the religion and mythology of ancient Rome, Vesta was the goddess of the hearth. The hearth is the stone floor surrounding a furnace or fireplace. This was important to the Romans, because sources of fire for cooking, lighting, and heating homes were not easy to acquire. Therefore, once a fire was started, it had to be fueled and maintained so that it could keep burning and other fires could be lit from it. This was done at both public hearths and in those of private homes. The hearth also represented family life, and therefore the community life of the Roman State. Vesta is often seen accompanied by a donkey. This was her animal of choice in her role as patroness to the bakers. Her fire was needed to bake the bread, as was the the donkey’s strength to turn the mill stone, making flour. They braying of the donkey was also said to ward off the lustful advances of other gods. Myths and Stories Few myths of Vesta exist today. Roman poet Ovid relates a story in which the fertility god Priapus attempted to seduce Vesta. He was foiled by the loud braying of her donkey. It is thought that her worship was introduced by Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, between 715 and 673 B.C. Each sanctuary or temple of Vesta was usually a circular building that mirrored the round huts formerly used as dwellings in Italy. The shape was also symbolic of the hearth. One such Temple of Vesta was located in the Roman Forum, on the Pallatine Hill, built in the third century B.C. A fire was kept burning there continually by a group of six priestesses called the Vestal Virgins. These priestesses were selected for service by the pontifex maximus, or chief priest, between the ages of six and ten, and served in the temple for at least 30 years. During that time, they tended the fire, prepared ritual food offerings, drew water from a spring outside Rome, lived in the House of the Vestals near the temple, and had to maintain their virginity. If one of the Virgins broke her vow of chastity, the punishment was to be buried alive. After the 30 years had passed, they were free to marry. The Vestals enjoyed a high social status in Rome. Each year on the Roman New Year, March 1, the perpetual fire in the temple was ritually extinguished and re-lit. If the fire went out at any other time, it was seen as a bad omen for Rome. The festival to Vesta, called the Vestalia, was held on June 7 to 15. Rituals included sweeping out the temple and ritually disposing of the sweepings. The festival was considered a time of bad luck until the sweeping was completed. Normally, the inner sanctuary of the temple, called the penus Vestae, was not open to the public, but on the first day of the festival, women bearing gifts could visit if they entered barefoot. The sacred fire of Vesta was maintained until 394 A.D., when most Roman religious cults were banned. Because of the need for fire in everyday life, Vesta was worshiped in nearly every Roman home as well. Many homes had a household shrine that included an image of Vesta. She was often worshiped alongside the Penates, spirits of the penus, or cupboard where food was stored. Statues and other artwork depicting Vesta typically show her draped in long, full robes, wearing a stern expression and with her head covered. She often holds a scepter in one hand. Interestingly, a statue of the goddess was not included at any of her temples. However, the penus Vestae housed the Palladium, a statue of the Trojan Athena. This object was considered too sacred for a man too look upon. When it was rescued from a fire that destroyed the temple in 241 B.C., the rescuer – Roman Consul L. Caecilius Metellus, was then blinded for having seen the sacred statue. However, he was also afforded great honor for the daring rescue. As with many ancient deities, Vesta’s legacy continues in the naming of interstellar objects. In 1807, the asteroid now called Vesta was discovered by Wilhelm Olbers. It is the brightest and second largest asteroid in our solar system’s asteroid belt. Facts about Vesta Role in Mythology: Goddess of the hearth Alternative Names: None Family Relationships: Daughter of Saturn Greek Equivalent: Hestia Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Vesta: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	1,028	ENGLISH	1
A castle moat was one of the most important fortifications used in the defence of a medieval castle. The moat evolved from a kind of defence used by the Normans in their early medieval motte-and-bailey castles. The Normans built these castles by erecting a keep on a high mound of earth. A ditch then ran to the bottom of this hill-like structure. This eventually evolved into a proper moat which was essentially a long, wide and deep ditch running all around the periphery of castle walls. Different kinds of moats were constructed depending on the kind of defence that the castle owner conceived. Making a castle moat was usually considered essential particularly for such castles which were vulnerable to attacks. The most basic feature of a castle moat was the ditch. The ditch was dug all around the boundary walls of the castle. Typically, such a ditch could be as much as 12 feet wide and 30 feet deep. For larger castles, the ditches were exceptionally wide to often resembled veritable rivers. In all cases, the purpose of the ditch was to put a defensive space between the castle boundaries and a potential attacker. Once the ditch had been dug, the castle defenders chose between using it as a dry defence or fill the ditch with water. As a dry defence, the ditch was set up with wooden stakes and other barriers. Attackers then had to confront these sharp and dangerous stakes through the ditch which considerably slowed down their march. The other option was to fill up the ditch with water. This was usually possible for such castles which were situated near a water body such as a river. Once the ditch was filled, any approaching enemy had to swim or wade through it, making it possible for defenders on castle walls to kill many of them as they did so. The only reason why a castle moat was constructed around most medieval castles was that it formed a formidable defence against an attacking enemy. The moat became popular at a time when there were certain ways of attacking a castle. An enemy could either storm and scale the castle walls with ladders, force their way over the walls and thus gain entry. They could use siege engines to storm into the castle entrance. Or they could use tunnelling to collapse a portion of the castle walls and thus breach an entry. The moat was an excellent counter-measure in that it made all three of such tactics very difficult if not entirely impossible. With water all around a castle, tunnelling was essentially impossible and if any attempts were made, sufficient water was available to drown the attempts. Similarly, carrying ladders over the ditch and erecting them against the castle walls was nearly impossible or made much harder by forcing the enemy to use barges which could be attacked from inside the castles walls. Finally, the entrance of a moat-protected castle was usually protected by a drawbridge and compared to regular castle gatehouses, was a lot harder to breach.	<urn:uuid:296a4c2b-28e6-40e4-9878-0be7c791301b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/making-a-castle-moat/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00418.warc.gz	en	0.988721	597	3.921875	4	[ -0.21296943724155426, 0.14640061557292938, 0.3592410087585449, 0.14181825518608093, -0.0499572716653347, -0.3459761142730713, 0.6806413531303406, -0.14320668578147888, 0.07037721574306488, -0.2817346453666687, -0.3670462369918823, -0.5041041374206543, 0.27602025866508484, -0.10280425846576...	4	A castle moat was one of the most important fortifications used in the defence of a medieval castle. The moat evolved from a kind of defence used by the Normans in their early medieval motte-and-bailey castles. The Normans built these castles by erecting a keep on a high mound of earth. A ditch then ran to the bottom of this hill-like structure. This eventually evolved into a proper moat which was essentially a long, wide and deep ditch running all around the periphery of castle walls. Different kinds of moats were constructed depending on the kind of defence that the castle owner conceived. Making a castle moat was usually considered essential particularly for such castles which were vulnerable to attacks. The most basic feature of a castle moat was the ditch. The ditch was dug all around the boundary walls of the castle. Typically, such a ditch could be as much as 12 feet wide and 30 feet deep. For larger castles, the ditches were exceptionally wide to often resembled veritable rivers. In all cases, the purpose of the ditch was to put a defensive space between the castle boundaries and a potential attacker. Once the ditch had been dug, the castle defenders chose between using it as a dry defence or fill the ditch with water. As a dry defence, the ditch was set up with wooden stakes and other barriers. Attackers then had to confront these sharp and dangerous stakes through the ditch which considerably slowed down their march. The other option was to fill up the ditch with water. This was usually possible for such castles which were situated near a water body such as a river. Once the ditch was filled, any approaching enemy had to swim or wade through it, making it possible for defenders on castle walls to kill many of them as they did so. The only reason why a castle moat was constructed around most medieval castles was that it formed a formidable defence against an attacking enemy. The moat became popular at a time when there were certain ways of attacking a castle. An enemy could either storm and scale the castle walls with ladders, force their way over the walls and thus gain entry. They could use siege engines to storm into the castle entrance. Or they could use tunnelling to collapse a portion of the castle walls and thus breach an entry. The moat was an excellent counter-measure in that it made all three of such tactics very difficult if not entirely impossible. With water all around a castle, tunnelling was essentially impossible and if any attempts were made, sufficient water was available to drown the attempts. Similarly, carrying ladders over the ditch and erecting them against the castle walls was nearly impossible or made much harder by forcing the enemy to use barges which could be attacked from inside the castles walls. Finally, the entrance of a moat-protected castle was usually protected by a drawbridge and compared to regular castle gatehouses, was a lot harder to breach.	600	ENGLISH	1
In Stage 5 Geography, students have been learning about environmental change and management, focusing on coastal environments. To gain a better understanding of sustainable management, staff from the Geography team decided to take both year groups Y9 & Y10 on a field trip to Collaroy Beach to examine the human-induced environmental impacts on the coast, as this was the topic of our upcoming assessment. Students were assigned instructors for each group and discussed the danger of rising sea levels and coastal erosion, analysed the weather, took samples from the beach and talked about the natural environmental services keeping the beach sustainable. Students were also handed booklets before we floundered through the steep sands to take notes of the information students needed most. Despite having to do work, it was still quite a fun day out at the beach for all staff and students when student stated “I enjoyed it because the air was very fresh compared to the suburbs, it was also a good field trip to go on because all of the information we needed was provided through the field trip and I did not have to be stressed about the assessment”. Year 9 and Year 10 students would like to thank their teachers for the wonderful experience and we hope the grades next year have an equally great experience.	<urn:uuid:3bda3f5f-5c7b-42bf-8af8-b29cabd1ebee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://delanygranville.catholic.edu.au/en/Community/Latest%20News/2019/09/22/21/59/2019%20Geography%20Collaroy%20Excursion	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00469.warc.gz	en	0.981789	252	3.328125	3	[ -0.014207631349563599, -0.1343575268983841, 0.39991167187690735, -0.49471843242645264, 0.15006296336650848, -0.07912511378526688, 0.06750980764627457, -0.1584368199110031, -0.2235632836818695, -0.018265657126903534, 0.1704055666923523, -0.35791274905204773, 0.01197059080004692, 0.374010473...	1	In Stage 5 Geography, students have been learning about environmental change and management, focusing on coastal environments. To gain a better understanding of sustainable management, staff from the Geography team decided to take both year groups Y9 & Y10 on a field trip to Collaroy Beach to examine the human-induced environmental impacts on the coast, as this was the topic of our upcoming assessment. Students were assigned instructors for each group and discussed the danger of rising sea levels and coastal erosion, analysed the weather, took samples from the beach and talked about the natural environmental services keeping the beach sustainable. Students were also handed booklets before we floundered through the steep sands to take notes of the information students needed most. Despite having to do work, it was still quite a fun day out at the beach for all staff and students when student stated “I enjoyed it because the air was very fresh compared to the suburbs, it was also a good field trip to go on because all of the information we needed was provided through the field trip and I did not have to be stressed about the assessment”. Year 9 and Year 10 students would like to thank their teachers for the wonderful experience and we hope the grades next year have an equally great experience.	249	ENGLISH	1
Internet Sources The most interesting and influential thinker in the fifth century was Socrateswhose dedication to careful reasoning transformed the entire enterprise. Since he sought genuine knowledge rather than mere victory over an opponent, Socrates employed the same logical tricks developed by the Sophists to a new purpose, the pursuit of truth. Thus, his willingness to call everything into question and his determination to accept nothing less than an adequate account of the nature of things make him the first clear exponent of critical philosophy. The best account of life and work of one of the most influential philosophers of all times is given by the later classical writers, in the first place by his students Plato and Xenophon and the playwright Aristophanes who was his contemporary. Despite that, the mentioned writers reveal that the ancient Greek philosopher made important contributions to philosophy as well as epistemology and logic. He is the inventor of the so-called Socratic method or elenchus which remains one of the most commonly used approaches not only to answer the fundamental questions of philosophy but it also serves as a tool for scientific research. He did not write any philosophical works or left any writings. The knowledge we have about him both as a historical figure and philosopher is based exclusively on later classical writings. This makes it very difficult to create a picture of his life, work and philosophical thought. As a result, some consider Xenophon to be more reliable source of information about Socrates as a historical figure. From their writing, we find out that the renowned ancient Greek philosopher was born to Sophroniscus, a stonemason or perhaps a sculptor and his wife Phaenarete who was a midwife. He spent his life in Athens where he was born but details of his early life are scarce. He is said to participate in the Peloponnesian War BCE and that he married relatively late with Xanthippe who was much younger from him. She bore him three sons — Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. It is not certain what Socrates did for a living. According to Xenophon, he was completely devoted to philosophy, while Aristophanes says that he earned a living by teaching at a school he ran with Chaerephon. Plato, however, rejects the accounts of Socrates being paid for teaching. Then there are also accounts of him working as a stonemason, like his father. In the antiquity, he was credited with the creation of the Three Graces statues near Acropolis but this has been rejected by modern scholars. It is speculated that his role of gadfly might had been one of the leading causes for his trial and execution. At the trial, he apparently proposed that he should be paid a wage by the government and free dinners for lifetime when he had been asked to propose a punishment for his wrongdoing. Trial and Execution Those who persecuted and tried Socrates did not left any records. They tell us that Meletus, Lycon and Anytus charged Socrates with impiety and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens. Both Plato and Xenophon tell us that he had an opportunity to escape and that his friend Crito even bribed the guards in the prison but he decided to stay. He is regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the ancient era and is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Although he remains an enigmatic figure, he left no writings and most of his teachings are known from the writings of his students, particularly Plato and Xenophon. Plato was Socrates’ most famous disciple, and the majority of what most people know about Socrates is known about Plato’s Socrates. Plato was born to one of the wealthiest and politically influential families in Athens in B.C.E., the son of Ariston and Perictione. Socrates (ca. BCE) is hailed as one of the founders of Western philosophy, however, very little is known about him as a historical figure and philosopher. The best account of life and work of one of the most influential philosophers of all times is given by the later classical writers, in the first place by his students Plato and. He was given to drink poison hemlock. Socratic Method Socrates main contribution to Western philosophy is his method of inquiry that was called after him Socratic method, sometimes also known as elenchus. According to the latter, a statement can be considered true only if it cannot be proved wrong. The Socratic method which is dialectic breaks down a problem into a series of questions which are then sought to be answered. This method which is also used in scientific research by making a hypothesis and then either proving it correct or false, is by some suggested to be first used by Zeno of Elea ca.Socrates was such an important figure in Western philosophy that we call those who came before him Pre-Socratic philosophers Thales BC, considered to be the first philosopher because he introduced a different mode of thinking that relied on reason and observation of nature. He is regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the ancient era and is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Although he remains an enigmatic figure, he left no writings and most of his teachings are known from the writings of his students, particularly Plato and Xenophon. Socrates (c. – BCE) is a founding figure in the history of Western philosophy, revered for his single-minded dedication to truth and virtue, for his great argumentative skill, and for his death, which came to be viewed as a martyrdom. As a result of his public philosophizing in Athens, he was sentenced to death by the city’s democratic government for “impiety” and “corrupting. Plato's Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the field of epistemology, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains a strong foundation for much western philosophy that . Socrates (/ BCE) was a Greek philosopher and is considered the father of western philosophy. Plato was his most famous student and would . In the ancient world, the most influential division of the subject was the Stoics' division of philosophy into logic, ethics, and physics (conceived as the study of the nature of the world, and including both natural science and metaphysics).	<urn:uuid:467be37a-f572-4ddd-8177-4822fafe3ee9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qoxyvakecohokax.monstermanfilm.com/socrates-most-influential-figure-of-western-philosophy-35018ft.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00146.warc.gz	en	0.987456	1,282	3.4375	3	[ -0.08792026340961456, 0.3890227675437927, 0.28473085165023804, -0.48481881618499756, -0.6714460849761963, -0.18912290036678314, 0.3534427583217621, 0.6713237762451172, -0.19544778764247894, -0.1561850756406784, -0.25603920221328735, 0.05746383219957352, 0.05159594491124153, 0.3418295979499...	1	Internet Sources The most interesting and influential thinker in the fifth century was Socrateswhose dedication to careful reasoning transformed the entire enterprise. Since he sought genuine knowledge rather than mere victory over an opponent, Socrates employed the same logical tricks developed by the Sophists to a new purpose, the pursuit of truth. Thus, his willingness to call everything into question and his determination to accept nothing less than an adequate account of the nature of things make him the first clear exponent of critical philosophy. The best account of life and work of one of the most influential philosophers of all times is given by the later classical writers, in the first place by his students Plato and Xenophon and the playwright Aristophanes who was his contemporary. Despite that, the mentioned writers reveal that the ancient Greek philosopher made important contributions to philosophy as well as epistemology and logic. He is the inventor of the so-called Socratic method or elenchus which remains one of the most commonly used approaches not only to answer the fundamental questions of philosophy but it also serves as a tool for scientific research. He did not write any philosophical works or left any writings. The knowledge we have about him both as a historical figure and philosopher is based exclusively on later classical writings. This makes it very difficult to create a picture of his life, work and philosophical thought. As a result, some consider Xenophon to be more reliable source of information about Socrates as a historical figure. From their writing, we find out that the renowned ancient Greek philosopher was born to Sophroniscus, a stonemason or perhaps a sculptor and his wife Phaenarete who was a midwife. He spent his life in Athens where he was born but details of his early life are scarce. He is said to participate in the Peloponnesian War BCE and that he married relatively late with Xanthippe who was much younger from him. She bore him three sons — Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. It is not certain what Socrates did for a living. According to Xenophon, he was completely devoted to philosophy, while Aristophanes says that he earned a living by teaching at a school he ran with Chaerephon. Plato, however, rejects the accounts of Socrates being paid for teaching. Then there are also accounts of him working as a stonemason, like his father. In the antiquity, he was credited with the creation of the Three Graces statues near Acropolis but this has been rejected by modern scholars. It is speculated that his role of gadfly might had been one of the leading causes for his trial and execution. At the trial, he apparently proposed that he should be paid a wage by the government and free dinners for lifetime when he had been asked to propose a punishment for his wrongdoing. Trial and Execution Those who persecuted and tried Socrates did not left any records. They tell us that Meletus, Lycon and Anytus charged Socrates with impiety and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens. Both Plato and Xenophon tell us that he had an opportunity to escape and that his friend Crito even bribed the guards in the prison but he decided to stay. He is regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the ancient era and is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Although he remains an enigmatic figure, he left no writings and most of his teachings are known from the writings of his students, particularly Plato and Xenophon. Plato was Socrates’ most famous disciple, and the majority of what most people know about Socrates is known about Plato’s Socrates. Plato was born to one of the wealthiest and politically influential families in Athens in B.C.E., the son of Ariston and Perictione. Socrates (ca. BCE) is hailed as one of the founders of Western philosophy, however, very little is known about him as a historical figure and philosopher. The best account of life and work of one of the most influential philosophers of all times is given by the later classical writers, in the first place by his students Plato and. He was given to drink poison hemlock. Socratic Method Socrates main contribution to Western philosophy is his method of inquiry that was called after him Socratic method, sometimes also known as elenchus. According to the latter, a statement can be considered true only if it cannot be proved wrong. The Socratic method which is dialectic breaks down a problem into a series of questions which are then sought to be answered. This method which is also used in scientific research by making a hypothesis and then either proving it correct or false, is by some suggested to be first used by Zeno of Elea ca.Socrates was such an important figure in Western philosophy that we call those who came before him Pre-Socratic philosophers Thales BC, considered to be the first philosopher because he introduced a different mode of thinking that relied on reason and observation of nature. He is regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the ancient era and is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Although he remains an enigmatic figure, he left no writings and most of his teachings are known from the writings of his students, particularly Plato and Xenophon. Socrates (c. – BCE) is a founding figure in the history of Western philosophy, revered for his single-minded dedication to truth and virtue, for his great argumentative skill, and for his death, which came to be viewed as a martyrdom. As a result of his public philosophizing in Athens, he was sentenced to death by the city’s democratic government for “impiety” and “corrupting. Plato's Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the field of epistemology, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains a strong foundation for much western philosophy that . Socrates (/ BCE) was a Greek philosopher and is considered the father of western philosophy. Plato was his most famous student and would . In the ancient world, the most influential division of the subject was the Stoics' division of philosophy into logic, ethics, and physics (conceived as the study of the nature of the world, and including both natural science and metaphysics).	1,263	ENGLISH	1
Major General Benedict Arnold, Continental Army. Note—History may well have to be revised when all is said and done about the current occupant of the White House. Arnold’s treason may well seem trivial by comparison. If only he had died of his wounds after the Saratoga Campaign—or better yet, had completely recovered and not fallen for the wiles of a teenage temptress, or nursed the bitterness of a petty jealous grudge Benedict Arnold would be celebrated today as one of the greatest military heroes of the American Revolution on one hand or risen on that reputation to almost any political position he desired after the war, perhaps to the Presidency itself. But he threw it all away to die an un-trusted traitor exile in the lands of his old enemy. Young Benedict Arnold, the most recent of a long line of that name, was born on January 14, 1741, the eldest surviving son of an old colonial family. His father, also named Benedict was a wealthy merchant and respected citizen of their home town, Norwich, Connecticut. The boy was schooled locally with the intention that he should go to Yale College to prepare to join his father’s business. But after all but one of his sisters died in childhood in the space of a few years, the elder Arnold took to drink and eventually lost his business and his fortune. Instead of being sent to Yale, his mother arranged for him to be apprenticed to an apothecary to help support the family. He was bound for seven years service. In 1757 Arnold found relief from the drudgery of shop life when he enlisted in the Connecticut Militia at age 16 for service in the French and Indian Wars. He marched with an untrained Militia column to the front around Albany, New York and Lake George. But the relief force got word that Fort William Henry had fallen after a siege and that French native auxiliaries had been allowed to commit atrocities on the survivors including women and children who had taken refuge there. The Militia fell back in a near panic before ever contacting the enemy. Muster rolls indicate that Arnold served just 13 days giving rise to unsubstantiated lore that he deserted out of disgust and contempt for the rabble that was the Militia. In likelihood, however, he was released at the request of his mother who had opposed his dreams of military glory, because he was the sole support of his family. Arnold’s mother, to whom he was devoted, died in 1759 worsening his father’s chronic alcohol abuse—he was arrested for public drunkenness and denied communion in the local church, a sign of complete pariah status. His young son buckled down to support his sister and failing father. After his father finally died in 1761, Arnold moved to the capital of New Haven where he opened his own successful pharmacy and book shop. The business prospered. Arnold borrowed money from his mother’s wealthy kin the Lanthrops to repurchase the family home that his father had squandered away. Unsentimentally, he turned around and sold the property within a year at a tidy profit. After re-paying the loan he had enough left over to form a trading company with another young merchant, Adam Babcock. They bought three ships and entered the lucrative West Indies Trade. He brought his surviving sister Hannah to New Haven to manage the apothecary shop while he was often away in command of one of his own trading ships plying waters as far north as Quebec and all of the Colonial ports and rich Caribbean isles. Until the Sugar and Stamp Acts curtailed his business, Arnold had taken no part in the growing political restiveness with British in the Colonies. Although he joined the Sons of Liberty he took no part in public demonstrations preferring to serve the cause—and his own purse by continuing his trading operations as a smuggler. Difficulties in dodging the Royal Navy cut into his income and he was soon in debt by £16,000, an enormous sum, and facing bankruptcy and debtors’ prison. On January 27, 1768 Arnold watched, and likely supervised as a mob of Sons of Liberty attacked and roughed up a would-be informant to the British of about his smuggling activities. Arnold was arrested, found guilty of disorderly conduct, and fined 50 schillings. It could have been much worse. And the publicity around the prosecution made Arnold a local celebrity and Patriot hero. A month later Arnold conveniently married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the Sheriff of New Haven. His new father in law provided some shield from prosecution by Arnold’s creditors. The couple had three children, including yet another Benedict, before she died while her husband was away at war during the Revolution. As tensions rose, Arnold returned to his business only attending a Sons of Liberty meeting while ashore and taking no leading role. He was at sea when the Boston Massacre and the event that came to be called much later the Boston Tea Party happened, but took note of hearing of them in his personal journal. He was, however home in New Haven when actual fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775. Once again he responded to the Militia call and this time as elected the Captain of his company as befitted a man of his station in life. Within a month Connecticut troops were marching to join the army besieging the British in Boston. Arnold had not been on the scene long before he conceived of an audacious plan and took it to the Committee of Safety which was trying to organize an army. He proposed a surprise attack on Fort Ticonderoga at the southern end of Lake Champlain, probably the most important inland strategic point in the Colonies, lying on the traditional invasion rout from Canada. The fort had been built by the French but following the settlement of the Seven Years War—the global conflict of which our French and Indian Wars were just a part—the fort and French North America—Quebec and Upper Canada—had been ceded to the British. A state-of-the-art modern masonry star fort it should have been virtually impregnable. But Arnold somehow had information that it was lightly garrisoned since there was no threat of a French invasion to defend against and troops were need elsewhere to cow the upstart colonists. The fort also housed a substantial arsenal of powder and shot, stands of musket ready to arm militia forces or native auxiliaries, and housed one of the largest concentrations of heavy artillery in the country. The Committee immediately saw the importance of such a mission and commissioned Arnold to carry it out with the rank of Colonel. They did not however, have troops to spare around Boston for the project. He was sent out to scrounge men how ever he could. He made for Bennington in the wilds of the Hampshire Grants where he knew of an already formed force perfect for his raid. Ethan Allen, leader of the Green Mountain Boys. The Hampshire Grants, the territory now known as Vermont (The Green Mountain), was claimed in whole or in part by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York. It was settled by hardy pioneer farmers from Massachusetts and Connecticut largely on the basis of questionable land warrants. When New York attempted to assert sovereignty and either oust or tax those who they considered squatters. Firebrand Ethan Allen had organized his Green Mountain Boys for virtual guerilla war against New York surveyors, would-be settlers, Sheriffs, bailiffs, tax assessors, and judges who tried to assert control. The conflict had been ongoing since 1770. The Green Mountain Boys were tough, experienced, relatively well disciplined, and from the point of view of New York as much brigands as militia. Allen was known to be a fierce Patriot. Less than two weeks before the fighting in Lexington and Concord, he had convened the Winchester Convention which drafted a blustery declaration King. Arnold found Allen not only amenable to the project, but found that he was already contemplating it. In fact he had gathered a force that included irregular Connecticut and Massachusetts Militia men in addition to his own for the project. The two strong minded men joined forces, each not entirely trusting the other. Allen insisted on command but agreed to Arnold’s plan of operation and to accept his advice. The combined force moved swiftly and without detection. They surrounded the Fort before dawn on May 10, less than a month after the war broke out. Only 83 men had made a boat crossing before the commanders decided that it was too near dawn to risk further boats being spotted. By agreement Arnold and Allen together marched at the head of a small unit and surprised the lone sentry at the gate, gaining admission into the Fort. Popular images of the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga published after the American Revolution feature Ethan Allen demanding the surrender but omit Benedict Arnold who conceived of the plan and was at the side of the Green Mountain Boys leader. They made straight way to the Commander’s quarters where they roused Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham from his slumber. The Lt. challenged their authority to enter the Fort to which Allen famously bellowed that he demanded surrender in the name of “in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!” Allen would later claim his demand was directed at the commander, but Captain William Delaplace was still groggily struggling into his clothing. He emerged minutes later to surrender his sword and 48 man garrison. Without firing a shot Arnold and Allen had won the most significant Colonial victory of the early months of the war. The colorful Ethan Allen would claim—and get—most of the credit for the raid. But he and the Green Mountain Boys quickly left the Fort carrying with them a modest amount of small arms and ammunition. The post was left under Arnold’s command of a small garrison of mostly Connecticut militia men. Arnold was concerned that when they discovered what had happened, that the English would mount an attack down Lake Champaign to regain the Fort. He made what preparations he could and pled for reinforcements from the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. But those reinforcements came from an unexpected direction and source. In June 1000 Connecticut troops arrived under the command of Colonel Benjamin Hinman who asserted his authority to relieve Arnold of command at Ticonderoga and the other near-by strong hold of Crown Point. Citing his Massachusetts commission and orders, Arnold refused to be relieved. He denied Hinman and his troops access to the fort except under limited, stringent conditions, interfered with supply columns, and generally harassed Hinman. Finally a delegation from Massachusetts was summoned—and Arnold even impeded their journey when he discovered their mission—to explain that Hinman and the Connecticut troops were acting in concert with Massachusetts. Feeling his honor slighted, Arnold resigned his commission and left in a huff. The value of Ticonderoga would become apparent in the coming months. Not only did it become a jumping off point for an invasion of Quebec later in the year, but stout Henry Knox arrived from the Siege of Boston to haul many of the Fort’s guns by sledge across the frozen New England landscape. The sight of their deployment on the heights across from the city forced the British to abandon Boston to General George Washington’s new Continental Army. So that summer Arnold found himself without commission or command as plans were being drawn up to attack Quebec via the traditional Lake Champlain route using Ticonderoga as a jumping off point and supply base. He lobbied Congress in Philadelphia for command of that expedition. But Col. Hinman’s reports of Arnold’s shenanigans, which he reported as bordering on mutiny and treason, soured powerful members of Congress on him. Command of the proposed invasion was given to New York Patroon General Philip Schuyler and Anglo-Irish General Richard Montgomery Instead, Arnold went to Massachusetts to lay another project before Washington who was settling into command of the Army. He proposed a second expedition against Quebec in support of the main attack. He would lead a force that would drive west across the wilderness of what is now Maine to the St. Lawrence, perhaps provoke an uprising of the French settlers against their new English masters, and lay siege to Quebec City itself in conjunction with Montgomery’s Army. The audacious plan met with the approval of Washington, who always liked daring, surprise maneuvers and coordinated, multi-pronged attacks. He commissioned Arnold a Colonel in the Continental Army and gave him a small force of Continental troops to accomplish the mission. Arnold had his men marched from Cambridge in several contingents from September 8-11 to Newburyport where a small fleet was assembled to sail with them to the mouth of the Kennebec River hopefully eluding detection by the Royal Navy. Sailing was delayed by fog and bad weather and the ships did not reach their destination until 20th of the month and then spent another two days sailing up the river to Gardinerston where they spent another couple of days transferring their supplies to boats to proceed further. Some of the force had to be put to work building the bateaux, light, flat bottomed French style boats capable of being portaged. Sending some supplies by boat, Arnold marched some of his men along the banks of the river for 45 miles. From that point he sent out scouts to determine his route and began to hear reports of Mohawk and other English ally native activity ahead. His forces were slowed down by the 12 mile portage known as The Great Carrying Place and then by boggy ground and rain. By now rations were short and the large party was having a hard time feeding itself on game despite the presence of Daniel Morgan’s expert Pennsylvania riflemen. Arnold dispatched messages to both Washington and Montgomery detailing his slow progress. Unfortunately the letters to Montgomery were intercepted revealing the mission and robbing it of essential surprise. Ascending the Dead River in October was arduous. Currents were too swift to pole against, then a torrential rain storm flooded their camp. Some of the party went up a tributary by mistake, fooled by the high water. Seven bateaux including those caring most of the remaining food supplies over turned and the stores were lost. The rain and flooding dampened powder as well. Nearly starving and lagging far behind the main force 450 men under Lt. Col. Enos turned back. Arnold had already sent some sick and starving men from his lead force back to the Maine settlements. Various sections of the army staggered into Lake Mégantic in the St. Lawrence Highlands over several days at the end of October. Most were starving. Some had been reduced to boiling shoes. Captain Henry Dearborn’s dog was eaten, even his bones crushed to make soup. At this point they finally made contact with local French residents who supplied the men with food, and told Arnold that his plans had been discovered. On November 9 Arnold and 600 remaining men of his force, many in wrenched condition finally arrived on the St. Lawrence at a point across the river from the Quebec City. He managed to get his men across in a night crossing between picketing Royal Navy ship two days later and formed on the Plaines of Abraham in front of the city on the 13th. The walled city on the heights above them was defended by a garrison of 150 Royal Highland Emigrants, 400 Royal Marines from the ships patrolling the River, and several hundred untrained and unreliable French speaking militia whose loyalty was suspect. Arnold advanced a Flag of Truce to demand the surrender of the City. Officers there could plainly see the condition of Arnold’s forces and wisely refused. Without any artillery to reduce the walls, Arnold had no choice but to fall back and wait on the arrival of Montgomery who had just taken Montreal. Montgomery arrived at Pointe-aux-Trembles on December 3 and the combined forces now under Montgomery’s over-all command laid siege to the city. Weather continued to deteriorate through the month of December. The arrival of a major winter storm would make the exposed positions of the besieging army untenable. Finally Montgomery ordered a desperate attack on December 31. It was a disaster. Montgomery was killed, becoming the first American General to die and becoming something of a folk hero, his death commemorated in a heroic painting. Arnold’s leg was shattered. Morgan and 350 of other men were captured. The army was forced to fall back on Montreal where Arnold assumed command and learned that he had been promoted to Brigadier General. When the British advanced on the city, Arnold led a brilliant rear guard action knowing that the English would not stop short of Ticonderoga. James Wilkinson, a young officer who in later life would also become a notorious traitor, noted that Arnold was the last man to depart the defenses at Saint Jean as the reinforced Red Coat Army advanced. Then Arnold hastily constructed his mosquito fleet of gun boats on Lake Champlain. The little fleet was overwhelmed by the Royal Navy in October 1776 but by that time the snow was beginning to fall and the English had to scrub plans to attack Ticonderoga for the year. But in 1777 they would make another try with an even bigger Army under the command of General John “Gentleman Johnny” Burgoyne. Although somewhat overshadowed by the death of the gallant Montgomery, Arnold found himself a national hero and held in high esteem by both Washington and the Commanding General of the North Department, General Schuyler. Of course being Arnold, he not so secretly thought that he should have that new command. Back at Ticonderoga with not much to do Arnold quickly entered controversies with fellow officers narrowly escaping arrest on charge brought by an officer he had brought charges against. Some complained of his lavish spending and suggested to Congress that his accounts were not in order. Then he made particular enemies of two junior officers with significant political connections to Congress. Washington rescued him from the hot water by giving him a new assignment—the defense of Rhode Island following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776. On the way there he visited his children who had lost their mother while he was away. He wintered mostly in Boston where he learned that he had been passed over for a promotion to Major General. He offered Washington his resignation which was refused and Washington wrote Congress in an attempt to have the decision reversed. Arnold decided to personally visit Philadelphia to lobby on his own behalf. But on his way south, he learned that a British column was marching on the Continental supply base at Danville, Connecticut. Arnold quickly gathered a force of Militia and Along with General David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold S. Silliman met the British at the small but significant Battle of Ridgefield in which they intercepted the enemy column as it attempted to return to the coast. In the sharp engagement Wooster was killed and Arnold was wounded for a second time in his left leg. At Philadelphia given the vacancy left by Wooster and Arnold’s gallant service, Congress relented and granted him his Major General commission. But he was not granted seniority retroactive to the earlier round of promotions over him. In a snit, he wrote another resignation to Washington, who received it on the same day news arrived that Ticonderoga had fallen. Instead Washington ordered him north to assist in the defense against the advancing British. On July 24, 1777 Schuyler at Fort Edward ordered him to take a force of 900 men to lift the siege of Fort Stanwix. As Arnold closed in, he dispatched an Indian messenger who spread word among Brigadier General Barry St. Leger’s large force of native auxiliaries that his force was treble its actual size and much nearer than they were. The auxiliaries, who were savvy about picking their fights, melted away leaving St. Leger’s force exposed and forcing him to lift the siege and retreat. Gilbert Stuart's post-Revolution portrait of Major General Horatio Gates, commander of the forces sent to stop General John Burgoyne's invasion army in Up State New York. Gates and Arnold clashed bitterly. When Arnold returned to the Hudson, he found that the army had retreated to a camp south of Stillwater and that General Horatio Gates had assumed command. Being Arnold, he once again felt snubbed for being passed over. Washington, from his headquarters, decided to maneuver aggressively to meet the British advance. He sent forces under Arnold and General Benjamin Lincoln north during the summer. When Washington discovered that much of British Commanding General Lord Howe’s forces had been sent by ship to the South rather than being available to drive north up the Hudson to joined up with Burgoyne, he reinforced the army in the north with hundreds of men under General Israel Putnam and the 400 elite men of Daniel Morgan’s Rifle Corps, Morgan having been released from British custody in a prisoner swap. Gates ordered the now united army north to take up a position astride the route that Burgoyne must take unless he made a long detour. Engineers trained by the Polish officer Thaddeus Kosciusko had time to dig in and erect elaborate field fortifications at Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles south of Saratoga. Gates had nearly 9000 troops both Continental Regulars and Militia. Burgoyne who was approaching with only the head of his Army had about 7000. Since the Militia was considered unreliable in open field combat, Gates planned to wait for a frontal attack by the enemy and cut them to pieces from behind his fortifications. Burgoyne for his part was blind as most of his “eyes”, his native auxiliaries, had deserted after Arnold’s Fort Stanwix ruse. He suspected a trap but could not confirm it. As the enemy approached on the morning of September 19, Arnold realized that the left of the American line on the heights was vulnerable to a flanking maneuver through the woods. He pleaded with Gates to allow him to take a significant force down from the heights to meet such an attack using the American’s superior skills in fighting from the cover of woods. Gates was reluctant but finally partially relented and allowed Arnold to send out a reconnaissance in force led by Daniel Morgan’s riflemen with support from Henry Dearborn’s light infantry. As he anticipated, Burgoyne split his forces into three columns and sent his right, under General Simon Frazier to flank the American left. Morgan’s men advanced down to an open field on John Freeman’s farm where they saw advance units from the center column under General James Hamilton which had arrived ahead of the delayed Frazier and were beginning to advance through the thick woods and across a deep ravine. Carefully choosing their targets, the expert riflemen picked off nearly every officer and many non-commissioned officers of this advance guard sending them reeling in confusion. Morgan ordered his men to charge, unaware that Frazier was arriving on the scene and they were attacking the main column. Some of Hamilton’s retreating men were fired on by Frazier’s troops in the confusion. Morgan had to retreat back to the woods where he resumed picking off advancing troops. The fighting delayed the whole advance and frustrated the flanking plan. After a two hour lull, while Hamilton’s force formed up for an assault and reinforcements in the form of several regiments arrived from Gates. When the attack resumed American fire, especially from Morgan’s riflemen, picked off more British officers, and perhaps even more importantly, artillery crews. Several guns were at least temporarily overrun by the Americans. The English center almost broke. Later in the day the tide of battle turned somewhat and the English were able to threaten both the American right and left, which Arnold defended with additional reinforcements from Gates. When darkness fell ending the fighting, the Americans fell back on their entrenchments leaving the British in control of the battle field, the traditional definition of a tactical victory. But an extremely costly one. Instead of renewing the attack, Burgoyne delayed to bury his dead and reorganize. Then he received a days old message from Henry Clinton in New York that he might possibly be able to attack American posts on the Hudson, Fort’s Montgomery and Clinton then proceed north to relieve Burgoyne. Gentleman Jim elected to wait for Clinton. But Clinton dallied in New York then finally took the American Forts on October 6 and his advance guard got no farther north than the Livingston Estate Claremont on the 16th. Clearly Clinton would be no help to Burgoyne. Meanwhile Benjamin Lincoln and an army from Massachusetts set out to retake Ticonderoga. They rolled up several minor British outposts, spend a few days bombarding the fort, then decided to bypass it and proceed to link up with Gates. While all of this was going on Gates and Arnold were having a monumental falling out. Gates failed to even mention Arnold in his official report of the battle to New York Governor Henry Clinton despite the fact that Arnold was in effective field command during the entire battle as Gates remained well behind the lines in his tent and the officers of the army all credited him with the de facto victory. The two generals got into a raging shouting match and Gates relieved Arnold of his command. Arnold requested re-assignment to Washington’s main army, which Gates gladly granted. But Arnold did not leave. He kept to his tent, biding his time. By October 7, with Lincoln’s arrival Gates now had 12,000 men. The unreinforced Burgoyne’s forces were reduced to 6,600, many of them beginning to suffer from hunger as supplies dwindled. Burgoyne, ignoring advice from some senior officers to retreat, decided to test the American left at Bemis Heights again with a reconnaissance in force. With Arnold relieved of duty, Gates took personal command of the left. Fighting began around 2 pm with Morgan’s men once again doing their deadly work. The on the right the Americans repelled a Grenadier bayonet charge with devastating volleys at close range from behind tree cover. Then they counter charged breaking the flank and capturing senior officers. On the left Morgan swept aside Canadian militia and native auxiliaries and engaged the main attacking body under Frazier, who was killed in the action, and Burgoyne’s hat and coat were peppered with Yankee balls. The English fell back in confusion on their own entrenchments. At this point the enraged Arnold, who had been drinking in camp, could no longer contain himself. He rode out to join the action, chased by an officer sent by Gates to order his return to camp. Arnold arrived in time to ride to the front of Brigadier General Enoch Poor, men who were in pursuit of the English falling back on two redoubts of the British camp and the thin line of Canadian Militia between them. He led an attack on the first redoubt under the command of Lord Balcarres which was repulsed after furious fighting. Arnold then rode through the Canadians, dodging their bullets to lead men under Brigadier General Ebenezer Learned on an attack on the second redoubt, which was taken and whose commander, Hessian Heinrich von Breymann was killed. In one of the last vollies fired by the defenders before they were overwhelmed, Arnold was shot in the leg and his horse killed. The wounded leg was crushed under the falling horse. As he lay bleeding on the field, Gates’s messenger finally caught up to him with his orders to return to camp. The gravely wounded Arnold was carried there. As darkness fell Burgoyne’s Army was clearly defeated. An attempted night raid by German troops to retake the fallen redoubt was the last action. Arnold’s actions that day awed the army. His presence on the field had electrified the troops. And it was undoubtedly the single most extraordinary act of mutinous bravery in American military history. Gates, of course, was unimpressed and unamused. Burgoyne retreated under cover of darkness later that night. He had lost over 1000 men in the two battles including many of his most capable senior officers. On October 13 the pursuing Americans caught up to him near Saratoga and he had to surrender his army to Gates on the 17th. The cut off troops at Ticonderoga had to negotiate a tricky retreat to Quebec as well. It was a stunning and complete American victory and considered the turning point of the war. In France news of the victory pushed the King into open alliance with the American’s—and alliance that would be critical to ultimate victory. Despite Gate’s voracious protests, Arnold was recognized as the hero of the Campaign. As a reward he was restored to seniority as a Major General. But he was gravely wounded and unfit for field command. After months of recovery he rejoined the Army at winter quarters at Valley Forge in May 1778 in advance of the coming campaign season. He was cheered by the Army, particularly those who had served under him in the Saratoga campaign. That spring he participated along with other officers in taking and signing a symbolic Oath of Allegiance to the United States. He was walking painfully with a limp, his shattered oft-wounded left leg now 2½ inches shorter than the other. He asked Washington for assignment as military commander of Philadelphia after the British retreated from the city in June. 18 year old Philadelphia belle Peggy Shippen, daughter of a wealthy Tory family, won Arnold's heart and put him in contact with British agent Major John Andre, a former suitor. From the beginning, he planned to use this position to enrich himself. He considered it as no more than due for his sacrificial service. He quietly entered several business deals, took bribes to favor some merchants over others as suppliers to the Army, and may have privately sold Army stores. Meanwhile he lived lavishly and allowed himself to be entertained at the most fashionable homes in the city, including those known to be British sympathizers. At one such home he met lovely 18 year old Peggy Shippen whose father had done business with the British during their occupation of the city. Arnold wooed and won her. The two were married in April 1779. Meanwhile Arnold’s plundering drew unwelcome attention. Other officers had benefited similarly in their commands, it was even considered, marginally by some, as an acceptable and expected benefit of office. But Arnold’s dealings were more flagrant than most and done under the very nose of Congress which had returned to the city. When charges of impropriety were publicly leveled, Arnold demanded a court martial to clear his name. By that time, under the influence of the Tory Shippen family the aggrieved Arnold was toying with the idea of changing sides. Peggy was able to put him in touch with a former beau, the dashing Major John André who became a go-between in tricky negotiations with General Clinton in New York. André had just been placed in charge of Clinton’s espionage operations. By July Arnold was passing along information on American troop deployment and supply depots through the use of codes and invisible ink in letters sent via Peggy and her ladies circle to André. He requested £10,000 for his services. Clinton demurred at that sum, but passed on indications that it might be forthcoming if Arnold could provide information on American defenses and dispositions along the Hudson as he planned another drive to the north hoping to cut New England off from the lower colonies. Negotiations broke off however. Arnold was stuck in Philadelphia where feeling was rising against Tories like the Shippen family and his own high handed business dealings. His court martial was finally convened in December 1779. Despite prejudice against him by some members of the court, however, he was cleared of all but two minor charges of corruption in January. Arnold launched a letter writing campaign to publicize the results and characterize them as a vindication. Despite Washington’s personal fondness for Arnold—he sent a private letter congratulating him on the birth of his son that spring—the General was forced to issue a short, public censure: The Commander-in-Chief would have been much happier in an occasion of bestowing commendations on an officer who had rendered such distinguished services to his country as Major General Arnold; but in the present case, a sense of duty and a regard to candor oblige him to declare that he considers his conduct [in the convicted actions] as imprudent and improper.—George Washington, April 9, 1780. That rebuke was deeply humiliating. Then Congress reopened old charges that he had misspent funds on the Quebec invasion years earlier and concluded that he owed £1,000. Enraged, Arnold resigned his position in Philadelphia but not yet in the Army. About the same time old friend Philip Schuyler offered him an out—command of the critical American garrison at West Point on the Hudson, the key to defenses to the north. Schuyler took the mater up with Washington who at first would not commit. But on the strength of the possibility, Arnold reopened his channels to André and Clinton. He stopped at West Point to inspect its defenses and sent a detailed report as a sign of good faith along with other intelligence. He returned to Philadelphia to sell his house and began to arrange the transfer of his assets to London. By July 12 after a flurry of messages Arnold made clear that he would surrender West Point upon taking command for a price of £20,000, £1,000 payable immediately in cash. On August 3, Washington finally made the appointment to the West Point command. On the 22nd Peggy received word that Clinton had agreed on the terms. Almost comic misadventures followed as the two sides attempted to work out details. One coded letter ended up in the hands of Connecticut authorities, but could not be read. In this 19th Century engraved illustration, Arnold passes the defensive plans to West Point to Major John Andre and even advises the spy to hide them in his boot where they were discovered when Andre was captured. Arnold and André finally met secretly face to face to work out the details on October 21. André was in civilian clothes. The boat he was supposed to take back to the city was fired upon and damaged by American troops forcing André to attempt to return overland. Arnold wrote out passes to get him through the lines. André was captured by a militia patrol near Tarrytown on October 23. Incriminating papers exposing the plot were immediately sent to Washington. Meanwhile André was sent by the officer in charge of him who knew nothing of the content of the papers, back to Arnold at West Point. Washington’s spy chief quickly sent a rider to retrieve him but the escort was inexplicably allowed to proceed to West Point to inform Arnold of the arrest. Despite Washington’s best efforts, Arnold was able to slip away from West Point and was rowed down river to be picked up the damaged ship HMS Vulcan, which had failed to retrieve André. Arnold boldly wrote to Washington requesting safe passage out of Philadelphia for Peggy and his family, which the gentlemanly Commander granted, not yet aware of the depth of her own involvement in the plot. Washington wrote to Clinton offering to exchange André for Arnold but the request was rebuffed. André was tied and hung as a spy in early October, his fate sealed by the earlier British execution of Patriot officer Nathan Hale. Washington sent agents to the city to attempt to kidnap Arnold, and they nearly succeeded but he changed his quarters. Late in October he sailed from New York to take up a British command in the South. About the same time he sent a public letter attempting to defend his actions to the American people. It was not well received. Arnold was given a commission as a British Brigadier General with an annual income of several hundred Pounds, but paid him only £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 for his treason because his plot had failed. Arnold as a British Brigadier who captured Williamsburg and sent Governor Thomas Jefferson fleeing. He then played a cat and mouse game with Continental forces under the Marquis de Lafayette until the arrival of the main armies under Lord Cornwallis. In December 1780 Arnold commanded a force of more than 1,600 men which captured the Virginia capital of Richmond sending the legislature and Governor Thomas Jefferson fleeing. Arnold’s force was pursued by Virginia Militia and Continental troops under the Marquis de Lafayette who was under the personal orders of Washington to summarily hang Arnold if captured. Arnold fell back until reinforced and then raided in Virginia until Lord Cornwallis and the southern army arrived and relieved Arnold of command. Arnold returned to New York where he proposed various aggressive raids on American economic interests, almost all denied by Clinton. But Clinton finally agreed to a raid on New London Connecticut causing damage estimated at $500,000 when Arnold burned the town and its warehouses and captured Fort Griswold. But Arnold lost a third of his 1,700 man command in the attack. Clinton concluded he could afford no more such victories. When word of Cornwallis’s surrender reached Clinton in New York in October 1781, he gave leave for Arnold and his family to sail for London. His active role on both sides of the American Revolution was over. In England he was celebrated by the Tories, reviled by the Whigs who were in the ascendency, and mistrusted in the Army. Public opinion held him to be a traitor who could not be trusted. Every attempt to gain a new command, a position in the government, or a sinecure in the East India Company was turned down. He had a hard time getting along on a Brigadier’s half pay and pension given Peggy’s lavish spending. In 1785 leaving Peggy and the younger children in London he and his son Richard from his first marriage emigrated to Saint John, New Brunswick where they speculated in land and Arnold returned to sea as a merchant trader. After a successful first voyage, Arnold retrieved Peggy and the children, settled various law suits in London and Philadelphia and settled them in St. Johns. He was soon embroiled in still more law suits and controversy about his business dealings and was so unpopular that a mob burned him in effigy in front of his home. The family was forced to return to London in 1791. Controversy and law suits dogged him. He fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale for impugning his honor in the House of Lords. With the outbreak of the French Revolution he outfitted a privateer to prey on French shipping and their Caribbean islands. He was captured and imprisoned on Guadeloupe charged with spying for the British and avoided hanging in a daring escape to the blockading British ships. Then he organized militias on British held islands to repel French threats. He was rewarded for this service with a large land grant held jointly with son Richard in Upper Canada. Back in London in 1801 his health began to fail. Gout crippled his good leg and he could no longer go to sea. He suffered dropsy and by summer was lapsing into periods of fever and delirium. Arnold died on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60. He left Peggy a woefully small inheritance and a bad reputation. He was, however, buried with full British military honors. In America Arnold’s name became literally synonymous with treason. His real contributions to the Revolutionary war effort have been forgotten in the public mind except for military historians and Revolutionary period specialists. Still, there was a lingering affection for their old commander among some of his troops despite it all. And some later admirers thought his contributions deserved some recognition. But it was always dicey. A boot on a nameless monument commemorates the battlefield heroics of Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Bemis Heights. On the old Bemis Heights battle ground of the Saratoga Campaign a small monument stands with a carved boot on it. The inscription reads “In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General.” It omits a name. The monument was paid for by General John Watts DePeyster, a New York Militia officer and noted military historian.	<urn:uuid:d969f676-7460-4331-b63b-f42fcdcf3afd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://patrickmurfin.blogspot.com/2020/01/benedict-arnoldthe-synonym-for-treason.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00546.warc.gz	en	0.983389	8,338	3.453125	3	[ -0.26824384927749634, 0.12457786500453949, 0.17230185866355896, -0.4781135320663452, -0.26102784276008606, -0.07129969447851181, 0.2361392229795456, 0.0010338164865970612, -0.13240709900856018, 0.08848956227302551, 0.03368189558386803, -0.05006611347198486, 0.018403993919491768, 0.63010978...	2	Major General Benedict Arnold, Continental Army. Note—History may well have to be revised when all is said and done about the current occupant of the White House. Arnold’s treason may well seem trivial by comparison. If only he had died of his wounds after the Saratoga Campaign—or better yet, had completely recovered and not fallen for the wiles of a teenage temptress, or nursed the bitterness of a petty jealous grudge Benedict Arnold would be celebrated today as one of the greatest military heroes of the American Revolution on one hand or risen on that reputation to almost any political position he desired after the war, perhaps to the Presidency itself. But he threw it all away to die an un-trusted traitor exile in the lands of his old enemy. Young Benedict Arnold, the most recent of a long line of that name, was born on January 14, 1741, the eldest surviving son of an old colonial family. His father, also named Benedict was a wealthy merchant and respected citizen of their home town, Norwich, Connecticut. The boy was schooled locally with the intention that he should go to Yale College to prepare to join his father’s business. But after all but one of his sisters died in childhood in the space of a few years, the elder Arnold took to drink and eventually lost his business and his fortune. Instead of being sent to Yale, his mother arranged for him to be apprenticed to an apothecary to help support the family. He was bound for seven years service. In 1757 Arnold found relief from the drudgery of shop life when he enlisted in the Connecticut Militia at age 16 for service in the French and Indian Wars. He marched with an untrained Militia column to the front around Albany, New York and Lake George. But the relief force got word that Fort William Henry had fallen after a siege and that French native auxiliaries had been allowed to commit atrocities on the survivors including women and children who had taken refuge there. The Militia fell back in a near panic before ever contacting the enemy. Muster rolls indicate that Arnold served just 13 days giving rise to unsubstantiated lore that he deserted out of disgust and contempt for the rabble that was the Militia. In likelihood, however, he was released at the request of his mother who had opposed his dreams of military glory, because he was the sole support of his family. Arnold’s mother, to whom he was devoted, died in 1759 worsening his father’s chronic alcohol abuse—he was arrested for public drunkenness and denied communion in the local church, a sign of complete pariah status. His young son buckled down to support his sister and failing father. After his father finally died in 1761, Arnold moved to the capital of New Haven where he opened his own successful pharmacy and book shop. The business prospered. Arnold borrowed money from his mother’s wealthy kin the Lanthrops to repurchase the family home that his father had squandered away. Unsentimentally, he turned around and sold the property within a year at a tidy profit. After re-paying the loan he had enough left over to form a trading company with another young merchant, Adam Babcock. They bought three ships and entered the lucrative West Indies Trade. He brought his surviving sister Hannah to New Haven to manage the apothecary shop while he was often away in command of one of his own trading ships plying waters as far north as Quebec and all of the Colonial ports and rich Caribbean isles. Until the Sugar and Stamp Acts curtailed his business, Arnold had taken no part in the growing political restiveness with British in the Colonies. Although he joined the Sons of Liberty he took no part in public demonstrations preferring to serve the cause—and his own purse by continuing his trading operations as a smuggler. Difficulties in dodging the Royal Navy cut into his income and he was soon in debt by £16,000, an enormous sum, and facing bankruptcy and debtors’ prison. On January 27, 1768 Arnold watched, and likely supervised as a mob of Sons of Liberty attacked and roughed up a would-be informant to the British of about his smuggling activities. Arnold was arrested, found guilty of disorderly conduct, and fined 50 schillings. It could have been much worse. And the publicity around the prosecution made Arnold a local celebrity and Patriot hero. A month later Arnold conveniently married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the Sheriff of New Haven. His new father in law provided some shield from prosecution by Arnold’s creditors. The couple had three children, including yet another Benedict, before she died while her husband was away at war during the Revolution. As tensions rose, Arnold returned to his business only attending a Sons of Liberty meeting while ashore and taking no leading role. He was at sea when the Boston Massacre and the event that came to be called much later the Boston Tea Party happened, but took note of hearing of them in his personal journal. He was, however home in New Haven when actual fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775. Once again he responded to the Militia call and this time as elected the Captain of his company as befitted a man of his station in life. Within a month Connecticut troops were marching to join the army besieging the British in Boston. Arnold had not been on the scene long before he conceived of an audacious plan and took it to the Committee of Safety which was trying to organize an army. He proposed a surprise attack on Fort Ticonderoga at the southern end of Lake Champlain, probably the most important inland strategic point in the Colonies, lying on the traditional invasion rout from Canada. The fort had been built by the French but following the settlement of the Seven Years War—the global conflict of which our French and Indian Wars were just a part—the fort and French North America—Quebec and Upper Canada—had been ceded to the British. A state-of-the-art modern masonry star fort it should have been virtually impregnable. But Arnold somehow had information that it was lightly garrisoned since there was no threat of a French invasion to defend against and troops were need elsewhere to cow the upstart colonists. The fort also housed a substantial arsenal of powder and shot, stands of musket ready to arm militia forces or native auxiliaries, and housed one of the largest concentrations of heavy artillery in the country. The Committee immediately saw the importance of such a mission and commissioned Arnold to carry it out with the rank of Colonel. They did not however, have troops to spare around Boston for the project. He was sent out to scrounge men how ever he could. He made for Bennington in the wilds of the Hampshire Grants where he knew of an already formed force perfect for his raid. Ethan Allen, leader of the Green Mountain Boys. The Hampshire Grants, the territory now known as Vermont (The Green Mountain), was claimed in whole or in part by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York. It was settled by hardy pioneer farmers from Massachusetts and Connecticut largely on the basis of questionable land warrants. When New York attempted to assert sovereignty and either oust or tax those who they considered squatters. Firebrand Ethan Allen had organized his Green Mountain Boys for virtual guerilla war against New York surveyors, would-be settlers, Sheriffs, bailiffs, tax assessors, and judges who tried to assert control. The conflict had been ongoing since 1770. The Green Mountain Boys were tough, experienced, relatively well disciplined, and from the point of view of New York as much brigands as militia. Allen was known to be a fierce Patriot. Less than two weeks before the fighting in Lexington and Concord, he had convened the Winchester Convention which drafted a blustery declaration King. Arnold found Allen not only amenable to the project, but found that he was already contemplating it. In fact he had gathered a force that included irregular Connecticut and Massachusetts Militia men in addition to his own for the project. The two strong minded men joined forces, each not entirely trusting the other. Allen insisted on command but agreed to Arnold’s plan of operation and to accept his advice. The combined force moved swiftly and without detection. They surrounded the Fort before dawn on May 10, less than a month after the war broke out. Only 83 men had made a boat crossing before the commanders decided that it was too near dawn to risk further boats being spotted. By agreement Arnold and Allen together marched at the head of a small unit and surprised the lone sentry at the gate, gaining admission into the Fort. Popular images of the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga published after the American Revolution feature Ethan Allen demanding the surrender but omit Benedict Arnold who conceived of the plan and was at the side of the Green Mountain Boys leader. They made straight way to the Commander’s quarters where they roused Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham from his slumber. The Lt. challenged their authority to enter the Fort to which Allen famously bellowed that he demanded surrender in the name of “in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!” Allen would later claim his demand was directed at the commander, but Captain William Delaplace was still groggily struggling into his clothing. He emerged minutes later to surrender his sword and 48 man garrison. Without firing a shot Arnold and Allen had won the most significant Colonial victory of the early months of the war. The colorful Ethan Allen would claim—and get—most of the credit for the raid. But he and the Green Mountain Boys quickly left the Fort carrying with them a modest amount of small arms and ammunition. The post was left under Arnold’s command of a small garrison of mostly Connecticut militia men. Arnold was concerned that when they discovered what had happened, that the English would mount an attack down Lake Champaign to regain the Fort. He made what preparations he could and pled for reinforcements from the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. But those reinforcements came from an unexpected direction and source. In June 1000 Connecticut troops arrived under the command of Colonel Benjamin Hinman who asserted his authority to relieve Arnold of command at Ticonderoga and the other near-by strong hold of Crown Point. Citing his Massachusetts commission and orders, Arnold refused to be relieved. He denied Hinman and his troops access to the fort except under limited, stringent conditions, interfered with supply columns, and generally harassed Hinman. Finally a delegation from Massachusetts was summoned—and Arnold even impeded their journey when he discovered their mission—to explain that Hinman and the Connecticut troops were acting in concert with Massachusetts. Feeling his honor slighted, Arnold resigned his commission and left in a huff. The value of Ticonderoga would become apparent in the coming months. Not only did it become a jumping off point for an invasion of Quebec later in the year, but stout Henry Knox arrived from the Siege of Boston to haul many of the Fort’s guns by sledge across the frozen New England landscape. The sight of their deployment on the heights across from the city forced the British to abandon Boston to General George Washington’s new Continental Army. So that summer Arnold found himself without commission or command as plans were being drawn up to attack Quebec via the traditional Lake Champlain route using Ticonderoga as a jumping off point and supply base. He lobbied Congress in Philadelphia for command of that expedition. But Col. Hinman’s reports of Arnold’s shenanigans, which he reported as bordering on mutiny and treason, soured powerful members of Congress on him. Command of the proposed invasion was given to New York Patroon General Philip Schuyler and Anglo-Irish General Richard Montgomery Instead, Arnold went to Massachusetts to lay another project before Washington who was settling into command of the Army. He proposed a second expedition against Quebec in support of the main attack. He would lead a force that would drive west across the wilderness of what is now Maine to the St. Lawrence, perhaps provoke an uprising of the French settlers against their new English masters, and lay siege to Quebec City itself in conjunction with Montgomery’s Army. The audacious plan met with the approval of Washington, who always liked daring, surprise maneuvers and coordinated, multi-pronged attacks. He commissioned Arnold a Colonel in the Continental Army and gave him a small force of Continental troops to accomplish the mission. Arnold had his men marched from Cambridge in several contingents from September 8-11 to Newburyport where a small fleet was assembled to sail with them to the mouth of the Kennebec River hopefully eluding detection by the Royal Navy. Sailing was delayed by fog and bad weather and the ships did not reach their destination until 20th of the month and then spent another two days sailing up the river to Gardinerston where they spent another couple of days transferring their supplies to boats to proceed further. Some of the force had to be put to work building the bateaux, light, flat bottomed French style boats capable of being portaged. Sending some supplies by boat, Arnold marched some of his men along the banks of the river for 45 miles. From that point he sent out scouts to determine his route and began to hear reports of Mohawk and other English ally native activity ahead. His forces were slowed down by the 12 mile portage known as The Great Carrying Place and then by boggy ground and rain. By now rations were short and the large party was having a hard time feeding itself on game despite the presence of Daniel Morgan’s expert Pennsylvania riflemen. Arnold dispatched messages to both Washington and Montgomery detailing his slow progress. Unfortunately the letters to Montgomery were intercepted revealing the mission and robbing it of essential surprise. Ascending the Dead River in October was arduous. Currents were too swift to pole against, then a torrential rain storm flooded their camp. Some of the party went up a tributary by mistake, fooled by the high water. Seven bateaux including those caring most of the remaining food supplies over turned and the stores were lost. The rain and flooding dampened powder as well. Nearly starving and lagging far behind the main force 450 men under Lt. Col. Enos turned back. Arnold had already sent some sick and starving men from his lead force back to the Maine settlements. Various sections of the army staggered into Lake Mégantic in the St. Lawrence Highlands over several days at the end of October. Most were starving. Some had been reduced to boiling shoes. Captain Henry Dearborn’s dog was eaten, even his bones crushed to make soup. At this point they finally made contact with local French residents who supplied the men with food, and told Arnold that his plans had been discovered. On November 9 Arnold and 600 remaining men of his force, many in wrenched condition finally arrived on the St. Lawrence at a point across the river from the Quebec City. He managed to get his men across in a night crossing between picketing Royal Navy ship two days later and formed on the Plaines of Abraham in front of the city on the 13th. The walled city on the heights above them was defended by a garrison of 150 Royal Highland Emigrants, 400 Royal Marines from the ships patrolling the River, and several hundred untrained and unreliable French speaking militia whose loyalty was suspect. Arnold advanced a Flag of Truce to demand the surrender of the City. Officers there could plainly see the condition of Arnold’s forces and wisely refused. Without any artillery to reduce the walls, Arnold had no choice but to fall back and wait on the arrival of Montgomery who had just taken Montreal. Montgomery arrived at Pointe-aux-Trembles on December 3 and the combined forces now under Montgomery’s over-all command laid siege to the city. Weather continued to deteriorate through the month of December. The arrival of a major winter storm would make the exposed positions of the besieging army untenable. Finally Montgomery ordered a desperate attack on December 31. It was a disaster. Montgomery was killed, becoming the first American General to die and becoming something of a folk hero, his death commemorated in a heroic painting. Arnold’s leg was shattered. Morgan and 350 of other men were captured. The army was forced to fall back on Montreal where Arnold assumed command and learned that he had been promoted to Brigadier General. When the British advanced on the city, Arnold led a brilliant rear guard action knowing that the English would not stop short of Ticonderoga. James Wilkinson, a young officer who in later life would also become a notorious traitor, noted that Arnold was the last man to depart the defenses at Saint Jean as the reinforced Red Coat Army advanced. Then Arnold hastily constructed his mosquito fleet of gun boats on Lake Champlain. The little fleet was overwhelmed by the Royal Navy in October 1776 but by that time the snow was beginning to fall and the English had to scrub plans to attack Ticonderoga for the year. But in 1777 they would make another try with an even bigger Army under the command of General John “Gentleman Johnny” Burgoyne. Although somewhat overshadowed by the death of the gallant Montgomery, Arnold found himself a national hero and held in high esteem by both Washington and the Commanding General of the North Department, General Schuyler. Of course being Arnold, he not so secretly thought that he should have that new command. Back at Ticonderoga with not much to do Arnold quickly entered controversies with fellow officers narrowly escaping arrest on charge brought by an officer he had brought charges against. Some complained of his lavish spending and suggested to Congress that his accounts were not in order. Then he made particular enemies of two junior officers with significant political connections to Congress. Washington rescued him from the hot water by giving him a new assignment—the defense of Rhode Island following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776. On the way there he visited his children who had lost their mother while he was away. He wintered mostly in Boston where he learned that he had been passed over for a promotion to Major General. He offered Washington his resignation which was refused and Washington wrote Congress in an attempt to have the decision reversed. Arnold decided to personally visit Philadelphia to lobby on his own behalf. But on his way south, he learned that a British column was marching on the Continental supply base at Danville, Connecticut. Arnold quickly gathered a force of Militia and Along with General David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold S. Silliman met the British at the small but significant Battle of Ridgefield in which they intercepted the enemy column as it attempted to return to the coast. In the sharp engagement Wooster was killed and Arnold was wounded for a second time in his left leg. At Philadelphia given the vacancy left by Wooster and Arnold’s gallant service, Congress relented and granted him his Major General commission. But he was not granted seniority retroactive to the earlier round of promotions over him. In a snit, he wrote another resignation to Washington, who received it on the same day news arrived that Ticonderoga had fallen. Instead Washington ordered him north to assist in the defense against the advancing British. On July 24, 1777 Schuyler at Fort Edward ordered him to take a force of 900 men to lift the siege of Fort Stanwix. As Arnold closed in, he dispatched an Indian messenger who spread word among Brigadier General Barry St. Leger’s large force of native auxiliaries that his force was treble its actual size and much nearer than they were. The auxiliaries, who were savvy about picking their fights, melted away leaving St. Leger’s force exposed and forcing him to lift the siege and retreat. Gilbert Stuart's post-Revolution portrait of Major General Horatio Gates, commander of the forces sent to stop General John Burgoyne's invasion army in Up State New York. Gates and Arnold clashed bitterly. When Arnold returned to the Hudson, he found that the army had retreated to a camp south of Stillwater and that General Horatio Gates had assumed command. Being Arnold, he once again felt snubbed for being passed over. Washington, from his headquarters, decided to maneuver aggressively to meet the British advance. He sent forces under Arnold and General Benjamin Lincoln north during the summer. When Washington discovered that much of British Commanding General Lord Howe’s forces had been sent by ship to the South rather than being available to drive north up the Hudson to joined up with Burgoyne, he reinforced the army in the north with hundreds of men under General Israel Putnam and the 400 elite men of Daniel Morgan’s Rifle Corps, Morgan having been released from British custody in a prisoner swap. Gates ordered the now united army north to take up a position astride the route that Burgoyne must take unless he made a long detour. Engineers trained by the Polish officer Thaddeus Kosciusko had time to dig in and erect elaborate field fortifications at Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles south of Saratoga. Gates had nearly 9000 troops both Continental Regulars and Militia. Burgoyne who was approaching with only the head of his Army had about 7000. Since the Militia was considered unreliable in open field combat, Gates planned to wait for a frontal attack by the enemy and cut them to pieces from behind his fortifications. Burgoyne for his part was blind as most of his “eyes”, his native auxiliaries, had deserted after Arnold’s Fort Stanwix ruse. He suspected a trap but could not confirm it. As the enemy approached on the morning of September 19, Arnold realized that the left of the American line on the heights was vulnerable to a flanking maneuver through the woods. He pleaded with Gates to allow him to take a significant force down from the heights to meet such an attack using the American’s superior skills in fighting from the cover of woods. Gates was reluctant but finally partially relented and allowed Arnold to send out a reconnaissance in force led by Daniel Morgan’s riflemen with support from Henry Dearborn’s light infantry. As he anticipated, Burgoyne split his forces into three columns and sent his right, under General Simon Frazier to flank the American left. Morgan’s men advanced down to an open field on John Freeman’s farm where they saw advance units from the center column under General James Hamilton which had arrived ahead of the delayed Frazier and were beginning to advance through the thick woods and across a deep ravine. Carefully choosing their targets, the expert riflemen picked off nearly every officer and many non-commissioned officers of this advance guard sending them reeling in confusion. Morgan ordered his men to charge, unaware that Frazier was arriving on the scene and they were attacking the main column. Some of Hamilton’s retreating men were fired on by Frazier’s troops in the confusion. Morgan had to retreat back to the woods where he resumed picking off advancing troops. The fighting delayed the whole advance and frustrated the flanking plan. After a two hour lull, while Hamilton’s force formed up for an assault and reinforcements in the form of several regiments arrived from Gates. When the attack resumed American fire, especially from Morgan’s riflemen, picked off more British officers, and perhaps even more importantly, artillery crews. Several guns were at least temporarily overrun by the Americans. The English center almost broke. Later in the day the tide of battle turned somewhat and the English were able to threaten both the American right and left, which Arnold defended with additional reinforcements from Gates. When darkness fell ending the fighting, the Americans fell back on their entrenchments leaving the British in control of the battle field, the traditional definition of a tactical victory. But an extremely costly one. Instead of renewing the attack, Burgoyne delayed to bury his dead and reorganize. Then he received a days old message from Henry Clinton in New York that he might possibly be able to attack American posts on the Hudson, Fort’s Montgomery and Clinton then proceed north to relieve Burgoyne. Gentleman Jim elected to wait for Clinton. But Clinton dallied in New York then finally took the American Forts on October 6 and his advance guard got no farther north than the Livingston Estate Claremont on the 16th. Clearly Clinton would be no help to Burgoyne. Meanwhile Benjamin Lincoln and an army from Massachusetts set out to retake Ticonderoga. They rolled up several minor British outposts, spend a few days bombarding the fort, then decided to bypass it and proceed to link up with Gates. While all of this was going on Gates and Arnold were having a monumental falling out. Gates failed to even mention Arnold in his official report of the battle to New York Governor Henry Clinton despite the fact that Arnold was in effective field command during the entire battle as Gates remained well behind the lines in his tent and the officers of the army all credited him with the de facto victory. The two generals got into a raging shouting match and Gates relieved Arnold of his command. Arnold requested re-assignment to Washington’s main army, which Gates gladly granted. But Arnold did not leave. He kept to his tent, biding his time. By October 7, with Lincoln’s arrival Gates now had 12,000 men. The unreinforced Burgoyne’s forces were reduced to 6,600, many of them beginning to suffer from hunger as supplies dwindled. Burgoyne, ignoring advice from some senior officers to retreat, decided to test the American left at Bemis Heights again with a reconnaissance in force. With Arnold relieved of duty, Gates took personal command of the left. Fighting began around 2 pm with Morgan’s men once again doing their deadly work. The on the right the Americans repelled a Grenadier bayonet charge with devastating volleys at close range from behind tree cover. Then they counter charged breaking the flank and capturing senior officers. On the left Morgan swept aside Canadian militia and native auxiliaries and engaged the main attacking body under Frazier, who was killed in the action, and Burgoyne’s hat and coat were peppered with Yankee balls. The English fell back in confusion on their own entrenchments. At this point the enraged Arnold, who had been drinking in camp, could no longer contain himself. He rode out to join the action, chased by an officer sent by Gates to order his return to camp. Arnold arrived in time to ride to the front of Brigadier General Enoch Poor, men who were in pursuit of the English falling back on two redoubts of the British camp and the thin line of Canadian Militia between them. He led an attack on the first redoubt under the command of Lord Balcarres which was repulsed after furious fighting. Arnold then rode through the Canadians, dodging their bullets to lead men under Brigadier General Ebenezer Learned on an attack on the second redoubt, which was taken and whose commander, Hessian Heinrich von Breymann was killed. In one of the last vollies fired by the defenders before they were overwhelmed, Arnold was shot in the leg and his horse killed. The wounded leg was crushed under the falling horse. As he lay bleeding on the field, Gates’s messenger finally caught up to him with his orders to return to camp. The gravely wounded Arnold was carried there. As darkness fell Burgoyne’s Army was clearly defeated. An attempted night raid by German troops to retake the fallen redoubt was the last action. Arnold’s actions that day awed the army. His presence on the field had electrified the troops. And it was undoubtedly the single most extraordinary act of mutinous bravery in American military history. Gates, of course, was unimpressed and unamused. Burgoyne retreated under cover of darkness later that night. He had lost over 1000 men in the two battles including many of his most capable senior officers. On October 13 the pursuing Americans caught up to him near Saratoga and he had to surrender his army to Gates on the 17th. The cut off troops at Ticonderoga had to negotiate a tricky retreat to Quebec as well. It was a stunning and complete American victory and considered the turning point of the war. In France news of the victory pushed the King into open alliance with the American’s—and alliance that would be critical to ultimate victory. Despite Gate’s voracious protests, Arnold was recognized as the hero of the Campaign. As a reward he was restored to seniority as a Major General. But he was gravely wounded and unfit for field command. After months of recovery he rejoined the Army at winter quarters at Valley Forge in May 1778 in advance of the coming campaign season. He was cheered by the Army, particularly those who had served under him in the Saratoga campaign. That spring he participated along with other officers in taking and signing a symbolic Oath of Allegiance to the United States. He was walking painfully with a limp, his shattered oft-wounded left leg now 2½ inches shorter than the other. He asked Washington for assignment as military commander of Philadelphia after the British retreated from the city in June. 18 year old Philadelphia belle Peggy Shippen, daughter of a wealthy Tory family, won Arnold's heart and put him in contact with British agent Major John Andre, a former suitor. From the beginning, he planned to use this position to enrich himself. He considered it as no more than due for his sacrificial service. He quietly entered several business deals, took bribes to favor some merchants over others as suppliers to the Army, and may have privately sold Army stores. Meanwhile he lived lavishly and allowed himself to be entertained at the most fashionable homes in the city, including those known to be British sympathizers. At one such home he met lovely 18 year old Peggy Shippen whose father had done business with the British during their occupation of the city. Arnold wooed and won her. The two were married in April 1779. Meanwhile Arnold’s plundering drew unwelcome attention. Other officers had benefited similarly in their commands, it was even considered, marginally by some, as an acceptable and expected benefit of office. But Arnold’s dealings were more flagrant than most and done under the very nose of Congress which had returned to the city. When charges of impropriety were publicly leveled, Arnold demanded a court martial to clear his name. By that time, under the influence of the Tory Shippen family the aggrieved Arnold was toying with the idea of changing sides. Peggy was able to put him in touch with a former beau, the dashing Major John André who became a go-between in tricky negotiations with General Clinton in New York. André had just been placed in charge of Clinton’s espionage operations. By July Arnold was passing along information on American troop deployment and supply depots through the use of codes and invisible ink in letters sent via Peggy and her ladies circle to André. He requested £10,000 for his services. Clinton demurred at that sum, but passed on indications that it might be forthcoming if Arnold could provide information on American defenses and dispositions along the Hudson as he planned another drive to the north hoping to cut New England off from the lower colonies. Negotiations broke off however. Arnold was stuck in Philadelphia where feeling was rising against Tories like the Shippen family and his own high handed business dealings. His court martial was finally convened in December 1779. Despite prejudice against him by some members of the court, however, he was cleared of all but two minor charges of corruption in January. Arnold launched a letter writing campaign to publicize the results and characterize them as a vindication. Despite Washington’s personal fondness for Arnold—he sent a private letter congratulating him on the birth of his son that spring—the General was forced to issue a short, public censure: The Commander-in-Chief would have been much happier in an occasion of bestowing commendations on an officer who had rendered such distinguished services to his country as Major General Arnold; but in the present case, a sense of duty and a regard to candor oblige him to declare that he considers his conduct [in the convicted actions] as imprudent and improper.—George Washington, April 9, 1780. That rebuke was deeply humiliating. Then Congress reopened old charges that he had misspent funds on the Quebec invasion years earlier and concluded that he owed £1,000. Enraged, Arnold resigned his position in Philadelphia but not yet in the Army. About the same time old friend Philip Schuyler offered him an out—command of the critical American garrison at West Point on the Hudson, the key to defenses to the north. Schuyler took the mater up with Washington who at first would not commit. But on the strength of the possibility, Arnold reopened his channels to André and Clinton. He stopped at West Point to inspect its defenses and sent a detailed report as a sign of good faith along with other intelligence. He returned to Philadelphia to sell his house and began to arrange the transfer of his assets to London. By July 12 after a flurry of messages Arnold made clear that he would surrender West Point upon taking command for a price of £20,000, £1,000 payable immediately in cash. On August 3, Washington finally made the appointment to the West Point command. On the 22nd Peggy received word that Clinton had agreed on the terms. Almost comic misadventures followed as the two sides attempted to work out details. One coded letter ended up in the hands of Connecticut authorities, but could not be read. In this 19th Century engraved illustration, Arnold passes the defensive plans to West Point to Major John Andre and even advises the spy to hide them in his boot where they were discovered when Andre was captured. Arnold and André finally met secretly face to face to work out the details on October 21. André was in civilian clothes. The boat he was supposed to take back to the city was fired upon and damaged by American troops forcing André to attempt to return overland. Arnold wrote out passes to get him through the lines. André was captured by a militia patrol near Tarrytown on October 23. Incriminating papers exposing the plot were immediately sent to Washington. Meanwhile André was sent by the officer in charge of him who knew nothing of the content of the papers, back to Arnold at West Point. Washington’s spy chief quickly sent a rider to retrieve him but the escort was inexplicably allowed to proceed to West Point to inform Arnold of the arrest. Despite Washington’s best efforts, Arnold was able to slip away from West Point and was rowed down river to be picked up the damaged ship HMS Vulcan, which had failed to retrieve André. Arnold boldly wrote to Washington requesting safe passage out of Philadelphia for Peggy and his family, which the gentlemanly Commander granted, not yet aware of the depth of her own involvement in the plot. Washington wrote to Clinton offering to exchange André for Arnold but the request was rebuffed. André was tied and hung as a spy in early October, his fate sealed by the earlier British execution of Patriot officer Nathan Hale. Washington sent agents to the city to attempt to kidnap Arnold, and they nearly succeeded but he changed his quarters. Late in October he sailed from New York to take up a British command in the South. About the same time he sent a public letter attempting to defend his actions to the American people. It was not well received. Arnold was given a commission as a British Brigadier General with an annual income of several hundred Pounds, but paid him only £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 for his treason because his plot had failed. Arnold as a British Brigadier who captured Williamsburg and sent Governor Thomas Jefferson fleeing. He then played a cat and mouse game with Continental forces under the Marquis de Lafayette until the arrival of the main armies under Lord Cornwallis. In December 1780 Arnold commanded a force of more than 1,600 men which captured the Virginia capital of Richmond sending the legislature and Governor Thomas Jefferson fleeing. Arnold’s force was pursued by Virginia Militia and Continental troops under the Marquis de Lafayette who was under the personal orders of Washington to summarily hang Arnold if captured. Arnold fell back until reinforced and then raided in Virginia until Lord Cornwallis and the southern army arrived and relieved Arnold of command. Arnold returned to New York where he proposed various aggressive raids on American economic interests, almost all denied by Clinton. But Clinton finally agreed to a raid on New London Connecticut causing damage estimated at $500,000 when Arnold burned the town and its warehouses and captured Fort Griswold. But Arnold lost a third of his 1,700 man command in the attack. Clinton concluded he could afford no more such victories. When word of Cornwallis’s surrender reached Clinton in New York in October 1781, he gave leave for Arnold and his family to sail for London. His active role on both sides of the American Revolution was over. In England he was celebrated by the Tories, reviled by the Whigs who were in the ascendency, and mistrusted in the Army. Public opinion held him to be a traitor who could not be trusted. Every attempt to gain a new command, a position in the government, or a sinecure in the East India Company was turned down. He had a hard time getting along on a Brigadier’s half pay and pension given Peggy’s lavish spending. In 1785 leaving Peggy and the younger children in London he and his son Richard from his first marriage emigrated to Saint John, New Brunswick where they speculated in land and Arnold returned to sea as a merchant trader. After a successful first voyage, Arnold retrieved Peggy and the children, settled various law suits in London and Philadelphia and settled them in St. Johns. He was soon embroiled in still more law suits and controversy about his business dealings and was so unpopular that a mob burned him in effigy in front of his home. The family was forced to return to London in 1791. Controversy and law suits dogged him. He fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale for impugning his honor in the House of Lords. With the outbreak of the French Revolution he outfitted a privateer to prey on French shipping and their Caribbean islands. He was captured and imprisoned on Guadeloupe charged with spying for the British and avoided hanging in a daring escape to the blockading British ships. Then he organized militias on British held islands to repel French threats. He was rewarded for this service with a large land grant held jointly with son Richard in Upper Canada. Back in London in 1801 his health began to fail. Gout crippled his good leg and he could no longer go to sea. He suffered dropsy and by summer was lapsing into periods of fever and delirium. Arnold died on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60. He left Peggy a woefully small inheritance and a bad reputation. He was, however, buried with full British military honors. In America Arnold’s name became literally synonymous with treason. His real contributions to the Revolutionary war effort have been forgotten in the public mind except for military historians and Revolutionary period specialists. Still, there was a lingering affection for their old commander among some of his troops despite it all. And some later admirers thought his contributions deserved some recognition. But it was always dicey. A boot on a nameless monument commemorates the battlefield heroics of Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Bemis Heights. On the old Bemis Heights battle ground of the Saratoga Campaign a small monument stands with a carved boot on it. The inscription reads “In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General.” It omits a name. The monument was paid for by General John Watts DePeyster, a New York Militia officer and noted military historian.	8,317	ENGLISH	1
Detroit was a rising frontier town with a population of around 800 when the War of 1812 began. Inside, there was a thick-walled fortress where General William Hull—Michigan’s territorial governor—set up a base of operations with his son, his daughter, his grandchild, and a force of over 2000 American militiamen and regular army soldiers. On August 16, 1812, Hull surrendered to a numerically inferior contingent of British and Native American men who had surrounded Fort Detroit. The general had been worried about losing his supply lines and falsely believed that he was outnumbered. Plus, Tecumseh flat-out terrified him. “[Hull] had an inordinate fear of the Indians,” historian A.J. Langguth explained in the PBS documentary The War of 1812. “He was convinced that … if they were unleashed on his family or his troops, it would be the worst kind of massacre.” Fort Detroit wasn’t retaken by the Americans until September 1813. The following year, Hull was court-martialed and found guilty of cowardice, neglect of duty, and conduct unbecoming of an officer. For these crimes, Hull received a death sentence but was then pardoned by President Madison.	<urn:uuid:7053c9da-eda3-46e2-8d5d-73a1c200f4a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.3trivia.com/history/2112.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00001.warc.gz	en	0.986037	262	3.890625	4	[ -0.1464104950428009, 0.1744227558374405, 0.46550169587135315, 0.28659579157829285, 0.3727075755596161, -0.3310512602329254, -0.010049211792647839, 0.16011279821395874, -0.48186349868774414, -0.13663093745708466, 0.4092062711715698, -0.1937699019908905, -0.4236451983451843, 0.29269552230834...	4	Detroit was a rising frontier town with a population of around 800 when the War of 1812 began. Inside, there was a thick-walled fortress where General William Hull—Michigan’s territorial governor—set up a base of operations with his son, his daughter, his grandchild, and a force of over 2000 American militiamen and regular army soldiers. On August 16, 1812, Hull surrendered to a numerically inferior contingent of British and Native American men who had surrounded Fort Detroit. The general had been worried about losing his supply lines and falsely believed that he was outnumbered. Plus, Tecumseh flat-out terrified him. “[Hull] had an inordinate fear of the Indians,” historian A.J. Langguth explained in the PBS documentary The War of 1812. “He was convinced that … if they were unleashed on his family or his troops, it would be the worst kind of massacre.” Fort Detroit wasn’t retaken by the Americans until September 1813. The following year, Hull was court-martialed and found guilty of cowardice, neglect of duty, and conduct unbecoming of an officer. For these crimes, Hull received a death sentence but was then pardoned by President Madison.	269	ENGLISH	1
An analysis of english parliaments rise of power in the seventeenth century During these eleven years the opposition was organising itself as well as growing. Oliver Cromwell first showed his genius in overcoming these weaknesses and showing that a revolutionary war must be organised in a revolutionary way. This in its turn led to corresponding changes in the State machinery. They forced their incomes up to meet the rise in the prices of the goods they had to buy. British parliament history pdf The Scots were angry, and began a rebellion. But for many smaller cultivators they meant depression, the raising of rents and dues of various kinds, the enclosure of the common fields on which the villagers had for centuries pastured their cattle and geese. Charles II Is some ways, it looked like Charles might have an easy time of it. Coal played a prominent part in the growth of very many other industries — iron, tin, glass, soap, shipbuilding. He outraged commercial circles by seizing bullion deposited in the Tower and by proposing to debase the coinage. Commissions were set up to punish landlords whose enclosures had led to eviction, but the financial extremity of the Government was such that it could never resist the offers of rich men to buy themselves off. There was Archbishop Laud in London. Queen Mary succeeded in re-establishing Catholicism for a few years, but could not get the monastic estates back out of the clutches of their purchasers. In fact, until about , the monarchy had many interests in common with those of the bourgeoisie in town and country — in the struggle against Spain, against the international Catholic Church, against rival noble houses disputing supreme control with the House of Tudor and ruining the country with their private wars, Hence the collaboration in Parliament between monarchy, gentry and bourgeoisie. In the country as a whole, the division went along broad class lines. The State machine — which depended on the support of the middle-class J. The problems faced by James grew greater under his son and successor Charles I. History of parliament timeline His right to possession was not always recognised by the common law courts. In face of these facts, the manoeuvres of the Government to enlist the support of the poorer peasants against their landlords deceived no one except a recent school of reactionary historians — They rely largely on the statement of the historian Clarendon that the period was one of great prosperity for the mass of the populace. James claimed that his weak foreign policy was due to lack of money, at a time when the bourgeoisie was becoming visibly richer. Consequently, it came to reflect the division among the English gentry corresponding roughly to the economic division between feudal north-west and capitalist south-east. There was an acute struggle of all classes to profit by the agricultural changes taking place. So they do not ever give us reasons which would seem to us sufficient to justify the devotion and the sacrifices of our ancestors in their struggles. But these peasants and small artisans were losing their independence. What men were fighting about was the whole nature and future development of English society. In fact, until about , the monarchy had many interests in common with those of the bourgeoisie in town and country — in the struggle against Spain, against the international Catholic Church, against rival noble houses disputing supreme control with the House of Tudor and ruining the country with their private wars, Hence the collaboration in Parliament between monarchy, gentry and bourgeoisie. The local barriers to trade broke down. Both in the Middle Ages and in the seventeenth century the first importance of an estate was that it supplied a land owner through his control over the labour of others with the means of livelihood. Those forced off the farms tended to go to the towns and cities to look for work, and the large numbers of people competing for jobs put further downward pressure on wages. So the Elizabethan Church stood for passive obedience to divinely constituted authority, and preached that rebellion was the worst possible sin. based on 3 review	<urn:uuid:c92360bf-4dd7-4ce2-8116-59698d96d64d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nowajabezal.carriagehouseautoresto.com/an-analysis-of-english-parliaments-rise-of-power-in-the-seventeenth-century51265022up.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00060.warc.gz	en	0.981114	803	3.75	4	[ -0.41161757707595825, 0.1964404284954071, 0.2411147654056549, 0.0005886792205274105, -0.11834551393985748, -0.02423286810517311, -0.051447704434394836, -0.079018734395504, 0.005239161662757397, 0.0740203708410263, -0.2536465525627136, -0.13018667697906494, 0.06066180765628815, 0.1082592755...	3	An analysis of english parliaments rise of power in the seventeenth century During these eleven years the opposition was organising itself as well as growing. Oliver Cromwell first showed his genius in overcoming these weaknesses and showing that a revolutionary war must be organised in a revolutionary way. This in its turn led to corresponding changes in the State machinery. They forced their incomes up to meet the rise in the prices of the goods they had to buy. British parliament history pdf The Scots were angry, and began a rebellion. But for many smaller cultivators they meant depression, the raising of rents and dues of various kinds, the enclosure of the common fields on which the villagers had for centuries pastured their cattle and geese. Charles II Is some ways, it looked like Charles might have an easy time of it. Coal played a prominent part in the growth of very many other industries — iron, tin, glass, soap, shipbuilding. He outraged commercial circles by seizing bullion deposited in the Tower and by proposing to debase the coinage. Commissions were set up to punish landlords whose enclosures had led to eviction, but the financial extremity of the Government was such that it could never resist the offers of rich men to buy themselves off. There was Archbishop Laud in London. Queen Mary succeeded in re-establishing Catholicism for a few years, but could not get the monastic estates back out of the clutches of their purchasers. In fact, until about , the monarchy had many interests in common with those of the bourgeoisie in town and country — in the struggle against Spain, against the international Catholic Church, against rival noble houses disputing supreme control with the House of Tudor and ruining the country with their private wars, Hence the collaboration in Parliament between monarchy, gentry and bourgeoisie. In the country as a whole, the division went along broad class lines. The State machine — which depended on the support of the middle-class J. The problems faced by James grew greater under his son and successor Charles I. History of parliament timeline His right to possession was not always recognised by the common law courts. In face of these facts, the manoeuvres of the Government to enlist the support of the poorer peasants against their landlords deceived no one except a recent school of reactionary historians — They rely largely on the statement of the historian Clarendon that the period was one of great prosperity for the mass of the populace. James claimed that his weak foreign policy was due to lack of money, at a time when the bourgeoisie was becoming visibly richer. Consequently, it came to reflect the division among the English gentry corresponding roughly to the economic division between feudal north-west and capitalist south-east. There was an acute struggle of all classes to profit by the agricultural changes taking place. So they do not ever give us reasons which would seem to us sufficient to justify the devotion and the sacrifices of our ancestors in their struggles. But these peasants and small artisans were losing their independence. What men were fighting about was the whole nature and future development of English society. In fact, until about , the monarchy had many interests in common with those of the bourgeoisie in town and country — in the struggle against Spain, against the international Catholic Church, against rival noble houses disputing supreme control with the House of Tudor and ruining the country with their private wars, Hence the collaboration in Parliament between monarchy, gentry and bourgeoisie. The local barriers to trade broke down. Both in the Middle Ages and in the seventeenth century the first importance of an estate was that it supplied a land owner through his control over the labour of others with the means of livelihood. Those forced off the farms tended to go to the towns and cities to look for work, and the large numbers of people competing for jobs put further downward pressure on wages. So the Elizabethan Church stood for passive obedience to divinely constituted authority, and preached that rebellion was the worst possible sin. based on 3 review	793	ENGLISH	1
History Of The Grateful Dead Throughout the years The Grateful Dead was forced to overcome many obstacles to arrive at the point in which they are today. In San Francisco, on August 1, 1942, Jerome John Garcia was born. This marked the beginning of a long strange trip (Mokrzycki 4) Jose Garcia, Jerome’s father named his son after his favorite Broadway musical composer, Jerome Kern. Tired of the name Jerome, Jose and his family began to call him Jerry. Garcia was surrounded by music as a child. His father would play him to sleep at night, the clarinet’s lovely melodies echoing in Jerry’s dreams. His mother listened to opera and his maternal grandmother loved country music. Family gatherings tended to be musical, too, for his father’s side of the family would gather round and sing songs together. (Troy 3) Young Jerry and his family took a trip to the Santa Cruz Mountains in California, when he was four, he and his brother who he called “Tiff” were given the job of splitting firewood for the family that night. Horsing around, Jerry and “Tiff” were teasing each other while chopping the firewood. Jerry accidently placed his hand in the way of the axe, lost half of his middle finger on his right hand. “He screamed. I screamed. We both screamed. It was an accident. I didn’t do it maliciously. I was a kid. I was eight and Jerry was four. We were little guys” ( Greenfield 5). Missing half a finger, Jerry had to press through life learning different types of instruments. He used his disability to his advantage by striving harder. A year after the loss of Jerry’s finger, tragedy struck the Garcias’ again. Fly fishing in a river when the current was too strong to be wading in, Jose Garcia suddenly lost his footing and was swept away by the raging current. Fortunately Jerry did not witness his father’s death, he only heard the stories that his family members told him. This tragedy took Jerry and his pp 2 family much longer to overcome. After his father’s death Garcia’s life changed forever. Moving in with his grandmother who had a strong passion for country music gave Jerry a huge influence for that style of music. Living with his grandmother, Garcia was beginning to admire country and folk music more and more. Turning fifteen, Jerry got turned on to marijuana. “Me and a friend went up into the hills with two joints, and just got so high, laughed and roared and went skipping down the streets doing funny things and just having a helluva time”, said Garcia. ( Troy 11) Garcia’s moving in with his Grandmother had given him too much freedom for a child his age. Garcia took full advantage of his grandmother’s permissive ways, by skipping school and staying out late. The San Francisco Beatnik era can trace its beginnings to the literary parties that the radical poet Kenneth Rexroth had been throwing in San Francisco since the 1940’s. After school, Jerry and a buddy would walk into the city and explore the whole beatnik scene. “I was going to art classes on Saturdays and some summer sessions. This is when the beatniks were happening in San Francisco, so I was in that culture, I was a high school kid and a wannabe Beatnik”(Troy 14). Engaging in the Beatnik counter culture gave Garcia a feeling of togetherness and an outlet for his individuality and creativity. Jerry witnessed his first live performance of a rock’n roll concert, at a place called Studio 13, the musicians performed some type of early jazz. Jerry watched intently and was wondering if he could do what they were doing. Jerry would play rock’n roll on his mother’s piano and sing with his brother “Tiff”. Surprisingly, on his fifteenth birthday, his mother bought him an accordion. Acting ungrateful towards his mother, he told his mom he really wished for an electric guitar instead. pp 3 Getting his wish, his mom went to the local pawn shop and bought him his first electric guitar. Jerry was in awe, he was beside himself with joy. His guitar was a Danelectro electric with a tiny Fender amplifier. His stepfather would tune it for him, and he ended up playing in a weird open tuning for about six months. Jerry taught himself how to play the guitar, after he learned a couple of things from his cousin Danny who knew some rhythm and blues. Garcia said, “I was fluid in a permissive way.. but the most important thing I learned was that it was ok to improvise: ‘Hey, man, you can make it up as you go along “( Troy 15). That is why he is Jerry Garcia, because he had the ability to make it up as he went along. Dropping out of high school, Jerry decided that school was not for him. He just wanted to play his music and be with his friends. Deciding that his life was heading in the wrong direction, Jerry wanted to prove to his family that he could make something of himself ,doing so he enlisted in the United States Army. Treating the Army like school or a bum job Jerry would be late for everything, he would miss roll call and just screw off. Going “AWOL” (away without leave) eight times, which is a serious offense in the Army, gave Jerry a dishonorable discharge. Enlisting in the army actually benefitted Jerry to a degree, he met a couple of finger picking guitarists that enhanced his fascination with folk, bluegrass, and banjo music. After his discharge from the army, Jerry migrated to a San Francisco coffee house where the beatniks and musicians hung out. The coffee house helped Jerry’s interest in music and art grow. Jerry opted not to have the American dream, a career, but he opted toward the beatnik dropout who failed to bow to authority or conform to society’s norms. Jerry was a Beatnik wannabe who shunned the conventional attitudes of his parents and pp 4 the conservatives of the 1950’s. Jerry decided not to go back and live with his mother, maybe it was the army or the food, but something had toughened him up. About that time Garcia’s appearance began to change. He began to sport a trim mustache and a beard that made him resemble a Spanish Duke. You could tell by his appearance that he was not part of mainstream society. Moving back to Palo Alto, Jerry met his soon to be song writer Robert Hunter. At first they would just run into each other a lot, then they would repeatedly bump into each other at St. Michael’s Ally, a place they both liked to hang out. Hunter and Garcia had a lot in common; both had just recently got out of the army and had a love for music. Soon after they met, they were both living out of their broken down cars in an empty lot in East Palo Alto, California. Garcia remembered, ” Hunter had these five or six big tins of crushed pineapple that he had gotten from the army, and I had this big glove compartment of plastic spoons, and we had this little cooperative scene, eating crushed pineapples day after day and sleeping in the cars”(Troy 24). In late 1961 one of Garcia’s friends turned him on to The New Lost City Ramblers, a bluegrass style band. When Jerry started studying bluegrass music it seemed very familiar, he believed it was because of going to his grandmothers house when he was a kid and listening to country music all night. His fondness for bluegrass music gave him the incentive to learn how to play the five- string banjo. Garcia took up the banjo with a vengeance, and just a short time later he was known as the banjo picker of Palo Alto. Garcia’s mastering of the banjo was a clear indication the he had the ability of becoming a professional musician (Troy 29). Also in 1961 Garcia met another future band member named Phillip Chapmen Lesh. He was a serious musician who had played classical music since the third grade, studied theory and harmony pp 5 in high school, took up the trumpet at the age of fourteen, and played in the college of San Mateo’s jazz band. They coincidentally met at the Palo Alto Peace center, a gathering place for students, Beatniks, and others. Lesh explains, ” I’d never yet heard anyone play the banjo like that. It was the most inventive, most musical kind of banjo playing you could ever imagine” ( Troy 33}. Although these guys were serious musicians, they still liked to have fun, which also included the experimentation of drugs. Smoking marijuana soon became part of the culture of the 1960’s. The large increase of marijuana started when large numbers of teens began questioning their parents social values. The use of marijuana could change the view or perspective a person has on life. Experimentation of marijuana and LSD (acid) brought a change of consciousness, that brought up the values of peace, honesty, equality, individuality, and sensuality. Marijuana was also quite common in the music world. Musicians believed that it enhanced their ability to perform and write songs.(Troy 44) Being well known for his banjo playing, Garcia was gaining a tremendous amount of experience playing with a number of bands. They would play coffeehouses, bars, local clubs and bookstores throughout the San Francisco Bay area. It was New Years Eve and Garcia was at Dana Morgans music store where he had been working, giving music lessons to students. Being New Year’s, no one showed up for their lesson. Garcia had been wailing away on his banjo to pass time when Bob Wier, another future band member stumbled in. Wier recalled, ” It was Garcia, we recognized him from the numerous bands that he was playing in at the time.. He was the local hot banjo player. He was in there playing pp 6 banjo waiting for his students to show up”( Troy 53). Weir persuaded Garcia to let him use a guitar from the store and they started jamming. By the end of the evening they decided to assemble a jug band. Needing another member for their band they enlisted Ron McKernen, a local harmonica player, better known as “Pigpen”. Pigpen grew up listening to his father’s blues collection, and learned how to play blues piano and sing the blues. The name of their band was called Mother McCree’s Uptown Jug Champions. Hunter had the biggest part in naming the band. To the dislike of Garcia, Pigpen brought a lot of his own style to the band, which was radically different from the folk bluegrass style brought forth by Garcia. Far from being a conflict for Garcia, it became a source of musical growth. Mother McCree’s stayed a jug band for almost a year, then by Pigpen’s influence they went electric. With Garcia on lead guitar, Weir on vocals and rhythm guitar, and Pigpen on harmonica, keyboards and vocals, all the band needed was a bass player and a drummer. Arriving back at Dana Morgan’s music store they ran into Bill Kreutzmann, a drummer, who was at the time teaching with Garcia. Garcia asked him to join the band and he replied, yes. Needing a bass player they were desperate, so they asked the owner’s son, who was playing bass for only a short period of time. Although, together the band members had been playing for a long time, they were all basically teenagers. In fact, both Kruetzmann and Weir had to get fake ID’s because they were too young to play in clubs that served liquor. They were all serious musicians and took the band seriously. It was right before New Year’s when the band went electric, renaming the band The pp 7 Warlocks. The band used the equipment from the music store that Garcia and Kruet …	<urn:uuid:b0b73446-7beb-447d-bb2b-938c04324c05>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thewop.org/history-of-the-grateful-dead/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00027.warc.gz	en	0.991234	2,544	3.484375	3	[ -0.3050994277000427, 0.14104734361171722, 0.6390209197998047, -0.5635704398155212, -0.2914085388183594, 0.24099722504615784, 0.29204487800598145, 0.22876892983913422, -0.021982956677675247, -0.6734889149665833, -0.10379530489444733, 0.3850047290325165, 0.08556795865297318, 0.35065239667892...	5	History Of The Grateful Dead Throughout the years The Grateful Dead was forced to overcome many obstacles to arrive at the point in which they are today. In San Francisco, on August 1, 1942, Jerome John Garcia was born. This marked the beginning of a long strange trip (Mokrzycki 4) Jose Garcia, Jerome’s father named his son after his favorite Broadway musical composer, Jerome Kern. Tired of the name Jerome, Jose and his family began to call him Jerry. Garcia was surrounded by music as a child. His father would play him to sleep at night, the clarinet’s lovely melodies echoing in Jerry’s dreams. His mother listened to opera and his maternal grandmother loved country music. Family gatherings tended to be musical, too, for his father’s side of the family would gather round and sing songs together. (Troy 3) Young Jerry and his family took a trip to the Santa Cruz Mountains in California, when he was four, he and his brother who he called “Tiff” were given the job of splitting firewood for the family that night. Horsing around, Jerry and “Tiff” were teasing each other while chopping the firewood. Jerry accidently placed his hand in the way of the axe, lost half of his middle finger on his right hand. “He screamed. I screamed. We both screamed. It was an accident. I didn’t do it maliciously. I was a kid. I was eight and Jerry was four. We were little guys” ( Greenfield 5). Missing half a finger, Jerry had to press through life learning different types of instruments. He used his disability to his advantage by striving harder. A year after the loss of Jerry’s finger, tragedy struck the Garcias’ again. Fly fishing in a river when the current was too strong to be wading in, Jose Garcia suddenly lost his footing and was swept away by the raging current. Fortunately Jerry did not witness his father’s death, he only heard the stories that his family members told him. This tragedy took Jerry and his pp 2 family much longer to overcome. After his father’s death Garcia’s life changed forever. Moving in with his grandmother who had a strong passion for country music gave Jerry a huge influence for that style of music. Living with his grandmother, Garcia was beginning to admire country and folk music more and more. Turning fifteen, Jerry got turned on to marijuana. “Me and a friend went up into the hills with two joints, and just got so high, laughed and roared and went skipping down the streets doing funny things and just having a helluva time”, said Garcia. ( Troy 11) Garcia’s moving in with his Grandmother had given him too much freedom for a child his age. Garcia took full advantage of his grandmother’s permissive ways, by skipping school and staying out late. The San Francisco Beatnik era can trace its beginnings to the literary parties that the radical poet Kenneth Rexroth had been throwing in San Francisco since the 1940’s. After school, Jerry and a buddy would walk into the city and explore the whole beatnik scene. “I was going to art classes on Saturdays and some summer sessions. This is when the beatniks were happening in San Francisco, so I was in that culture, I was a high school kid and a wannabe Beatnik”(Troy 14). Engaging in the Beatnik counter culture gave Garcia a feeling of togetherness and an outlet for his individuality and creativity. Jerry witnessed his first live performance of a rock’n roll concert, at a place called Studio 13, the musicians performed some type of early jazz. Jerry watched intently and was wondering if he could do what they were doing. Jerry would play rock’n roll on his mother’s piano and sing with his brother “Tiff”. Surprisingly, on his fifteenth birthday, his mother bought him an accordion. Acting ungrateful towards his mother, he told his mom he really wished for an electric guitar instead. pp 3 Getting his wish, his mom went to the local pawn shop and bought him his first electric guitar. Jerry was in awe, he was beside himself with joy. His guitar was a Danelectro electric with a tiny Fender amplifier. His stepfather would tune it for him, and he ended up playing in a weird open tuning for about six months. Jerry taught himself how to play the guitar, after he learned a couple of things from his cousin Danny who knew some rhythm and blues. Garcia said, “I was fluid in a permissive way.. but the most important thing I learned was that it was ok to improvise: ‘Hey, man, you can make it up as you go along “( Troy 15). That is why he is Jerry Garcia, because he had the ability to make it up as he went along. Dropping out of high school, Jerry decided that school was not for him. He just wanted to play his music and be with his friends. Deciding that his life was heading in the wrong direction, Jerry wanted to prove to his family that he could make something of himself ,doing so he enlisted in the United States Army. Treating the Army like school or a bum job Jerry would be late for everything, he would miss roll call and just screw off. Going “AWOL” (away without leave) eight times, which is a serious offense in the Army, gave Jerry a dishonorable discharge. Enlisting in the army actually benefitted Jerry to a degree, he met a couple of finger picking guitarists that enhanced his fascination with folk, bluegrass, and banjo music. After his discharge from the army, Jerry migrated to a San Francisco coffee house where the beatniks and musicians hung out. The coffee house helped Jerry’s interest in music and art grow. Jerry opted not to have the American dream, a career, but he opted toward the beatnik dropout who failed to bow to authority or conform to society’s norms. Jerry was a Beatnik wannabe who shunned the conventional attitudes of his parents and pp 4 the conservatives of the 1950’s. Jerry decided not to go back and live with his mother, maybe it was the army or the food, but something had toughened him up. About that time Garcia’s appearance began to change. He began to sport a trim mustache and a beard that made him resemble a Spanish Duke. You could tell by his appearance that he was not part of mainstream society. Moving back to Palo Alto, Jerry met his soon to be song writer Robert Hunter. At first they would just run into each other a lot, then they would repeatedly bump into each other at St. Michael’s Ally, a place they both liked to hang out. Hunter and Garcia had a lot in common; both had just recently got out of the army and had a love for music. Soon after they met, they were both living out of their broken down cars in an empty lot in East Palo Alto, California. Garcia remembered, ” Hunter had these five or six big tins of crushed pineapple that he had gotten from the army, and I had this big glove compartment of plastic spoons, and we had this little cooperative scene, eating crushed pineapples day after day and sleeping in the cars”(Troy 24). In late 1961 one of Garcia’s friends turned him on to The New Lost City Ramblers, a bluegrass style band. When Jerry started studying bluegrass music it seemed very familiar, he believed it was because of going to his grandmothers house when he was a kid and listening to country music all night. His fondness for bluegrass music gave him the incentive to learn how to play the five- string banjo. Garcia took up the banjo with a vengeance, and just a short time later he was known as the banjo picker of Palo Alto. Garcia’s mastering of the banjo was a clear indication the he had the ability of becoming a professional musician (Troy 29). Also in 1961 Garcia met another future band member named Phillip Chapmen Lesh. He was a serious musician who had played classical music since the third grade, studied theory and harmony pp 5 in high school, took up the trumpet at the age of fourteen, and played in the college of San Mateo’s jazz band. They coincidentally met at the Palo Alto Peace center, a gathering place for students, Beatniks, and others. Lesh explains, ” I’d never yet heard anyone play the banjo like that. It was the most inventive, most musical kind of banjo playing you could ever imagine” ( Troy 33}. Although these guys were serious musicians, they still liked to have fun, which also included the experimentation of drugs. Smoking marijuana soon became part of the culture of the 1960’s. The large increase of marijuana started when large numbers of teens began questioning their parents social values. The use of marijuana could change the view or perspective a person has on life. Experimentation of marijuana and LSD (acid) brought a change of consciousness, that brought up the values of peace, honesty, equality, individuality, and sensuality. Marijuana was also quite common in the music world. Musicians believed that it enhanced their ability to perform and write songs.(Troy 44) Being well known for his banjo playing, Garcia was gaining a tremendous amount of experience playing with a number of bands. They would play coffeehouses, bars, local clubs and bookstores throughout the San Francisco Bay area. It was New Years Eve and Garcia was at Dana Morgans music store where he had been working, giving music lessons to students. Being New Year’s, no one showed up for their lesson. Garcia had been wailing away on his banjo to pass time when Bob Wier, another future band member stumbled in. Wier recalled, ” It was Garcia, we recognized him from the numerous bands that he was playing in at the time.. He was the local hot banjo player. He was in there playing pp 6 banjo waiting for his students to show up”( Troy 53). Weir persuaded Garcia to let him use a guitar from the store and they started jamming. By the end of the evening they decided to assemble a jug band. Needing another member for their band they enlisted Ron McKernen, a local harmonica player, better known as “Pigpen”. Pigpen grew up listening to his father’s blues collection, and learned how to play blues piano and sing the blues. The name of their band was called Mother McCree’s Uptown Jug Champions. Hunter had the biggest part in naming the band. To the dislike of Garcia, Pigpen brought a lot of his own style to the band, which was radically different from the folk bluegrass style brought forth by Garcia. Far from being a conflict for Garcia, it became a source of musical growth. Mother McCree’s stayed a jug band for almost a year, then by Pigpen’s influence they went electric. With Garcia on lead guitar, Weir on vocals and rhythm guitar, and Pigpen on harmonica, keyboards and vocals, all the band needed was a bass player and a drummer. Arriving back at Dana Morgan’s music store they ran into Bill Kreutzmann, a drummer, who was at the time teaching with Garcia. Garcia asked him to join the band and he replied, yes. Needing a bass player they were desperate, so they asked the owner’s son, who was playing bass for only a short period of time. Although, together the band members had been playing for a long time, they were all basically teenagers. In fact, both Kruetzmann and Weir had to get fake ID’s because they were too young to play in clubs that served liquor. They were all serious musicians and took the band seriously. It was right before New Year’s when the band went electric, renaming the band The pp 7 Warlocks. The band used the equipment from the music store that Garcia and Kruet …	2,484	ENGLISH	1
Surprisingly each zeppelin was able to travel at around 80-90 mph and carry about two tons of bombs. Today, airships are only really used either as marketing and promotional gimmicks, to cover sporting events from above (like Goodyear’s famous blimps), or they are half-remembered footnotes of history, like the Hindenburg disaster. A fact about airships that has largely been forgotten is that 100 years ago they were used in war. During the First World War, German zeppelins spread terror across Britain in some of the first aerial bombing raids on cities in history. The airships were named for German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who invented the eponymous rigid-framed airship, the structure of which was maintained by an aluminum frame. While not all rigid airships are zeppelins (just as not all photocopy machines are Xeroxes), and some of the airships used by Germany during WWI were not technically zeppelins, for the sake of simplicity, we’ll stick with the term “zeppelin” in this article. The zeppelins that raided Britain during the First World War were huge aircraft, well over 500 feet long. They were filled with hydrogen, which is lighter than air. Each zeppelin was able to travel at around 80-90 mph and carry about two tons of bombs. While earlier models were able to ascend to approximately 10,000 feet, in the latter years of the war, improved models were able to climb to 16,000 feet and higher – which put them out of range of most other aircraft at the time. For the Britons who saw the zeppelins hovering ominously over their cities during WWI, the sight was akin to that of an alien spaceship arriving from outer space. Airplanes had only been around for a couple of years, and the zeppelins used by the German Army dwarfed any plane that British people would have seen in their skies up to that point. The zeppelins were slow-moving and relatively silent. Residents of the cities they bombed reported hearing an “eerie throbbing sound” when they were hovering above. Furthermore, with a silhouette akin to a giant, silver cigar, they would have looked like something out of a science fiction novel — utterly fascinating, scarcely believable, and ominously sinister all at once. For many of the raids the zeppelins made, however, the huge airships were invisible to their targets below. The sound of their motors was often also masked by wind or the fact that their altitude was so high that people on the ground couldn’t hear them. This greatly amplified the terror they inspired, for the bombs they dropped could seem to come from anywhere at any time. Raids were almost always conducted at night, owing to the fact that the huge, slow-moving aircraft would be easily spotted during the day, but cloudy nights provided ideal cover. The campaign to bomb Britain by airships was authorized by German Kaizer Wilhelm II in January 1915. He initially forbade the zeppelins to bomb London, not only due to the fact that he was related to Britain’s royal family, but also because he did not wish to destroy the cultural heritage there if he could help it. As the war dragged on, however, and the Kaiser came under increasing pressure, he eventually changed his mind and did authorize the bombing of London. The first successful airship raids against the British mainland took place on January 19, 1915, when two German zeppelins bombed King’s Lynn, Sheringham, and Great Yarmouth. Sixteen people were wounded and four lost their lives. However, the effect of these initial bombings went far beyond mere damage to property and loss of life, which was comparatively minor, since the psychological impact of the raid was significant. Prior to this, the First World War had been, for most of Britain’s populace, something that had been happening across the ocean, on the continent of Europe – but now the war had been brought onto British soil. After the first zeppelin raids there was some initial panic, and anti-German rioting broke out in some places. One or two mobs looted shops owned by Germans. Some feared that a German invasion was imminent, while others spread conspiracy theories that the zeppelins were being launched from a hidden base on English soil. Soon, fear gave way to determination and stoicism, and the British people began repairing the damage caused by the raids and getting on with their lives, refusing to be cowed by the attacks from above. While initial British defenses against the zeppelin attacks were ineffectual (London itself was quite unprepared for aerial attacks, initially only being defended by the Admiralty with a couple of one-pounder guns), they soon adapted and were able to counter the threat of the zeppelins. While initial raids against London were effective, if not devastating – seven people were killed, and thirty-five wounded, along with rather extensive damage caused – the city, as well as the rest of the English coastline, soon upgraded its defenses. Smaller artillery guns were unable to take out German zeppelins due to a lack of range. However, because of the height at which the zeppelins flew, airplanes and anti-aircraft guns (if either of them had incendiary rounds) proved to be tremendously effective against the zeppelins. If just one of these rounds pierced a zeppelin’s hydrogen bladder, the entire airship would quickly go up in flames and come crashing to the ground. By 1917, the Germans had largely replaced their zeppelins with airplanes which they used to deadly effect, raiding Britain during daylight hours for the first time in the war. All in all, there had been 52 zeppelin raids on Britain during the war, and over 500 Britons had lost their lives in these. After the war was over, however, zeppelins would never again play a major role in military history. Following the Hindenburg disaster of 1937, they would largely disappear from civilian use too.	<urn:uuid:de962dda-7196-4ea3-8627-faf91bc6af4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/german-zeppelin-raids-on-britain.html/?utm_source=penultimate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00466.warc.gz	en	0.987433	1,254	3.34375	3	[ -0.07830718159675598, 0.29985588788986206, 0.14608746767044067, -0.15810030698776245, 0.15579509735107422, 0.2245316356420517, -0.14126016199588776, 0.0465410053730011, 0.06500173360109329, -0.1531795859336853, -0.1553586721420288, 0.12987695634365082, -0.3644024431705475, 0.25309848785400...	5	Surprisingly each zeppelin was able to travel at around 80-90 mph and carry about two tons of bombs. Today, airships are only really used either as marketing and promotional gimmicks, to cover sporting events from above (like Goodyear’s famous blimps), or they are half-remembered footnotes of history, like the Hindenburg disaster. A fact about airships that has largely been forgotten is that 100 years ago they were used in war. During the First World War, German zeppelins spread terror across Britain in some of the first aerial bombing raids on cities in history. The airships were named for German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who invented the eponymous rigid-framed airship, the structure of which was maintained by an aluminum frame. While not all rigid airships are zeppelins (just as not all photocopy machines are Xeroxes), and some of the airships used by Germany during WWI were not technically zeppelins, for the sake of simplicity, we’ll stick with the term “zeppelin” in this article. The zeppelins that raided Britain during the First World War were huge aircraft, well over 500 feet long. They were filled with hydrogen, which is lighter than air. Each zeppelin was able to travel at around 80-90 mph and carry about two tons of bombs. While earlier models were able to ascend to approximately 10,000 feet, in the latter years of the war, improved models were able to climb to 16,000 feet and higher – which put them out of range of most other aircraft at the time. For the Britons who saw the zeppelins hovering ominously over their cities during WWI, the sight was akin to that of an alien spaceship arriving from outer space. Airplanes had only been around for a couple of years, and the zeppelins used by the German Army dwarfed any plane that British people would have seen in their skies up to that point. The zeppelins were slow-moving and relatively silent. Residents of the cities they bombed reported hearing an “eerie throbbing sound” when they were hovering above. Furthermore, with a silhouette akin to a giant, silver cigar, they would have looked like something out of a science fiction novel — utterly fascinating, scarcely believable, and ominously sinister all at once. For many of the raids the zeppelins made, however, the huge airships were invisible to their targets below. The sound of their motors was often also masked by wind or the fact that their altitude was so high that people on the ground couldn’t hear them. This greatly amplified the terror they inspired, for the bombs they dropped could seem to come from anywhere at any time. Raids were almost always conducted at night, owing to the fact that the huge, slow-moving aircraft would be easily spotted during the day, but cloudy nights provided ideal cover. The campaign to bomb Britain by airships was authorized by German Kaizer Wilhelm II in January 1915. He initially forbade the zeppelins to bomb London, not only due to the fact that he was related to Britain’s royal family, but also because he did not wish to destroy the cultural heritage there if he could help it. As the war dragged on, however, and the Kaiser came under increasing pressure, he eventually changed his mind and did authorize the bombing of London. The first successful airship raids against the British mainland took place on January 19, 1915, when two German zeppelins bombed King’s Lynn, Sheringham, and Great Yarmouth. Sixteen people were wounded and four lost their lives. However, the effect of these initial bombings went far beyond mere damage to property and loss of life, which was comparatively minor, since the psychological impact of the raid was significant. Prior to this, the First World War had been, for most of Britain’s populace, something that had been happening across the ocean, on the continent of Europe – but now the war had been brought onto British soil. After the first zeppelin raids there was some initial panic, and anti-German rioting broke out in some places. One or two mobs looted shops owned by Germans. Some feared that a German invasion was imminent, while others spread conspiracy theories that the zeppelins were being launched from a hidden base on English soil. Soon, fear gave way to determination and stoicism, and the British people began repairing the damage caused by the raids and getting on with their lives, refusing to be cowed by the attacks from above. While initial British defenses against the zeppelin attacks were ineffectual (London itself was quite unprepared for aerial attacks, initially only being defended by the Admiralty with a couple of one-pounder guns), they soon adapted and were able to counter the threat of the zeppelins. While initial raids against London were effective, if not devastating – seven people were killed, and thirty-five wounded, along with rather extensive damage caused – the city, as well as the rest of the English coastline, soon upgraded its defenses. Smaller artillery guns were unable to take out German zeppelins due to a lack of range. However, because of the height at which the zeppelins flew, airplanes and anti-aircraft guns (if either of them had incendiary rounds) proved to be tremendously effective against the zeppelins. If just one of these rounds pierced a zeppelin’s hydrogen bladder, the entire airship would quickly go up in flames and come crashing to the ground. By 1917, the Germans had largely replaced their zeppelins with airplanes which they used to deadly effect, raiding Britain during daylight hours for the first time in the war. All in all, there had been 52 zeppelin raids on Britain during the war, and over 500 Britons had lost their lives in these. After the war was over, however, zeppelins would never again play a major role in military history. Following the Hindenburg disaster of 1937, they would largely disappear from civilian use too.	1,275	ENGLISH	1
She was born November 7, 1867 in Poland. When she died on July 4, 1934, she was perhaps the best known woman in the world. Her co-discovery with her husband Pierre Curie of the radioactive elements radium and polonium represents one of the best known stories in modern science for which they were recognized in 1901 with the Nobel Prize in Physics. After the sudden accidental death of Pierre Curie, Marie Curie managed to raise her two small daughters (Irène, who was herself awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, and Eve who became an accomplished author) and continue an active career in experimental radioactivity measurements. In this account we concentrate on her connections to the national radium standards of the United States. More details on the life of this extraordinary scientist are given in "Madame Curie," the 1937 book by Eve Curie.	<urn:uuid:03d21b71-60d7-44e1-9b36-64215d41abd4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nist.gov/pml/marie-curie-and-nbs-radium-standards/marie-curie-and-nbs-radium-standards-biographies/biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00507.warc.gz	en	0.983452	177	3.421875	3	[ 0.05603807792067528, 0.6230249404907227, 0.33284488320350647, 0.2665192782878876, 0.07916049659252167, -0.13743385672569275, 0.25852054357528687, 0.2609957754611969, -0.27640512585639954, -0.27269983291625977, 0.2763352692127228, -0.5477184057235718, 0.2822302281856537, 0.47080785036087036...	9	She was born November 7, 1867 in Poland. When she died on July 4, 1934, she was perhaps the best known woman in the world. Her co-discovery with her husband Pierre Curie of the radioactive elements radium and polonium represents one of the best known stories in modern science for which they were recognized in 1901 with the Nobel Prize in Physics. After the sudden accidental death of Pierre Curie, Marie Curie managed to raise her two small daughters (Irène, who was herself awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, and Eve who became an accomplished author) and continue an active career in experimental radioactivity measurements. In this account we concentrate on her connections to the national radium standards of the United States. More details on the life of this extraordinary scientist are given in "Madame Curie," the 1937 book by Eve Curie.	195	ENGLISH	1
Most of our beams come from Amish barns in Ohio. The most common method for barn construction in the Amish community is referred to as “barn raising.” Historically, this tradition was practiced throughout rural North America in the 18th and 19th centuries. While barns were vital, they were also costly, and often required more labor than one family could handle. The community would come together to assist in building their neighbors’ barns. A barn raising required a lot of preparation and work, beginning a few days before the actual raising occurred. The ground had to be cleared, hardware and lumber laid in, and the proper tradesmen hired. The materials needed for the barn were normally purchased or traded for. In most cases, participation in barn raising was mandatory and unpaid for all members of a community. The failure of an able-bodied member of a community to attend a barn raising could cause discourse. Traditionally, barn raising were done in summer months between the planting and harvest seasons. The timber needed to complete the project was usually produced in the winter, first by hand (hand-hewn), then later by saw-mill. Barn raising have a rich history in early American rural life. Areas on the edge of the frontier were home to members of communities that often had bonds with each other going back generations. Members of these communities were interdependent on each other; they celebrated together, worshipped together, and traded with each other. This created a self sufficiency within early communities, where barn railings were a common part of life. By the end of the 19th century, barn raising became less frequent, as people turned to using hired labor. The Amish and Mennonite communities, however, continued to carry on the tradition and still do to this day.	<urn:uuid:a3738880-a51e-4b87-bc9e-cd59417852d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://evolutiamade.com/latest-projects/our-amish-barn-beams/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00288.warc.gz	en	0.988556	365	3.484375	3	[ -0.1063554584980011, -0.2269279807806015, -0.23456311225891113, 0.14821772277355194, 0.01713356375694275, -0.34172356128692627, -0.3699969947338104, 0.018695397302508354, -0.4291483163833618, 0.25982099771499634, -0.09759408235549927, -0.15267100930213928, 0.1391587108373642, 0.05578617379...	4	Most of our beams come from Amish barns in Ohio. The most common method for barn construction in the Amish community is referred to as “barn raising.” Historically, this tradition was practiced throughout rural North America in the 18th and 19th centuries. While barns were vital, they were also costly, and often required more labor than one family could handle. The community would come together to assist in building their neighbors’ barns. A barn raising required a lot of preparation and work, beginning a few days before the actual raising occurred. The ground had to be cleared, hardware and lumber laid in, and the proper tradesmen hired. The materials needed for the barn were normally purchased or traded for. In most cases, participation in barn raising was mandatory and unpaid for all members of a community. The failure of an able-bodied member of a community to attend a barn raising could cause discourse. Traditionally, barn raising were done in summer months between the planting and harvest seasons. The timber needed to complete the project was usually produced in the winter, first by hand (hand-hewn), then later by saw-mill. Barn raising have a rich history in early American rural life. Areas on the edge of the frontier were home to members of communities that often had bonds with each other going back generations. Members of these communities were interdependent on each other; they celebrated together, worshipped together, and traded with each other. This created a self sufficiency within early communities, where barn railings were a common part of life. By the end of the 19th century, barn raising became less frequent, as people turned to using hired labor. The Amish and Mennonite communities, however, continued to carry on the tradition and still do to this day.	364	ENGLISH	1
Throughout the seventeenth century and well into the eighteenth century it was served in the "hall" or "common room." .. While dinner among the affluent merchants in the North took place shortly after noon, the Southern planters enjoyed their dinner as late as bubbling stews were carried into the fields to feed the slaves and laborers... The answer depended upon where they came from and where they landed. Augustine ate differently from the English people in Jamestown, the Dutch in New York and the French in South Carolina. Settlers brought their recipes, cooking methods and some supplies with them. Supper was a smaller meal, often similar to breakfast: bread, cheese, mush or hasty pudding, or warmed-over meat from the noon meal.	<urn:uuid:85330346-45b7-4bfc-999c-f2d1d93863b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vsk24.ru/food-dating-meat-departments-487.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00035.warc.gz	en	0.984561	154	3.53125	4	[ 0.05067033693194389, 0.2940604090690613, 0.34360694885253906, -0.26215091347694397, -0.09822815656661987, -0.3512892723083496, 0.20569713413715363, -0.13954398036003113, -0.23604170978069305, -0.13329960405826569, -0.07103689759969711, -0.0623604953289032, -0.13078561425209045, 0.096928566...	1	Throughout the seventeenth century and well into the eighteenth century it was served in the "hall" or "common room." .. While dinner among the affluent merchants in the North took place shortly after noon, the Southern planters enjoyed their dinner as late as bubbling stews were carried into the fields to feed the slaves and laborers... The answer depended upon where they came from and where they landed. Augustine ate differently from the English people in Jamestown, the Dutch in New York and the French in South Carolina. Settlers brought their recipes, cooking methods and some supplies with them. Supper was a smaller meal, often similar to breakfast: bread, cheese, mush or hasty pudding, or warmed-over meat from the noon meal.	150	ENGLISH	1
When utility workers were digging up streets in the town of Gela in southern Sicily, Italy, in order to insert cables for their new fiber broadband infrastructure, they made a very unusual and unexpected find. They unearthed an entire Greek necropolis in what’s been called a very important archaeological discovery. The workers found skeletons of several adults along with funeral objects which were located next to the bodies. Additionally, they uncovered a Greek vase and the contents were quite disturbing to say the least. Inside of the ancient vase – which is called a hydria – were the bones of a baby. Normally the vase would have been used to carry water in ancient times, so finding the remains of a baby inside of it was quite unusual. Scientists have yet to figure out why the bones of a baby were placed inside of the vase. What they do know for sure is that child mortality rates were quite high during that time period and that ancient Greeks had strong beliefs in life after death. After the utility workers made the discovery, archaeologists went to the site in order to study the remains. They were able to determine that the skeletons as well as the objects date back to between 700 and 650 B.C. – around the same time that the first Greek settlers arrived and made their home in Sicily. Up until this recent discovery, archaeologists didn’t have much information about the first Greek settlers in Sicily, so the fact that the utility workers unearthed the necropolis is definitely a significant find in studying the ancient colonizers. And the fact that they made the discovery in Magna Graecia is also quite significant. The name Magna Graecia refers to coastal areas in the southern part of Italy that were colonized by ancient Greeks between the 8th and 5th centuries B.C. In fact, the city where the necropolis was discovered (Gela) has kept its original Greek name of Γέλα. The city was given its name Γέλα by the ancient Greek colonists who came to the island and officially founded it in 689 B.C. after arriving there from the islands of Crete and Rhodes.	<urn:uuid:58f56b89-a685-421e-abe7-a5541d9f21a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/12/utility-workers-unearth-ancient-greek-necropolis-in-sicily/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00491.warc.gz	en	0.987064	439	3.84375	4	[ -0.45925599336624146, 0.4257522523403168, 0.4504285156726837, -0.05310636758804321, -0.2162618488073349, -0.3567107319831848, 0.17929989099502563, 0.10447191447019577, -0.044322669506073, 0.24057090282440186, 0.00008012526814127341, -0.3863680064678192, -0.17718830704689026, 0.532062113285...	8	When utility workers were digging up streets in the town of Gela in southern Sicily, Italy, in order to insert cables for their new fiber broadband infrastructure, they made a very unusual and unexpected find. They unearthed an entire Greek necropolis in what’s been called a very important archaeological discovery. The workers found skeletons of several adults along with funeral objects which were located next to the bodies. Additionally, they uncovered a Greek vase and the contents were quite disturbing to say the least. Inside of the ancient vase – which is called a hydria – were the bones of a baby. Normally the vase would have been used to carry water in ancient times, so finding the remains of a baby inside of it was quite unusual. Scientists have yet to figure out why the bones of a baby were placed inside of the vase. What they do know for sure is that child mortality rates were quite high during that time period and that ancient Greeks had strong beliefs in life after death. After the utility workers made the discovery, archaeologists went to the site in order to study the remains. They were able to determine that the skeletons as well as the objects date back to between 700 and 650 B.C. – around the same time that the first Greek settlers arrived and made their home in Sicily. Up until this recent discovery, archaeologists didn’t have much information about the first Greek settlers in Sicily, so the fact that the utility workers unearthed the necropolis is definitely a significant find in studying the ancient colonizers. And the fact that they made the discovery in Magna Graecia is also quite significant. The name Magna Graecia refers to coastal areas in the southern part of Italy that were colonized by ancient Greeks between the 8th and 5th centuries B.C. In fact, the city where the necropolis was discovered (Gela) has kept its original Greek name of Γέλα. The city was given its name Γέλα by the ancient Greek colonists who came to the island and officially founded it in 689 B.C. after arriving there from the islands of Crete and Rhodes.	438	ENGLISH	1
The Florida Governor’s Mansion was designed by Marion Sims Wyeth and was finished in 1957. The Greek Revival style structure is modeled after Andrew Jackson’s Tennessee home as a tribute to the state’s first territorial governor. The grounds include a swimming pool, tennis court, and a greenhouse, among other lavish features. The Florida Governor’s Mansion was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. Public tours of the property are available year-round. In 1905 a local Tallahassee banker, George Saxon, donated four acres of land for the construction of the governor’s mansion. The building was designed by Henry John Klutho and was finished in 1907. Twenty-four iconic columns that were the height of the two-story building dominated the mansion’s facade. Governor Napoleon Broward and his family were the first occupants of the mansion. The mansion began to deteriorate in 1955 and plans were made to destroy the old mansion and construct a new one on the current site. The new mansion was modeled after Andrew Jackson’s home, known and the Hermitage. The current mansion was completed in 1957.	<urn:uuid:f7552e71-0bf5-4e7b-963b-bb2abad2ddf7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/14430	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00094.warc.gz	en	0.981561	238	3.28125	3	[ -0.29854094982147217, 0.017995521426200867, 0.6460371017456055, -0.09357195347547531, -0.08737807720899582, 0.20284529030323029, -0.0873517096042633, 0.1809186488389969, -0.0026868819259107113, 0.1234474703669548, -0.11676885932683945, 0.17202624678611755, -0.08807965368032455, 0.683843851...	2	The Florida Governor’s Mansion was designed by Marion Sims Wyeth and was finished in 1957. The Greek Revival style structure is modeled after Andrew Jackson’s Tennessee home as a tribute to the state’s first territorial governor. The grounds include a swimming pool, tennis court, and a greenhouse, among other lavish features. The Florida Governor’s Mansion was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. Public tours of the property are available year-round. In 1905 a local Tallahassee banker, George Saxon, donated four acres of land for the construction of the governor’s mansion. The building was designed by Henry John Klutho and was finished in 1907. Twenty-four iconic columns that were the height of the two-story building dominated the mansion’s facade. Governor Napoleon Broward and his family were the first occupants of the mansion. The mansion began to deteriorate in 1955 and plans were made to destroy the old mansion and construct a new one on the current site. The new mansion was modeled after Andrew Jackson’s home, known and the Hermitage. The current mansion was completed in 1957.	243	ENGLISH	1
(Deeds) after the manner of the people of Fir’awn and those before them: They treated as false the Signs of their Lord: so We destroyed them for their crimes, and We drowned the people of Fir’awn: for they were all oppressors and wrong-doers. (Surat al-Anfal: 54) Ancient Egyptian civilisation, along with other city states established in Mesopotamia at the same time, is known to be one of the oldest civilisations in the world and it is recognised to have been an organised state with the most advanced social order of its age. The facts that they discovered writing around the third millennium BC and used it; that they made use of the River Nile and were protected against overseas dangers on account of the natural setting of the country, greatly contributed to the Egyptians improving their civilisation. But this "civilised" society was one in which "the reign of pharaohs" prevailed the system of denial mentioned in the clearest and most straightforward way in the Qur’an. They swelled with pride, turned aside and blasphemed. In the end, neither their advanced civilisations, their social and political orders, or their military successes could save them from being destroyed. The Authority of the Pharaohs The Egyptian civilisation was based on the fertility of the River Nile. Egyptians had settled in the Nile valley due to the abundance of water from this river and the fact that they could cultivate the land with the river water without being dependent on rainy seasons. The historian Ernst H. Gombrich states in his writing that Africa is very hot and sometimes it does not rain there at all for months. For this reason, many areas in this huge continent are extremely dry and as a consequence are covered with vast desert. Both sides of the River Nile are also covered with desert, and it hardly rains in Egypt. But in this country, rain is not needed so much, because the River Nile runs through the middle of the whole country. 33 So, whoever has control of the River Nile, which is of such great importance, is also able to control Egypt’s biggest source of commerce and agriculture. The pharaohs were able to establish their dominance over Egypt in this way. The narrow and vertical form of the Nile valley did not allow residential units situated around the river to expand much, and therefore Egyptians formed a civilisation made up of small-scale towns and villages instead of big cities. This factor also fortified the dominance of the Pharaohs over their people. King Menes is known to be the first Egyptian Pharaoh who united the whole of ancient Egypt, for the first time in history, in one state around the third millennium BC. In fact, the term "pharaoh" originally referred to the palace where the Egyptian king lived, but in time, it became the title of Egyptian kings. This is why the kings, who were rulers of Old Egypt started to be called "Pharaohs". Being owners, administrators and rulers of the whole state and its lands, these pharaohs were accepted as reflections of the biggest god in the distorted polytheistic religion of old Egypt. The administration of Egyptian lands, their division, their income, in short, all the estates, services and production within the country’s borders were managed on behalf of the Pharaoh. The absolutism in the regime had given the Pharaoh such power that he could have anything he wished for. Right from the establishment of the first dynasty, at the time of Menes who became the first King of Egypt by uniting Upper and Lower Egypt, the River Nile started to be delivered to the public through canals. In addition, production was taken under control and the entire production of goods and services were assigned to the king. The king distributed and shared these goods and services in the proportions his people needed. It was not hard for the kings, who had established such a power in the region, to reduce the people to submission. The King of Egypt, or with his future name, the Pharaoh, was looked upon as a holy being who held great power and met all the needs of his people: and he was transformed into a god. The Pharaohs definitely believed in time that they were indeed gods. Some of the words the Pharaoh mentioned in the Qur’an used during his conversation with Musa (as) prove that they held this belief. He tried to intimidate Musa (as) by saying: "If thou dost put forward any god other than me, I will certainly put thee in prison!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 29), and he said to the people around him: "No god do I know for you but myself." (Surat al-Qasas: 38). He said all this because he regarded himself as a god. According to the historian Herodotus, the Ancient Egyptians were the most "devout" people in the world. However, their religion was not the religion of Truth, but a perverse polytheistic one and they could not abandon their perverse religion because of their extreme conservatism. The religious beliefs of the Egyptians were mainly based on serving their gods. The "intermediaries" between these gods and people were the priests who were among the leaders of the society. Dealing with magic and witchcraft at the same time, the priests made an important class whom the Pharaohs used in order to keep the people in submission. The Ancient Egyptians were largely influenced by the natural environment in which they lived. The natural geography of Egypt protected the country against external attacks perfectly. Egypt was surrounded by deserts, mountainous lands and seas on all sides. Attacks likely to be made on the country had two possible routes and it was very simple for the Egyptians to defend those routes. The Egyptians remained isolated from the external world thanks to these natural factors. But passing centuries transformed this isolation into a dark bigotry. Thus the Egyptians acquired a viewpoint which was locked against new developments and novelties, and which was extremely conservative about their religion. The "religion of their ancestors" mentioned frequently in the Qur’an became their most important value. This is why Fir’awn and his close circle turned their backs on Musa (as) and Harun (as) when they announced the Religion of Truth to them, by saying: "Hast thou come to us to turn us away from the ways we found our fathers following - in order that thou and thy brother may have greatness in the land? But not we shall believe in you!" (Surah Yunus: 78) The religion of Ancient Egypt was divided into branches, the most important of which were the official religion of the state, the beliefs of the people and belief in life after death. According to the state’s official religion, the Pharaoh was a holy being. He was a reflection of the people’s gods on earth and his purpose was to dispense justice and protect them on earth. The beliefs widespread among people were extremely complicated, and the elements which clashed with the state’s official religion were oppressed by the reigns of the Pharaohs. Basically, they believed in many gods, and these gods were usually depicted as having animal heads on human bodies. But it was also possible to meet with local traditions which differed from region to region. Life after death made up the most important part of Egyptian belief. They believed that the soul went on living after the body died. According to this, the souls of the dead were brought by particular angels to the God who was a Judge and forty-two other witness judges, a scale was set in the middle and the heart of the soul was weighed in this scale. Those with more goodness passed on to a beautiful setting and lived in happiness; those with more wickedness were sent to a place where they were subject to great torments. There, they were tormented throughout eternity by a strange creature called the "The Dead Eater". The belief of the Egyptians in the Hereafter clearly shows a parallel with the monotheistic belief and the religion of truth. Even their belief in the hereafter alone proves that the religion of truth and the message had reached ancient Egyptian civilisation, but that this religion was later corrupted, and monotheism was turned into polytheism. It is already known that warners calling people to the unity of Allah and summoning them to be His slaves were sent to Egypt from time to time, as they were to all the peoples on earth at one time or another. One of these was the Prophet Yusuf (as) whose life is told in detail in the Qur’an. The history of Yusuf (as) is also extremely important because it includes the arrival of the Children of Israel in Egypt and their settlement there. On the other hand, in the historical resources, there are references to some Egyptians who invited people to monotheistic religions even before Musa. One of them is the most interesting Pharaoh in the history of Egypt, that is, Amenhotep IV. The Monotheistic Pharaoh, Amenhotep IV The Egyptian Pharaohs were generally brutal, oppressive, belligerent and ruthless people. In general, they adopted the polytheistic religion of Egypt and deified themselves through this religion. But there is a Pharaoh in Egyptian history who is very different from the others. This Pharaoh defended belief in a single Creator and was subjected to great resistance by the priests of Ammon, who profited from the polytheistic religion, and some soldiers who supported them, and so he was finally killed. This Pharaoh was Amenhotep IV who rose to power in the fourteenth century BC. When Amenhotep IV was enthroned in 1375 BC, he came across a conservatism and traditionalism which had been lingering for centuries. Until then, the structure of the society and the relations of the public with the royal palace had carried on without any change. The society kept all its doors firmly shut to all external events and religious innovations. This extreme conservatism, also remarked by ancient Greek travellers, was caused by the natural geographical conditions of Egypt as explained above. Imposed on people by the Pharaohs, the official religion required an unconditional faith in everything old and traditional. But Amenhotep IV did not adopt the official religion. The historian Ernst Gombrich writes: - He (Amenhotep IV) broke with many of the customs hallowed by an age-old tradition. He did not wish to pay homage to the many strangely shaped gods of his people. For him only one god was supreme, Aton, whom he worshipped and whom he had represented in the shape of the sun. He called himself Akhenaton, after his god, and he moved his court out of reach of the priests of the other gods, to a place which is now called El-Amarna. 34 After the death of his father, young Amenhotep IV was subjected to great pressure. This oppression was caused by the fact that he developed a religion based on monotheism by changing the traditional polytheistic religion of Egypt, and attempting to make radical changes in all fields. But the leaders of Thebes did not allow him to convey the message of this religion. Amenhotep IV and his folk moved away from the city of Thebes and settled in Tell-El-Amarna. Here, they established a new and modern city named "Akh-et-aton". Amenhotep IV changed his name which meant "Contentment of Amon" to Akh-en-aton, which meant "Submitting to Aton". Amon was the name given to the greatest totem in Egyptian polytheism. According to Amenhotep, Aton is the "creator of the heavens and the earth", his equating the name with Allah. Disturbed by these developments, the priests of Ammon wanted to snatch Akhenaton’s power by profiting from an economic crisis in the country. Akhenaton was finally poisoned by conspirators. Succeeding Pharaohs were careful to stay under the influence of the priests. After Akhenaton, Pharaohs with a military background came to power. They again caused the old traditional polytheism to become widespread and expended a considerable effort to return to past ways. Nearly a century later, Ramses II, who was to have the longest rule in the history of Egypt, came to the throne. According to many historians, Ramses was the Pharaoh tormenting the Children of Israel and fighting against Musa (as).35 The Coming of the Prophet Musa (as) The enslaved people whom Fir’awn wronged. Particularly in the age of the New Kingdom, minorities living in the country were set to work on massive construction projects. The Children of Israel were among those minorities. In the picture above top, the slaves who are seen working on the construction of a temple are most likely the Children of Israel. The picture below depicts technical preparations of slaves, again thought to be the Children of Israel, before setting to work on a construction project. The slaves are making bricks by boiling mud on fire, and preparing mortar. Because of their deep bigotry, the ancient Egyptians would not abandon their idolatrous beliefs. Some persons came to them who announced the message of worshipping only Allah, but the people of Fir’awn always turned back to their perverted beliefs. Finally, Musa (as) was sent by Allah as a messenger (rasul) to them, both because they had adopted a system of falsehood contrary to the religion of truth, and also because they had enslaved the Children of Israel. Musa (as) was instructed both to invite Egypt to the religion of truth, and to save the Children of Israel from slavery and show them the right way. In the Qur’an, it is stated: We rehearse to thee some of the story of Prophet Musa and Fir’awn in Truth, for people who believe. Truly Fir’awn elated himself in the land and broke up its people into sections, depressing a small group among them: their sons he slew, but he kept alive their females: for he was indeed a maker of mischief. And We wished to be Gracious to those who were being depressed in the land, to make them leaders (in Faith) and make them heirs, to establish a firm place for them in the land, and to show Fir’awn, Haman, and their hosts, at their hands, the very things against which they were taking precautions. (Surat al-Qasas: 3-6) Fir’awn wanted to prevent the Children of Israel increasing in number, by killing all new-born male babies. This was why, by inspiration from Allah, Musa’s (as) mother placed him in a basket and left him in the river. This was the way that led him into the palace of Fir’awn. The story is told in the Qur’an as follows: So We sent this inspiration to the mother of Musa: "Suckle (thy child), but when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor grieve: for We shall restore him to thee, and We shall make him one of Our messengers." Considered to be the Pharaoh mentioned in the Qur’an according to many historians, Ramses II is seen killing some of the slaves he has captured. As these wall pictures also reveal, the pharaohs had themselves idealised and depicted as strong warriors. They were presented as tall heroes with wide shoulders who could overcome a number of people at one time. Then the people of Fir’awn picked him up (from the river): (It was intended) that (Musa) should be to them an adversary and a cause of sorrow: for Fir’awn and Haman and (all) their hosts were men of sin. The wife of Fir’awn said: "(Here is) joy of the eye, for me and for thee: slay him not. It may be that he will be use to us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not (what they were doing)! (Surat al-Qasas: 7-9) Fir’awn’s wife prevented the murder of Musa (as) and adopted him. In this way, Musa (as) spent his childhood in Fir’awn’s palace. With the help of Allah, his own mother was brought to the palace as his wet-nurse. Years later, Musa (as) left Egypt and came to Madyan. At the end of the period he passed there, Allah spoke directly to him and gave him the station of prophethood. He was ordered to return to Fir’awn and convey the message of Allah’s religion to him. Left: Since the Pharaohs saw themselves as divine beings, they tried to seem superior to all other people. Right: War captives seized by the Egyptians are seen waiting for the execution of their death sentence. Musa (as) and Harun (as) went to Fir’awn in obedience to Allah’s command and conveyed to him the message of the religion of truth. They asked him to stop tormenting the Children of Israel and let them go with Musa (as) and Harun (as). It was unacceptable to Fir’awn that Musa (as), whom he had kept near him for years and who most probably was to have been his successor on the throne, stood up to him and talked to him in this manner. For that reason, Fir’awn accused him of ingratitude: (Fir’awn) said: "Did we not cherish thee as a child among us, and didst thou not stay in our midst many years of thy life? And thou didst a deed of thine which (thou knowest) thou didst, and thou art an ungrateful (wretch)!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 18-19) Fir’awn was trying to play on Musa’s (as) sentiments and affect his conscience. It was as if he was saying that since it was he and his wife who had brought him up, it was Musa (as) who should obey them. This emotional attachment which Fir’awn tried to form, was also directed at influencing the leaders of his people, so that they would also agree with Fir’awn. On the other hand, the message of the religion of truth proclaimed by Musa (as) undermined Fir’awn’s power, and reduced him to the level of ordinary people. As commanded in the Qur’an, he had to obey Musa (as) and also liberate the Children of Israel. Fir’awn believed that by doing so he would lose his power and suffer disgrace. Out of pride and greed for power, Fir’awn did not listen to what Musa (as) said. He tried to make fun of him, attempted to prove his power, and denied him. At the same time, he aimed to portray Musa (as) and Harun (as) as anarchists and accuse them of being politically motivated. Finally, neither Fir’awn nor the leaders of the people within his close circle, except for the magicians, obeyed Musa (as) and Harun (as). They did not follow the religion of truth shown to them. Therefore Allah first of all sent some disasters to them. Left: Ramses II is seen in his war chariot driving a big group of enemies. Just like many others, this is an imaginary scenario Fir’awn made his painters draw. Right: The War of Kadesh. This battle held between Ramses and the Hittites, was falsely passed on by history as a great victory for Fir’awn. However, Fir’awn was saved from death at the last moment, and had to make peace. The Disasters That Befell Fir'awn and His Close Circle Fir’awn and his close circle were so deeply engaged in their polytheism and their idolatry, that is "the religion of their ancestors", that they never considered leaving it. Even the miracles of Musa (as) were not enough to make them move away from their superstitions. Moreover, they expressed this openly. They said: "Whatever be the Signs thou bringest, to work therewith thy sorcery on us, we shall never believe in thee ." (Surat al-A‘raf: 132) Because of their conduct, Allah sent them a number of disasters as "separate miracles" to make them taste the torment in this world, before the eternal torment of the next world. The first of these was drought and scarcity of crops. In relation to the subject, it is written in the Qur’an: "We punished the people of Fir’awn with years (of droughts) and shortness of crops; that they might receive admonition ." (Surat al-A‘raf: 130). Egyptians had based their agricultural system on the River Nile and, therefore, they were not influenced by changes in natural conditions. But an unexpected disaster befell them because Fir’awn and his close friends were proud and arrogant towards Allah and denied His prophet. For various reasons, the level of the River Nile sank a great deal and irrigation canals running off from the river did not carry enough water to agricultural areas. Extreme heat caused the crops to dry up. Thus, the disaster came on Fir’awn and his circle from a very unexpected direction from the River Nile upon which they relied. This drought dismayed Fir’awn who previously used to address his people as follows "O my people! Does not the dominion of Egypt belong to me, (witness) these streams flowing underneath my (palace)? What! see ye not then? " (Surat az-Zukhruf: 51) However, instead of "taking heed" as they should have, they held all that had happened was because of ill fortune brought by Musa and the Children of Israel. They were overcome by such conviction because of their superstitions, disobedience and devotion to the religion of their ancestors and, as a result, they suffered great distress for years. Allah sent to them a series of disasters, and warned them. These disasters are described as follows in the Qur’an: So We sent (plagues) on them: Wholesale death, Locusts, Lice, Frogs, and Blood: Signs openly self-explained: but they were steeped in arrogance - a people given to sin. (Surat al-A‘raf: 133) The disasters Allah sent down on Fir’awn and the denying people around him have also been described in the Old Testament in agreement with the Qur’an: And there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt. (Exodus, 7:21) And if thou refuse to let [them] go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with frogs: And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up and come into thine house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens, and into thy kneadingtroughs. (Exodus, 8:2-3) And the LORD said unto Moses, "Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." (Exodus, 8:16) And the locusts went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the coasts of Egypt: very grievous [were they]; before them there were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be such. (Exodus, 10:14) Then the magicians said unto Pharaoh, This [is] the finger of God: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said. (Exodus, 8:19) Awful disasters kept happening to Fir’awn and his close circle. Some of these disasters were caused by the objects worshipped as gods by the idolatrous people. For example, the River Nile and frogs were sacred for them and had been deified by them. As they expected guidance from their "gods" and called for their help, Allah punished them through their own "gods" so that they could see their mistakes and the plain fact that they actually had no power at all. According to interpreters of the Old Testament, the "blood" was the turning of the River Nile into blood. This was explained as a metaphor for the River Nile’s turning solid red. According to an interpretation, what gave the river this colour was a type of bacteria. The Nile was the main source of life for the Egyptians. Any harm done to this source could mean death for the whole of Egypt. If the bacteria had covered the River Nile so fully as to turn it red, this would cause every living thing using this water to be infected by these bacteria. Recent explanations of the cause for the red colouring of water has favoured protozoan, zooplankton, both salt - and fresh - water algal (phytoplankton) blooms, and dinoflagellates. All of these various blooms - plant, fungal or protozoan - deoxygenate water and produce noxious toxins for both fish and frogs. Citing the Exodus account in the Bible, Patricia A. Tester of the National Marine Fisheries Service, writing in the Annals of the New York Academy of Science, noted that while fewer than fifty out of approximately 5,000 known phytoplankton species are toxic, those which possess toxins can be dangerous to aquatic life. In the same publication, Ewen C. D. Todd of Health Canada, referring to historic and prehistoric data, cited nearly two dozen examples of specific phytoplanktons causing various outbreaks throughout the world. W. W. Carmichael and I. R. Falconer listed diseases associated with fresh-water blue-green algae. Aquatic ecologist Joann M. Burkholder, of North Carolina State University, described a dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscimorte (found in estuary waters) that is capable of, as the species name implies, killing fish. 36 In Fir’awn’s time, this kind of chain of disasters appears to have occurred. According to this scenario, when the Nile was contaminated, fish also died, and the Egyptians were deprived of an important source of nutrition. Without predator fish, the frogs could initially breed freely in both ponds and the Nile and thus overpopulate the river, eventually escaping the anoxic, toxic, and putrefying environment by migrating to land, hence dying on land and decomposing along with the fish. The Nile and adjacent lands thus became fouled, and the waters became dangerous to drink or to bathe in. Moreover, the extinction of frog species causes bugs such as locusts and lice to reproduce excessively. Finally, no matter how the disasters took place, and what effect they left, neither Fir’awn, nor his people turned to Allah by paying heed, but they continued in their arrogance. Fir’awn and his close circle were so hypocritical that they thought to deceive Musa (as) and thus, Allah (Allah forbid!). When the dreadful penalty fell upon them, they at once called for Musa (as) and asked him to save them from it: Every time the penalty fell on them, they said: "O Musa! on your behalf call on thy Lord in virtue of his promise to thee: If thou wilt remove the penalty from us, we shall truly believe in thee, and we shall send away the Children of Israel with thee." But every time We removed the penalty from them according to a fixed term which they had to fulfil. Behold! they broke their word! (Surat al-A’raf: 134-135) Exodus from Egypt Allah explained to Fir’awn and his close circle through Musa (as) that which they had to take heed of, and thus warned them. In response, they rebelled and accused him of being possessed and untrue. Allah prepared a humiliating end for them. He revealed to Musa (as) what was to happen: As described in the above verses, the Children of Israel thought that they were trapped, and Fir’awn’s men thought that they were about to catch them. But Musa (as) said, never losing faith in Allah's help: "By no means! my Lord is with me! Soon will He guide me!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 62) At that moment, Allah saved Musa (as) and the Children of Israel by dividing the sea. Once the Children of Israel had safely crossed, Fir’awn and his men were drowned under the waters which closed over them. Then We told Musa by inspiration: "Strike the sea with thy rod." So it divided, and each separate part became like the huge, firm mass of a mountain. And We made the other party approach thither. We delivered Musa and all who were with him; But We drowned the others. Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might, Most Merciful. (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 63-68) The staff or rod that Musa's (as) carried rod had miraculous qualities, by the will of Allah. Earlier, Allah had turned it into a serpent in front of the Fir’awn and his magicians. When the magicians tried the same trick, Musa’s (as) serpent swallowed all the serpents that Fir’awns magicians had conjured up. Now, standing at the edge of the sea, with Fir’awn and his men in hot pursuit, Musa (as), by the command of Allah, was able to divide the sea with this same rod. This was one of the greatest miracles given to the Prophet Musa (as). Did the incident take place on the Mediterranean Coasts of Egypt, or in the Red Sea? There is no common agreement on the place where the sea divided. Since no detail is given on the subject in the Qur’an, we cannot be sure of the correctness of any of the views on the subject. Some sources show the Mediterranean shores of Egypt as the place where the sea was divided. In the Encyclopedia Judaica , it states: The majority opinion today identifies the Red Sea of the Exodus with one of the lagoons on the shores of the Mediterranean.37 David Ben Gurion said that the event could have taken place during the reign of Ramses II, possibly after the Kadesh defeat. In the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament, the event is said to have happened in Migdol and Baal-Zephon, which are located to the north of the delta.38 This view is based on the Old Testament. In the translations of the Book of Exodus from the Old Testament, it is said that Fir’awn and his men were drowned in the Red Sea. But according to those who hold this view, the word translated as "The Red Sea" is in fact "The Sea of Reeds". The word is identified with the "Red Sea" in many sources, and used for that location. However, "The Sea of Reeds" is actually used to refer to the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. In the Old Testament, while mentioning the route followed by Musa (as) and those following him, the words Migdol and Baal-Zephon are mentioned, and these are located to the north in the Nile Delta, on the shore of Egypt. The Sea of Reeds, by implication, supports the possibility that the incident may have occurred on the Egyptian shores, because in this region, as the name suggests, reeds are produced thanks to the delta alluvions. The Drowning of Fir'awn and His Men in the Sea The Qur’an informs us about the most important aspects of the event of the division of the Red Sea. According to the account in the Qur’an, Musa (as) set out from Egypt with the Children of Israel who obeyed him. However, Fir’awn could not accept their departure without his permission. He and his soldiers followed them "in insolence and spit e" (Surah Yunus: 90). By the time Musa (as) and the Children of Israel reached the shore, Fir’awn and his soldiers had caught up with them. Some of the Children of Israel, who saw this, began to complain to Musa (as). This weakness of the community is also described in the Qur’an in the following verse: "And when the two bodies saw each other, the people of Musa said: 'We are sure to be overtaken.' " (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 61) We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs! (Surah Yunus: 92) As a matter of fact, this was not the first time that the Children of Israel displayed such behaviour in which they showed no submission to Allah. Once before, they had said: "... We have had (nothing but) trouble, both before and after thou camest to us... " (Surat al-A’raf: 129). In contrast to the weak conduct of his people, Musa (as) was extremely confident, since he had profound trust in Allah. Right from the beginning of his struggle, Allah had informed him that His help and support would be with him: "Fear not: for I am with you: I hear and see (everything). " (Surah Ta-Ha: 46) When Musa (as) first met the sorcerers of Fir’awn, he felt "a sort of fear " (Surah Ta-Ha: 67). Thereupon, Allah revealed to him that he should not fear at all and that he would definitely overcome in the end. (Surah Ta-Ha: 68). Thus, Musa (as) was educated and supported by Allah and acquired a full maturity in respect to His ways. Consequently, when some of his people feared being overtaken, he said: "By no means! my Lord is with me! Soon will He guide me! " (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 62) Allah revealed to Musa (as) that he should strike the sea with his rod. Upon this, "it divided, and each separate part became like the huge, firm mass of a mountain ." (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 63). In ordinary circumstances, at the moment when Fir’awn saw such a miracle, he should have understood that there was something extraordinary about the situation - that he was seeing Divine intervention. The sea opened for the people whom Fir’awn wanted to destroy. Moreover, there was no guarantee that the sea would not close back after they passed across. Still, he and his army followed the Children of Israel into the sea. Most probably, Fir’awn and his soldiers had lost their ability to think reasonably because of their insolence and spite, and were unable comprehend the miraculous nature of the situation. The Qur’an describes the last moments of Fir’awn as follows: We took the Children of Israel across the sea: Fir’awn and his hosts followed them in insolence and spite. At length, when overwhelmed with the flood, he said: "I believe that there is no god except Him Whom the Children of Israel believe in: I am of those who submit (to Allah in Islam)." (Surah Yunus: 90) Here, it is possible to see another miracle of Musa (as). Let us remind ourselves of the following verse: Musa prayed: "Our Lord! Thou hast indeed bestowed on Fir’awn and his chiefs splendour and wealth in the life of the present, and so, Our Lord, they mislead (men) from Thy Path. Deface our Lord, the features of their wealth, and send hardness to their hearts, so they will not believe until they see the grievous penalty." Allah said: "Accepted is your prayer (O Musa and Harun)! So stand ye straight, and follow not the path of those who know not." (Surah Yunus: 88-89) It is clearly understood from these verses that Musa (as) was thus informed in answer to his supplication that Fir’awn would believe in Allah at the time he faced the painful punishment. Indeed, Fir’awn said that he believed in Allah when the waters started to cover. Yet, the last-minute acceptance of faith of Fir’awn and his asking for forgiveness did not save him from drowning. Fir’awn and his army drowned and became a lesson to all. (It was said to him): "Ah now! But a little while before, wast thou in rebellion! and thou didst mischief (and violence)! This day shall We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs!" (Surah Yunus: 91-92) We are also informed that in addition to Fir’awn himself, his men also received their share of the punishment. Since the soldiers of Fir’awn were men of "insolence and spite " (Surah Yunus: 90), "men of sin " (Surat al-Qasas: 8), "did wrong " (Surat al-Qasas: 40), and "thought that they would not have to return to Allah " (Surat al-Qasas: 39) just like Fir’awn, they well deserved the punishment of Allah. Thus, Allah “seized both Fir’awn and his hosts and flung them into the sea ”. (Surat al-Qasas: 40) So Allah exacted retribution from them and drowned them in the sea, because they rejected His signs and failed to take warning from them. (Surat al-A‘raf: 136) Allah describes in the Qur’an in the following verses, all that happened after the death of Fir’awn: And We made a people, considered weak (and of no account), inheritors of lands in both east and west - lands whereon We sent down Our blessings. The fair promise of thy Lord was fulfilled for the Children of Israel, because they had patience and constancy, and We levelled to the ground the great works and fine buildings which Fir’awn and his people erected (with such pride). (Surat al-A‘raf: 137)	<urn:uuid:78f541d3-b6da-4a2c-a246-16ca40e9175d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.islamicboard.com/archive/index.php/t-44426.html?s=e3309bed415f76e09238617e66fa2737	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00110.warc.gz	en	0.981477	8,183	3.5625	4	[ -0.23026490211486816, 0.5170184373855591, 0.3958183526992798, 0.11035026609897614, -0.0576435849070549, -0.250552237033844, 0.23622801899909973, -0.2917250394821167, -0.07268267869949341, 0.36319464445114136, -0.12780916690826416, -0.8213392496109009, 0.04291459918022156, -0.21440155804157...	1	(Deeds) after the manner of the people of Fir’awn and those before them: They treated as false the Signs of their Lord: so We destroyed them for their crimes, and We drowned the people of Fir’awn: for they were all oppressors and wrong-doers. (Surat al-Anfal: 54) Ancient Egyptian civilisation, along with other city states established in Mesopotamia at the same time, is known to be one of the oldest civilisations in the world and it is recognised to have been an organised state with the most advanced social order of its age. The facts that they discovered writing around the third millennium BC and used it; that they made use of the River Nile and were protected against overseas dangers on account of the natural setting of the country, greatly contributed to the Egyptians improving their civilisation. But this "civilised" society was one in which "the reign of pharaohs" prevailed the system of denial mentioned in the clearest and most straightforward way in the Qur’an. They swelled with pride, turned aside and blasphemed. In the end, neither their advanced civilisations, their social and political orders, or their military successes could save them from being destroyed. The Authority of the Pharaohs The Egyptian civilisation was based on the fertility of the River Nile. Egyptians had settled in the Nile valley due to the abundance of water from this river and the fact that they could cultivate the land with the river water without being dependent on rainy seasons. The historian Ernst H. Gombrich states in his writing that Africa is very hot and sometimes it does not rain there at all for months. For this reason, many areas in this huge continent are extremely dry and as a consequence are covered with vast desert. Both sides of the River Nile are also covered with desert, and it hardly rains in Egypt. But in this country, rain is not needed so much, because the River Nile runs through the middle of the whole country. 33 So, whoever has control of the River Nile, which is of such great importance, is also able to control Egypt’s biggest source of commerce and agriculture. The pharaohs were able to establish their dominance over Egypt in this way. The narrow and vertical form of the Nile valley did not allow residential units situated around the river to expand much, and therefore Egyptians formed a civilisation made up of small-scale towns and villages instead of big cities. This factor also fortified the dominance of the Pharaohs over their people. King Menes is known to be the first Egyptian Pharaoh who united the whole of ancient Egypt, for the first time in history, in one state around the third millennium BC. In fact, the term "pharaoh" originally referred to the palace where the Egyptian king lived, but in time, it became the title of Egyptian kings. This is why the kings, who were rulers of Old Egypt started to be called "Pharaohs". Being owners, administrators and rulers of the whole state and its lands, these pharaohs were accepted as reflections of the biggest god in the distorted polytheistic religion of old Egypt. The administration of Egyptian lands, their division, their income, in short, all the estates, services and production within the country’s borders were managed on behalf of the Pharaoh. The absolutism in the regime had given the Pharaoh such power that he could have anything he wished for. Right from the establishment of the first dynasty, at the time of Menes who became the first King of Egypt by uniting Upper and Lower Egypt, the River Nile started to be delivered to the public through canals. In addition, production was taken under control and the entire production of goods and services were assigned to the king. The king distributed and shared these goods and services in the proportions his people needed. It was not hard for the kings, who had established such a power in the region, to reduce the people to submission. The King of Egypt, or with his future name, the Pharaoh, was looked upon as a holy being who held great power and met all the needs of his people: and he was transformed into a god. The Pharaohs definitely believed in time that they were indeed gods. Some of the words the Pharaoh mentioned in the Qur’an used during his conversation with Musa (as) prove that they held this belief. He tried to intimidate Musa (as) by saying: "If thou dost put forward any god other than me, I will certainly put thee in prison!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 29), and he said to the people around him: "No god do I know for you but myself." (Surat al-Qasas: 38). He said all this because he regarded himself as a god. According to the historian Herodotus, the Ancient Egyptians were the most "devout" people in the world. However, their religion was not the religion of Truth, but a perverse polytheistic one and they could not abandon their perverse religion because of their extreme conservatism. The religious beliefs of the Egyptians were mainly based on serving their gods. The "intermediaries" between these gods and people were the priests who were among the leaders of the society. Dealing with magic and witchcraft at the same time, the priests made an important class whom the Pharaohs used in order to keep the people in submission. The Ancient Egyptians were largely influenced by the natural environment in which they lived. The natural geography of Egypt protected the country against external attacks perfectly. Egypt was surrounded by deserts, mountainous lands and seas on all sides. Attacks likely to be made on the country had two possible routes and it was very simple for the Egyptians to defend those routes. The Egyptians remained isolated from the external world thanks to these natural factors. But passing centuries transformed this isolation into a dark bigotry. Thus the Egyptians acquired a viewpoint which was locked against new developments and novelties, and which was extremely conservative about their religion. The "religion of their ancestors" mentioned frequently in the Qur’an became their most important value. This is why Fir’awn and his close circle turned their backs on Musa (as) and Harun (as) when they announced the Religion of Truth to them, by saying: "Hast thou come to us to turn us away from the ways we found our fathers following - in order that thou and thy brother may have greatness in the land? But not we shall believe in you!" (Surah Yunus: 78) The religion of Ancient Egypt was divided into branches, the most important of which were the official religion of the state, the beliefs of the people and belief in life after death. According to the state’s official religion, the Pharaoh was a holy being. He was a reflection of the people’s gods on earth and his purpose was to dispense justice and protect them on earth. The beliefs widespread among people were extremely complicated, and the elements which clashed with the state’s official religion were oppressed by the reigns of the Pharaohs. Basically, they believed in many gods, and these gods were usually depicted as having animal heads on human bodies. But it was also possible to meet with local traditions which differed from region to region. Life after death made up the most important part of Egyptian belief. They believed that the soul went on living after the body died. According to this, the souls of the dead were brought by particular angels to the God who was a Judge and forty-two other witness judges, a scale was set in the middle and the heart of the soul was weighed in this scale. Those with more goodness passed on to a beautiful setting and lived in happiness; those with more wickedness were sent to a place where they were subject to great torments. There, they were tormented throughout eternity by a strange creature called the "The Dead Eater". The belief of the Egyptians in the Hereafter clearly shows a parallel with the monotheistic belief and the religion of truth. Even their belief in the hereafter alone proves that the religion of truth and the message had reached ancient Egyptian civilisation, but that this religion was later corrupted, and monotheism was turned into polytheism. It is already known that warners calling people to the unity of Allah and summoning them to be His slaves were sent to Egypt from time to time, as they were to all the peoples on earth at one time or another. One of these was the Prophet Yusuf (as) whose life is told in detail in the Qur’an. The history of Yusuf (as) is also extremely important because it includes the arrival of the Children of Israel in Egypt and their settlement there. On the other hand, in the historical resources, there are references to some Egyptians who invited people to monotheistic religions even before Musa. One of them is the most interesting Pharaoh in the history of Egypt, that is, Amenhotep IV. The Monotheistic Pharaoh, Amenhotep IV The Egyptian Pharaohs were generally brutal, oppressive, belligerent and ruthless people. In general, they adopted the polytheistic religion of Egypt and deified themselves through this religion. But there is a Pharaoh in Egyptian history who is very different from the others. This Pharaoh defended belief in a single Creator and was subjected to great resistance by the priests of Ammon, who profited from the polytheistic religion, and some soldiers who supported them, and so he was finally killed. This Pharaoh was Amenhotep IV who rose to power in the fourteenth century BC. When Amenhotep IV was enthroned in 1375 BC, he came across a conservatism and traditionalism which had been lingering for centuries. Until then, the structure of the society and the relations of the public with the royal palace had carried on without any change. The society kept all its doors firmly shut to all external events and religious innovations. This extreme conservatism, also remarked by ancient Greek travellers, was caused by the natural geographical conditions of Egypt as explained above. Imposed on people by the Pharaohs, the official religion required an unconditional faith in everything old and traditional. But Amenhotep IV did not adopt the official religion. The historian Ernst Gombrich writes: - He (Amenhotep IV) broke with many of the customs hallowed by an age-old tradition. He did not wish to pay homage to the many strangely shaped gods of his people. For him only one god was supreme, Aton, whom he worshipped and whom he had represented in the shape of the sun. He called himself Akhenaton, after his god, and he moved his court out of reach of the priests of the other gods, to a place which is now called El-Amarna. 34 After the death of his father, young Amenhotep IV was subjected to great pressure. This oppression was caused by the fact that he developed a religion based on monotheism by changing the traditional polytheistic religion of Egypt, and attempting to make radical changes in all fields. But the leaders of Thebes did not allow him to convey the message of this religion. Amenhotep IV and his folk moved away from the city of Thebes and settled in Tell-El-Amarna. Here, they established a new and modern city named "Akh-et-aton". Amenhotep IV changed his name which meant "Contentment of Amon" to Akh-en-aton, which meant "Submitting to Aton". Amon was the name given to the greatest totem in Egyptian polytheism. According to Amenhotep, Aton is the "creator of the heavens and the earth", his equating the name with Allah. Disturbed by these developments, the priests of Ammon wanted to snatch Akhenaton’s power by profiting from an economic crisis in the country. Akhenaton was finally poisoned by conspirators. Succeeding Pharaohs were careful to stay under the influence of the priests. After Akhenaton, Pharaohs with a military background came to power. They again caused the old traditional polytheism to become widespread and expended a considerable effort to return to past ways. Nearly a century later, Ramses II, who was to have the longest rule in the history of Egypt, came to the throne. According to many historians, Ramses was the Pharaoh tormenting the Children of Israel and fighting against Musa (as).35 The Coming of the Prophet Musa (as) The enslaved people whom Fir’awn wronged. Particularly in the age of the New Kingdom, minorities living in the country were set to work on massive construction projects. The Children of Israel were among those minorities. In the picture above top, the slaves who are seen working on the construction of a temple are most likely the Children of Israel. The picture below depicts technical preparations of slaves, again thought to be the Children of Israel, before setting to work on a construction project. The slaves are making bricks by boiling mud on fire, and preparing mortar. Because of their deep bigotry, the ancient Egyptians would not abandon their idolatrous beliefs. Some persons came to them who announced the message of worshipping only Allah, but the people of Fir’awn always turned back to their perverted beliefs. Finally, Musa (as) was sent by Allah as a messenger (rasul) to them, both because they had adopted a system of falsehood contrary to the religion of truth, and also because they had enslaved the Children of Israel. Musa (as) was instructed both to invite Egypt to the religion of truth, and to save the Children of Israel from slavery and show them the right way. In the Qur’an, it is stated: We rehearse to thee some of the story of Prophet Musa and Fir’awn in Truth, for people who believe. Truly Fir’awn elated himself in the land and broke up its people into sections, depressing a small group among them: their sons he slew, but he kept alive their females: for he was indeed a maker of mischief. And We wished to be Gracious to those who were being depressed in the land, to make them leaders (in Faith) and make them heirs, to establish a firm place for them in the land, and to show Fir’awn, Haman, and their hosts, at their hands, the very things against which they were taking precautions. (Surat al-Qasas: 3-6) Fir’awn wanted to prevent the Children of Israel increasing in number, by killing all new-born male babies. This was why, by inspiration from Allah, Musa’s (as) mother placed him in a basket and left him in the river. This was the way that led him into the palace of Fir’awn. The story is told in the Qur’an as follows: So We sent this inspiration to the mother of Musa: "Suckle (thy child), but when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor grieve: for We shall restore him to thee, and We shall make him one of Our messengers." Considered to be the Pharaoh mentioned in the Qur’an according to many historians, Ramses II is seen killing some of the slaves he has captured. As these wall pictures also reveal, the pharaohs had themselves idealised and depicted as strong warriors. They were presented as tall heroes with wide shoulders who could overcome a number of people at one time. Then the people of Fir’awn picked him up (from the river): (It was intended) that (Musa) should be to them an adversary and a cause of sorrow: for Fir’awn and Haman and (all) their hosts were men of sin. The wife of Fir’awn said: "(Here is) joy of the eye, for me and for thee: slay him not. It may be that he will be use to us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not (what they were doing)! (Surat al-Qasas: 7-9) Fir’awn’s wife prevented the murder of Musa (as) and adopted him. In this way, Musa (as) spent his childhood in Fir’awn’s palace. With the help of Allah, his own mother was brought to the palace as his wet-nurse. Years later, Musa (as) left Egypt and came to Madyan. At the end of the period he passed there, Allah spoke directly to him and gave him the station of prophethood. He was ordered to return to Fir’awn and convey the message of Allah’s religion to him. Left: Since the Pharaohs saw themselves as divine beings, they tried to seem superior to all other people. Right: War captives seized by the Egyptians are seen waiting for the execution of their death sentence. Musa (as) and Harun (as) went to Fir’awn in obedience to Allah’s command and conveyed to him the message of the religion of truth. They asked him to stop tormenting the Children of Israel and let them go with Musa (as) and Harun (as). It was unacceptable to Fir’awn that Musa (as), whom he had kept near him for years and who most probably was to have been his successor on the throne, stood up to him and talked to him in this manner. For that reason, Fir’awn accused him of ingratitude: (Fir’awn) said: "Did we not cherish thee as a child among us, and didst thou not stay in our midst many years of thy life? And thou didst a deed of thine which (thou knowest) thou didst, and thou art an ungrateful (wretch)!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 18-19) Fir’awn was trying to play on Musa’s (as) sentiments and affect his conscience. It was as if he was saying that since it was he and his wife who had brought him up, it was Musa (as) who should obey them. This emotional attachment which Fir’awn tried to form, was also directed at influencing the leaders of his people, so that they would also agree with Fir’awn. On the other hand, the message of the religion of truth proclaimed by Musa (as) undermined Fir’awn’s power, and reduced him to the level of ordinary people. As commanded in the Qur’an, he had to obey Musa (as) and also liberate the Children of Israel. Fir’awn believed that by doing so he would lose his power and suffer disgrace. Out of pride and greed for power, Fir’awn did not listen to what Musa (as) said. He tried to make fun of him, attempted to prove his power, and denied him. At the same time, he aimed to portray Musa (as) and Harun (as) as anarchists and accuse them of being politically motivated. Finally, neither Fir’awn nor the leaders of the people within his close circle, except for the magicians, obeyed Musa (as) and Harun (as). They did not follow the religion of truth shown to them. Therefore Allah first of all sent some disasters to them. Left: Ramses II is seen in his war chariot driving a big group of enemies. Just like many others, this is an imaginary scenario Fir’awn made his painters draw. Right: The War of Kadesh. This battle held between Ramses and the Hittites, was falsely passed on by history as a great victory for Fir’awn. However, Fir’awn was saved from death at the last moment, and had to make peace. The Disasters That Befell Fir'awn and His Close Circle Fir’awn and his close circle were so deeply engaged in their polytheism and their idolatry, that is "the religion of their ancestors", that they never considered leaving it. Even the miracles of Musa (as) were not enough to make them move away from their superstitions. Moreover, they expressed this openly. They said: "Whatever be the Signs thou bringest, to work therewith thy sorcery on us, we shall never believe in thee ." (Surat al-A‘raf: 132) Because of their conduct, Allah sent them a number of disasters as "separate miracles" to make them taste the torment in this world, before the eternal torment of the next world. The first of these was drought and scarcity of crops. In relation to the subject, it is written in the Qur’an: "We punished the people of Fir’awn with years (of droughts) and shortness of crops; that they might receive admonition ." (Surat al-A‘raf: 130). Egyptians had based their agricultural system on the River Nile and, therefore, they were not influenced by changes in natural conditions. But an unexpected disaster befell them because Fir’awn and his close friends were proud and arrogant towards Allah and denied His prophet. For various reasons, the level of the River Nile sank a great deal and irrigation canals running off from the river did not carry enough water to agricultural areas. Extreme heat caused the crops to dry up. Thus, the disaster came on Fir’awn and his circle from a very unexpected direction from the River Nile upon which they relied. This drought dismayed Fir’awn who previously used to address his people as follows "O my people! Does not the dominion of Egypt belong to me, (witness) these streams flowing underneath my (palace)? What! see ye not then? " (Surat az-Zukhruf: 51) However, instead of "taking heed" as they should have, they held all that had happened was because of ill fortune brought by Musa and the Children of Israel. They were overcome by such conviction because of their superstitions, disobedience and devotion to the religion of their ancestors and, as a result, they suffered great distress for years. Allah sent to them a series of disasters, and warned them. These disasters are described as follows in the Qur’an: So We sent (plagues) on them: Wholesale death, Locusts, Lice, Frogs, and Blood: Signs openly self-explained: but they were steeped in arrogance - a people given to sin. (Surat al-A‘raf: 133) The disasters Allah sent down on Fir’awn and the denying people around him have also been described in the Old Testament in agreement with the Qur’an: And there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt. (Exodus, 7:21) And if thou refuse to let [them] go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with frogs: And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up and come into thine house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens, and into thy kneadingtroughs. (Exodus, 8:2-3) And the LORD said unto Moses, "Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." (Exodus, 8:16) And the locusts went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the coasts of Egypt: very grievous [were they]; before them there were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be such. (Exodus, 10:14) Then the magicians said unto Pharaoh, This [is] the finger of God: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said. (Exodus, 8:19) Awful disasters kept happening to Fir’awn and his close circle. Some of these disasters were caused by the objects worshipped as gods by the idolatrous people. For example, the River Nile and frogs were sacred for them and had been deified by them. As they expected guidance from their "gods" and called for their help, Allah punished them through their own "gods" so that they could see their mistakes and the plain fact that they actually had no power at all. According to interpreters of the Old Testament, the "blood" was the turning of the River Nile into blood. This was explained as a metaphor for the River Nile’s turning solid red. According to an interpretation, what gave the river this colour was a type of bacteria. The Nile was the main source of life for the Egyptians. Any harm done to this source could mean death for the whole of Egypt. If the bacteria had covered the River Nile so fully as to turn it red, this would cause every living thing using this water to be infected by these bacteria. Recent explanations of the cause for the red colouring of water has favoured protozoan, zooplankton, both salt - and fresh - water algal (phytoplankton) blooms, and dinoflagellates. All of these various blooms - plant, fungal or protozoan - deoxygenate water and produce noxious toxins for both fish and frogs. Citing the Exodus account in the Bible, Patricia A. Tester of the National Marine Fisheries Service, writing in the Annals of the New York Academy of Science, noted that while fewer than fifty out of approximately 5,000 known phytoplankton species are toxic, those which possess toxins can be dangerous to aquatic life. In the same publication, Ewen C. D. Todd of Health Canada, referring to historic and prehistoric data, cited nearly two dozen examples of specific phytoplanktons causing various outbreaks throughout the world. W. W. Carmichael and I. R. Falconer listed diseases associated with fresh-water blue-green algae. Aquatic ecologist Joann M. Burkholder, of North Carolina State University, described a dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscimorte (found in estuary waters) that is capable of, as the species name implies, killing fish. 36 In Fir’awn’s time, this kind of chain of disasters appears to have occurred. According to this scenario, when the Nile was contaminated, fish also died, and the Egyptians were deprived of an important source of nutrition. Without predator fish, the frogs could initially breed freely in both ponds and the Nile and thus overpopulate the river, eventually escaping the anoxic, toxic, and putrefying environment by migrating to land, hence dying on land and decomposing along with the fish. The Nile and adjacent lands thus became fouled, and the waters became dangerous to drink or to bathe in. Moreover, the extinction of frog species causes bugs such as locusts and lice to reproduce excessively. Finally, no matter how the disasters took place, and what effect they left, neither Fir’awn, nor his people turned to Allah by paying heed, but they continued in their arrogance. Fir’awn and his close circle were so hypocritical that they thought to deceive Musa (as) and thus, Allah (Allah forbid!). When the dreadful penalty fell upon them, they at once called for Musa (as) and asked him to save them from it: Every time the penalty fell on them, they said: "O Musa! on your behalf call on thy Lord in virtue of his promise to thee: If thou wilt remove the penalty from us, we shall truly believe in thee, and we shall send away the Children of Israel with thee." But every time We removed the penalty from them according to a fixed term which they had to fulfil. Behold! they broke their word! (Surat al-A’raf: 134-135) Exodus from Egypt Allah explained to Fir’awn and his close circle through Musa (as) that which they had to take heed of, and thus warned them. In response, they rebelled and accused him of being possessed and untrue. Allah prepared a humiliating end for them. He revealed to Musa (as) what was to happen: As described in the above verses, the Children of Israel thought that they were trapped, and Fir’awn’s men thought that they were about to catch them. But Musa (as) said, never losing faith in Allah's help: "By no means! my Lord is with me! Soon will He guide me!" (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 62) At that moment, Allah saved Musa (as) and the Children of Israel by dividing the sea. Once the Children of Israel had safely crossed, Fir’awn and his men were drowned under the waters which closed over them. Then We told Musa by inspiration: "Strike the sea with thy rod." So it divided, and each separate part became like the huge, firm mass of a mountain. And We made the other party approach thither. We delivered Musa and all who were with him; But We drowned the others. Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might, Most Merciful. (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 63-68) The staff or rod that Musa's (as) carried rod had miraculous qualities, by the will of Allah. Earlier, Allah had turned it into a serpent in front of the Fir’awn and his magicians. When the magicians tried the same trick, Musa’s (as) serpent swallowed all the serpents that Fir’awns magicians had conjured up. Now, standing at the edge of the sea, with Fir’awn and his men in hot pursuit, Musa (as), by the command of Allah, was able to divide the sea with this same rod. This was one of the greatest miracles given to the Prophet Musa (as). Did the incident take place on the Mediterranean Coasts of Egypt, or in the Red Sea? There is no common agreement on the place where the sea divided. Since no detail is given on the subject in the Qur’an, we cannot be sure of the correctness of any of the views on the subject. Some sources show the Mediterranean shores of Egypt as the place where the sea was divided. In the Encyclopedia Judaica , it states: The majority opinion today identifies the Red Sea of the Exodus with one of the lagoons on the shores of the Mediterranean.37 David Ben Gurion said that the event could have taken place during the reign of Ramses II, possibly after the Kadesh defeat. In the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament, the event is said to have happened in Migdol and Baal-Zephon, which are located to the north of the delta.38 This view is based on the Old Testament. In the translations of the Book of Exodus from the Old Testament, it is said that Fir’awn and his men were drowned in the Red Sea. But according to those who hold this view, the word translated as "The Red Sea" is in fact "The Sea of Reeds". The word is identified with the "Red Sea" in many sources, and used for that location. However, "The Sea of Reeds" is actually used to refer to the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. In the Old Testament, while mentioning the route followed by Musa (as) and those following him, the words Migdol and Baal-Zephon are mentioned, and these are located to the north in the Nile Delta, on the shore of Egypt. The Sea of Reeds, by implication, supports the possibility that the incident may have occurred on the Egyptian shores, because in this region, as the name suggests, reeds are produced thanks to the delta alluvions. The Drowning of Fir'awn and His Men in the Sea The Qur’an informs us about the most important aspects of the event of the division of the Red Sea. According to the account in the Qur’an, Musa (as) set out from Egypt with the Children of Israel who obeyed him. However, Fir’awn could not accept their departure without his permission. He and his soldiers followed them "in insolence and spit e" (Surah Yunus: 90). By the time Musa (as) and the Children of Israel reached the shore, Fir’awn and his soldiers had caught up with them. Some of the Children of Israel, who saw this, began to complain to Musa (as). This weakness of the community is also described in the Qur’an in the following verse: "And when the two bodies saw each other, the people of Musa said: 'We are sure to be overtaken.' " (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 61) We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs! (Surah Yunus: 92) As a matter of fact, this was not the first time that the Children of Israel displayed such behaviour in which they showed no submission to Allah. Once before, they had said: "... We have had (nothing but) trouble, both before and after thou camest to us... " (Surat al-A’raf: 129). In contrast to the weak conduct of his people, Musa (as) was extremely confident, since he had profound trust in Allah. Right from the beginning of his struggle, Allah had informed him that His help and support would be with him: "Fear not: for I am with you: I hear and see (everything). " (Surah Ta-Ha: 46) When Musa (as) first met the sorcerers of Fir’awn, he felt "a sort of fear " (Surah Ta-Ha: 67). Thereupon, Allah revealed to him that he should not fear at all and that he would definitely overcome in the end. (Surah Ta-Ha: 68). Thus, Musa (as) was educated and supported by Allah and acquired a full maturity in respect to His ways. Consequently, when some of his people feared being overtaken, he said: "By no means! my Lord is with me! Soon will He guide me! " (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 62) Allah revealed to Musa (as) that he should strike the sea with his rod. Upon this, "it divided, and each separate part became like the huge, firm mass of a mountain ." (Surat ash-Shu’ara: 63). In ordinary circumstances, at the moment when Fir’awn saw such a miracle, he should have understood that there was something extraordinary about the situation - that he was seeing Divine intervention. The sea opened for the people whom Fir’awn wanted to destroy. Moreover, there was no guarantee that the sea would not close back after they passed across. Still, he and his army followed the Children of Israel into the sea. Most probably, Fir’awn and his soldiers had lost their ability to think reasonably because of their insolence and spite, and were unable comprehend the miraculous nature of the situation. The Qur’an describes the last moments of Fir’awn as follows: We took the Children of Israel across the sea: Fir’awn and his hosts followed them in insolence and spite. At length, when overwhelmed with the flood, he said: "I believe that there is no god except Him Whom the Children of Israel believe in: I am of those who submit (to Allah in Islam)." (Surah Yunus: 90) Here, it is possible to see another miracle of Musa (as). Let us remind ourselves of the following verse: Musa prayed: "Our Lord! Thou hast indeed bestowed on Fir’awn and his chiefs splendour and wealth in the life of the present, and so, Our Lord, they mislead (men) from Thy Path. Deface our Lord, the features of their wealth, and send hardness to their hearts, so they will not believe until they see the grievous penalty." Allah said: "Accepted is your prayer (O Musa and Harun)! So stand ye straight, and follow not the path of those who know not." (Surah Yunus: 88-89) It is clearly understood from these verses that Musa (as) was thus informed in answer to his supplication that Fir’awn would believe in Allah at the time he faced the painful punishment. Indeed, Fir’awn said that he believed in Allah when the waters started to cover. Yet, the last-minute acceptance of faith of Fir’awn and his asking for forgiveness did not save him from drowning. Fir’awn and his army drowned and became a lesson to all. (It was said to him): "Ah now! But a little while before, wast thou in rebellion! and thou didst mischief (and violence)! This day shall We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs!" (Surah Yunus: 91-92) We are also informed that in addition to Fir’awn himself, his men also received their share of the punishment. Since the soldiers of Fir’awn were men of "insolence and spite " (Surah Yunus: 90), "men of sin " (Surat al-Qasas: 8), "did wrong " (Surat al-Qasas: 40), and "thought that they would not have to return to Allah " (Surat al-Qasas: 39) just like Fir’awn, they well deserved the punishment of Allah. Thus, Allah “seized both Fir’awn and his hosts and flung them into the sea ”. (Surat al-Qasas: 40) So Allah exacted retribution from them and drowned them in the sea, because they rejected His signs and failed to take warning from them. (Surat al-A‘raf: 136) Allah describes in the Qur’an in the following verses, all that happened after the death of Fir’awn: And We made a people, considered weak (and of no account), inheritors of lands in both east and west - lands whereon We sent down Our blessings. The fair promise of thy Lord was fulfilled for the Children of Israel, because they had patience and constancy, and We levelled to the ground the great works and fine buildings which Fir’awn and his people erected (with such pride). (Surat al-A‘raf: 137)	8,032	ENGLISH	1
Climate change, specifically global warming, has already significantly reduced the crop yields in a number of countries. This reduction of crop yield has been so substantial that it has become a factor in the increase of food prices, a concern that has hit countries worldwide. In Russia, yield on wheat crops has been reduced by over 10%. Countries like China, India and France have also experienced reduced yields on wheat by a few percentages. In China, France and Brazil, yields on corn were also reduced by several percentages. This information was included in the study and was focused between the years 1980 until 2008. The study also concluded that despite the significant loss of yield on crops in some countries, there have been those that have gained some positive effects because of climate change. For instance, in countries that were primarily agricultural, the excess carbon dioxide in the air served as a fertilizer that helped cultivate plants. This effect somehow offset the negative effects that the same greenhouse gas has dealt other countries. However, if the gains will be compared to the losses that global warming has brought, it can be concluded that the gains do not make up for the losses. Justin Costa-Roberts and David Lobell, authors of the study, pointed out that there is a high possibility of this global temperature rise to increase even more in the years to come. This will also ultimately lead to a worsening of its impact on food production.	<urn:uuid:c9057c1d-878b-4c27-a294-88725979fb62>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.grocery.com/changes-in-the-climate-could-significantly-affect-crop-yields/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00031.warc.gz	en	0.983709	279	3.328125	3	[ -0.19040094316005707, 0.08480174094438553, 0.1972523182630539, 0.4925682842731476, 0.7796586751937866, 0.20086108148097992, -0.24887633323669434, 0.20942935347557068, 0.12644818425178528, 0.20605112612247467, -0.03143550828099251, -0.3859201669692993, 0.4270132780075073, 0.5123193860054016...	5	Climate change, specifically global warming, has already significantly reduced the crop yields in a number of countries. This reduction of crop yield has been so substantial that it has become a factor in the increase of food prices, a concern that has hit countries worldwide. In Russia, yield on wheat crops has been reduced by over 10%. Countries like China, India and France have also experienced reduced yields on wheat by a few percentages. In China, France and Brazil, yields on corn were also reduced by several percentages. This information was included in the study and was focused between the years 1980 until 2008. The study also concluded that despite the significant loss of yield on crops in some countries, there have been those that have gained some positive effects because of climate change. For instance, in countries that were primarily agricultural, the excess carbon dioxide in the air served as a fertilizer that helped cultivate plants. This effect somehow offset the negative effects that the same greenhouse gas has dealt other countries. However, if the gains will be compared to the losses that global warming has brought, it can be concluded that the gains do not make up for the losses. Justin Costa-Roberts and David Lobell, authors of the study, pointed out that there is a high possibility of this global temperature rise to increase even more in the years to come. This will also ultimately lead to a worsening of its impact on food production.	287	ENGLISH	1
Lord of the Flies both begins and ends by focusing on Ralph and it is his journey that we follow throughout the story. Ralph has fair hair, is described as 'attractive' and has a degree of natural charisma. Although he is quite typical of a 12-year-old boy, Ralph also displays flashes of maturity and common sense which make him seem older. He has qualities of natural leadership such as bravery, fairness and a sense of justice so it is not surprising when he is elected to lead the others. Ralph tries to keep to a civilised code of conduct but circumstances are against him. By the end of the novel, he is being hunted down by the other boys and it is only by a stroke of good fortune that he is rescued from certain death. \|How is Ralph like this?\|\|Evidence\|\|Analysis\| \|Leadership\|\|Ralph is one of the oldest boys and is quickly elected as Chief. He is generally fair-minded and decisive. He listens to others but takes control when necessary.\|\|Something deep in Ralph spoke for him. "I'm chief. I'll go. Don't argue..." He found his voice tended either to disappear or to come out too loud. He looked at Jack.\|\|Ralph speaks in very short sentences so there is no doubt about what his orders are. However, he is not totally confident in his role and his voice wavers and he looks to Jack for approval.\| \|Charismatic\|\|Ralph is presented as an attractive character from his first appearance when he is contrasted with Piggy. He has brains and is also athletic.\|\|You could see now that he might make a boxer, as far as width and heaviness of shoulders went, but there was a mildness about his mouth and eyes that proclaimed no devil.\|\|Ralph has athletic qualities that would make other boys look up to him but he also has a generally kind nature which is shown in his face.\| \|Organised\|\|Ralph quickly realises that the two things that the boys will need are shelter and a signal to attract attention and he sees that these are achieved. He organises a sub-group to hunt for food and holds assemblies.\|\|The time had come for the assembly and as he walked into the concealing splendours of the sunlight he went carefully over the points of his speech... This meeting must not be fun but be business.\|\|He knows that the meeting will be difficult so he carefully rehearses what he is going to say and the points he is going to cover. Although he is finding this tricky, he perseveres and comes to a firm conclusion.\| \|Civilised\|\|Ralph thinks it is important to have rules and be organised. He has a great sense of 'fair play' and defends others who are weaker than himself. As the novel progresses, Ralph begins to think increasingly about the civilised world that has been left behind.\|\|Once, following his father from Chatham to Devonport, they had lived in a cottage on the edge of the moors... Mummy had still been with them and Daddy had come home every day. Wild ponies came to the stone wall at the bottom of the garden, and it had snowed.\|\|Ralph daydreams about a time when adults made the decisions and he lived comfortably in a nice house with a nice garden and its own boundaries. He also remembers being formally educated.\| Sitting under what seemed an unusual heat, even for this island, Ralph planned his toilet. He would like to have a pair of scissors and cut this hair - he flung the mass back -cut this filthy hair right back to half an inch. He would like to have a bath, a proper wallow with soap. He passed his tongue experimentally over his teeth and decided that a toothbrush would come in handy too. Then there were his nails - Ralph turned his hand over and examined them. They were bitten down to the quick though he could not remember when he had restarted this habit nor any time when he indulged it.'Ralph, as described by William Golding in the novel What is revealed here about Ralph's state of mind? How to analyse the quote: 'Sitting under what seemed an unusual heat, even for this island, Ralph planned his toilet. He would like to have a pair of scissors and cut this hair - he flung the mass back - cut this filthy hair right back to half an inch. He would like to have a bath, a proper wallow with soap. He passed his tongue experimentally over his teeth and decided that a toothbrush would come in handy too. Then there were his nails - Ralph turned his hand over and examined them. They were bitten down to the quick though he could not remember when he had restarted this habit nor any time when he indulged it.' How to use this in an essay: Ralph has tried to be an effective leader but has been constantly challenged by Jack and let down in his efforts by the other boys. As a result he daydreams about the civilised world he has left behind. Having a thorough wash, cutting his hair and brushing his teeth are all indications of a clean civilised society and this is something to which Ralph longs to return. Although this is all wishful thinking Ralph still needs to be organised and 'planned' what he would do. Ralph's concerns over his leadership and the boys' need for rescue have also led him to start biting his nails. Up until now, though, he seems to have been unaware that he has been doing it - 'this habit' has been carried out subconsciously and shows how worried he is.	<urn:uuid:5435f747-a975-42e5-8ec3-99acec6318b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zk46kmn/revision/2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00511.warc.gz	en	0.992314	1,158	3.375	3	[ -0.18748749792575836, -0.02727869153022766, 0.266966313123703, -0.23898330330848694, -0.22578762471675873, -0.05150241404771805, 0.6858173608779907, -0.36701542139053345, -0.08882930874824524, -0.20098286867141724, 0.03522849082946777, -0.2159672975540161, 0.38779208064079285, 0.2352854758...	3	Lord of the Flies both begins and ends by focusing on Ralph and it is his journey that we follow throughout the story. Ralph has fair hair, is described as 'attractive' and has a degree of natural charisma. Although he is quite typical of a 12-year-old boy, Ralph also displays flashes of maturity and common sense which make him seem older. He has qualities of natural leadership such as bravery, fairness and a sense of justice so it is not surprising when he is elected to lead the others. Ralph tries to keep to a civilised code of conduct but circumstances are against him. By the end of the novel, he is being hunted down by the other boys and it is only by a stroke of good fortune that he is rescued from certain death. \|How is Ralph like this?\|\|Evidence\|\|Analysis\| \|Leadership\|\|Ralph is one of the oldest boys and is quickly elected as Chief. He is generally fair-minded and decisive. He listens to others but takes control when necessary.\|\|Something deep in Ralph spoke for him. "I'm chief. I'll go. Don't argue..." He found his voice tended either to disappear or to come out too loud. He looked at Jack.\|\|Ralph speaks in very short sentences so there is no doubt about what his orders are. However, he is not totally confident in his role and his voice wavers and he looks to Jack for approval.\| \|Charismatic\|\|Ralph is presented as an attractive character from his first appearance when he is contrasted with Piggy. He has brains and is also athletic.\|\|You could see now that he might make a boxer, as far as width and heaviness of shoulders went, but there was a mildness about his mouth and eyes that proclaimed no devil.\|\|Ralph has athletic qualities that would make other boys look up to him but he also has a generally kind nature which is shown in his face.\| \|Organised\|\|Ralph quickly realises that the two things that the boys will need are shelter and a signal to attract attention and he sees that these are achieved. He organises a sub-group to hunt for food and holds assemblies.\|\|The time had come for the assembly and as he walked into the concealing splendours of the sunlight he went carefully over the points of his speech... This meeting must not be fun but be business.\|\|He knows that the meeting will be difficult so he carefully rehearses what he is going to say and the points he is going to cover. Although he is finding this tricky, he perseveres and comes to a firm conclusion.\| \|Civilised\|\|Ralph thinks it is important to have rules and be organised. He has a great sense of 'fair play' and defends others who are weaker than himself. As the novel progresses, Ralph begins to think increasingly about the civilised world that has been left behind.\|\|Once, following his father from Chatham to Devonport, they had lived in a cottage on the edge of the moors... Mummy had still been with them and Daddy had come home every day. Wild ponies came to the stone wall at the bottom of the garden, and it had snowed.\|\|Ralph daydreams about a time when adults made the decisions and he lived comfortably in a nice house with a nice garden and its own boundaries. He also remembers being formally educated.\| Sitting under what seemed an unusual heat, even for this island, Ralph planned his toilet. He would like to have a pair of scissors and cut this hair - he flung the mass back -cut this filthy hair right back to half an inch. He would like to have a bath, a proper wallow with soap. He passed his tongue experimentally over his teeth and decided that a toothbrush would come in handy too. Then there were his nails - Ralph turned his hand over and examined them. They were bitten down to the quick though he could not remember when he had restarted this habit nor any time when he indulged it.'Ralph, as described by William Golding in the novel What is revealed here about Ralph's state of mind? How to analyse the quote: 'Sitting under what seemed an unusual heat, even for this island, Ralph planned his toilet. He would like to have a pair of scissors and cut this hair - he flung the mass back - cut this filthy hair right back to half an inch. He would like to have a bath, a proper wallow with soap. He passed his tongue experimentally over his teeth and decided that a toothbrush would come in handy too. Then there were his nails - Ralph turned his hand over and examined them. They were bitten down to the quick though he could not remember when he had restarted this habit nor any time when he indulged it.' How to use this in an essay: Ralph has tried to be an effective leader but has been constantly challenged by Jack and let down in his efforts by the other boys. As a result he daydreams about the civilised world he has left behind. Having a thorough wash, cutting his hair and brushing his teeth are all indications of a clean civilised society and this is something to which Ralph longs to return. Although this is all wishful thinking Ralph still needs to be organised and 'planned' what he would do. Ralph's concerns over his leadership and the boys' need for rescue have also led him to start biting his nails. Up until now, though, he seems to have been unaware that he has been doing it - 'this habit' has been carried out subconsciously and shows how worried he is.	1,145	ENGLISH	1
1. What is the historical background of slavery in the United States? In The Hope of the Unseen, the reader feels the residual struggle of African Americans to cast off the legacy of slavery, which is still operating de facto in many ways. Cedric comes from a literal war zone where he is confined and surrounded by hatred, despair, and death. Getting out of the ghetto, as his ancestors tried to get out of slavery, takes supernatural will and effort. Four centuries of history are not so easily cast off. The European colonization of the Americas required cheap labor to develop the land. Enslavement of Africans in the American colonies grew steadily from the early 17th century until by 1860 there were about four million slaves in the United States. Slavery did not become illegal after the American Revolution as many hoped; it was not abolished in the United States until 1865 at the end of the Civil War. Most of the Africans were brought over on slave ships, kidnapped or sold by other Africans, and used for field labor or household workers. Investment in slave ships was a way for white businessmen to make a fortune in early America. Most of the slaves were held in the southern plantations, but blacks were house servants in the north, and most wealthy families were expected to have them. The prosperous Wheatley family of Boston, for instance, had several slaves, but their famous slave, Phillis Wheatley, the first published American poet abroad, was treated from the beginning as a companion to the family and above the other servants. The Puritan attitude in New England towards slaves was somewhat liberal, as slaves were considered part of the family and often educated so they could be converted to Christianity. In the south, masters usually forbade slaves from learning to read or gather in groups to worship or convert other slaves, because literacy and Christianity were potent equalizing forces. Later rebellions in the South were often fostered by black Christian ministers, a tradition that was epitomized by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who led the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Slaves felt that Christianity validated their equality with their masters. The masters, on the other hand, claimed that the Bible recorded and condoned the practice of slavery. The story of the Africans in America was told from the point of view of whites in the beginning. The stereotype was that blacks were primitive, ignorant, and immoral, less than human, and therefore it was not wrong to enslave them. Once blacks gained literacy they began to speak for themselves, and their voices were the proof that slavery was wrong. Phillis Wheatley was bought as a starving child and transformed into a prodigy in a few short years of training. She was the first and most compelling example for abolitionists that the black race was intelligent and deserved to be treated as human. Wheatley was the first African American to publish a full book, but other slave authors, such as Lucy Terry and Jupiter Hammon had printed individual poems earlier. 2. What is the history of African American civil rights in the United States? Though African Americans had been emancipated by President Lincoln in 1865, it took another century for them to win their civil rights. When the civil rights movement began in the mid-1950s, blacks were still barred from registering to vote in the South or running for office. At the same time, segregation laws made it impossible for blacks to mingle with whites in public places. There were racially segregated restaurants, movie theaters, schools, churches, hotels, and parks. Black citizens had little legal recourse for injustice. The federal court ruled segregation in schools unconstitutional in 1954, but it was still a fact. In 1955, Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama, broke the rule that blacks had to sit in the back of the bus and was arrested. It was the spark that set off demonstrations and sit-ins by African Americans everywhere to win their civil rights. In 1962 when African American James Meredith tried to attend the University of Mississippi by federal court order, two people were killed and twenty-nine marshals shot trying to protect him. In 1963, the Children’s Crusade, with thousands of black high school student protesters attacked by fire hoses and police dogs in Birmingham, was shown on TV and roused public outrage. The 1963 march on Washington, where Dr. Martin Luther King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech was attended by 200,000 and made a huge impact on public awareness, yet it was not until July 2, 1964, that President Johnson was able to get the Civil Rights Act passed. This bill barred discrimination in public places, and mentioned voting rights, but voters’ rights were addressed more fully in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that suspended poll taxes, literacy tests and other measures that kept blacks from voting. Within months, a quarter of a million blacks registered, and within four years, voter registration in the South doubled, and African Americans entered the political scene as a new force. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his nonviolent methods of creating change, but he became a martyr to that change when he was murdered in 1968. Meanwhile, there were race riots in northern cities like New York and Philadelphia and later in the Watts area of Los Angeles. Black militancy was born in the Black Power groups, and Malcolm X’s ideas of black self-sufficiency appealed to many younger blacks who did not want to be assimilated into white culture. For young African Americans in the 1990s, like Cedric in the book, these events took place before they were born, but the events shaped the environment in which they lived. Although civil rights had been achieved in law, racial inequities still existed. 3. Why was Brown University a significant place for Cedric Jennings to reshape his life? Brown University is a private university in Providence, Rhode Island, established in 1764. It is part of the Ivy League athletic conference, so named because of the ivy- covered walls of the older private and prestigious universities in America—Cornell, Brown, Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale. They are known for their academic excellence, selectivity and social elitism. Cedric was not only out to prove he was good enough to compete at an Ivy League university, he felt he “belonged there” because of his love of learning and desire to live in a larger world. Jennings was attracted to Brown for its emphasis in multicultural experience and liberal attitudes. Before the American Revolution, the university was known as the College in the English Colony of New England and Providence Plantations. Even though the university was founded by Baptists, it was the first American university to accept students regardless of religious affiliation, allowing freedom of conscience. The school was renamed for a family of benefactors. Joseph Brown was a professor of physics, and his nephew, Nicholas, was a wealthy alumnus. The family money ironically came from the slave trade, though Nicholas was an abolitionist. Brown always had a liberal and experimental attitude. In 1850, President Francis Wayland declared that every student should study what he chose. This idea was later incorporated into Brown’s New Curriculum of 1969 in which any course could be taken for pass/fail and students had a larger control over what they studied. The curriculum emphasized teaching students how to think rather than mere content. This challenge of learning how to think objectively is the task Cedric has to master in his freshman year. In 2001, after Jennings left, the first African American woman president of Brown, Ruth Simmons, was appointed. In 2003, President Simmons reopened the issue of Brown’s endowment money coming originally from the slave trade with the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice. The result was a $10 million endowment given by Brown University for the benefit of public schools in Rhode Island, a commitment to education in urban centers that would benefit the sort of school (Slater Junior High School) that Cedric Jennings observed during his fieldwork at Brown. Brown was a particularly good environment, as the book demonstrates, for Jennings to find his bearings and to work through his feelings on race and diversity. 4. Is affirmative action a successful strategy for creating racial equality? Since Cedric Jennings achieved his dream to attend an Ivy League college because of affirmative action, this policy is discussed at length in Suskind’s book. Affirmative action takes race into consideration to promote equal opportunity in education, employment, and health programs. By insisting on mandatory percentages of minority representation, the policy attempts to redress imbalances due to racial discrimination. Minority candidates are often handicapped by background and circumstance, by discrimination and stereotypes, from competing fairly. The argument is that though affirmative action may not be a perfect solution, without it, the imbalances perpetuate. In America, affirmative action was first used by President John F. Kennedy in a 1961 executive order. A section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII) laid the groundwork for subsequent use. It has been further developed by legislative and Supreme Court decisions. It is largely meant as a temporary measure for social change, but it has been extremely controversial with opponents saying that it unfairly favors those less competent. Other problems with the policy are discussed in the book. At Ballou, the advanced science and math programs single out smart ghetto students and focus resources on them so they can compete with other students. Suskind points out, however, that advanced programs in ghetto schools are only middle level academics in good schools. Another strategy is the magnet school that draws students out of the inner city and buses them to a school for gifted minorities, such as the Jefferson Middle School that Cedric attended. These schools try to save the promising students, funneling them to magnet high schools and then on to college. Cedric makes progress at first, having other smart kids to compete with, until financial and emotional problems lead to his misbehavior and dismissal. He is sent back to Ballou with its curriculum like “a thin academic soup” (Chpt. 3, p. 46). Cedric fights hard for his grades and then tries another long shot with a summer program at MIT for his junior year. Through affirmative action, he gets in, the only ghetto kid of fifty-two in the program. It is a set up for failure, as he finds out he is not as prepared as the middle-class minority students. The program director, Bill Ramsey, knows that “the affirmative action deck has been stacked” towards the upwardly mobile middle-class kids rather than the ghetto kids it was meant to help (Chpt. 4, p. 92). He feels bad watching Cedric fail as he is told he is not MIT material because of his low SAT scores and his difficulty in the summer classes. Cedric has believed his hard study and high grades were enough, but they were not. Nevertheless, he is accepted at Brown with low SAT scores because of its affirmative action policy. Meanwhile, he sees other students accepted at universities, but unable to go there because of lack of financial aid. The point is made that the underprivileged need a lot of help—academic, financial, and emotional to catch up. At Brown, Cedric finds himself behind and lost, as at MIT. Affirmative action ends with admission: “Once they arrive, affirmative action kids are generally left to sink or swim” (Chpt. 8, p. 191). Cedric hears professors discussing the minority dropout rate unsympathetically. Justice Clarence Thomas had warned Cedric that people like them have no safety net; one failure and they are out. By contrast, Cedric watches the confident wealthy students who are relaxed in “the presumption of ongoing success” (Chpt. 9, p. 233). He finally agrees to a tutor paid for by his sponsor, Dr. Korb. The tutor feels terrified by Cedric’s innocence and lack of intellectual training. Yet, she knows that “Affirmative action can be subtly woven into grading” (Chpt. 10, p. 242), and she helps him put his personal background into the papers as a plus rather than a minus. In his education class, however, Cedric cannot discuss an issue dispassionately or with any perspective. This is a major skill that other students master in high school. Suskind comments in an “Author’s Note” that “A student like Cedric carries a heightened likelihood of failure at a place like Brown” (p. 368) and thus, his achievement was all the more remarkable. It would not have been possible at all without Brown’s affirmative action policy. Suskind’s book revived enthusiasm for this strategy at a time when its popularity had been waning since the 1980s. 5. Who are the black male role models mentioned in the book? Cedric has only a few male role models to look to: his high school chemistry teacher and mentor, Clarence Taylor, his pastor, Bishop Long, and Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, whom he meets for an inspirational talk. The famous successful black men mentioned in the book have all had to face terrible obstacles and controversy. Clarence Thomas was confirmed as Supreme Court Justice in 1991 but smeared with sexual scandal as a result of Anita Hill’s testimony accusing him of sexual harassment. Football star O. J. Simpson was acquitted of murder in 1995 but caused a racial divide in the country over the verdict. African Americans applauded the verdict, but most whites felt it was an injustice. Marion Barry, the black mayor of Washington D.C. who visits Ballou, was forced to leave office in 1990 through a police sting that led to his conviction him on drug charges. Though famous and powerful in America, these black men are not so different from Cedric’s father in some ways, who is always living with the threat of jail or scandal. Cedric defends Mayor Barry, whom he claims was framed by the police: “A black is suspect, no matter who he is. And eventually they got him” (Chpt. 8, p. 205). Zayd agrees with Cedric about black men being suspect, saying that O.J. was acquitted not because he was innocent, but because of the white guilt for all the other men who were framed over the years (Chpt. 8, p. 205). Cedric’s meeting with Clarence Thomas offers a symbolic overview of the history of black men who tried to achieve something significant in America. In contrast to the classic marble busts of “dead chief justices” (Chpt. 5, p.117), Cedric sees in Thomas’s chambers a painting of slaves, and then, portraits of Booker T. Washington and Frederick Douglass, who both left slavery behind to become great reformers and writers. Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) was a former slave who became an abolitionist, author and orator. By the time of the Civil War he was the most famous American black man, who had toured Europe with his stories of slavery. The eloquence of his bestselling book, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) proved a black man was intelligent. He was a persuasive speaker who argued for black education and desegregation. There were times of danger for him, however, when he had to escape to Canada or Europe. British supporters paid the money to free him. Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) was a slave, then worked in the coal mines, but became an educator and leader of the African-American community after the Civil War. He pleaded with middle-class whites to let the black race develop along separate lines to develop the skills they needed to support themselves economically. He was accused later by W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963), a black scholar and political advocate, as accommodationist. Though Washington won white support for blacks, it was felt he did not ask enough for his race. Du Bois is also mentioned in the book, with Cedric considering Du Bois’s statement that a black man lives in “double consciousness,” having to switch between white and black expectations (Chpt. 13, p. 327). Du Bois was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the first African American to get a Ph.D. from Harvard; he began the push for civil rights (The Souls of Black Folk, 1903) later taken up by Dr. Martin Luther King. Du Bois was a sociologist who explained in The Philadelphia Negro (1899) that blacks in the city are violent because of stress, not genetics. Cedric takes a class at Brown in the literature of the African American author, Richard Wright (1908-1960). Wright’s masterpieces are Native Son (1940), explaining the pressures that lead a black man to murder a white woman, and Wright’s autobiography, Black Boy (1945) explaining his difficult upbringing in the South. Both Du Bois and Wright, though world famous, felt they had to leave America to be respected and died abroad. The sacrifices of black reformers over the last two hundred years precede Cedric Jennings’s journey and are the living history in which he participates. A Hope in the Unseen: Essay Q&A	<urn:uuid:045764de-290d-4c83-96f8-384aaab2d6e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.novelguide.com/a-hope-in-the-unseen/essay-questions	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00421.warc.gz	en	0.981336	3,590	3.75	4	[ -0.005223953165113926, 0.6732354164123535, 0.30450037121772766, 0.05347643792629242, -0.025834638625383377, 0.10953103005886078, -0.3162633776664734, -0.46851450204849243, 0.05863644555211067, 0.20276355743408203, 0.18533779680728912, 0.19683974981307983, -0.5565574169158936, 0.26536318659...	4	1. What is the historical background of slavery in the United States? In The Hope of the Unseen, the reader feels the residual struggle of African Americans to cast off the legacy of slavery, which is still operating de facto in many ways. Cedric comes from a literal war zone where he is confined and surrounded by hatred, despair, and death. Getting out of the ghetto, as his ancestors tried to get out of slavery, takes supernatural will and effort. Four centuries of history are not so easily cast off. The European colonization of the Americas required cheap labor to develop the land. Enslavement of Africans in the American colonies grew steadily from the early 17th century until by 1860 there were about four million slaves in the United States. Slavery did not become illegal after the American Revolution as many hoped; it was not abolished in the United States until 1865 at the end of the Civil War. Most of the Africans were brought over on slave ships, kidnapped or sold by other Africans, and used for field labor or household workers. Investment in slave ships was a way for white businessmen to make a fortune in early America. Most of the slaves were held in the southern plantations, but blacks were house servants in the north, and most wealthy families were expected to have them. The prosperous Wheatley family of Boston, for instance, had several slaves, but their famous slave, Phillis Wheatley, the first published American poet abroad, was treated from the beginning as a companion to the family and above the other servants. The Puritan attitude in New England towards slaves was somewhat liberal, as slaves were considered part of the family and often educated so they could be converted to Christianity. In the south, masters usually forbade slaves from learning to read or gather in groups to worship or convert other slaves, because literacy and Christianity were potent equalizing forces. Later rebellions in the South were often fostered by black Christian ministers, a tradition that was epitomized by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who led the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Slaves felt that Christianity validated their equality with their masters. The masters, on the other hand, claimed that the Bible recorded and condoned the practice of slavery. The story of the Africans in America was told from the point of view of whites in the beginning. The stereotype was that blacks were primitive, ignorant, and immoral, less than human, and therefore it was not wrong to enslave them. Once blacks gained literacy they began to speak for themselves, and their voices were the proof that slavery was wrong. Phillis Wheatley was bought as a starving child and transformed into a prodigy in a few short years of training. She was the first and most compelling example for abolitionists that the black race was intelligent and deserved to be treated as human. Wheatley was the first African American to publish a full book, but other slave authors, such as Lucy Terry and Jupiter Hammon had printed individual poems earlier. 2. What is the history of African American civil rights in the United States? Though African Americans had been emancipated by President Lincoln in 1865, it took another century for them to win their civil rights. When the civil rights movement began in the mid-1950s, blacks were still barred from registering to vote in the South or running for office. At the same time, segregation laws made it impossible for blacks to mingle with whites in public places. There were racially segregated restaurants, movie theaters, schools, churches, hotels, and parks. Black citizens had little legal recourse for injustice. The federal court ruled segregation in schools unconstitutional in 1954, but it was still a fact. In 1955, Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama, broke the rule that blacks had to sit in the back of the bus and was arrested. It was the spark that set off demonstrations and sit-ins by African Americans everywhere to win their civil rights. In 1962 when African American James Meredith tried to attend the University of Mississippi by federal court order, two people were killed and twenty-nine marshals shot trying to protect him. In 1963, the Children’s Crusade, with thousands of black high school student protesters attacked by fire hoses and police dogs in Birmingham, was shown on TV and roused public outrage. The 1963 march on Washington, where Dr. Martin Luther King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech was attended by 200,000 and made a huge impact on public awareness, yet it was not until July 2, 1964, that President Johnson was able to get the Civil Rights Act passed. This bill barred discrimination in public places, and mentioned voting rights, but voters’ rights were addressed more fully in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that suspended poll taxes, literacy tests and other measures that kept blacks from voting. Within months, a quarter of a million blacks registered, and within four years, voter registration in the South doubled, and African Americans entered the political scene as a new force. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his nonviolent methods of creating change, but he became a martyr to that change when he was murdered in 1968. Meanwhile, there were race riots in northern cities like New York and Philadelphia and later in the Watts area of Los Angeles. Black militancy was born in the Black Power groups, and Malcolm X’s ideas of black self-sufficiency appealed to many younger blacks who did not want to be assimilated into white culture. For young African Americans in the 1990s, like Cedric in the book, these events took place before they were born, but the events shaped the environment in which they lived. Although civil rights had been achieved in law, racial inequities still existed. 3. Why was Brown University a significant place for Cedric Jennings to reshape his life? Brown University is a private university in Providence, Rhode Island, established in 1764. It is part of the Ivy League athletic conference, so named because of the ivy- covered walls of the older private and prestigious universities in America—Cornell, Brown, Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale. They are known for their academic excellence, selectivity and social elitism. Cedric was not only out to prove he was good enough to compete at an Ivy League university, he felt he “belonged there” because of his love of learning and desire to live in a larger world. Jennings was attracted to Brown for its emphasis in multicultural experience and liberal attitudes. Before the American Revolution, the university was known as the College in the English Colony of New England and Providence Plantations. Even though the university was founded by Baptists, it was the first American university to accept students regardless of religious affiliation, allowing freedom of conscience. The school was renamed for a family of benefactors. Joseph Brown was a professor of physics, and his nephew, Nicholas, was a wealthy alumnus. The family money ironically came from the slave trade, though Nicholas was an abolitionist. Brown always had a liberal and experimental attitude. In 1850, President Francis Wayland declared that every student should study what he chose. This idea was later incorporated into Brown’s New Curriculum of 1969 in which any course could be taken for pass/fail and students had a larger control over what they studied. The curriculum emphasized teaching students how to think rather than mere content. This challenge of learning how to think objectively is the task Cedric has to master in his freshman year. In 2001, after Jennings left, the first African American woman president of Brown, Ruth Simmons, was appointed. In 2003, President Simmons reopened the issue of Brown’s endowment money coming originally from the slave trade with the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice. The result was a $10 million endowment given by Brown University for the benefit of public schools in Rhode Island, a commitment to education in urban centers that would benefit the sort of school (Slater Junior High School) that Cedric Jennings observed during his fieldwork at Brown. Brown was a particularly good environment, as the book demonstrates, for Jennings to find his bearings and to work through his feelings on race and diversity. 4. Is affirmative action a successful strategy for creating racial equality? Since Cedric Jennings achieved his dream to attend an Ivy League college because of affirmative action, this policy is discussed at length in Suskind’s book. Affirmative action takes race into consideration to promote equal opportunity in education, employment, and health programs. By insisting on mandatory percentages of minority representation, the policy attempts to redress imbalances due to racial discrimination. Minority candidates are often handicapped by background and circumstance, by discrimination and stereotypes, from competing fairly. The argument is that though affirmative action may not be a perfect solution, without it, the imbalances perpetuate. In America, affirmative action was first used by President John F. Kennedy in a 1961 executive order. A section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII) laid the groundwork for subsequent use. It has been further developed by legislative and Supreme Court decisions. It is largely meant as a temporary measure for social change, but it has been extremely controversial with opponents saying that it unfairly favors those less competent. Other problems with the policy are discussed in the book. At Ballou, the advanced science and math programs single out smart ghetto students and focus resources on them so they can compete with other students. Suskind points out, however, that advanced programs in ghetto schools are only middle level academics in good schools. Another strategy is the magnet school that draws students out of the inner city and buses them to a school for gifted minorities, such as the Jefferson Middle School that Cedric attended. These schools try to save the promising students, funneling them to magnet high schools and then on to college. Cedric makes progress at first, having other smart kids to compete with, until financial and emotional problems lead to his misbehavior and dismissal. He is sent back to Ballou with its curriculum like “a thin academic soup” (Chpt. 3, p. 46). Cedric fights hard for his grades and then tries another long shot with a summer program at MIT for his junior year. Through affirmative action, he gets in, the only ghetto kid of fifty-two in the program. It is a set up for failure, as he finds out he is not as prepared as the middle-class minority students. The program director, Bill Ramsey, knows that “the affirmative action deck has been stacked” towards the upwardly mobile middle-class kids rather than the ghetto kids it was meant to help (Chpt. 4, p. 92). He feels bad watching Cedric fail as he is told he is not MIT material because of his low SAT scores and his difficulty in the summer classes. Cedric has believed his hard study and high grades were enough, but they were not. Nevertheless, he is accepted at Brown with low SAT scores because of its affirmative action policy. Meanwhile, he sees other students accepted at universities, but unable to go there because of lack of financial aid. The point is made that the underprivileged need a lot of help—academic, financial, and emotional to catch up. At Brown, Cedric finds himself behind and lost, as at MIT. Affirmative action ends with admission: “Once they arrive, affirmative action kids are generally left to sink or swim” (Chpt. 8, p. 191). Cedric hears professors discussing the minority dropout rate unsympathetically. Justice Clarence Thomas had warned Cedric that people like them have no safety net; one failure and they are out. By contrast, Cedric watches the confident wealthy students who are relaxed in “the presumption of ongoing success” (Chpt. 9, p. 233). He finally agrees to a tutor paid for by his sponsor, Dr. Korb. The tutor feels terrified by Cedric’s innocence and lack of intellectual training. Yet, she knows that “Affirmative action can be subtly woven into grading” (Chpt. 10, p. 242), and she helps him put his personal background into the papers as a plus rather than a minus. In his education class, however, Cedric cannot discuss an issue dispassionately or with any perspective. This is a major skill that other students master in high school. Suskind comments in an “Author’s Note” that “A student like Cedric carries a heightened likelihood of failure at a place like Brown” (p. 368) and thus, his achievement was all the more remarkable. It would not have been possible at all without Brown’s affirmative action policy. Suskind’s book revived enthusiasm for this strategy at a time when its popularity had been waning since the 1980s. 5. Who are the black male role models mentioned in the book? Cedric has only a few male role models to look to: his high school chemistry teacher and mentor, Clarence Taylor, his pastor, Bishop Long, and Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, whom he meets for an inspirational talk. The famous successful black men mentioned in the book have all had to face terrible obstacles and controversy. Clarence Thomas was confirmed as Supreme Court Justice in 1991 but smeared with sexual scandal as a result of Anita Hill’s testimony accusing him of sexual harassment. Football star O. J. Simpson was acquitted of murder in 1995 but caused a racial divide in the country over the verdict. African Americans applauded the verdict, but most whites felt it was an injustice. Marion Barry, the black mayor of Washington D.C. who visits Ballou, was forced to leave office in 1990 through a police sting that led to his conviction him on drug charges. Though famous and powerful in America, these black men are not so different from Cedric’s father in some ways, who is always living with the threat of jail or scandal. Cedric defends Mayor Barry, whom he claims was framed by the police: “A black is suspect, no matter who he is. And eventually they got him” (Chpt. 8, p. 205). Zayd agrees with Cedric about black men being suspect, saying that O.J. was acquitted not because he was innocent, but because of the white guilt for all the other men who were framed over the years (Chpt. 8, p. 205). Cedric’s meeting with Clarence Thomas offers a symbolic overview of the history of black men who tried to achieve something significant in America. In contrast to the classic marble busts of “dead chief justices” (Chpt. 5, p.117), Cedric sees in Thomas’s chambers a painting of slaves, and then, portraits of Booker T. Washington and Frederick Douglass, who both left slavery behind to become great reformers and writers. Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) was a former slave who became an abolitionist, author and orator. By the time of the Civil War he was the most famous American black man, who had toured Europe with his stories of slavery. The eloquence of his bestselling book, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) proved a black man was intelligent. He was a persuasive speaker who argued for black education and desegregation. There were times of danger for him, however, when he had to escape to Canada or Europe. British supporters paid the money to free him. Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) was a slave, then worked in the coal mines, but became an educator and leader of the African-American community after the Civil War. He pleaded with middle-class whites to let the black race develop along separate lines to develop the skills they needed to support themselves economically. He was accused later by W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963), a black scholar and political advocate, as accommodationist. Though Washington won white support for blacks, it was felt he did not ask enough for his race. Du Bois is also mentioned in the book, with Cedric considering Du Bois’s statement that a black man lives in “double consciousness,” having to switch between white and black expectations (Chpt. 13, p. 327). Du Bois was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the first African American to get a Ph.D. from Harvard; he began the push for civil rights (The Souls of Black Folk, 1903) later taken up by Dr. Martin Luther King. Du Bois was a sociologist who explained in The Philadelphia Negro (1899) that blacks in the city are violent because of stress, not genetics. Cedric takes a class at Brown in the literature of the African American author, Richard Wright (1908-1960). Wright’s masterpieces are Native Son (1940), explaining the pressures that lead a black man to murder a white woman, and Wright’s autobiography, Black Boy (1945) explaining his difficult upbringing in the South. Both Du Bois and Wright, though world famous, felt they had to leave America to be respected and died abroad. The sacrifices of black reformers over the last two hundred years precede Cedric Jennings’s journey and are the living history in which he participates. A Hope in the Unseen: Essay Q&A	3,668	ENGLISH	1
- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month AS and A Level: John Steinbeck Meet our team of inspirational teachers John Steinbeck's biography - 1 John Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California in 1902. His family owned land in the area so he spent a lot of time outdoors and had a strong appreciation for the natural world. - 2 Most of his early work is set in Southern California and describes the life of people working on the land. Many of his novels, including Of Mice and Men, are set in this area and portray the lives of working men and women. The natural world he describes is beautiful, but it is also wild and can be cruel and savage. - 3 In his early novels Steinbeck portrays a world of men, and violence is a common occurrence. His female characters have little status, reflecting the role of women at the time. - 4 During the war years Steinbeck worked for the American government and in 1943 he went to Europe as a war correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune. He lived the latter part of his life in New York where he died in 1968. - 5 The title of Of Mice and Men is taken from Robert Burns’ famous poem To A Mouse, On Turning Her Up In Her Nest With The Plough (1785). The last line of the poem refers to things often going wrong and Steinbeck links this to the poor men whose plans were often wrecked by an unkind fate. Five facts about 'Of Mice and Men' - 1 It was first published in America in 1937. In the same year it was adapted as a stage play and later as a film. The novel is short and has only a few characters. There are no chapters but the action is broken up into six distinct parts which made it easy to adapt for the stage. - 2 The novel is set in the 1930s which was a period of economic depression. During this time of failed businesses, harsh poverty and long-term unemployment, hoards of migrant workers went to California in search of work. Men travelled alone, moving from ranch to ranch on short-term, poorly paid contracts. - 3 By setting the novel on the ranch, Steinbeck shows the reader a microcosm of 1930s American society and portrays the life of the migrant workers in California at the time of the depression. Workers, like George and Lennie, were hoping to earn enough money to settle down on their own piece of land. - 4 Steinbeck has a distinctive style and structure; the novel starts and finishes with the same description and setting, and each section opens with a specific description of a scene which establishes the setting of place and mood. - 5 As each character enters we get a brief physical description of him/her. Aspects of the characters are conveyed through their actions, their dialogue and how they respond to each other. Writing about 'Of Mice and Men' - 1 When studying the novel it is important to know the social, cultural and historical background of the text. Having this knowledge will help you better understand why Steinbeck has included his characters and how they relate to the themes. - 2 Characters in the text are revealed through a variety of stylistic features: description, narrative style and how they communicate with each other. All of these features are so that the reader can empathise with the characters. - 3 There are several themes running throughout the novel: loneliness, friendship, isolation, prejudice, and dreams; and you must understand how the themes are woven through the text and how they link directly to the characters and the society portrayed in the novel. For example, Curley’s wife links to the theme of loneliness because she is the only woman on the ranch and has no-one with whom to talk. - 4 You must be able to analyse how Steinbeck has used language to create effects – some of his description and storytelling reads almost like stage directions through which he creates a strong sense of atmosphere and mood. This analysis of language is needed to achieve a high grade. - 5 You must develop your own critical sense and personal response to the novel, showing that you have thought about it, and that you have ideas and reactions of your own, not just those of your teacher. You must never write to a formula or try to recreate an essay you have previously done; you must approach every essay with a fresh, open mind. - Marked by Teachers essays 1 - Peer Reviewed essays 5 She walks round the ranch dressed inappropriately and seductively. She admits to Lennie that she doesn't like her husband and regrets marrying him. She seems to be of limited intelligence, as she was taken in by other men's promises of film parts. She is frequently associated with the colour red, a colour symbolizing an impure woman, as well as one calculated to enrage a "bull" such as Lennie. It is partly her desire to be petted and admired and allow Lennie to stroke her hair, which in turn leads to her death at Lennie's hands. - Word count: 756 Among his possessions, in his room he has some books, including "a tattered dictionary and a mauled copy of the California civil code for 1905" This tells him his rights as a black man, so he obviously does not want to get on the wrong side of the law, so he keeps to his limits. Him having books suggests to us that he may have been well educated as a child. When he was young boy he lived on a smallholding with his father, so he was probably treated with a bit of respect, however, now he is just a - Word count: 801 How does John Steinback convey the tension of the situation in the card-playing passage in chapter 3?3 star(s) about Lennie's dog, though it didn't seem to lift the mood any or make the time pass quicker. "I bet Lennie's out there with his pup..............The silence fell on the room again" The time is shown to be going slowly by commenting on every minute that passes. "A minute passed and another minute." This shows how stuck for words everyone is and that no one quite knows what to do or how to act. Throughout the passage, the writer continuously refers to the silence in the room. - Word count: 688 'Of Mice and Men' - The killing of candy's old dog foreshadowed Lennie's death. Describe the two killings, pointing out any similarities and differences between the two.3 star(s) Carlson proceeds to describe to candy how he will kill the dog, "shoot him right in the back of the head" this shows the brutality in how he wants to kill the dog, Carlson does not realise how much what he is saying was hurting candy. Carlson can not understand the love the candy has for his dog. Candy does not put up much of a fight and the dog is lead away by Carlson. Tension is created in the bunk house before the dog is shot. - Word count: 684 He laughed so loud that in the end he did stand out. Curly stormed over to him, he had a menacing look on his face. Lennie stopped laughing immediately and began to hide his face. "What the hell you laughing at?" Curly asks as he looks down on Lennie. "Nu..Nu..Nothing" Stuttered Lennie. Everyone fell silent as Curly started to crack his knuckles in a fighting fashion. - Word count: 480 Chapter 7 As the dull evening sun started to fade the two men, Slim and George, started their way back along the dusty track, followed shortly by the slow footsteps of Curley and Carlson He hated violence. He only did that thing to Curley 'cause I told him to, he didn't want to. He didn't deserve it." "It's o.k. now, its over." answered Slim. As they approached the bunk house, Candy came to meet them. Candy said, "What happened? They didn't get him first, did they?" "No, I found him first. He died painlessly," replied George. "Must've been difficult," reasoned Candy. "T'was," said George. "I nearly couldn't, but I had to, for him. Sorry - I don't want to talk anymore." "Yeah, o.k." said Candy. "Night," said George. - Word count: 562 As the novel progressed the events only became more serious. He did not only hurt the people around him that love him, but himself. "In Kino's ears the Song of the Family was as fierce as a cry. He was immune and terrible and his song had become a battle cry." Kino turned down pearl buyers, hit his wife, murdered a man, ran away from home and shot his baby. Kino became avaricious. When the pearl buyers had not offered Kino the amount of money he expected, "Kino's face grew dark and dangerous." Maybe he thought they were trying to cheat him. Perhaps, Kino was just being a 'pigheaded fool.' - Word count: 657 Curley froze in horror when he saw her chilled body showing no signs of movement. He rushed over to her still form, pushed George aside, and checked for any signs of life. When he realized that there was no life left in her, he bowed his head and began to cry. "Who did this" said Curley in a calm voice. "I'm not sure, I came in and..." George was interrupted by Curley. "It was your friend...Lennie? - Word count: 490 Slim and George both took off their jackets and placed them on the wall. George sat down at a table whilst Slim went behind the bar to make them both a drink. He settled down gradually next to George and calmly passed him his drink. "Thanks..." George murmured. Slim went to speak, "So, are..." All of a sudden, before Slim could finish his sentence, there were loud crashing noises outside. They both sharply got up and as they moved closer, the sound of gun shots could be heard. Both George and Slim, quickly moved to the door but Slim ushered George inside whilst he checked out what was happening outside... - Word count: 899 Though many of the book's sketches are placed outdoors, its atmosphere is as stifling as a tomb. And the reiteration of the term "grotesque" is appropriate in a way Anderson could hardly have been aware of; for it was first used by Renaissance artists to describe arabesques painted in the underground ruins, grotte, of Nero's "Golden House." The conception of the grotesque, as actually developed in the stories, is not merely that it is an unwilled affliction but also that it is a mark of a once sentient striving. - Word count: 886 "Ain't nobody goin to suppose no hurt to George." We see the extremes George goes to in order to protect Lennie from danger and ensure he stays with him rather than leaving him to fend for himself. Curley is another character who desperately fears loneliness, he doesn't want to risk loosing his wife and therefore forces her to remain in the house and not talk to others. However, it appears he cares more for his reputation and status than his wife, he considers himself above the workers and if his wife begins to talk with them, she is "lowering to their level." - Word count: 842 He also seems insecure because George is looking after him the whole way through this novel, like a parent. He can't survive on his own, he needs George, although he is never lonely, he is insecure. Curley's wife is a very insecure character as she is lonely and does not know where she is going, or where her life is leading her. She gets very angry sometimes and lashes out at people, "Standin' here talkin' to a bunch of bindle stiffs - a nigga an' a dum-dum and a lousy ol' sheep-..." This lashing out makes her insecure. Also when she talks to Lennie in the barn, "I get awful lonely." - Word count: 951 Her personality is very mellow but she can see the evil of the pearl. Unlike Kino, who is blind to see the bad about the pearl, Juana can see and is always looking for ways to get rid of the pearl. Unfortunately Kino does not see things the way Juana does so when Juana tries to get rid of the pearl she gets hit. Coyotito is a main character. He is Kino and Juana's first-born son who is stung by the scorpion and started the whole madness of the pearl. He is a baby and is not much of an inconvenience. - Word count: 782 When Kino dove he found a large, ancient, oyster, he picked it up and brought it to the canoe. They opened the shell and found a pearl as big as a sea-gulls egg. Chapter 3: The third chapter talks about how the whole town is talking about "the pearl of the world" which is the nickname for the pearl Kino found. With this pearl Kino has decided to do many things. He plans to get married, have his son go to school and learn to read. - Word count: 840 The fact that Carlson shoots the dog is significant because it may be an ominous hint towards Candy's future. 'I ... somebody'd shoot me... get old an' a cripple'. If this wasn't said by Slim, I would have believed this to be a hint towards Candy to suggest that he is just a waste of space and should be put down as if he were an animal, like his dog. It is ironic that Candy's dog is shot 'right back of head', as Lennie is later on in the book, with exactly the same gun. This is why it has been said that the death of Candy's dog foreshadows the death of Lennie. - Word count: 719 In the afternoon, the whole neighborhood gathers at Kino's brush house to celebrate his find. Kino names many things that he will secure for his family wealth. These things include a church wedding, his child to go to school, new clothes, and a rifle. Toward evening, the local priest visits Kino to bless him in his good fortune, but he really wanted remind Kino to donate to the church. Shortly after, the doctor arrives, explaining that he was out in the morning but has come now to cure Coyotito. He gave Coyotito powder from a capsule and promises to return in an hour, saying that Coyotito's condition will get worse. - Word count: 952 Maybe every'body in the whole damn world is scared of each other." " At the beginning of the scene we get a detailed description about Crooks's room and his way of life. From the very beginning of the scene we know Crooks is a Black slave working on the ranch. " Crooks, the Negro stable buck..." (Page 66) We also know that Crooks has been on the ranch for quite some time and will be there for many years to come. "...he was more permanent then the other men, and he had accumulated more possessions than he could carry on his back."(Page 66) - Word count: 835 "Get your head down!" George shouted but lennie didn't do a thing, George annoyed, shoved him under the murky water, they could hear the shouts getting closer and the dogs growling. A man said "Where the hell did they get to?" another close to him said "The dog's ave lost the scent they musta went thru that ditch and off into the woods, no way we could get them now" "Damn...... ok everyone back to the town for a head count then we can all go home, its getting late" With these words saw George give a sigh of relief - Word count: 666 His eyes are moving from side to side, scouting the area for anybody that poses a threat. It suddenly switches to a flashback. We open in the middle of a field , for miles all you can see is red poppies, swaying in the gentle breeze, the camera slowly starts to rotate to show that the field is empty. As it gets back to where it started from a young pretty girl appears, she has a dreamy expression on her face as if she is thinking of something, we are left guessing at what it is. - Word count: 632 Carlson also describes how Candy could kill the dog in a quick, humane way. He says, "shoot him right in the back of the head - he'd never know what hit him." This is particularly important because George kills Lennie in this exact way. It is where he got the idea that 'mercy killing' was even an option. Slim is then asked to give his opinion and he agrees with Carlson saying, "That dog aint no good to himself." As Slim is the only person on the ranch to have natural authority, and his "opinions were law." - Word count: 660 To Curley. Curley, I'm writing this letter cause for a long time I've been wanting to tell ya somethin'. I cn't see any litt' difference between you and them, an' there's no difference. Every week ya go to a bar an' come back God damn drunk at late night. How do you think I feel then bout you? But ever'thing has a limit. You know, if not my ol' lady I'd have gone to Hollywood an' prolly I coulda find that man who promised me to take me in movie. Yes he sa' that I'm natural, and if not my ol' lady then I'd never be livin' with ya in this God damn place, I coulda been in the movies, an' had nice clothes - all of them nice clothes like they wear. - Word count: 662 Film review for Of Mice and Men - Main Actors: - Lennie played by John Malkovich and George played by Gary Sinise. The close nature of their friendship might have been played out more and this would have made the death of Lennie, at the end a little more realistically sad. George is a hard and defensive character. He is Lennie's carer and his only family. During the film, he seems to soften a little over time. He makes friends well and takes a particular liking to Slim and Candy. - Word count: 573 George is amking a big effort to protect, advise and save Lennie from the dangers of life. George and Lennie had to escape from Weed due to Lennie�s ununtentionally aggressive behaviour towars a woman. George warns Lennie about everything. Foe example, when he told Lennie ��hide till I come for you. Don�t let nobody see you.�� This type of advice is of the sort George tells him constantly so he doesn�t forget the simple issue of what or where to go in case of getting involved in a problem. Another characteristic sign of George�s father figure behaviour is when George is tired of having to listen to Lennie�s complaints about everything. - Word count: 931 The film shows a threshing machine on the ranch, which is showing that the men on the ranch are forced to work at un-human rate; they are working at the pace of the machine. In the book the macrocosm and microcosm reflect on each other. In the film pools of light are used to insolate people for example: whilst George is seeing to Lennie's wounds and whilst Crooks is alone in his room. The idea of Crooks joining the dream has been omitted from the film. - Word count: 777 It was a warm summers night and Carlson, Fredrick, Slim, George and Curly were at a tavern in Soledad. The tavern was lit brightly and it was swarming with men. "You're pretty lucky, that's what you are," replied the girl, " most guys, I know, get their entire han' cut off. In fact, I ain't never met a guy, who's han' was spared from a machine before." Curly was suddenly uneasy. He wasn't sure whether Rose knew it was all a lie or whether she was just curious. Thinking hard, yet quickly, it struck him, he could use the story of the fight to his advantage and impress this girl. - Word count: 797	<urn:uuid:08553a7a-f1e4-485e-8e35-c0ce29d05267>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/english/english-literature/prose/modern/john-steinbeck/?essay_length=294	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00368.warc.gz	en	0.984147	4,326	3.390625	3	[ 0.024212554097175598, 0.12305998057126999, 0.22793446481227875, -0.2805345058441162, -0.05542521923780441, -0.1172061562538147, -0.521571159362793, 0.2812427282333374, 0.07571570575237274, -0.31112033128738403, 0.1527116298675537, 0.24701419472694397, -0.027514778077602386, -0.160931199789...	3	- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month AS and A Level: John Steinbeck Meet our team of inspirational teachers John Steinbeck's biography - 1 John Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California in 1902. His family owned land in the area so he spent a lot of time outdoors and had a strong appreciation for the natural world. - 2 Most of his early work is set in Southern California and describes the life of people working on the land. Many of his novels, including Of Mice and Men, are set in this area and portray the lives of working men and women. The natural world he describes is beautiful, but it is also wild and can be cruel and savage. - 3 In his early novels Steinbeck portrays a world of men, and violence is a common occurrence. His female characters have little status, reflecting the role of women at the time. - 4 During the war years Steinbeck worked for the American government and in 1943 he went to Europe as a war correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune. He lived the latter part of his life in New York where he died in 1968. - 5 The title of Of Mice and Men is taken from Robert Burns’ famous poem To A Mouse, On Turning Her Up In Her Nest With The Plough (1785). The last line of the poem refers to things often going wrong and Steinbeck links this to the poor men whose plans were often wrecked by an unkind fate. Five facts about 'Of Mice and Men' - 1 It was first published in America in 1937. In the same year it was adapted as a stage play and later as a film. The novel is short and has only a few characters. There are no chapters but the action is broken up into six distinct parts which made it easy to adapt for the stage. - 2 The novel is set in the 1930s which was a period of economic depression. During this time of failed businesses, harsh poverty and long-term unemployment, hoards of migrant workers went to California in search of work. Men travelled alone, moving from ranch to ranch on short-term, poorly paid contracts. - 3 By setting the novel on the ranch, Steinbeck shows the reader a microcosm of 1930s American society and portrays the life of the migrant workers in California at the time of the depression. Workers, like George and Lennie, were hoping to earn enough money to settle down on their own piece of land. - 4 Steinbeck has a distinctive style and structure; the novel starts and finishes with the same description and setting, and each section opens with a specific description of a scene which establishes the setting of place and mood. - 5 As each character enters we get a brief physical description of him/her. Aspects of the characters are conveyed through their actions, their dialogue and how they respond to each other. Writing about 'Of Mice and Men' - 1 When studying the novel it is important to know the social, cultural and historical background of the text. Having this knowledge will help you better understand why Steinbeck has included his characters and how they relate to the themes. - 2 Characters in the text are revealed through a variety of stylistic features: description, narrative style and how they communicate with each other. All of these features are so that the reader can empathise with the characters. - 3 There are several themes running throughout the novel: loneliness, friendship, isolation, prejudice, and dreams; and you must understand how the themes are woven through the text and how they link directly to the characters and the society portrayed in the novel. For example, Curley’s wife links to the theme of loneliness because she is the only woman on the ranch and has no-one with whom to talk. - 4 You must be able to analyse how Steinbeck has used language to create effects – some of his description and storytelling reads almost like stage directions through which he creates a strong sense of atmosphere and mood. This analysis of language is needed to achieve a high grade. - 5 You must develop your own critical sense and personal response to the novel, showing that you have thought about it, and that you have ideas and reactions of your own, not just those of your teacher. You must never write to a formula or try to recreate an essay you have previously done; you must approach every essay with a fresh, open mind. - Marked by Teachers essays 1 - Peer Reviewed essays 5 She walks round the ranch dressed inappropriately and seductively. She admits to Lennie that she doesn't like her husband and regrets marrying him. She seems to be of limited intelligence, as she was taken in by other men's promises of film parts. She is frequently associated with the colour red, a colour symbolizing an impure woman, as well as one calculated to enrage a "bull" such as Lennie. It is partly her desire to be petted and admired and allow Lennie to stroke her hair, which in turn leads to her death at Lennie's hands. - Word count: 756 Among his possessions, in his room he has some books, including "a tattered dictionary and a mauled copy of the California civil code for 1905" This tells him his rights as a black man, so he obviously does not want to get on the wrong side of the law, so he keeps to his limits. Him having books suggests to us that he may have been well educated as a child. When he was young boy he lived on a smallholding with his father, so he was probably treated with a bit of respect, however, now he is just a - Word count: 801 How does John Steinback convey the tension of the situation in the card-playing passage in chapter 3?3 star(s) about Lennie's dog, though it didn't seem to lift the mood any or make the time pass quicker. "I bet Lennie's out there with his pup..............The silence fell on the room again" The time is shown to be going slowly by commenting on every minute that passes. "A minute passed and another minute." This shows how stuck for words everyone is and that no one quite knows what to do or how to act. Throughout the passage, the writer continuously refers to the silence in the room. - Word count: 688 'Of Mice and Men' - The killing of candy's old dog foreshadowed Lennie's death. Describe the two killings, pointing out any similarities and differences between the two.3 star(s) Carlson proceeds to describe to candy how he will kill the dog, "shoot him right in the back of the head" this shows the brutality in how he wants to kill the dog, Carlson does not realise how much what he is saying was hurting candy. Carlson can not understand the love the candy has for his dog. Candy does not put up much of a fight and the dog is lead away by Carlson. Tension is created in the bunk house before the dog is shot. - Word count: 684 He laughed so loud that in the end he did stand out. Curly stormed over to him, he had a menacing look on his face. Lennie stopped laughing immediately and began to hide his face. "What the hell you laughing at?" Curly asks as he looks down on Lennie. "Nu..Nu..Nothing" Stuttered Lennie. Everyone fell silent as Curly started to crack his knuckles in a fighting fashion. - Word count: 480 Chapter 7 As the dull evening sun started to fade the two men, Slim and George, started their way back along the dusty track, followed shortly by the slow footsteps of Curley and Carlson He hated violence. He only did that thing to Curley 'cause I told him to, he didn't want to. He didn't deserve it." "It's o.k. now, its over." answered Slim. As they approached the bunk house, Candy came to meet them. Candy said, "What happened? They didn't get him first, did they?" "No, I found him first. He died painlessly," replied George. "Must've been difficult," reasoned Candy. "T'was," said George. "I nearly couldn't, but I had to, for him. Sorry - I don't want to talk anymore." "Yeah, o.k." said Candy. "Night," said George. - Word count: 562 As the novel progressed the events only became more serious. He did not only hurt the people around him that love him, but himself. "In Kino's ears the Song of the Family was as fierce as a cry. He was immune and terrible and his song had become a battle cry." Kino turned down pearl buyers, hit his wife, murdered a man, ran away from home and shot his baby. Kino became avaricious. When the pearl buyers had not offered Kino the amount of money he expected, "Kino's face grew dark and dangerous." Maybe he thought they were trying to cheat him. Perhaps, Kino was just being a 'pigheaded fool.' - Word count: 657 Curley froze in horror when he saw her chilled body showing no signs of movement. He rushed over to her still form, pushed George aside, and checked for any signs of life. When he realized that there was no life left in her, he bowed his head and began to cry. "Who did this" said Curley in a calm voice. "I'm not sure, I came in and..." George was interrupted by Curley. "It was your friend...Lennie? - Word count: 490 Slim and George both took off their jackets and placed them on the wall. George sat down at a table whilst Slim went behind the bar to make them both a drink. He settled down gradually next to George and calmly passed him his drink. "Thanks..." George murmured. Slim went to speak, "So, are..." All of a sudden, before Slim could finish his sentence, there were loud crashing noises outside. They both sharply got up and as they moved closer, the sound of gun shots could be heard. Both George and Slim, quickly moved to the door but Slim ushered George inside whilst he checked out what was happening outside... - Word count: 899 Though many of the book's sketches are placed outdoors, its atmosphere is as stifling as a tomb. And the reiteration of the term "grotesque" is appropriate in a way Anderson could hardly have been aware of; for it was first used by Renaissance artists to describe arabesques painted in the underground ruins, grotte, of Nero's "Golden House." The conception of the grotesque, as actually developed in the stories, is not merely that it is an unwilled affliction but also that it is a mark of a once sentient striving. - Word count: 886 "Ain't nobody goin to suppose no hurt to George." We see the extremes George goes to in order to protect Lennie from danger and ensure he stays with him rather than leaving him to fend for himself. Curley is another character who desperately fears loneliness, he doesn't want to risk loosing his wife and therefore forces her to remain in the house and not talk to others. However, it appears he cares more for his reputation and status than his wife, he considers himself above the workers and if his wife begins to talk with them, she is "lowering to their level." - Word count: 842 He also seems insecure because George is looking after him the whole way through this novel, like a parent. He can't survive on his own, he needs George, although he is never lonely, he is insecure. Curley's wife is a very insecure character as she is lonely and does not know where she is going, or where her life is leading her. She gets very angry sometimes and lashes out at people, "Standin' here talkin' to a bunch of bindle stiffs - a nigga an' a dum-dum and a lousy ol' sheep-..." This lashing out makes her insecure. Also when she talks to Lennie in the barn, "I get awful lonely." - Word count: 951 Her personality is very mellow but she can see the evil of the pearl. Unlike Kino, who is blind to see the bad about the pearl, Juana can see and is always looking for ways to get rid of the pearl. Unfortunately Kino does not see things the way Juana does so when Juana tries to get rid of the pearl she gets hit. Coyotito is a main character. He is Kino and Juana's first-born son who is stung by the scorpion and started the whole madness of the pearl. He is a baby and is not much of an inconvenience. - Word count: 782 When Kino dove he found a large, ancient, oyster, he picked it up and brought it to the canoe. They opened the shell and found a pearl as big as a sea-gulls egg. Chapter 3: The third chapter talks about how the whole town is talking about "the pearl of the world" which is the nickname for the pearl Kino found. With this pearl Kino has decided to do many things. He plans to get married, have his son go to school and learn to read. - Word count: 840 The fact that Carlson shoots the dog is significant because it may be an ominous hint towards Candy's future. 'I ... somebody'd shoot me... get old an' a cripple'. If this wasn't said by Slim, I would have believed this to be a hint towards Candy to suggest that he is just a waste of space and should be put down as if he were an animal, like his dog. It is ironic that Candy's dog is shot 'right back of head', as Lennie is later on in the book, with exactly the same gun. This is why it has been said that the death of Candy's dog foreshadows the death of Lennie. - Word count: 719 In the afternoon, the whole neighborhood gathers at Kino's brush house to celebrate his find. Kino names many things that he will secure for his family wealth. These things include a church wedding, his child to go to school, new clothes, and a rifle. Toward evening, the local priest visits Kino to bless him in his good fortune, but he really wanted remind Kino to donate to the church. Shortly after, the doctor arrives, explaining that he was out in the morning but has come now to cure Coyotito. He gave Coyotito powder from a capsule and promises to return in an hour, saying that Coyotito's condition will get worse. - Word count: 952 Maybe every'body in the whole damn world is scared of each other." " At the beginning of the scene we get a detailed description about Crooks's room and his way of life. From the very beginning of the scene we know Crooks is a Black slave working on the ranch. " Crooks, the Negro stable buck..." (Page 66) We also know that Crooks has been on the ranch for quite some time and will be there for many years to come. "...he was more permanent then the other men, and he had accumulated more possessions than he could carry on his back."(Page 66) - Word count: 835 "Get your head down!" George shouted but lennie didn't do a thing, George annoyed, shoved him under the murky water, they could hear the shouts getting closer and the dogs growling. A man said "Where the hell did they get to?" another close to him said "The dog's ave lost the scent they musta went thru that ditch and off into the woods, no way we could get them now" "Damn...... ok everyone back to the town for a head count then we can all go home, its getting late" With these words saw George give a sigh of relief - Word count: 666 His eyes are moving from side to side, scouting the area for anybody that poses a threat. It suddenly switches to a flashback. We open in the middle of a field , for miles all you can see is red poppies, swaying in the gentle breeze, the camera slowly starts to rotate to show that the field is empty. As it gets back to where it started from a young pretty girl appears, she has a dreamy expression on her face as if she is thinking of something, we are left guessing at what it is. - Word count: 632 Carlson also describes how Candy could kill the dog in a quick, humane way. He says, "shoot him right in the back of the head - he'd never know what hit him." This is particularly important because George kills Lennie in this exact way. It is where he got the idea that 'mercy killing' was even an option. Slim is then asked to give his opinion and he agrees with Carlson saying, "That dog aint no good to himself." As Slim is the only person on the ranch to have natural authority, and his "opinions were law." - Word count: 660 To Curley. Curley, I'm writing this letter cause for a long time I've been wanting to tell ya somethin'. I cn't see any litt' difference between you and them, an' there's no difference. Every week ya go to a bar an' come back God damn drunk at late night. How do you think I feel then bout you? But ever'thing has a limit. You know, if not my ol' lady I'd have gone to Hollywood an' prolly I coulda find that man who promised me to take me in movie. Yes he sa' that I'm natural, and if not my ol' lady then I'd never be livin' with ya in this God damn place, I coulda been in the movies, an' had nice clothes - all of them nice clothes like they wear. - Word count: 662 Film review for Of Mice and Men - Main Actors: - Lennie played by John Malkovich and George played by Gary Sinise. The close nature of their friendship might have been played out more and this would have made the death of Lennie, at the end a little more realistically sad. George is a hard and defensive character. He is Lennie's carer and his only family. During the film, he seems to soften a little over time. He makes friends well and takes a particular liking to Slim and Candy. - Word count: 573 George is amking a big effort to protect, advise and save Lennie from the dangers of life. George and Lennie had to escape from Weed due to Lennie�s ununtentionally aggressive behaviour towars a woman. George warns Lennie about everything. Foe example, when he told Lennie ��hide till I come for you. Don�t let nobody see you.�� This type of advice is of the sort George tells him constantly so he doesn�t forget the simple issue of what or where to go in case of getting involved in a problem. Another characteristic sign of George�s father figure behaviour is when George is tired of having to listen to Lennie�s complaints about everything. - Word count: 931 The film shows a threshing machine on the ranch, which is showing that the men on the ranch are forced to work at un-human rate; they are working at the pace of the machine. In the book the macrocosm and microcosm reflect on each other. In the film pools of light are used to insolate people for example: whilst George is seeing to Lennie's wounds and whilst Crooks is alone in his room. The idea of Crooks joining the dream has been omitted from the film. - Word count: 777 It was a warm summers night and Carlson, Fredrick, Slim, George and Curly were at a tavern in Soledad. The tavern was lit brightly and it was swarming with men. "You're pretty lucky, that's what you are," replied the girl, " most guys, I know, get their entire han' cut off. In fact, I ain't never met a guy, who's han' was spared from a machine before." Curly was suddenly uneasy. He wasn't sure whether Rose knew it was all a lie or whether she was just curious. Thinking hard, yet quickly, it struck him, he could use the story of the fight to his advantage and impress this girl. - Word count: 797	4,363	ENGLISH	1
Today, we will conclude our sermon series looking at the characters that make up the Nativity of Jesus Christ. Throughout Advent, we’ve focused on how each of these characters help us to prepare our hearts for Christmas. We’ve saved the most beloved and important of the characters, outside of Jesus, for last. Her name is Mary. Mary’s role is central to the entire Christmas story. We do not give her, in the Protestant tradition, enough attention and respect. She deserves more of our time and reflection, because she is theotokos. This is what the early church called her. Theotokos is a Greek word that means “God bearer.” There is no better word to describe Mary. That is her contribution to the Christmas story. She was the one who gave birth to the incarnate Son of God. She was the one chosen by God to give life to the One who offers true life and hope into the world. But, who is she? Why did God choose her? What are we to make of her life and her connection to Christ? These are all questions that, perhaps, we’ve wrestled with before and are ones important for us to consider as we think about Mary, her life, and how she enables us to encounter the peace, hope, joy, and love found in the Christ child. If we’re going to understand Mary, though, we need to get through some important contextual items that help us to engage in her life and what it was like for her in the Ancient Near East areas of Judea and Galilee. For starters, we need to deal with the fact that she was likely somewhere between 12-13 years of age. I know that comes as a shock to many of us. How do we come to this understanding about her age? In both the Roman and Jewish cultures, women and their families, in those days, were expected to protect their virginity. To help do this, they would enter into a marriage around the time of their first menstrual cycle. Protecting a young girl’s virginity was among her and her family’s most important tasks, especially in the one-year betrothal of legal engagement. We have no reason to doubt that Mary and her family would follow this custom. That she is a virgin is one of the ways used to describe her in both Luke and Matthew. Mary’s virginity has been a key theological understanding of Jesus’s life and birth throughout the church. It is something we confess through the words of the Nicene and Apostle’s creeds. So, how do we understand her virginity? For some, that has meant that she was not just a virgin before marriage, but that she was perpetually a virgin. The claim here, held by our Roman Catholic friends and even John Wesley, was that she remained a virgin throughout her life. That is a secondary theological discussion to talk about Mary’s life. What is important, and essential to faith, is that she was a virgin. Scripture tells us Mary was living in Nazareth at the time of Gabriel’s visit. There is an apocryphal story that she was born in her parent’s, Anne and Joachim, native home in what is now the Old City of Jerusalem. That site is protected, today, by the Church of Saint Anne. Her birth gives us an entry point to look at another key theological point about Mary. That is the immaculate conception. We often think of it in terms of Jesus’ birth, but it actually pertains to a belief that Mary was born without sin, as well as her offspring, Jesus. It is a belief that is maintain in the Catholic tradition, but did not carry into the Protestant fold. At some point in her young life, Mary and her family made the 90-mile journey from Jerusalem to Nazareth to make that their home. We see Nazareth as the hometown of Jesus and a place of Scriptural and theological importance. That was not the case in Mary and Jesus’ time. It was a town of 300 people, while, today, is holds approximately 77,000 people. Nazareth gets its name from a Hebrew word, natzer. It is a word that means “branch” and is often used in connection to a branch rising up from God that would give hope to all. This was the case used, in the prophets, to look towards a branch coming out of Jesse’s family would be the Messiah. Luke 1:26-38 tells us that in Nazareth Mary received a visit by Gabriel, who proceeded to tell her about what was to happen. She was engaged to Joseph at this point. There is some historical question about where she was when the visit took place. The Roman Catholic tradition has it as taking place at her family’s home in Nazareth. The Greek Orthodox tradition has the scene at an ancient well that gave spring water to the entire community. Personally, I’m fond of the Greek site, because there is something about Mary receiving that message in the midst of living her life and caring for her family. With all of that as an understanding, we get to Gabriel who announces what was to take place through her life. He calls her “favored” or “full of grace.” What is meant by this? That statement leads us to believe that there was something uniquely special about Mary’s life. Mary might not have thought there was anything special about her life. She, likely, grew up in poverty or without a lot means. The idea about being seen as favored isn’t about anything Mary did or her context, but about God’s actions. Grace is about God’s kindness and mercy. God has shown kindness to Mary by looking upon her and seeing her heart and desire for the Lord. As such, God has shown grace upon her to give her this unique and special calling to give birth to the Son of God. Her response is to say “yes.” She is willing to be the Lord’s servant and, as well, willing to do whatever God asks of her. She is willing to be used for the sake of the Lord to bring hope into the world through this child she would give life to. Mary, this young girl, says yes to God, even though she had no idea what it would mean, what it would look like, or how it would change her life. That is a servant’s heart. Eventually, Mary travels to just outside of Jerusalem to a place called Ein Karem and the home of Elizabeth and Zechariah. Elizabeth and Mary were cousins and, as well, Elizabeth was also pregnant through a divine act of grace and mercy. It would have been a long journey, but well worth it for Mary to interact with someone who would have known what she was going through personally. When Mary and Elizabeth meet, the child inside of Elizabeth’s womb, John, lept for joy. It was enough for Mary to offer a deeper response. She was seeing what God was doing all around her, and as a result she felt compelled with her soul to offer some words upon how she was engaging it all. Her response has long been regarded as the “Magnificat.” It is so named that because of the first words in the Latin translation, the Vulgate, for the word we know as “magnify.” It references the idea of enlarging something, so that others may see it. Her words express what God is doing not just in her life, but throughout the world. What Mary gives witness to is the global reversal that will take place through Jesus. God’s strength of grace and mercy will bring forth a new way in the world. It is will be one where the powerful and elite will be humbled, while those who are poor and forgotten will be noticed and given attention. The poor are being filled with the good things of life, which is counter to what takes place in the world where the rich take advantage and horde for themselves all of the world’s resources and finances. That will no longer be the case in God’s kingdom, Mary says, through her son, the Savior. Mary, in her prophetic role, announces the fulfillment of God’s promises of a redeeming Messiah. She sees the future work of God and announces it as being complete in the present, because she is confident in the grace of God. All of creation will be forever redeemed and transformed, because of the love and presence of her Savior son. God’s kingdom is coming and it will bring life to all. Mary’s life enlarged the very presence of God at work in her life and around the world. From the moment she encounters Gabriel to the moment she stood at the cross as her son, the Savior, died for the world’s sin, her life enlarged the very presence of God’s indwelling love with a willingness to be the Lord’s servant and to see into what God is doing in the world. Her words and life reflect a sense of rejoicing, in which her very soul gives praise to the mighty and impressive work of God. She has seen it all and knows it is coming for all time. As we approach the celebration of Jesus’ birth, this week, I cannot help but wonder about what we might learn from Mary and our responses to following Christ. I cannot help but wonder about what we are focusing upon in our life. What takes up our energy and focus? That is a question worth thinking about as we consider what it means to magnify the Lord. For Mary, her energy and focus were upon giving witness to God’s work in her life and in the life of the world. She was a loving and compassionate servant of the Lord. What takes up our energy and focus? Is it the things of God? We might want to say, yes, but as we enter this final few days of Advent, and prepare our hearts for the Christmas celebration to come, perhaps that is something we need to ponder upon deeply. Does our heart, like Mary’s, truly magnify the Lord? Are we giving our entire energy and focus to God, or are other things becoming more important? Can we see what God is doing in the world or are we too consumed with bringing up complaints, negativity, and talking about all the problems we think our present in our community and the church? Can we see the glory of God all around us, or are we too consumed with making sure we get everything we can out of this world? Can we see God humbling the rich and raising up the poor, or are we too consumed with political power and cultural relevance that we miss the kingdom in front of us? How are words, actions, and deeds giving witness to the work of God? This Advent season has been about a time of focus, but, as well, about seeing the deep upon the deep that lives within these characters. We end with Mary, because in this season we find ourselves in we need to be reminded that it is the heart of a servant who truly magnifies the very nature of God in the depths of their soul. May we, like Mary, give voice to what God is doing in the world, by giving focus to God and God alone. May we, like Mary, rejoice in the Lord’s redeeming and world-changing work. May we, like Mary, respond with the heart of a servant and go where God is leading us, without negativity, but with a heart of joy.	<urn:uuid:fe3c5b25-2266-437a-a059-edf3a221d31e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shannonblosser.com/2019/12/22/the-nativity-mary/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00325.warc.gz	en	0.981761	2,408	3.40625	3	[ 0.08007537573575974, 0.10936982929706573, 0.5518279075622559, -0.5255435109138489, -0.09281108528375626, 0.15591442584991455, -0.21683454513549805, 0.15891815721988678, 0.4921470880508423, 0.18900617957115173, -0.48565149307250977, -0.12563258409500122, -0.16174259781837463, -0.06492991745...	12	Today, we will conclude our sermon series looking at the characters that make up the Nativity of Jesus Christ. Throughout Advent, we’ve focused on how each of these characters help us to prepare our hearts for Christmas. We’ve saved the most beloved and important of the characters, outside of Jesus, for last. Her name is Mary. Mary’s role is central to the entire Christmas story. We do not give her, in the Protestant tradition, enough attention and respect. She deserves more of our time and reflection, because she is theotokos. This is what the early church called her. Theotokos is a Greek word that means “God bearer.” There is no better word to describe Mary. That is her contribution to the Christmas story. She was the one who gave birth to the incarnate Son of God. She was the one chosen by God to give life to the One who offers true life and hope into the world. But, who is she? Why did God choose her? What are we to make of her life and her connection to Christ? These are all questions that, perhaps, we’ve wrestled with before and are ones important for us to consider as we think about Mary, her life, and how she enables us to encounter the peace, hope, joy, and love found in the Christ child. If we’re going to understand Mary, though, we need to get through some important contextual items that help us to engage in her life and what it was like for her in the Ancient Near East areas of Judea and Galilee. For starters, we need to deal with the fact that she was likely somewhere between 12-13 years of age. I know that comes as a shock to many of us. How do we come to this understanding about her age? In both the Roman and Jewish cultures, women and their families, in those days, were expected to protect their virginity. To help do this, they would enter into a marriage around the time of their first menstrual cycle. Protecting a young girl’s virginity was among her and her family’s most important tasks, especially in the one-year betrothal of legal engagement. We have no reason to doubt that Mary and her family would follow this custom. That she is a virgin is one of the ways used to describe her in both Luke and Matthew. Mary’s virginity has been a key theological understanding of Jesus’s life and birth throughout the church. It is something we confess through the words of the Nicene and Apostle’s creeds. So, how do we understand her virginity? For some, that has meant that she was not just a virgin before marriage, but that she was perpetually a virgin. The claim here, held by our Roman Catholic friends and even John Wesley, was that she remained a virgin throughout her life. That is a secondary theological discussion to talk about Mary’s life. What is important, and essential to faith, is that she was a virgin. Scripture tells us Mary was living in Nazareth at the time of Gabriel’s visit. There is an apocryphal story that she was born in her parent’s, Anne and Joachim, native home in what is now the Old City of Jerusalem. That site is protected, today, by the Church of Saint Anne. Her birth gives us an entry point to look at another key theological point about Mary. That is the immaculate conception. We often think of it in terms of Jesus’ birth, but it actually pertains to a belief that Mary was born without sin, as well as her offspring, Jesus. It is a belief that is maintain in the Catholic tradition, but did not carry into the Protestant fold. At some point in her young life, Mary and her family made the 90-mile journey from Jerusalem to Nazareth to make that their home. We see Nazareth as the hometown of Jesus and a place of Scriptural and theological importance. That was not the case in Mary and Jesus’ time. It was a town of 300 people, while, today, is holds approximately 77,000 people. Nazareth gets its name from a Hebrew word, natzer. It is a word that means “branch” and is often used in connection to a branch rising up from God that would give hope to all. This was the case used, in the prophets, to look towards a branch coming out of Jesse’s family would be the Messiah. Luke 1:26-38 tells us that in Nazareth Mary received a visit by Gabriel, who proceeded to tell her about what was to happen. She was engaged to Joseph at this point. There is some historical question about where she was when the visit took place. The Roman Catholic tradition has it as taking place at her family’s home in Nazareth. The Greek Orthodox tradition has the scene at an ancient well that gave spring water to the entire community. Personally, I’m fond of the Greek site, because there is something about Mary receiving that message in the midst of living her life and caring for her family. With all of that as an understanding, we get to Gabriel who announces what was to take place through her life. He calls her “favored” or “full of grace.” What is meant by this? That statement leads us to believe that there was something uniquely special about Mary’s life. Mary might not have thought there was anything special about her life. She, likely, grew up in poverty or without a lot means. The idea about being seen as favored isn’t about anything Mary did or her context, but about God’s actions. Grace is about God’s kindness and mercy. God has shown kindness to Mary by looking upon her and seeing her heart and desire for the Lord. As such, God has shown grace upon her to give her this unique and special calling to give birth to the Son of God. Her response is to say “yes.” She is willing to be the Lord’s servant and, as well, willing to do whatever God asks of her. She is willing to be used for the sake of the Lord to bring hope into the world through this child she would give life to. Mary, this young girl, says yes to God, even though she had no idea what it would mean, what it would look like, or how it would change her life. That is a servant’s heart. Eventually, Mary travels to just outside of Jerusalem to a place called Ein Karem and the home of Elizabeth and Zechariah. Elizabeth and Mary were cousins and, as well, Elizabeth was also pregnant through a divine act of grace and mercy. It would have been a long journey, but well worth it for Mary to interact with someone who would have known what she was going through personally. When Mary and Elizabeth meet, the child inside of Elizabeth’s womb, John, lept for joy. It was enough for Mary to offer a deeper response. She was seeing what God was doing all around her, and as a result she felt compelled with her soul to offer some words upon how she was engaging it all. Her response has long been regarded as the “Magnificat.” It is so named that because of the first words in the Latin translation, the Vulgate, for the word we know as “magnify.” It references the idea of enlarging something, so that others may see it. Her words express what God is doing not just in her life, but throughout the world. What Mary gives witness to is the global reversal that will take place through Jesus. God’s strength of grace and mercy will bring forth a new way in the world. It is will be one where the powerful and elite will be humbled, while those who are poor and forgotten will be noticed and given attention. The poor are being filled with the good things of life, which is counter to what takes place in the world where the rich take advantage and horde for themselves all of the world’s resources and finances. That will no longer be the case in God’s kingdom, Mary says, through her son, the Savior. Mary, in her prophetic role, announces the fulfillment of God’s promises of a redeeming Messiah. She sees the future work of God and announces it as being complete in the present, because she is confident in the grace of God. All of creation will be forever redeemed and transformed, because of the love and presence of her Savior son. God’s kingdom is coming and it will bring life to all. Mary’s life enlarged the very presence of God at work in her life and around the world. From the moment she encounters Gabriel to the moment she stood at the cross as her son, the Savior, died for the world’s sin, her life enlarged the very presence of God’s indwelling love with a willingness to be the Lord’s servant and to see into what God is doing in the world. Her words and life reflect a sense of rejoicing, in which her very soul gives praise to the mighty and impressive work of God. She has seen it all and knows it is coming for all time. As we approach the celebration of Jesus’ birth, this week, I cannot help but wonder about what we might learn from Mary and our responses to following Christ. I cannot help but wonder about what we are focusing upon in our life. What takes up our energy and focus? That is a question worth thinking about as we consider what it means to magnify the Lord. For Mary, her energy and focus were upon giving witness to God’s work in her life and in the life of the world. She was a loving and compassionate servant of the Lord. What takes up our energy and focus? Is it the things of God? We might want to say, yes, but as we enter this final few days of Advent, and prepare our hearts for the Christmas celebration to come, perhaps that is something we need to ponder upon deeply. Does our heart, like Mary’s, truly magnify the Lord? Are we giving our entire energy and focus to God, or are other things becoming more important? Can we see what God is doing in the world or are we too consumed with bringing up complaints, negativity, and talking about all the problems we think our present in our community and the church? Can we see the glory of God all around us, or are we too consumed with making sure we get everything we can out of this world? Can we see God humbling the rich and raising up the poor, or are we too consumed with political power and cultural relevance that we miss the kingdom in front of us? How are words, actions, and deeds giving witness to the work of God? This Advent season has been about a time of focus, but, as well, about seeing the deep upon the deep that lives within these characters. We end with Mary, because in this season we find ourselves in we need to be reminded that it is the heart of a servant who truly magnifies the very nature of God in the depths of their soul. May we, like Mary, give voice to what God is doing in the world, by giving focus to God and God alone. May we, like Mary, rejoice in the Lord’s redeeming and world-changing work. May we, like Mary, respond with the heart of a servant and go where God is leading us, without negativity, but with a heart of joy.	2,313	ENGLISH	1
Minnesota was logging country in the late 1800s, and as a result, most of the state’s old-growth trees were cut down. At present, only 2% of trees in Minnesota’s forests are considered old-growth, but there is an extraordinary place known as The Lost 40, where the elderly giants survive en masse. It’s an area of 144 acres of pure old-growth forest, and its survival until now is due to a mapping error. In 1882, a surveying and mapping error made loggers believe that the entire section of the forest was underwater, so they passed through it. This area, which is actually located in the Chippewa National Forest, was therefore never logged, and the trees that were growing then continue to grow now. The tradition of leaving the Lost 40 untouched has remained, and the forest section is still thriving as a result. There is nowhere else in the Midwest like the Lost 40, since most of the trees in other forests are much younger than this swath of centenarians growing in the Midwest. Story via: Atlas Obscura, where you can find more photos and a small map.	<urn:uuid:9411b1d0-701c-447f-a6b1-55ef5bfa4e9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freethoughtblogs.com/affinity/category/environment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00510.warc.gz	en	0.980659	240	3.328125	3	[ 0.049753304570913315, 0.28072017431259155, 0.10809377580881119, -0.12547332048416138, 0.41869914531707764, 0.1812015175819397, -0.43590202927589417, 0.07634051889181137, -0.40127187967300415, 0.3173305094242096, 0.23467515408992767, -0.26761215925216675, 0.4123365879058838, 0.4146866798400...	7	Minnesota was logging country in the late 1800s, and as a result, most of the state’s old-growth trees were cut down. At present, only 2% of trees in Minnesota’s forests are considered old-growth, but there is an extraordinary place known as The Lost 40, where the elderly giants survive en masse. It’s an area of 144 acres of pure old-growth forest, and its survival until now is due to a mapping error. In 1882, a surveying and mapping error made loggers believe that the entire section of the forest was underwater, so they passed through it. This area, which is actually located in the Chippewa National Forest, was therefore never logged, and the trees that were growing then continue to grow now. The tradition of leaving the Lost 40 untouched has remained, and the forest section is still thriving as a result. There is nowhere else in the Midwest like the Lost 40, since most of the trees in other forests are much younger than this swath of centenarians growing in the Midwest. Story via: Atlas Obscura, where you can find more photos and a small map.	247	ENGLISH	1
such as developed thinking When a child goes to school, parents try their best to help him in his studies and contribute to his academic performance. However, often they do not know how to do this. This causes them stress and anxiety. It would seem that both parents and teachers make a lot of efforts in order to help the child learn successfully. Why, as a result, do students still experience learning difficulties, and parents feel disappointment and anxiety? Often the problem is that parents incorrectly determine their role in this process. While teachers clearly know what pedagogical methods need to be applied in certain situations, parents often simply do not know what to do. Many teachers will agree that it is easier for them to work with children who are ready for school. This fact seems obvious, but there are a few nuances that parents sometimes misunderstand. Continue reading	<urn:uuid:3443a6cc-7f2d-45b1-9799-be1ed4917c23>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bobbysussersongs.com/list/such-as-developed-thinking/page/3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00467.warc.gz	en	0.989833	172	3.28125	3	[ 0.3110397756099701, 0.04212705045938492, 0.5269608497619629, -0.31835925579071045, -0.32547053694725037, 0.24454094469547272, 0.48074227571487427, -0.1193903312087059, 0.07743693143129349, -0.24708552658557892, 0.13483242690563202, 0.10342367738485336, 0.04601534456014633, 0.51343381404876...	2	such as developed thinking When a child goes to school, parents try their best to help him in his studies and contribute to his academic performance. However, often they do not know how to do this. This causes them stress and anxiety. It would seem that both parents and teachers make a lot of efforts in order to help the child learn successfully. Why, as a result, do students still experience learning difficulties, and parents feel disappointment and anxiety? Often the problem is that parents incorrectly determine their role in this process. While teachers clearly know what pedagogical methods need to be applied in certain situations, parents often simply do not know what to do. Many teachers will agree that it is easier for them to work with children who are ready for school. This fact seems obvious, but there are a few nuances that parents sometimes misunderstand. Continue reading	169	ENGLISH	1
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November , sources cite either or as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during .. It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first. Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of. The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed BC– BC) which was built during the third. pyramid of khafre The first, and largest, pyramid at Giza was built by the pharaoh Khufu (reign started around B.C.). His pyramid, which today stands The ancient pyramids of Egypt were built many years ago. The first king during the period was Pharaoh Djoser who constructed a necropolis. Although the Egyptians are credited with building the very first pyramids, they It was built by Khafre, the son of Khufu, who knew his pyramid had to live up to. Archaeologists believe Egypt's large pyramids are the work of the Old built the Giza Pyramids in a span of 85 years between and BC. The earliest experiments in radiocarbon dating were done on ancient material from Egypt. First, there are significant discrepancies between the and dates for. 6 days ago How the Pyramids at Giza were built is one of Egypt's biggest mysteries. Pharaoh Khufu began the first Giza pyramid project, circa B.C. The Aztecs, Mayans, and ancient Egyptians were three very different The first pyramid was built by King Djoser during Egypt's Third Dynasty. The largest is the Pyramid of Khufu, also called the Great Pyramid of Giza. When it was first built it was over feet tall! It was the tallest man-made structure for. As per the historians, few of the oldest Egyptian pyramids were built by the Pharaohs during – BC. The first Egyptian pyramid was. It is located on the Giza plateau near the modern city of Cairo and was built over a The pyramid was first excavated using modern techniques and scientific. pyramid of giza The pyramid was built in the center of a grand complex of temples, houses for The first pyramid, as we would recognize the structure today, appeared in the. Archaeologists have discovered the world's oldest pyramids - on the Atlantic coast And, unlike the Egyptian stone pyramids, the Brazilian ones were built Initial research suggests that some of the structures were originally. How were the pyramids built We talk a lot about processes here at Process Street and we try to give insight into not only how to make current. Pyramids were built for religious purposes. The Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to believe in an afterlife. They believed that a second self called the. The pyramids are truly incredible when you consider many were built over 4, Among these, the Pyramid of Djoser was the first to be built, having been. Who were the pyramids of Giza built for? dynasty; the structure measures feet ( metres) on each side and was originally feet ( metres) high. Do you know how Egypt pyramids were built in Giza Egypt?. The first step in building a pyramid was to choose a suitable site. Click here to know more!. Did the Israelites really build the great Egyptian pyramids while they were slaves in ancient Egypt? Learn where the idea came from. Most pyramids were built west of the Nile. Though it was originally thought that the gesture was purely ceremonial, there is scientific evidence. This step pyramid is significant because it was the first stone building constructed by the Egyptians. It also marked a departure from the. - How to time lapse hero 4 - What is a herniated disc anatomy - How to play multiplayer on burnout paradise xbox 360 - Four non blondes what s up - How to draw mario book - How to block someone from posting on your facebook page - How to make hair straight for long time - How to read a nutrition facts label - What is the average iq of a human	<urn:uuid:f5bd6b9d-2f8d-4285-a9f0-2e0746887fdf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://porterpetcares.com/media-video/when-were-the-pyramids-first-built.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00558.warc.gz	en	0.987467	901	3.484375	3	[ -0.3592525124549866, 0.8454894423484802, 0.4478188753128052, 0.369093656539917, -0.7472571730613708, -0.041048064827919006, -0.003784334287047386, -0.3422394096851349, -0.0414961576461792, 0.09718353301286697, 0.0903407484292984, -0.6005527973175049, -0.3237493634223938, 0.0833938568830490...	1	The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November , sources cite either or as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during .. It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first. Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of. The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed BC– BC) which was built during the third. pyramid of khafre The first, and largest, pyramid at Giza was built by the pharaoh Khufu (reign started around B.C.). His pyramid, which today stands The ancient pyramids of Egypt were built many years ago. The first king during the period was Pharaoh Djoser who constructed a necropolis. Although the Egyptians are credited with building the very first pyramids, they It was built by Khafre, the son of Khufu, who knew his pyramid had to live up to. Archaeologists believe Egypt's large pyramids are the work of the Old built the Giza Pyramids in a span of 85 years between and BC. The earliest experiments in radiocarbon dating were done on ancient material from Egypt. First, there are significant discrepancies between the and dates for. 6 days ago How the Pyramids at Giza were built is one of Egypt's biggest mysteries. Pharaoh Khufu began the first Giza pyramid project, circa B.C. The Aztecs, Mayans, and ancient Egyptians were three very different The first pyramid was built by King Djoser during Egypt's Third Dynasty. The largest is the Pyramid of Khufu, also called the Great Pyramid of Giza. When it was first built it was over feet tall! It was the tallest man-made structure for. As per the historians, few of the oldest Egyptian pyramids were built by the Pharaohs during – BC. The first Egyptian pyramid was. It is located on the Giza plateau near the modern city of Cairo and was built over a The pyramid was first excavated using modern techniques and scientific. pyramid of giza The pyramid was built in the center of a grand complex of temples, houses for The first pyramid, as we would recognize the structure today, appeared in the. Archaeologists have discovered the world's oldest pyramids - on the Atlantic coast And, unlike the Egyptian stone pyramids, the Brazilian ones were built Initial research suggests that some of the structures were originally. How were the pyramids built We talk a lot about processes here at Process Street and we try to give insight into not only how to make current. Pyramids were built for religious purposes. The Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to believe in an afterlife. They believed that a second self called the. The pyramids are truly incredible when you consider many were built over 4, Among these, the Pyramid of Djoser was the first to be built, having been. Who were the pyramids of Giza built for? dynasty; the structure measures feet ( metres) on each side and was originally feet ( metres) high. Do you know how Egypt pyramids were built in Giza Egypt?. The first step in building a pyramid was to choose a suitable site. Click here to know more!. Did the Israelites really build the great Egyptian pyramids while they were slaves in ancient Egypt? Learn where the idea came from. Most pyramids were built west of the Nile. Though it was originally thought that the gesture was purely ceremonial, there is scientific evidence. This step pyramid is significant because it was the first stone building constructed by the Egyptians. It also marked a departure from the. - How to time lapse hero 4 - What is a herniated disc anatomy - How to play multiplayer on burnout paradise xbox 360 - Four non blondes what s up - How to draw mario book - How to block someone from posting on your facebook page - How to make hair straight for long time - How to read a nutrition facts label - What is the average iq of a human	898	ENGLISH	1
Women’s Army Corps (WAC), U.S. Army unit created during World War II to enable women to serve in noncombat positions. Never before had women, with the exception of nurses, served within the ranks of the U.S. Army. With the establishment of the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), more than 150,000 did so. In May 1941 Rep. Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts introduced a bill that would establish a women’s corps in the U.S. Army. Rogers foresaw that women might be needed in the army, and by introducing the bill she hoped to secure for women a salary and benefits comparable to those of male soldiers. The bill languished until Japan bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It became law on May 15, 1942. The law that established the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) gave its members, called Waacs, an official status and a salary but few of the benefits granted to male soldiers. In July 1943, after thousands of women had enlisted, the U.S. Army dropped the “auxiliary” designation, and from that time on members of the Women’s Army Corps received full U.S. Army benefits. Sixteen thousand women who had joined as Waacs were belatedly granted veterans’ benefits in 1980. The American public was at first resistant to the idea of women in the army. Oveta Culp Hobby, who commanded the unit, was instrumental in dispelling doubts, promoting the idea that each woman serving would “release a man for combat.” Women relieved thousands of men of their clerical assignments, and many performed nontraditional jobs such as radio operator, electrician, and air traffic controller. Wacs served with distinction throughout the war theatres in North Africa, Europe, and Asia. The WAC remained a separate unit of the U.S. Army until 1978, when male and female forces were integrated.	<urn:uuid:c725caa6-e83e-41ef-9b70-01007ab6dfeb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/print/article/647097	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00532.warc.gz	en	0.982618	410	4.1875	4	[ -0.6098049879074097, 0.3624528646469116, 0.3189258873462677, 0.1222878247499466, -0.19626827538013458, 0.5727819800376892, 0.07888169586658478, 0.164242222905159, -0.2040739804506302, -0.3274605870246887, 0.531196117401123, -0.25527963042259216, 0.29220402240753174, 0.0499170757830143, 0...	6	Women’s Army Corps (WAC), U.S. Army unit created during World War II to enable women to serve in noncombat positions. Never before had women, with the exception of nurses, served within the ranks of the U.S. Army. With the establishment of the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), more than 150,000 did so. In May 1941 Rep. Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts introduced a bill that would establish a women’s corps in the U.S. Army. Rogers foresaw that women might be needed in the army, and by introducing the bill she hoped to secure for women a salary and benefits comparable to those of male soldiers. The bill languished until Japan bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It became law on May 15, 1942. The law that established the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) gave its members, called Waacs, an official status and a salary but few of the benefits granted to male soldiers. In July 1943, after thousands of women had enlisted, the U.S. Army dropped the “auxiliary” designation, and from that time on members of the Women’s Army Corps received full U.S. Army benefits. Sixteen thousand women who had joined as Waacs were belatedly granted veterans’ benefits in 1980. The American public was at first resistant to the idea of women in the army. Oveta Culp Hobby, who commanded the unit, was instrumental in dispelling doubts, promoting the idea that each woman serving would “release a man for combat.” Women relieved thousands of men of their clerical assignments, and many performed nontraditional jobs such as radio operator, electrician, and air traffic controller. Wacs served with distinction throughout the war theatres in North Africa, Europe, and Asia. The WAC remained a separate unit of the U.S. Army until 1978, when male and female forces were integrated.	416	ENGLISH	1
Human beings are in interaction with their environment in daily life constantly. Because of this interaction, he encounters many events that he has to manage throughout his life. Life skill is an ability that it express the positive and harmonious behaviors in order to effectively cope with the difficulties. It also supports success in today's rapidly changing world. Considering the positive effects of sports on people's lives, it can be said that it has an important place in developing life skills. In this study, the contribution of sports to life skills was examined by considering some demographic characteristics.This study was carried out between May 1 - May 30, 2019. Face-to-face survey method was applied to people coming for physical activity to 2 private gyms in Istanbul. In this study, "Life Skills Scale for Sport“ which was developed by Cronin and Allen (2017), translated into Turkish and made validity and reliability study by Açak and Düz (2018), was used and the contribution of sport to life skills was tried to be determined. The obtained data were analyzed statistically by SPSS 21.0 program. As a result of evaluation, it was found that there is a significant difference between education, working status and chronic illness with effects of sport on life skill.	<urn:uuid:7d4374db-c477-4ebd-bf86-3cd08df97ffa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://jshsr.org/DergiDetay.aspx?ID=1347&Detay=Abstract	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00446.warc.gz	en	0.986004	252	3.390625	3	[ -0.013868954963982105, 0.35334545373916626, 0.2048153430223465, -0.23179981112480164, -0.1791248917579651, 0.39595723152160645, 0.774285078048706, 0.11801271140575409, 0.05453677847981453, 0.20700478553771973, 0.06774595379829407, -0.6827528476715088, 0.12229740619659424, 0.285589337348938...	2	Human beings are in interaction with their environment in daily life constantly. Because of this interaction, he encounters many events that he has to manage throughout his life. Life skill is an ability that it express the positive and harmonious behaviors in order to effectively cope with the difficulties. It also supports success in today's rapidly changing world. Considering the positive effects of sports on people's lives, it can be said that it has an important place in developing life skills. In this study, the contribution of sports to life skills was examined by considering some demographic characteristics.This study was carried out between May 1 - May 30, 2019. Face-to-face survey method was applied to people coming for physical activity to 2 private gyms in Istanbul. In this study, "Life Skills Scale for Sport“ which was developed by Cronin and Allen (2017), translated into Turkish and made validity and reliability study by Açak and Düz (2018), was used and the contribution of sport to life skills was tried to be determined. The obtained data were analyzed statistically by SPSS 21.0 program. As a result of evaluation, it was found that there is a significant difference between education, working status and chronic illness with effects of sport on life skill.	261	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Greece: Phocion Ancient Athenian statesman and strategos. Phocion in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898) （Φωκίων). An Athenian general and statesman, son of Phocus. He was a man of humble origin, and appears to have been born in B.C. 402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. He distinguished himself for the first time under his friend Chabrias, in 376, at the battle of Naxos; but he was not employed prominently in any capacity for many years afterward. In 354 (according to others in 350) he was sent into Euboea in the command of a small force in consequence of an application from Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria; and he was subsequently employed on several occasions in the war between the Athenians and Philip of Macedon. He frequently opposed the measures of Demosthenes, and recommended peace with Philip; but he must not be regarded as one of the mercenary supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His virtue is above suspicion, and his public conduct was always influenced by upright motives. When Alexander was marching upon Thebes in 335, Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his invectives against the king; and after the destruction of Thebes he advised the Athenians to comply with Alexander's demand for the surrender of Demosthenes and other chief orators of the antiMacedonian party. This proposal was indignantly rejected by the people, and an embassy was sent to Alexander, which succeeded in deprecating his resentment. According to Plutarch, there were two embassies, the first of which Alexander refused to receive, but to the second he gave a gracious audience and granted its prayer, chiefly from regard to Phocion, who was at the head of it. Alexander ever continued to treat Phocion with the utmost consideration, and to cultivate his friendship. He also pressed upon him valuable presents; but Phocion persisted in refusing his presents, begging the king to leave him no less honest than he found him, and only so far availed himself of the royal favour as to request the liberty of certain prisoners at Sardis, which was immediately granted to him. After Alexander's death Phocion opposed vehemently, and with all the caustic bitterness which characterized him, the proposal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hyperides, who asked him tauntingly when he would advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered, "When I see the young willing to keep their ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth, and the orators to abstain from pilfering the public money." When the Piraeus was seized by Alexander, the son of Polysperchon, in 318, Phocion was suspected of having advised Alexander to take this step; whereupon, being accused of treason by Agnonides, he fled, with several of his friends, to Alexander, who sent them with letters of recommendation to his father Polysperchon. The latter, willing to sacrifice them as a peace-offering to the Athenians, sent them back to Athens for the people to deal with them as they would. Here Phocion was sentenced to death. To the last he maintained his calm and dignified and somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some wretched man spat upon him as he passed to the prison, "Will no one," said he, "check this fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him whether he had any message to leave for his son Phocus, he answered, "Only that he bear no grudge against the Athenians." And when the hemlock which had been prepared was found insufficient for all the condemned, and the jailer would not furnish more until he was paid for it, "Give the man his money," said Phocion to one of his friends, "since at Athens one cannot even die for nothing." He perished in the year 317, at the age of eighty-five. The Athenians are said to have repented of their conduct. A brazen statue was raised to the memory of Phocion, and Agnonides was condemned to death. Phocion was twice married, and his second wife appears to have been as simple and frugal in her habits as himself; but he was less fortunate in his son Phocus, who, in spite of his father's lessons and example, was a thorough profligate. As for Phocion himself, commendation of him must be almost wholly confined to his private qualities. His fellow-citizens may have been degenerate, but he made no effort to elevate them. His life is written by Plutarch. See also Morell, Vita Phocionis (Leyden, 1869); and Thirlwall, vii. pp. 256 foll. Phocion in Wikipedia Phocion (in Greek Φωκίων, also called Phokion, c402 - c318 BC, nicknamed The Good) was an Athenian statesman and strategos, and the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Phocion was a successful politician of Athens. He believed that extreme frugality was the condition for virtue and lived in accord with this; consequently, he was popularly known as "The Good." Further, people thought that Phocion was the most honest member of the Athenian Assembly. However, within this chamber, Phocion's tendency to strong opposition relegated him to a solitary stand against the entire political class. Nonetheless, by both his individual prestige and his military expertise, which was acquired by the side of Chabrias, Phocion was elected strategos numerous times, with a record 45 terms in office. Thus, during most of his 84 years of life, Phocion occupied the most important Athenian offices. In the late 320s BC, when Macedon gained complete control of Athens (under Antipater), though somewhat compromised Phocion defended both the urban center and its citizens. He even refused to comply with some dishonorable requests of the enemy. However, his stance put Phocion in opposition to both most free Athenians and Polyperchon, the next ruler of Macedonia, who arranged his execution in Athens. Phocion's father operated a lathe, producing iron tools. During his youth, Phocion sought to study liberal notions. He was both Plato's pupil and Xenocrates' friend. Through such philosophical education, Phocion was of virtuous moral character and he used to give prudent advice. This academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier rather than as a philosopher that he first came to notice. His austere lifestyle The Athenians recognized that Phocion was honest and he was respected as such. He had a reserved demeanor; he was never seen either laughing or weeping. Indeed, he appeared quite severe, and was often feared by those meeting him for first time. Phocion believed that the frugality proved his own virtue. He was never seen at the public baths. Both on the Athenian streets and on campaign, he walked around wearing a simple tunic and without shoes. He only made an exception in extreme cold, wearing a cloak, so other soldiers said that Phocion gave a meteorological indication. Throughout his life Phocion lived in a home which was humble, with spare decoration, located at the Melite neighborhood, southward from the Acropolis. His wife cooked their everyday bread, and Phocion drew water, pumping it with his own hands. Phocion was first married to a woman whose father was a maker of clay statues. His second wife was famous in Athens for her humility. Once she said that her sole adornment was Phocion's twentieth strategos appointment. Phocion's son was Phocus. During his youth he became licentious and addicted to partying and wine, so Phocion sent him off to Sparta (which was famous for frugal lifestyles) for a period. Early military service to Athens The young Phocion enrolled with Chabrias' armies, in many campaigns, gaining much experience. Chabrias esteemed him highly because Phocion helped to compensate for his turbulent personality. Reciprocally, Phocion was commended for the chief actions of his campaigns, and thus gained much fame, among the Athenians. In 376 BC, Phocion's participation was crucial in the Athenian naval victory of Naxos, where he commanded the leading left wing. Since it was the first clear Athenian victory since the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians greatly honoured its military leaders. The battle took place on the main day of the Eleusinian Mysteries and was remembered for years. After Chabrias died, Phocion took care of his family and particularly of his son, Ctesippus. However, Phocion could barely cope with Ctesippus' rather slow character. At last he exclaimed "O Chabrias, did ever a man show so much gratitude as I do in putting up with your son" Role in the Athenian Assembly Publicly, Phocion was recognized as the most austere and wisest Athenian politician. However, in the Athenian Assembly, he had an attitude of opposition to most of his peers, and criticism from Phocion was often unpopular within the chamber. Once, an oracle was brought from Delphi. It said that one man would confront the rest of the politicians, whose opposing stand would be homogeneous. Phocion then rose, exclaiming: "I am that person who disagrees." Once, after Phocion was applauded by the chamber he asked his friends: "Have I unwittingly said something vile?" (Οὐ δὴ που κακόν τι λέγων ἐμαυτὸν λέληθα?) Demosthenes called him "the chopper of my speeches." On another occasion, Phocion spoke but was ignored. He said: "If I am forced to by all of you, I may do things unwillingly. However, never I will give any insincere counsel." On the other hand, Phocion never harmed anyone he disliked. Indeed, he was so kind that he helped a political rival if he was in some difficulty. Additionally, Phocion was unhappy that Athenian public functions had become split between two groups. Whereas the politicians dealt eminently with civilian matters, military issues were attended to exclusively by the generals. He campaigned for Athens to regain its old tradition, with politicians who could manage both sets of affairs. Parrying the eloquence of his opponents, Phocion resorted both to wise concepts and pithy sayings, which were famous in antiquity. Yet he avoided demagogic style and his tone was harsh and demanding, with few embellishments. Another distinguishing quality was that Phocion compressed many ideas into short phrases. Before any presentation, he spent much time considering how to shorten it. One of his friends said "You seem to be thinking about something, Phocion", and he replied "Yes, I am considering whether I can shorten the speech I am going to make." Demosthenes once said to Phocion that he might be killed some day, if the people became irrational. Phocion responded: "Yes; however, they would kill you if they came to their senses." On an occasion when Phocion was being heavily attacked by the entire assembly, he requested Archibiades, a man who liked imitating the Spartan lifestyle, to support his stand. However, the man took the popular side, declaring against Phocion as well. Phocion then grabbed his Spartan-style beard, saying, "It's time for you to shave." Another assemblyman, Aristogeiton, was famous because he usually called for war. However, when a muster was called he happened to appear wearing bandages around his legs and walking with a cane. Phocion got up and shouted to the enrolling officer: "Put down Aristogeiton too, as lame and unfit for service." Some time afterward, Aristogeiton was jailed and at his request, Phocion visited him often. His friends criticized him for it, but he replied: "Come on! There is no better place to visit Aristogeiton." Although Phocion never canvassed the Athenians for it, he was appointed strategos a record-breaking 45 times. Sometimes he did not attend the election meetings of the Agora and the people were forced to seek him afterward. However, he accepted the appointment on every occasion. Management of the Delian League Phocion was sent to the Aegean Sea by Chabrias, to collect the regional tributes for the Athenian Empire. As representatives of Athens were unpopular among their 'subject' allies, Phocion had been issued 20 warships. However, he declined to bring them along, commenting that "if he was being sent to fight the islanders he would need a larger force, but if he was visiting them as allies, one ship was enough." So he departed just with his own trireme. At each city, Phocion negotiated each fee so diplomatically that he returned home with a large allied fleet, which protected their treasury. The allies even organized colourful parades in his honour. Military service to Persia in Cyprus Between 351–349 BC, Phocion helped the Persian Emperor Artaxerxes III to subdue the Cypriot rebellion. Campaign in Euboea against Macedonia In 349 BC, Philip II of Macedon invaded Euboea and established many local tyrants. Phocion went there with a small force, expecting to win over the Euboeans by diplomatic means. But Philip had organised a strong bribe network which corrupted the local politicians. Phocion established his camp on a hill outside the city of Tamynae, and ordered his men to ignore those who neglected their duties because of Macedonian bribes. He explained: "They are useless to us and furthermore, they will get in the way of those that are loyal." In 348 BC, with Macedonian support, the Euboean general Callias brought his armies to attack the camp. Phocion decided to offer many religious sacrifices before battle, until the gods were favourable. However such activities demanded much time, and the forces of the Euboean mercenaries attacked the enemy, their general thinking Phocion was a coward and hoping to force his hand. The Athenian cavalry was ill-disciplined, and not wishing to remain idle, raced out to meet the enemy, but with no formation and in scattered groups, so that they were easily beaten and routed. However, the Euboeans defeated the mercenaries and they began ravaging the Athenian camp. After Phocion could interpret his sacrifices favorably (or alternatively to draw the enemy in), he led his main lines into battle while the enemy where surging up the palisade thinking they had defeated Phocions forces. This resulted in Phocion cutting down and routing the enemy forces. Just with his best men while the main body of the army rallied some of the previously dispersed troops, Phocion engaged the enemy's chief divisions, in a ferocious battle. Phocion was victorious but then freed the captured enemies, fearing the Athenians might treat them too harshly. Subsequently, Phocion captured the fort of Zaretra, which was at Euboea island's narrowest portion. Then, he returned to Athens. Campaign to repel Philip II from Byzantium With his armies, Philip II reached the Dardanelles, expecting successively to seize Chersonesus, Perinthus, and Byzantium. The Athenians sent Chares to confront him but the Greek colonies reacted negatively to him, as usual. Consequently, the force could do nothing except roam around the region. The Athenians were so angry that they wanted to cancel the expedition. Phocion interceded, saying: "You shouldn't be angry at our allies. You should blame our generals, because of whom we are feared even by those who need us most." Then, in 339 BC, Phocion was sent to the region. To Phocion's good fortune, it transpired that Leon, a personal friend from the academy and a Byzantine well known for his courage, personally guaranteed the Athenian's good faith. Thus, particularly there, the new expedition was amicably received and, even though Phocion had planned to camp outside the walls, was welcomed into the city, where the Athenian soldiers acted with exemplary discipline and courtesy. The Athenian soldiers also fought bravely, defending the site. Then, Phocion attacked the Macedonians around the region, liberating many cities, which expelled their Macedonian garrisons. Eventually, Macedonia was forced to withdraw from the region (temporarily, as it turned out). However, Phocion was wounded so he returned to Athens. Mission to aid Megara Secretly, the Megarians requested military help from Phocion. Phocion arrived with his army and was warmly received. He erected two long walls, from Megara to the seaport of Nisaea. The Megarians felt so safe that they allied with Athens. Confrontation with Macedonia Subjection of Athens by Philip II egarding Macedonia, Phocion's moderate stand was to avoid a confrontation which might be catastrophic for Athens. Although he had been successful in his campaigns against it, he had come to view Macedon as a rising power, and to doubt the wisdom of an Athenian foreign policy too strongly opposed to it. However, the Athenians preferred the firebrand orators who desired war. Among them were Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and Hypereides. They were particularly emboldened because Athens seemed to have sufficient military power. Philip, on the other hand, preferred not to go to war with Athens; he hoped instead the Athenians would consent to put their strong navy at his disposal for use against Persia. Phocion was touring the Aegean colonies when Athens commanded its generals to confront Philip. However, the attempt was utterly defeated at Chaeronea, in 338 BC. Then the Athenian aristocracy supported the nomination of Phocion for strategos, and the Areopagus passed it. Phocion delayed the inevitable garrisoning of defeated Athens as long as possible. Initially, he favored negotiating directly with Philip, who he thought could be expected to be lenient, and opposed having Athens join a congress of Greek states and be forced to accept Macedonia's common terms of peace, which were not yet known. Demades, however, offered a contrary motion, and the Athenians approved it. They soon regretted their decision, since at the congress Philip obliged the Athenians to provide him with both ships and cavalry. When the Athenians expressed remorse, Phocion said: "I was opposed to the motion, fearing this. Now the deed is done, and we must make the best of it. We shouldn't be without hope, though. Our ancestors suffered similar episodes of subjection, but they carried on, and because of that both Athens and Greece as a whole survived." Later, after Philip died (336 BC), Phocion banned all celebratory sacrifice, saying: "The army which defeated us at Chaeronea has lost just one man." Relations with Alexander When the new Macedonian king, Alexander, was about to attack Thebes, Demosthenes protested impudently. Phocion interceded, with some lines of Homer: "Foolhardy man, why provoke one whose temper is already savage? Why provoke this Macedonian who is full of limitless ambition? When there is a holocaust on our borders, do you wish to spread the flames to our city as well, by provoking him further? My whole object in taking up the burdens of this office is to prevent this, and I shall not allow my fellow citizens to destroy themselves, even if they wish it." Thebes was destroyed and Alexander demanded the handover of the most anti-Macedonian Athenians, among whom was Demosthenes. The assembly called upon Phocion repeatedly by name until he stood on his feet. Beside him, Phocion called Nicocles, his best friend, saying: "We have been brought to a pass. I would deliver Nicocles if they might request it. We must reduce the wrath of our conqueror, rather than oppose him." Nonetheless, the Athenian Assembly passed a decree denying the demand. Then, when Alexander refused to see other Athenian ambassadors, Phocion was sent. As Phocion had been regarded as a respectable person by Philip, his son received him attentively, listening to his proposals. Alexander was persuaded to relent in his demand for the opposing Athenian politicians (even though they were enemies of Phocion as well). Indeed, Alexander asked for advice and Phocion said: "If Macedonia wishes peace, it should abandon the war. If Macedonia desires glory, it should turn against Persia, instead of oppressing Greece." Eventually, Phocion was favored by the king, even over many Macedonians. After Alexander defeated the Persian Emperor Darius III, Phocion was among the few individuals who were saluted with the word "greetings" by the king in his correspondence. During this period, Phocion maintained his policy of peace. Alexander made a request for a number of Athenian warships which Phocion supported, saying: "You should either possess superior strength or side with those that do." Athenian rebellion and the Lamian War against Antipater In 323 BC, rumors of Alexander's death reached Athens. Phocion feared any hasty reaction and he commented: "If he is dead now, he will be dead tomorrow as well. We must be cautious before celebrating." The Macedonian leaders began fighting for the crown; Antipater was the candidate with the best prospects. The Athenians hastened to rebel against Macedonia. Leosthenes, the rebel leader, shared the charge of strategos with Phocion. This was the beginning of the Lamian War although, as always, Phocion opposed it. Leosthenes inquired about which historical achievements Phocion had attained. Phocion responded: "Do you think it is nothing then that our citizens are all buried at home in their own tombs?" Other assemblymen asked him whether the military preparations were enough or not. Phocion said: "They will be sufficient for a sprint. However, if it is to be a long race, then I fear for Athens for she has no reserves of either men, supplies or warships." Phocion was ordered to lead the military actions against Boeotia. Cleverly, he called on all Athenians under the age of 60 years to enroll. The elderly protested but Phocion responded: "This is fair! Although I am 80 years old, I will lead the attack." This calmed the people down. On the other front, Antipater retreated and he was surrounded by the Greeks, around Lamia. The Athenians were exultant. Phocion said: "I would have wished being the general who achieved this victory. Nonetheless, still I would have counseled as before." As more good news arrived, Phocion said: "I am wondering when the good news will end." Leosthenes soon died in fighting Macedonian forces making a sally out of besieged Lamia. A new strategos, Antiphilus, was appointed, to counterbalance Phocion. In 322 BC, Phocion hurriedly led a force of Athenians against Micion, who had disembarked at Rhamnus with an army composed of Macedonians and mercenaries. So many individuals came to him with military advice that he exclaimed, "Heracles, how many generals we have, and how few soldiers!" Then he attacked the enemy and utterly routed them, killing Micion. Simultaneously, the Greeks defeated the Macedonians, at Thessaly. However, Craterus brought a large army over from Asia, and the Greeks were defeated at Crannon, also in 322 BC. Antipater soon approached Athens. Demades, who was another peace advocate, was the only other Athenian leader who didn't flee. He proposed that an embassy should negotiate peace. Phocion commented: "If I had been listened to before, the Athenians wouldn't need to be discussing such things." At Thebes, both met Antipater, whose invasion of Attica was expected imminently. Phocion was well received. When Phocion asked Antipater to cease his advance and listen to peace proposals, Craterus protested that it was unfair that the army should sit idle in allied lands, damaging their economies, while the enemy lands could be so easily ravaged. Antipater's lone demand was the discretional surrendering of Athens. In a second encounter, at which Antipater scorned the presence of Xenocrates, Phocion heard the new Macedonian terms of peace: * Many Athenian politicians such as Demosthenes would be turned over to the Macedonians. * The Athenian suffrage would be restricted to landowners. * A garrison would be established in Munychia, the neighborhood next to Piraeus. * Athens would pay both the war expenses and an extra fine. Phocion argued against the garrisoning unsuccessfully. However, Phocion knew its Macedonian commander, Menyllus, personally. Soon, Antipater proved that he was one of the worst Macedonian tyrants in history. 12,000 Athenians were disfranchised and many people migrated to Thrace. Phocion helped by securing them citizenship in the Peloponnesus area. Phocion became the virtual ruler of Athens and he strove to keep the peace. By his influence, only just individuals were appointed magistrates, and people who were too rebellious weren't allowed to hold public office. However, Phocion refused when Antipater requested him to do dishonorable things, commenting: "I can't be both his friend and his flatterer." Additionally, he protected the refugee Harpalus. Loss of popularity The aftermath of these events was that Phocion became quite unpopular. He was accused of delivering Athens to Antipater. The Athenians were particularly angry about the fate of Demosthenes, who had been banished, dying soon after. Phocion had been supported by him early in his political career, even in some capital trials. Thus, it seemed like a personal betrayal. Crisis of Polyperchon In 319 BC, before his death, Antipater chose that, instead of his own son, Cassander, General Polyperchon would be the next Macedonian ruler. Soon, Cassander began conspiring against Polyperchon. Thus, Cassander disposed that, at Munychia, Nicanor replaced Menyllus, with the order of controlling Attica. In Athens, Phocion was accused of helping such concealments of Cassander but he slighted such rumors. Indeed, Phocion met Nicanor, requesting a mild treatment for the Athenians. Also, Phocion convinced Nicanor to host the local games. The Macedonian spent lavishly on the event. Athenians were divided between two parties. Phocion was in the aristocratic one, which was on Cassander's side. The popular party supported Polyperchon. Still as strategos, Phocion began supporting Nicanor openly. He spurned an insistent rumor that Nicanor would attempt invading Athens. At Piraeus, Phocion was holding a conference with Nicanor when Athenian soldiers interrupted, to jail the Macedonian general. Nonetheless, Phocion helped his escape, declaring: "I don't believe that he would harm Athens although, still, I would defend him if he may wrong us." Subsequently, the Athenian Assembly commanded that Phocion should attack Nicanor, at Munychia. Initially, Phocion refused. Then, effectively, Nicanor used the troops of the Macedonian garrison to seize Piraeus. When Phocion decided to attack them, the Athenian soldiers had already rebelled against his command as strategos. In 318 BC, Polyperchon decided to realign Athenian politics in his own interests. Favoring the popular party, the king restored all liberties. His son, Alexander, arrived in Athens with a Macedonian army, while a rabid multitude of Athenians returned home, expecting revenge against the politicians who had exiled them. Polyperchon expected that Phocion would be forced to leave the urban center. Moreover, the Macedonians would seize complete control of Athens. Phocion was immediately deposed as strategos by an informal assembly. Death sentence by the Athenian Assembly The Athenian demagogue Agnonides accused Phocion of treachery, for he had refused to attack Nicanor. Phocion decided to meet Polyperchon personally. Phocion gathered an entourage, composed of politicians who were well regarded by the Macedonian ruler. However, their voyage was delayed by the illness of one member. During that interval, Agnonides proposed another embassy to accuse Phocion formally before the regent, and the Athenian Assembly passed the motion. Both delegations arrived simultaneously, before the Macedonian throne, at Phocis. Although the regent arrested and tortured one politician of Phocion's cortege, he expected both groups to be heard out. As many people attempted to speak simultaneously, Agnonides proposed that they all be put into a single cage and taken back to Athens to decide the issue there. Polyperchon smiled at that. When Phocion started speaking, the ruler began interrupting him so annoyingly that Phocion struck the floor with his staff and refused to utter another word. Then, Polyperchon ordered the detention of Phocion and his associates; while those closest to him were also seized, most of his embassy escaped from the court. By a written bidding, Polyperchon announced that the treacherous prisoners would be judged by the now free people of Athens. Phocion was brought back home where he was carted straight to the place of judgment. There, he waited while a massive assembly gathered. The Athenian archons conducted the proceedings. Any Athenian could participate in it, including slaves, foreigners, and those formerly disfranchised. The letter from Polyperchon was read while the entire multitude cried out against the oligarchs, who were the enemies of freedom. Phocion demanded: "Do you wish to condemn us justly? Then, you should listen to our defense." Phocion insisted: "I admit that I have wronged and deserve condemnation for my political actions. However, these other individuals don't." Some people responded that they should be condemned for being his friends. Then Phocion gave up. Subsequently, Agnonides read the condemning motion. In unison, the whole crowd rose up from their seats. Thus, Phocion and ten acquaintances were sentenced to die by drinking hemlock. They were conducted to a prison, and were harassed along the way. Someone spat on Phocion's face and he said to the archons: "You should force these people to behave." When Phocion and his friends had drunk the hemlock provided, the dose proved insufficient to be lethal. The executioner refused to prepare more unless he was paid 12 drachmas. Phocion remarked, "In Athens, it is hard for a man even to die without paying for it." A friend paid the executioner the extra sum on his behalf; Phocion drank his poison and died. It was May 19, 318 BC. This coincided with the traditional Athenian parade of Zeus. It was decreed that the corpse could not be buried in Attica; neither could anyone cremate it. A hired man brought it across the Megarian frontier. There the body was burned. Phocion's wife set up an empty tomb, brought Phocion's bones and heart home by night, and buried them there. Soon afterward, the Athenians had a change of heart; they were properly reburied, at public charge, and a bronze statue was erected. Agnonides was executed; Phocion's son Phocus then tracked down and killed two other conspirators who had fled the city. Phocion "The Good" Phocion's recognized uprightness bestowed on him the cognomen "The Good". Phocion could have been extremely wealthy, either by his offices or by the high commissions which were managed by him. Instead, he had an extremely frugal lifestyle. This was despite the fact that the entire Athenian political class was quite corrupt in that epoch. Philip II offered much money to him and the Macedonian heralds mentioned the future needs of his sons. Phocion responded, "If my sons are like me, my farm, which has enabled my present eminence, will suffice for them. If, instead, they become spoiled by luxury, I will not be the individual who will be guilty for that." Alexander sent a delegation to Phocion to offer him 100 talents, but he refused, saying: "I am an honorable man. I would not harm either Alexander's reputation or mine." Then, the king further offered him the government and possession of the cities Cius, Mylasa and Elaea. Phocion refused, but did request the release of some men enslaved at Sardis, who were promptly liberated. Soon afterward, Alexander died (323 BC). In 322 BC, Harpalus arrived at Athens from Asia, seeking refuge. He tried to give 700 talents to Phocion, who rejected this offer. Phocion warned that he shouldn't attempt to corrupt Athens or he would be punished. Consequently, the angry Harpalus turned the whole assembly against Phocion with his bribes. However, as Phocion kept helping him (with good will but within ethical limits), Harpalus approached Phocion's son-in-law, Charicles, becoming a friend. Charicles eventually accepted a lavish commission to build a tomb for Harpalus' mistress, and was investigated for corruption. Phocion refused to help him at the trial, saying: "I chose you to be my son-in-law only for honorable purposes." Phocion also refused presents from Menyllus. Phocion said: "You are not a better man than Alexander, so there is no reason to accept your gifts." With his bribes, Menyllus then became a friend of Phocus.	<urn:uuid:c4703838-b96f-4829-a79c-420ff9952d60>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=4326&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Phocion+	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00462.warc.gz	en	0.984418	7,304	3.28125	3	[ -0.2750149369239807, 0.6428347826004028, 0.23870018124580383, -0.19888408482074738, -0.6344742774963379, -0.7897207140922546, 0.5012295842170715, 0.5642762184143066, -0.4790043234825134, -0.21344423294067383, -0.14375393092632294, -0.481559157371521, -0.05304323509335518, 0.482435524463653...	1	People - Ancient Greece: Phocion Ancient Athenian statesman and strategos. Phocion in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898) （Φωκίων). An Athenian general and statesman, son of Phocus. He was a man of humble origin, and appears to have been born in B.C. 402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. He distinguished himself for the first time under his friend Chabrias, in 376, at the battle of Naxos; but he was not employed prominently in any capacity for many years afterward. In 354 (according to others in 350) he was sent into Euboea in the command of a small force in consequence of an application from Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria; and he was subsequently employed on several occasions in the war between the Athenians and Philip of Macedon. He frequently opposed the measures of Demosthenes, and recommended peace with Philip; but he must not be regarded as one of the mercenary supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His virtue is above suspicion, and his public conduct was always influenced by upright motives. When Alexander was marching upon Thebes in 335, Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his invectives against the king; and after the destruction of Thebes he advised the Athenians to comply with Alexander's demand for the surrender of Demosthenes and other chief orators of the antiMacedonian party. This proposal was indignantly rejected by the people, and an embassy was sent to Alexander, which succeeded in deprecating his resentment. According to Plutarch, there were two embassies, the first of which Alexander refused to receive, but to the second he gave a gracious audience and granted its prayer, chiefly from regard to Phocion, who was at the head of it. Alexander ever continued to treat Phocion with the utmost consideration, and to cultivate his friendship. He also pressed upon him valuable presents; but Phocion persisted in refusing his presents, begging the king to leave him no less honest than he found him, and only so far availed himself of the royal favour as to request the liberty of certain prisoners at Sardis, which was immediately granted to him. After Alexander's death Phocion opposed vehemently, and with all the caustic bitterness which characterized him, the proposal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hyperides, who asked him tauntingly when he would advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered, "When I see the young willing to keep their ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth, and the orators to abstain from pilfering the public money." When the Piraeus was seized by Alexander, the son of Polysperchon, in 318, Phocion was suspected of having advised Alexander to take this step; whereupon, being accused of treason by Agnonides, he fled, with several of his friends, to Alexander, who sent them with letters of recommendation to his father Polysperchon. The latter, willing to sacrifice them as a peace-offering to the Athenians, sent them back to Athens for the people to deal with them as they would. Here Phocion was sentenced to death. To the last he maintained his calm and dignified and somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some wretched man spat upon him as he passed to the prison, "Will no one," said he, "check this fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him whether he had any message to leave for his son Phocus, he answered, "Only that he bear no grudge against the Athenians." And when the hemlock which had been prepared was found insufficient for all the condemned, and the jailer would not furnish more until he was paid for it, "Give the man his money," said Phocion to one of his friends, "since at Athens one cannot even die for nothing." He perished in the year 317, at the age of eighty-five. The Athenians are said to have repented of their conduct. A brazen statue was raised to the memory of Phocion, and Agnonides was condemned to death. Phocion was twice married, and his second wife appears to have been as simple and frugal in her habits as himself; but he was less fortunate in his son Phocus, who, in spite of his father's lessons and example, was a thorough profligate. As for Phocion himself, commendation of him must be almost wholly confined to his private qualities. His fellow-citizens may have been degenerate, but he made no effort to elevate them. His life is written by Plutarch. See also Morell, Vita Phocionis (Leyden, 1869); and Thirlwall, vii. pp. 256 foll. Phocion in Wikipedia Phocion (in Greek Φωκίων, also called Phokion, c402 - c318 BC, nicknamed The Good) was an Athenian statesman and strategos, and the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Phocion was a successful politician of Athens. He believed that extreme frugality was the condition for virtue and lived in accord with this; consequently, he was popularly known as "The Good." Further, people thought that Phocion was the most honest member of the Athenian Assembly. However, within this chamber, Phocion's tendency to strong opposition relegated him to a solitary stand against the entire political class. Nonetheless, by both his individual prestige and his military expertise, which was acquired by the side of Chabrias, Phocion was elected strategos numerous times, with a record 45 terms in office. Thus, during most of his 84 years of life, Phocion occupied the most important Athenian offices. In the late 320s BC, when Macedon gained complete control of Athens (under Antipater), though somewhat compromised Phocion defended both the urban center and its citizens. He even refused to comply with some dishonorable requests of the enemy. However, his stance put Phocion in opposition to both most free Athenians and Polyperchon, the next ruler of Macedonia, who arranged his execution in Athens. Phocion's father operated a lathe, producing iron tools. During his youth, Phocion sought to study liberal notions. He was both Plato's pupil and Xenocrates' friend. Through such philosophical education, Phocion was of virtuous moral character and he used to give prudent advice. This academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier rather than as a philosopher that he first came to notice. His austere lifestyle The Athenians recognized that Phocion was honest and he was respected as such. He had a reserved demeanor; he was never seen either laughing or weeping. Indeed, he appeared quite severe, and was often feared by those meeting him for first time. Phocion believed that the frugality proved his own virtue. He was never seen at the public baths. Both on the Athenian streets and on campaign, he walked around wearing a simple tunic and without shoes. He only made an exception in extreme cold, wearing a cloak, so other soldiers said that Phocion gave a meteorological indication. Throughout his life Phocion lived in a home which was humble, with spare decoration, located at the Melite neighborhood, southward from the Acropolis. His wife cooked their everyday bread, and Phocion drew water, pumping it with his own hands. Phocion was first married to a woman whose father was a maker of clay statues. His second wife was famous in Athens for her humility. Once she said that her sole adornment was Phocion's twentieth strategos appointment. Phocion's son was Phocus. During his youth he became licentious and addicted to partying and wine, so Phocion sent him off to Sparta (which was famous for frugal lifestyles) for a period. Early military service to Athens The young Phocion enrolled with Chabrias' armies, in many campaigns, gaining much experience. Chabrias esteemed him highly because Phocion helped to compensate for his turbulent personality. Reciprocally, Phocion was commended for the chief actions of his campaigns, and thus gained much fame, among the Athenians. In 376 BC, Phocion's participation was crucial in the Athenian naval victory of Naxos, where he commanded the leading left wing. Since it was the first clear Athenian victory since the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians greatly honoured its military leaders. The battle took place on the main day of the Eleusinian Mysteries and was remembered for years. After Chabrias died, Phocion took care of his family and particularly of his son, Ctesippus. However, Phocion could barely cope with Ctesippus' rather slow character. At last he exclaimed "O Chabrias, did ever a man show so much gratitude as I do in putting up with your son" Role in the Athenian Assembly Publicly, Phocion was recognized as the most austere and wisest Athenian politician. However, in the Athenian Assembly, he had an attitude of opposition to most of his peers, and criticism from Phocion was often unpopular within the chamber. Once, an oracle was brought from Delphi. It said that one man would confront the rest of the politicians, whose opposing stand would be homogeneous. Phocion then rose, exclaiming: "I am that person who disagrees." Once, after Phocion was applauded by the chamber he asked his friends: "Have I unwittingly said something vile?" (Οὐ δὴ που κακόν τι λέγων ἐμαυτὸν λέληθα?) Demosthenes called him "the chopper of my speeches." On another occasion, Phocion spoke but was ignored. He said: "If I am forced to by all of you, I may do things unwillingly. However, never I will give any insincere counsel." On the other hand, Phocion never harmed anyone he disliked. Indeed, he was so kind that he helped a political rival if he was in some difficulty. Additionally, Phocion was unhappy that Athenian public functions had become split between two groups. Whereas the politicians dealt eminently with civilian matters, military issues were attended to exclusively by the generals. He campaigned for Athens to regain its old tradition, with politicians who could manage both sets of affairs. Parrying the eloquence of his opponents, Phocion resorted both to wise concepts and pithy sayings, which were famous in antiquity. Yet he avoided demagogic style and his tone was harsh and demanding, with few embellishments. Another distinguishing quality was that Phocion compressed many ideas into short phrases. Before any presentation, he spent much time considering how to shorten it. One of his friends said "You seem to be thinking about something, Phocion", and he replied "Yes, I am considering whether I can shorten the speech I am going to make." Demosthenes once said to Phocion that he might be killed some day, if the people became irrational. Phocion responded: "Yes; however, they would kill you if they came to their senses." On an occasion when Phocion was being heavily attacked by the entire assembly, he requested Archibiades, a man who liked imitating the Spartan lifestyle, to support his stand. However, the man took the popular side, declaring against Phocion as well. Phocion then grabbed his Spartan-style beard, saying, "It's time for you to shave." Another assemblyman, Aristogeiton, was famous because he usually called for war. However, when a muster was called he happened to appear wearing bandages around his legs and walking with a cane. Phocion got up and shouted to the enrolling officer: "Put down Aristogeiton too, as lame and unfit for service." Some time afterward, Aristogeiton was jailed and at his request, Phocion visited him often. His friends criticized him for it, but he replied: "Come on! There is no better place to visit Aristogeiton." Although Phocion never canvassed the Athenians for it, he was appointed strategos a record-breaking 45 times. Sometimes he did not attend the election meetings of the Agora and the people were forced to seek him afterward. However, he accepted the appointment on every occasion. Management of the Delian League Phocion was sent to the Aegean Sea by Chabrias, to collect the regional tributes for the Athenian Empire. As representatives of Athens were unpopular among their 'subject' allies, Phocion had been issued 20 warships. However, he declined to bring them along, commenting that "if he was being sent to fight the islanders he would need a larger force, but if he was visiting them as allies, one ship was enough." So he departed just with his own trireme. At each city, Phocion negotiated each fee so diplomatically that he returned home with a large allied fleet, which protected their treasury. The allies even organized colourful parades in his honour. Military service to Persia in Cyprus Between 351–349 BC, Phocion helped the Persian Emperor Artaxerxes III to subdue the Cypriot rebellion. Campaign in Euboea against Macedonia In 349 BC, Philip II of Macedon invaded Euboea and established many local tyrants. Phocion went there with a small force, expecting to win over the Euboeans by diplomatic means. But Philip had organised a strong bribe network which corrupted the local politicians. Phocion established his camp on a hill outside the city of Tamynae, and ordered his men to ignore those who neglected their duties because of Macedonian bribes. He explained: "They are useless to us and furthermore, they will get in the way of those that are loyal." In 348 BC, with Macedonian support, the Euboean general Callias brought his armies to attack the camp. Phocion decided to offer many religious sacrifices before battle, until the gods were favourable. However such activities demanded much time, and the forces of the Euboean mercenaries attacked the enemy, their general thinking Phocion was a coward and hoping to force his hand. The Athenian cavalry was ill-disciplined, and not wishing to remain idle, raced out to meet the enemy, but with no formation and in scattered groups, so that they were easily beaten and routed. However, the Euboeans defeated the mercenaries and they began ravaging the Athenian camp. After Phocion could interpret his sacrifices favorably (or alternatively to draw the enemy in), he led his main lines into battle while the enemy where surging up the palisade thinking they had defeated Phocions forces. This resulted in Phocion cutting down and routing the enemy forces. Just with his best men while the main body of the army rallied some of the previously dispersed troops, Phocion engaged the enemy's chief divisions, in a ferocious battle. Phocion was victorious but then freed the captured enemies, fearing the Athenians might treat them too harshly. Subsequently, Phocion captured the fort of Zaretra, which was at Euboea island's narrowest portion. Then, he returned to Athens. Campaign to repel Philip II from Byzantium With his armies, Philip II reached the Dardanelles, expecting successively to seize Chersonesus, Perinthus, and Byzantium. The Athenians sent Chares to confront him but the Greek colonies reacted negatively to him, as usual. Consequently, the force could do nothing except roam around the region. The Athenians were so angry that they wanted to cancel the expedition. Phocion interceded, saying: "You shouldn't be angry at our allies. You should blame our generals, because of whom we are feared even by those who need us most." Then, in 339 BC, Phocion was sent to the region. To Phocion's good fortune, it transpired that Leon, a personal friend from the academy and a Byzantine well known for his courage, personally guaranteed the Athenian's good faith. Thus, particularly there, the new expedition was amicably received and, even though Phocion had planned to camp outside the walls, was welcomed into the city, where the Athenian soldiers acted with exemplary discipline and courtesy. The Athenian soldiers also fought bravely, defending the site. Then, Phocion attacked the Macedonians around the region, liberating many cities, which expelled their Macedonian garrisons. Eventually, Macedonia was forced to withdraw from the region (temporarily, as it turned out). However, Phocion was wounded so he returned to Athens. Mission to aid Megara Secretly, the Megarians requested military help from Phocion. Phocion arrived with his army and was warmly received. He erected two long walls, from Megara to the seaport of Nisaea. The Megarians felt so safe that they allied with Athens. Confrontation with Macedonia Subjection of Athens by Philip II egarding Macedonia, Phocion's moderate stand was to avoid a confrontation which might be catastrophic for Athens. Although he had been successful in his campaigns against it, he had come to view Macedon as a rising power, and to doubt the wisdom of an Athenian foreign policy too strongly opposed to it. However, the Athenians preferred the firebrand orators who desired war. Among them were Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and Hypereides. They were particularly emboldened because Athens seemed to have sufficient military power. Philip, on the other hand, preferred not to go to war with Athens; he hoped instead the Athenians would consent to put their strong navy at his disposal for use against Persia. Phocion was touring the Aegean colonies when Athens commanded its generals to confront Philip. However, the attempt was utterly defeated at Chaeronea, in 338 BC. Then the Athenian aristocracy supported the nomination of Phocion for strategos, and the Areopagus passed it. Phocion delayed the inevitable garrisoning of defeated Athens as long as possible. Initially, he favored negotiating directly with Philip, who he thought could be expected to be lenient, and opposed having Athens join a congress of Greek states and be forced to accept Macedonia's common terms of peace, which were not yet known. Demades, however, offered a contrary motion, and the Athenians approved it. They soon regretted their decision, since at the congress Philip obliged the Athenians to provide him with both ships and cavalry. When the Athenians expressed remorse, Phocion said: "I was opposed to the motion, fearing this. Now the deed is done, and we must make the best of it. We shouldn't be without hope, though. Our ancestors suffered similar episodes of subjection, but they carried on, and because of that both Athens and Greece as a whole survived." Later, after Philip died (336 BC), Phocion banned all celebratory sacrifice, saying: "The army which defeated us at Chaeronea has lost just one man." Relations with Alexander When the new Macedonian king, Alexander, was about to attack Thebes, Demosthenes protested impudently. Phocion interceded, with some lines of Homer: "Foolhardy man, why provoke one whose temper is already savage? Why provoke this Macedonian who is full of limitless ambition? When there is a holocaust on our borders, do you wish to spread the flames to our city as well, by provoking him further? My whole object in taking up the burdens of this office is to prevent this, and I shall not allow my fellow citizens to destroy themselves, even if they wish it." Thebes was destroyed and Alexander demanded the handover of the most anti-Macedonian Athenians, among whom was Demosthenes. The assembly called upon Phocion repeatedly by name until he stood on his feet. Beside him, Phocion called Nicocles, his best friend, saying: "We have been brought to a pass. I would deliver Nicocles if they might request it. We must reduce the wrath of our conqueror, rather than oppose him." Nonetheless, the Athenian Assembly passed a decree denying the demand. Then, when Alexander refused to see other Athenian ambassadors, Phocion was sent. As Phocion had been regarded as a respectable person by Philip, his son received him attentively, listening to his proposals. Alexander was persuaded to relent in his demand for the opposing Athenian politicians (even though they were enemies of Phocion as well). Indeed, Alexander asked for advice and Phocion said: "If Macedonia wishes peace, it should abandon the war. If Macedonia desires glory, it should turn against Persia, instead of oppressing Greece." Eventually, Phocion was favored by the king, even over many Macedonians. After Alexander defeated the Persian Emperor Darius III, Phocion was among the few individuals who were saluted with the word "greetings" by the king in his correspondence. During this period, Phocion maintained his policy of peace. Alexander made a request for a number of Athenian warships which Phocion supported, saying: "You should either possess superior strength or side with those that do." Athenian rebellion and the Lamian War against Antipater In 323 BC, rumors of Alexander's death reached Athens. Phocion feared any hasty reaction and he commented: "If he is dead now, he will be dead tomorrow as well. We must be cautious before celebrating." The Macedonian leaders began fighting for the crown; Antipater was the candidate with the best prospects. The Athenians hastened to rebel against Macedonia. Leosthenes, the rebel leader, shared the charge of strategos with Phocion. This was the beginning of the Lamian War although, as always, Phocion opposed it. Leosthenes inquired about which historical achievements Phocion had attained. Phocion responded: "Do you think it is nothing then that our citizens are all buried at home in their own tombs?" Other assemblymen asked him whether the military preparations were enough or not. Phocion said: "They will be sufficient for a sprint. However, if it is to be a long race, then I fear for Athens for she has no reserves of either men, supplies or warships." Phocion was ordered to lead the military actions against Boeotia. Cleverly, he called on all Athenians under the age of 60 years to enroll. The elderly protested but Phocion responded: "This is fair! Although I am 80 years old, I will lead the attack." This calmed the people down. On the other front, Antipater retreated and he was surrounded by the Greeks, around Lamia. The Athenians were exultant. Phocion said: "I would have wished being the general who achieved this victory. Nonetheless, still I would have counseled as before." As more good news arrived, Phocion said: "I am wondering when the good news will end." Leosthenes soon died in fighting Macedonian forces making a sally out of besieged Lamia. A new strategos, Antiphilus, was appointed, to counterbalance Phocion. In 322 BC, Phocion hurriedly led a force of Athenians against Micion, who had disembarked at Rhamnus with an army composed of Macedonians and mercenaries. So many individuals came to him with military advice that he exclaimed, "Heracles, how many generals we have, and how few soldiers!" Then he attacked the enemy and utterly routed them, killing Micion. Simultaneously, the Greeks defeated the Macedonians, at Thessaly. However, Craterus brought a large army over from Asia, and the Greeks were defeated at Crannon, also in 322 BC. Antipater soon approached Athens. Demades, who was another peace advocate, was the only other Athenian leader who didn't flee. He proposed that an embassy should negotiate peace. Phocion commented: "If I had been listened to before, the Athenians wouldn't need to be discussing such things." At Thebes, both met Antipater, whose invasion of Attica was expected imminently. Phocion was well received. When Phocion asked Antipater to cease his advance and listen to peace proposals, Craterus protested that it was unfair that the army should sit idle in allied lands, damaging their economies, while the enemy lands could be so easily ravaged. Antipater's lone demand was the discretional surrendering of Athens. In a second encounter, at which Antipater scorned the presence of Xenocrates, Phocion heard the new Macedonian terms of peace: * Many Athenian politicians such as Demosthenes would be turned over to the Macedonians. * The Athenian suffrage would be restricted to landowners. * A garrison would be established in Munychia, the neighborhood next to Piraeus. * Athens would pay both the war expenses and an extra fine. Phocion argued against the garrisoning unsuccessfully. However, Phocion knew its Macedonian commander, Menyllus, personally. Soon, Antipater proved that he was one of the worst Macedonian tyrants in history. 12,000 Athenians were disfranchised and many people migrated to Thrace. Phocion helped by securing them citizenship in the Peloponnesus area. Phocion became the virtual ruler of Athens and he strove to keep the peace. By his influence, only just individuals were appointed magistrates, and people who were too rebellious weren't allowed to hold public office. However, Phocion refused when Antipater requested him to do dishonorable things, commenting: "I can't be both his friend and his flatterer." Additionally, he protected the refugee Harpalus. Loss of popularity The aftermath of these events was that Phocion became quite unpopular. He was accused of delivering Athens to Antipater. The Athenians were particularly angry about the fate of Demosthenes, who had been banished, dying soon after. Phocion had been supported by him early in his political career, even in some capital trials. Thus, it seemed like a personal betrayal. Crisis of Polyperchon In 319 BC, before his death, Antipater chose that, instead of his own son, Cassander, General Polyperchon would be the next Macedonian ruler. Soon, Cassander began conspiring against Polyperchon. Thus, Cassander disposed that, at Munychia, Nicanor replaced Menyllus, with the order of controlling Attica. In Athens, Phocion was accused of helping such concealments of Cassander but he slighted such rumors. Indeed, Phocion met Nicanor, requesting a mild treatment for the Athenians. Also, Phocion convinced Nicanor to host the local games. The Macedonian spent lavishly on the event. Athenians were divided between two parties. Phocion was in the aristocratic one, which was on Cassander's side. The popular party supported Polyperchon. Still as strategos, Phocion began supporting Nicanor openly. He spurned an insistent rumor that Nicanor would attempt invading Athens. At Piraeus, Phocion was holding a conference with Nicanor when Athenian soldiers interrupted, to jail the Macedonian general. Nonetheless, Phocion helped his escape, declaring: "I don't believe that he would harm Athens although, still, I would defend him if he may wrong us." Subsequently, the Athenian Assembly commanded that Phocion should attack Nicanor, at Munychia. Initially, Phocion refused. Then, effectively, Nicanor used the troops of the Macedonian garrison to seize Piraeus. When Phocion decided to attack them, the Athenian soldiers had already rebelled against his command as strategos. In 318 BC, Polyperchon decided to realign Athenian politics in his own interests. Favoring the popular party, the king restored all liberties. His son, Alexander, arrived in Athens with a Macedonian army, while a rabid multitude of Athenians returned home, expecting revenge against the politicians who had exiled them. Polyperchon expected that Phocion would be forced to leave the urban center. Moreover, the Macedonians would seize complete control of Athens. Phocion was immediately deposed as strategos by an informal assembly. Death sentence by the Athenian Assembly The Athenian demagogue Agnonides accused Phocion of treachery, for he had refused to attack Nicanor. Phocion decided to meet Polyperchon personally. Phocion gathered an entourage, composed of politicians who were well regarded by the Macedonian ruler. However, their voyage was delayed by the illness of one member. During that interval, Agnonides proposed another embassy to accuse Phocion formally before the regent, and the Athenian Assembly passed the motion. Both delegations arrived simultaneously, before the Macedonian throne, at Phocis. Although the regent arrested and tortured one politician of Phocion's cortege, he expected both groups to be heard out. As many people attempted to speak simultaneously, Agnonides proposed that they all be put into a single cage and taken back to Athens to decide the issue there. Polyperchon smiled at that. When Phocion started speaking, the ruler began interrupting him so annoyingly that Phocion struck the floor with his staff and refused to utter another word. Then, Polyperchon ordered the detention of Phocion and his associates; while those closest to him were also seized, most of his embassy escaped from the court. By a written bidding, Polyperchon announced that the treacherous prisoners would be judged by the now free people of Athens. Phocion was brought back home where he was carted straight to the place of judgment. There, he waited while a massive assembly gathered. The Athenian archons conducted the proceedings. Any Athenian could participate in it, including slaves, foreigners, and those formerly disfranchised. The letter from Polyperchon was read while the entire multitude cried out against the oligarchs, who were the enemies of freedom. Phocion demanded: "Do you wish to condemn us justly? Then, you should listen to our defense." Phocion insisted: "I admit that I have wronged and deserve condemnation for my political actions. However, these other individuals don't." Some people responded that they should be condemned for being his friends. Then Phocion gave up. Subsequently, Agnonides read the condemning motion. In unison, the whole crowd rose up from their seats. Thus, Phocion and ten acquaintances were sentenced to die by drinking hemlock. They were conducted to a prison, and were harassed along the way. Someone spat on Phocion's face and he said to the archons: "You should force these people to behave." When Phocion and his friends had drunk the hemlock provided, the dose proved insufficient to be lethal. The executioner refused to prepare more unless he was paid 12 drachmas. Phocion remarked, "In Athens, it is hard for a man even to die without paying for it." A friend paid the executioner the extra sum on his behalf; Phocion drank his poison and died. It was May 19, 318 BC. This coincided with the traditional Athenian parade of Zeus. It was decreed that the corpse could not be buried in Attica; neither could anyone cremate it. A hired man brought it across the Megarian frontier. There the body was burned. Phocion's wife set up an empty tomb, brought Phocion's bones and heart home by night, and buried them there. Soon afterward, the Athenians had a change of heart; they were properly reburied, at public charge, and a bronze statue was erected. Agnonides was executed; Phocion's son Phocus then tracked down and killed two other conspirators who had fled the city. Phocion "The Good" Phocion's recognized uprightness bestowed on him the cognomen "The Good". Phocion could have been extremely wealthy, either by his offices or by the high commissions which were managed by him. Instead, he had an extremely frugal lifestyle. This was despite the fact that the entire Athenian political class was quite corrupt in that epoch. Philip II offered much money to him and the Macedonian heralds mentioned the future needs of his sons. Phocion responded, "If my sons are like me, my farm, which has enabled my present eminence, will suffice for them. If, instead, they become spoiled by luxury, I will not be the individual who will be guilty for that." Alexander sent a delegation to Phocion to offer him 100 talents, but he refused, saying: "I am an honorable man. I would not harm either Alexander's reputation or mine." Then, the king further offered him the government and possession of the cities Cius, Mylasa and Elaea. Phocion refused, but did request the release of some men enslaved at Sardis, who were promptly liberated. Soon afterward, Alexander died (323 BC). In 322 BC, Harpalus arrived at Athens from Asia, seeking refuge. He tried to give 700 talents to Phocion, who rejected this offer. Phocion warned that he shouldn't attempt to corrupt Athens or he would be punished. Consequently, the angry Harpalus turned the whole assembly against Phocion with his bribes. However, as Phocion kept helping him (with good will but within ethical limits), Harpalus approached Phocion's son-in-law, Charicles, becoming a friend. Charicles eventually accepted a lavish commission to build a tomb for Harpalus' mistress, and was investigated for corruption. Phocion refused to help him at the trial, saying: "I chose you to be my son-in-law only for honorable purposes." Phocion also refused presents from Menyllus. Phocion said: "You are not a better man than Alexander, so there is no reason to accept your gifts." With his bribes, Menyllus then became a friend of Phocus.	7,350	ENGLISH	1
T HE country which was formerly occupied by Macedon and the other states of Greece is now Turkey in Europe. In the northern part of it is a vast chain of mountains called now the Balkan. In Alexander's day it was Mount Hæmus. This chain forms a broad belt of lofty and uninhabitable land, and extends from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. A branch of this mountain range, called Rhodope, extends southwardly from about the middle of its length, as may be seen by the map. Rhodope separated Macedonia from a large and powerful country, which was occupied by a somewhat rude but warlike race of men. This country was Thrace. Thrace was one great fertile basin or valley, sloping toward the center in every direction, so that all the streams from the mountains, increased by the rains which fell over the whole surface of the ground, flowed together into one river, which meandered through the center of the valley, and flowed out at last into the Ægean Sea. The name of this river was the Hebrus. All this may be seen distinctly upon the map. The Balkan, or Mount Hæmus, as it was then called, formed the great northern frontier of Macedon and Thrace. From the summits of the range, looking northward, the eye surveyed a vast extent of land, constituting one of the most extensive and fertile valleys on the globe. It was the valley of the Danube. It was inhabited, in those days, by rude tribes whom the Greeks and Romans always designated as barbarians. They were, at any rate, wild and warlike, and, as they had not the art of writing, they have left us no records of their institutions or their history. We know nothing of them, or of the other half-civilized nations that occupied the central parts of Europe in those days, except what their inveterate and perpetual enemies have thought fit to tell us. According to their story, these countries were filled with nations and tribes of a wild and half-savage character, who could be kept in check only by the most vigorous exertion of military power. Soon after Alexander's return into Macedon, he learned that there were symptoms of revolt among these nations. Philip had subdued them, and established the kind of peace which the Greeks and Romans were accustomed to enforce upon their neighbors. But now, as they had heard that Philip, who had been so terrible a warrior, was no more, and that his son, scarcely out of his teens, had succeeded to the throne, they thought a suitable occasion had arrived to try their strength. Alexander made immediate arrangements for moving northward with his army to settle this question. He conducted his forces through a part of Thrace without meeting with any serious resistance, and approached the mountains. The soldiers looked upon the rugged precipices and lofty summits before them with awe. These northern mountains were the seat and throne, in the imaginations of the Greeks and Romans, of old Boreas, the hoary god of the north wind. They conceived of him as dwelling among those cold and stormy summits, and making excursions in winter, carrying with him his vast stores of frost and snow, over the southern valleys and plains. He had wings, a long beard, and white locks, all powdered with flakes of snow. Instead of feet, his body terminated in tails of serpents, which, as he flew along, lashed the air, writhing from under his robes. He was violent and impetuous in temper, rejoicing in the devastation of winter, and in all the sublime phenomena of tempests, cold, and snow. The Greek conception of Boreas made an impression upon the human mind that twenty centuries have not been able to efface. The north wind of winter is personified as Boreas to the present day in the literature of every nation of the Western world. The Thracian forces had assembled in the defiles, with other troops from the northern countries, to arrest Alexander's march, and he had some difficulty in repelling them. They had got, it is said, some sort of loaded wagons upon the summit of an ascent, in the pass of the mountains, up which Alexander's forces would have to march. These wagons were to be run down upon them as they ascended. Alexander ordered his men to advance, notwithstanding this danger. He directed them, where it was practicable, to open to one side and the other, and allow the descending wagon to pass through. When this could not be done, they were to fall down upon the ground when they saw this strange military engine coming, and locking their shields together over their heads, allow the wagon to roll on over them, bracing up energetically against its weight. Notwithstanding these precautions, and the prodigious muscular power with which they were carried into effect, some of the men were crushed. The great body of the army was, however, unharmed; as soon as the force of the wagons was spent, they rushed up the ascent, and attacked their enemies with their pikes. The barbarians fled in all directions, terrified at the force and invulnerability of men whom loaded wagons, rolling over their bodies down a steep descent, could not kill. Alexander advanced from one conquest like this to another, moving toward the northward and eastward after he had crossed the mountains, until at length he approached the mouths of the Danube. Here one of the great chieftains of the barbarian tribes had taken up his position, with his family and court, and a principal part of his army, upon an island called Peucé, which may be seen upon the map at the beginning of this chapter. This island divided the current of the stream, and Alexander, in attempting to attack it, found that it would be best to endeavor to effect a landing upon the upper point of it. To make this attempt, he collected all the boats and vessels which he could obtain, and embarked his troops in them above, directing them to fall down with the current, and to land upon the island. This plan, however, did not succeed very well; the current was too rapid for the proper management of the boats. The shores, too, were lined with the forces of the enemy, who discharged showers of spears and arrows at the men, and pushed off the boats when they attempted to land. Alexander at length gave up the attempt, and concluded to leave the island, and to cross the river itself further above, and thus carry the war into the very heart of the country. It is a serious undertaking to get a great body of men and horses across a broad and rapid river, when the people of the country have done all in their power to remove or destroy all possible means of transit, and when hostile bands are on the opposite bank, to embarrass and impede the operations by every mode in their power. Alexander, however, advanced to the undertaking with great resolution. To cross the Danube especially, with a military force, was, in those days, in the estimation of the Greeks and Romans, a very great exploit. The river was so distant, so broad and rapid, and its banks were bordered and defended by such ferocious foes, that to cross its eddying tide, and penetrate into the unknown and unexplored regions beyond, leaving the broad, and deep, and rapid stream to cut off the hopes of retreat, implied the possession of extreme self-reliance, courage, and decision. Alexander collected all the canoes and boats which he could obtain up and down the river. He built large rafts, attaching to them the skins of beasts sewed together and inflated, to give them buoyancy. When all was ready, they began the transportation of the army in the night, in a place where the enemy had not expected that the attempt would have been made. There were a thousand horses, with their riders, and four thousand foot soldiers, to be conveyed across. It is customary, in such cases, to swim the horses over, leading them by lines, the ends of which are held by men in boats. The men themselves, with all the arms, ammunition, and baggage, had to be carried over in the boats or upon the rafts. Before morning the whole was accomplished. The army landed in a field of grain. This circumstance, which is casually mentioned by historians, and also the story of the wagons in the passes of Mount Hæmus, proves that these northern nations were not absolute barbarians in the sense in which that term is used at the present day. The arts of cultivation and of construction must have made some progress among them, at any rate; and they proved, by some of their conflicts with Alexander, that they were well-trained and well-disciplined soldiers. The Macedonians swept down the waving grain with their pikes, to open a way for the advance of the cavalry, and early in the morning Alexander found and attacked the army of his enemies, who were utterly astonished at finding him on their side of the river. As may be easily anticipated, the barbarian army was beaten in the battle that ensued. Their city was taken. The booty was taken back across the Danube to be distributed among the soldiers of the army. The neighboring nations and tribes were overawed and subdued by this exhibition of Alexander's courage and energy. He made satisfactory treaties with them all; took hostages, where necessary, to secure the observance of the treaties, and then recrossed the Danube and set out on his return to Macedon. He found that it was time for him to return. The southern cities and states of Greece had not been unanimous in raising him to the office which his father had held. The Spartans and some others were opposed to him. The party thus opposed were inactive and silent while Alexander was in their country, on his first visit to southern Greece; but after his return they began to contemplate more decisive action, and afterward, when they heard of his having undertaken so desperate an enterprise as going northward with his forces, and actually crossing the Danube, they considered him as so completely out of the way that they grew very courageous, and meditated open rebellion. The city of Thebes did at length rebel. Philip had conquered this city in former struggles, and had left a Macedonian garrison there in the citadel. The name of the citadel was Cadmeia. The officers of the garrison, supposing that all was secure, left the soldiers in the citadel, and came, themselves, down to the city to reside. Things were in this condition when the rebellion against Alexander's authority broke out. They killed the officers who were in the city, and summoned the garrison to surrender. The garrison refused, and the Thebans besieged it. This outbreak against Alexander's authority was in a great measure the work of the great orator Demosthenes, who spared no exertions to arouse the southern states of Greece to resist Alexander's dominion. He especially exerted all the powers of his eloquence in Athens in the endeavor to bring over the Athenians to take sides against Alexander. While things were in this state—the Thebans having understood that Alexander had been killed at the north, and supposing that, at all events, if this report should not be true, he was, without doubt, still far away, involved in contentions with the barbarian nations, from which it was not to be expected that he could be very speedily extricated—the whole city was suddenly thrown into consternation by the report that a large Macedonian army was approaching from the north, with Alexander at its head, and that it was, in fact, close upon them. It was now, however, too late for the Thebans to repent of what they had done. They were far too deeply impressed with a conviction of the decision and energy of Alexander's character, as manifested in the whole course of his proceedings since he began to reign, and especially by his sudden reappearance among them so soon after this outbreak against his authority, to imagine that there was now any hope for them except in determined and successful resistance. They shut themselves up, therefore, in their city, and prepared to defend themselves to the last extremity. Alexander advanced, and, passing round the city toward the southern side, established his head-quarters there, so as to cut off effectually all communication with Athens and the southern cities. He then extended his posts all around the place so as to invest it entirely. These preparations made, he paused before he commenced the work of subduing the city, to give the inhabitants an opportunity to submit, if they would, without compelling him to resort to force. The conditions, however, which he imposed were such that the Thebans thought it best to take their chance of resistance. They refused to surrender, and Alexander began to prepare for the onset. He was very soon ready, and with his characteristic ardor and energy he determined on attempting to carry the city at once by assault. Fortified cities generally require a siege, and sometimes a very long siege, before they can be subdued. The army within, sheltered behind the parapets of the walls, and standing there in a position above that of their assailants, have such great advantages in the contest that a long time often elapses before they can be compelled to surrender. The besiegers have to invest the city on all sides to cut off all supplies of provisions, and then, in those days, they had to construct engines to make a breach somewhere in the walls, through which an assaulting party could attempt to force their way in. The time for making an assault upon a besieged city depends upon the comparative strength of those within and without, and also, still more, on the ardor and resolution of the besiegers. In warfare, an army, in investing a fortified place, spends ordinarily a considerable time in burrowing their way along in trenches, half under ground, until they get near enough to plant their cannon where the balls can take effect upon some part of the wall. Then some time usually elapses before a breach is made, and the garrison is sufficiently weakened to render an assault advisable. When, however, the time at length arrives, the most bold and desperate portion of the army are designated to lead the attack. Bundles of small branches of trees are provided to fill up ditches with, and ladders for mounting embankments and walls. The city, sometimes, seeing these preparations going on, and convinced that the assault will be successful, surrenders before it is made. When the besieged do thus surrender, they save themselves a vast amount of suffering, for the carrying of a city by assault is perhaps the most horrible scene which the passions and crimes of men ever offer to the view of heaven. It is horrible, because the soldiers, exasperated to fury by the resistance which they meet with, and by the awful malignity of the passions always excited in the hour of battle, if they succeed, burst suddenly into the precincts of domestic life, and find sometimes thousands of families—mothers, and children, and defenseless maidens—at the mercy of passions excited to phrensy. Soldiers, under such circumstances, can not be restrained, and no imagination can conceive the horrors of the sacking of a city, carried by assault, after a protracted siege. Tigers do not spring upon their prey with greater ferocity than man springs, under such circumstances, to the perpetration of every possible cruelty upon his fellow man. After an ordinary battle upon an open field, the conquerors have only men, armed like themselves, to wreak their vengeance upon. The scene is awful enough, however, here. But in carrying a city by storm, which takes place usually at an unexpected time, and often in the night, the maddened and victorious assaulters suddenly burst into the sacred scenes of domestic peace, and seclusion, and love—the very worst of men, filled with the worst of passions, stimulated by the resistance they have encountered, and licensed by their victory to give all these passions the fullest and most unrestricted gratification. To plunder, burn, destroy, and kill, are the lighter and more harmless of the crimes they perpetrate. Thebes was carried by assault. Alexander did not wait for the slow operations of a siege. He watched a favorable opportunity, and burst over and through the outer line of fortifications which defended the city. The attempt to do this was very desperate, and the loss of life great; but it was triumphantly successful. The Thebans were driven back toward the inner wall, and began to crowd in, through the gates, into the city, in terrible confusion. The Macedonians were close upon them, and pursuers and pursued, struggling together, and trampling upon and killing each other as they went, flowed in, like a boiling and raging torrent which nothing could resist, through the open arch-way. It was impossible to close the gates. The whole Macedonian force were soon in full possession of the now defenseless houses, and for many hours screams, and wailings, and cries of horror and despair testified to the awful atrocity of the crimes attendant on the sacking of a city. At length the soldiery were restrained. Order was restored. The army retired to the posts assigned them, and Alexander began to deliberate what he should do with the conquered town. He determined to destroy it—to offer, once for all, a terrible example of the consequences of rebellion against him. The case was not one, he considered, of the ordinary conquest of a foe. The states of Greece—Thebes with the rest—had once solemnly conferred upon him the authority against which the Thebans had now rebelled. They were traitors, therefore, in his judgment, not mere enemies, and he determined that the penalty should be utter destruction. But, in carrying this terrible decision into effect, he acted in a manner so deliberate, discriminating, and cautious, as to diminish very much the irritation and resentment which it would otherwise have caused, and to give it its full moral effect as a measure, not of angry resentment, but of calm and deliberate retribution—just and proper, according to the ideas of the time. In the first place, he released all the priests. Then, in respect to the rest of the population, he discriminated carefully between those who had favored the rebellion and those who had been true to their allegiance to him. The latter were allowed to depart in safety. And if, in the case of any family, it could be shown that one individual had been on the Macedonian side, the single instance of fidelity outweighed the treason of the other members, and the whole family was saved. And the officers appointed to carry out these provisions were liberal in the interpretation and application of them, so as to save as many as there could be any possible pretext for saving. The descendants and family connections of Pindar, the celebrated poet, who has been already mentioned as having been born in Thebes, were all pardoned also, whichever side they may have taken in the contest. The truth was, that Alexander, though he had the sagacity to see that he was placed in circumstances where prodigious moral effect in strengthening his position would be produced by an act of great severity, was swayed by so many generous impulses, which raised him above the ordinary excitements of irritation and revenge, that he had every desire to make the suffering as light, and to limit it by as narrow bounds, as the nature of the case would allow. He doubtless also had an instinctive feeling that the moral effect itself of so dreadful a retribution as he was about to inflict upon the devoted city would be very much increased by forbearance and generosity, and by extreme regard for the security and protection of those who had shown themselves his friends. After all these exceptions had been made, and the persons to whom they applied had been dismissed, the rest of the population were sold into slavery, and then the city was utterly and entirely destroyed. The number thus sold was about thirty thousand, and six thousand had been killed in the assault and storming of the city. Thus Thebes was made a ruin and a desolation, and it remained so, a monument of Alexander's terrible energy and decision, for twenty years. The effect of the destruction of Thebes upon the other cities and states of Greece was what might have been expected. It came upon them like a thunder-bolt. Although Thebes was the only city which had openly revolted, there had been strong symptoms of disaffection in many other places. Demosthenes, who had been silent while Alexander was present in Greece, during his first visit there, had again been endeavoring to arouse opposition to Macedonian ascendency, and to concentrate and bring out into action the influences which were hostile to Alexander. He said in his speeches that Alexander was a mere boy, and that it was disgraceful for such cities as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes to submit to his sway. Alexander had heard of these things, and, as he was coming down into Greece, through the Straits of Thermopylæ, before the destruction of Thebes, he said, "They say I am a boy. I am coming to teach them that I am a man." He did teach them that he was a man. His unexpected appearance, when they imagined him entangled among the mountains and wilds of unknown regions in the north; his sudden investiture of Thebes; the assault; the calm deliberations in respect to the destiny of the city, and the slow, cautious, discriminating, but inexorable energy with which the decision was carried into effect, all coming in such rapid succession, impressed the Grecian commonwealth with the conviction that the personage they had to deal with was no boy in character, whatever might be his years. All symptoms of disaffection against the rule of Alexander instantly disappeared, and did not soon revive again. Nor was this effect due entirely to the terror inspired by the retribution which had been visited upon Thebes. All Greece was impressed with a new admiration for Alexander's character as they witnessed these events, in which his impetuous energy, his cool and calm decision, his forbearance, his magnanimity, and his faithfulness to his friends, were all so conspicuous. His pardoning the priests, whether they had been for him or against him, made every friend of religion incline to his favor. The same interposition in behalf of the poet's family and descendants spoke directly to the heart of every poet, orator, historian, and philosopher throughout the country, and tended to make all the lovers of literature his friends. His magnanimity, also, in deciding that one single friend of his in a family should save that family, instead of ordaining, as a more short-sighted conqueror would have done, that a single enemy should condemn it, must have awakened a strong feeling of gratitude and regard in the hearts of all who could appreciate fidelity to friends and generosity of spirit. Thus, as the news of the destruction of Thebes, and the selling of so large a portion of the inhabitants into slavery, spread over the land, its effect was to turn over so great a part of the population to a feeling of admiration of Alexander's character, and confidence in his extraordinary powers, as to leave only a small minority disposed to take sides with the punished rebels, or resent the destruction of the city. From Thebes Alexander proceeded to the southward. Deputations from the cities were sent to him, congratulating him on his victories, and offering their adhesion to his cause. His influence and ascendency seemed firmly established now in the country of the Greeks, and in due time he returned to Macedon, and celebrated at Ægæ, which was at this time his capital, the establishment and confirmation of his power, by games, shows, spectacles, illuminations, and sacrifices to the gods, offered on a scale of the greatest pomp and magnificence. He was now ready to turn his thoughts toward the long-projected plan of the expedition into Asia.	<urn:uuid:ddd6026f-0315-4991-9c7e-1773c8907e83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=abbott&book=alexander&story=reaction	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00056.warc.gz	en	0.98764	4,977	3.421875	3	[ -0.2818407714366913, 0.24457551538944244, 0.30285993218421936, 0.330622136592865, -0.019205469638109207, -0.7055964469909668, 0.12538067996501923, 0.4314989447593689, 0.022963792085647583, 0.10297853499650955, -0.07838252186775208, -0.8427621126174927, -0.035732202231884, 0.268738925457000...	5	T HE country which was formerly occupied by Macedon and the other states of Greece is now Turkey in Europe. In the northern part of it is a vast chain of mountains called now the Balkan. In Alexander's day it was Mount Hæmus. This chain forms a broad belt of lofty and uninhabitable land, and extends from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. A branch of this mountain range, called Rhodope, extends southwardly from about the middle of its length, as may be seen by the map. Rhodope separated Macedonia from a large and powerful country, which was occupied by a somewhat rude but warlike race of men. This country was Thrace. Thrace was one great fertile basin or valley, sloping toward the center in every direction, so that all the streams from the mountains, increased by the rains which fell over the whole surface of the ground, flowed together into one river, which meandered through the center of the valley, and flowed out at last into the Ægean Sea. The name of this river was the Hebrus. All this may be seen distinctly upon the map. The Balkan, or Mount Hæmus, as it was then called, formed the great northern frontier of Macedon and Thrace. From the summits of the range, looking northward, the eye surveyed a vast extent of land, constituting one of the most extensive and fertile valleys on the globe. It was the valley of the Danube. It was inhabited, in those days, by rude tribes whom the Greeks and Romans always designated as barbarians. They were, at any rate, wild and warlike, and, as they had not the art of writing, they have left us no records of their institutions or their history. We know nothing of them, or of the other half-civilized nations that occupied the central parts of Europe in those days, except what their inveterate and perpetual enemies have thought fit to tell us. According to their story, these countries were filled with nations and tribes of a wild and half-savage character, who could be kept in check only by the most vigorous exertion of military power. Soon after Alexander's return into Macedon, he learned that there were symptoms of revolt among these nations. Philip had subdued them, and established the kind of peace which the Greeks and Romans were accustomed to enforce upon their neighbors. But now, as they had heard that Philip, who had been so terrible a warrior, was no more, and that his son, scarcely out of his teens, had succeeded to the throne, they thought a suitable occasion had arrived to try their strength. Alexander made immediate arrangements for moving northward with his army to settle this question. He conducted his forces through a part of Thrace without meeting with any serious resistance, and approached the mountains. The soldiers looked upon the rugged precipices and lofty summits before them with awe. These northern mountains were the seat and throne, in the imaginations of the Greeks and Romans, of old Boreas, the hoary god of the north wind. They conceived of him as dwelling among those cold and stormy summits, and making excursions in winter, carrying with him his vast stores of frost and snow, over the southern valleys and plains. He had wings, a long beard, and white locks, all powdered with flakes of snow. Instead of feet, his body terminated in tails of serpents, which, as he flew along, lashed the air, writhing from under his robes. He was violent and impetuous in temper, rejoicing in the devastation of winter, and in all the sublime phenomena of tempests, cold, and snow. The Greek conception of Boreas made an impression upon the human mind that twenty centuries have not been able to efface. The north wind of winter is personified as Boreas to the present day in the literature of every nation of the Western world. The Thracian forces had assembled in the defiles, with other troops from the northern countries, to arrest Alexander's march, and he had some difficulty in repelling them. They had got, it is said, some sort of loaded wagons upon the summit of an ascent, in the pass of the mountains, up which Alexander's forces would have to march. These wagons were to be run down upon them as they ascended. Alexander ordered his men to advance, notwithstanding this danger. He directed them, where it was practicable, to open to one side and the other, and allow the descending wagon to pass through. When this could not be done, they were to fall down upon the ground when they saw this strange military engine coming, and locking their shields together over their heads, allow the wagon to roll on over them, bracing up energetically against its weight. Notwithstanding these precautions, and the prodigious muscular power with which they were carried into effect, some of the men were crushed. The great body of the army was, however, unharmed; as soon as the force of the wagons was spent, they rushed up the ascent, and attacked their enemies with their pikes. The barbarians fled in all directions, terrified at the force and invulnerability of men whom loaded wagons, rolling over their bodies down a steep descent, could not kill. Alexander advanced from one conquest like this to another, moving toward the northward and eastward after he had crossed the mountains, until at length he approached the mouths of the Danube. Here one of the great chieftains of the barbarian tribes had taken up his position, with his family and court, and a principal part of his army, upon an island called Peucé, which may be seen upon the map at the beginning of this chapter. This island divided the current of the stream, and Alexander, in attempting to attack it, found that it would be best to endeavor to effect a landing upon the upper point of it. To make this attempt, he collected all the boats and vessels which he could obtain, and embarked his troops in them above, directing them to fall down with the current, and to land upon the island. This plan, however, did not succeed very well; the current was too rapid for the proper management of the boats. The shores, too, were lined with the forces of the enemy, who discharged showers of spears and arrows at the men, and pushed off the boats when they attempted to land. Alexander at length gave up the attempt, and concluded to leave the island, and to cross the river itself further above, and thus carry the war into the very heart of the country. It is a serious undertaking to get a great body of men and horses across a broad and rapid river, when the people of the country have done all in their power to remove or destroy all possible means of transit, and when hostile bands are on the opposite bank, to embarrass and impede the operations by every mode in their power. Alexander, however, advanced to the undertaking with great resolution. To cross the Danube especially, with a military force, was, in those days, in the estimation of the Greeks and Romans, a very great exploit. The river was so distant, so broad and rapid, and its banks were bordered and defended by such ferocious foes, that to cross its eddying tide, and penetrate into the unknown and unexplored regions beyond, leaving the broad, and deep, and rapid stream to cut off the hopes of retreat, implied the possession of extreme self-reliance, courage, and decision. Alexander collected all the canoes and boats which he could obtain up and down the river. He built large rafts, attaching to them the skins of beasts sewed together and inflated, to give them buoyancy. When all was ready, they began the transportation of the army in the night, in a place where the enemy had not expected that the attempt would have been made. There were a thousand horses, with their riders, and four thousand foot soldiers, to be conveyed across. It is customary, in such cases, to swim the horses over, leading them by lines, the ends of which are held by men in boats. The men themselves, with all the arms, ammunition, and baggage, had to be carried over in the boats or upon the rafts. Before morning the whole was accomplished. The army landed in a field of grain. This circumstance, which is casually mentioned by historians, and also the story of the wagons in the passes of Mount Hæmus, proves that these northern nations were not absolute barbarians in the sense in which that term is used at the present day. The arts of cultivation and of construction must have made some progress among them, at any rate; and they proved, by some of their conflicts with Alexander, that they were well-trained and well-disciplined soldiers. The Macedonians swept down the waving grain with their pikes, to open a way for the advance of the cavalry, and early in the morning Alexander found and attacked the army of his enemies, who were utterly astonished at finding him on their side of the river. As may be easily anticipated, the barbarian army was beaten in the battle that ensued. Their city was taken. The booty was taken back across the Danube to be distributed among the soldiers of the army. The neighboring nations and tribes were overawed and subdued by this exhibition of Alexander's courage and energy. He made satisfactory treaties with them all; took hostages, where necessary, to secure the observance of the treaties, and then recrossed the Danube and set out on his return to Macedon. He found that it was time for him to return. The southern cities and states of Greece had not been unanimous in raising him to the office which his father had held. The Spartans and some others were opposed to him. The party thus opposed were inactive and silent while Alexander was in their country, on his first visit to southern Greece; but after his return they began to contemplate more decisive action, and afterward, when they heard of his having undertaken so desperate an enterprise as going northward with his forces, and actually crossing the Danube, they considered him as so completely out of the way that they grew very courageous, and meditated open rebellion. The city of Thebes did at length rebel. Philip had conquered this city in former struggles, and had left a Macedonian garrison there in the citadel. The name of the citadel was Cadmeia. The officers of the garrison, supposing that all was secure, left the soldiers in the citadel, and came, themselves, down to the city to reside. Things were in this condition when the rebellion against Alexander's authority broke out. They killed the officers who were in the city, and summoned the garrison to surrender. The garrison refused, and the Thebans besieged it. This outbreak against Alexander's authority was in a great measure the work of the great orator Demosthenes, who spared no exertions to arouse the southern states of Greece to resist Alexander's dominion. He especially exerted all the powers of his eloquence in Athens in the endeavor to bring over the Athenians to take sides against Alexander. While things were in this state—the Thebans having understood that Alexander had been killed at the north, and supposing that, at all events, if this report should not be true, he was, without doubt, still far away, involved in contentions with the barbarian nations, from which it was not to be expected that he could be very speedily extricated—the whole city was suddenly thrown into consternation by the report that a large Macedonian army was approaching from the north, with Alexander at its head, and that it was, in fact, close upon them. It was now, however, too late for the Thebans to repent of what they had done. They were far too deeply impressed with a conviction of the decision and energy of Alexander's character, as manifested in the whole course of his proceedings since he began to reign, and especially by his sudden reappearance among them so soon after this outbreak against his authority, to imagine that there was now any hope for them except in determined and successful resistance. They shut themselves up, therefore, in their city, and prepared to defend themselves to the last extremity. Alexander advanced, and, passing round the city toward the southern side, established his head-quarters there, so as to cut off effectually all communication with Athens and the southern cities. He then extended his posts all around the place so as to invest it entirely. These preparations made, he paused before he commenced the work of subduing the city, to give the inhabitants an opportunity to submit, if they would, without compelling him to resort to force. The conditions, however, which he imposed were such that the Thebans thought it best to take their chance of resistance. They refused to surrender, and Alexander began to prepare for the onset. He was very soon ready, and with his characteristic ardor and energy he determined on attempting to carry the city at once by assault. Fortified cities generally require a siege, and sometimes a very long siege, before they can be subdued. The army within, sheltered behind the parapets of the walls, and standing there in a position above that of their assailants, have such great advantages in the contest that a long time often elapses before they can be compelled to surrender. The besiegers have to invest the city on all sides to cut off all supplies of provisions, and then, in those days, they had to construct engines to make a breach somewhere in the walls, through which an assaulting party could attempt to force their way in. The time for making an assault upon a besieged city depends upon the comparative strength of those within and without, and also, still more, on the ardor and resolution of the besiegers. In warfare, an army, in investing a fortified place, spends ordinarily a considerable time in burrowing their way along in trenches, half under ground, until they get near enough to plant their cannon where the balls can take effect upon some part of the wall. Then some time usually elapses before a breach is made, and the garrison is sufficiently weakened to render an assault advisable. When, however, the time at length arrives, the most bold and desperate portion of the army are designated to lead the attack. Bundles of small branches of trees are provided to fill up ditches with, and ladders for mounting embankments and walls. The city, sometimes, seeing these preparations going on, and convinced that the assault will be successful, surrenders before it is made. When the besieged do thus surrender, they save themselves a vast amount of suffering, for the carrying of a city by assault is perhaps the most horrible scene which the passions and crimes of men ever offer to the view of heaven. It is horrible, because the soldiers, exasperated to fury by the resistance which they meet with, and by the awful malignity of the passions always excited in the hour of battle, if they succeed, burst suddenly into the precincts of domestic life, and find sometimes thousands of families—mothers, and children, and defenseless maidens—at the mercy of passions excited to phrensy. Soldiers, under such circumstances, can not be restrained, and no imagination can conceive the horrors of the sacking of a city, carried by assault, after a protracted siege. Tigers do not spring upon their prey with greater ferocity than man springs, under such circumstances, to the perpetration of every possible cruelty upon his fellow man. After an ordinary battle upon an open field, the conquerors have only men, armed like themselves, to wreak their vengeance upon. The scene is awful enough, however, here. But in carrying a city by storm, which takes place usually at an unexpected time, and often in the night, the maddened and victorious assaulters suddenly burst into the sacred scenes of domestic peace, and seclusion, and love—the very worst of men, filled with the worst of passions, stimulated by the resistance they have encountered, and licensed by their victory to give all these passions the fullest and most unrestricted gratification. To plunder, burn, destroy, and kill, are the lighter and more harmless of the crimes they perpetrate. Thebes was carried by assault. Alexander did not wait for the slow operations of a siege. He watched a favorable opportunity, and burst over and through the outer line of fortifications which defended the city. The attempt to do this was very desperate, and the loss of life great; but it was triumphantly successful. The Thebans were driven back toward the inner wall, and began to crowd in, through the gates, into the city, in terrible confusion. The Macedonians were close upon them, and pursuers and pursued, struggling together, and trampling upon and killing each other as they went, flowed in, like a boiling and raging torrent which nothing could resist, through the open arch-way. It was impossible to close the gates. The whole Macedonian force were soon in full possession of the now defenseless houses, and for many hours screams, and wailings, and cries of horror and despair testified to the awful atrocity of the crimes attendant on the sacking of a city. At length the soldiery were restrained. Order was restored. The army retired to the posts assigned them, and Alexander began to deliberate what he should do with the conquered town. He determined to destroy it—to offer, once for all, a terrible example of the consequences of rebellion against him. The case was not one, he considered, of the ordinary conquest of a foe. The states of Greece—Thebes with the rest—had once solemnly conferred upon him the authority against which the Thebans had now rebelled. They were traitors, therefore, in his judgment, not mere enemies, and he determined that the penalty should be utter destruction. But, in carrying this terrible decision into effect, he acted in a manner so deliberate, discriminating, and cautious, as to diminish very much the irritation and resentment which it would otherwise have caused, and to give it its full moral effect as a measure, not of angry resentment, but of calm and deliberate retribution—just and proper, according to the ideas of the time. In the first place, he released all the priests. Then, in respect to the rest of the population, he discriminated carefully between those who had favored the rebellion and those who had been true to their allegiance to him. The latter were allowed to depart in safety. And if, in the case of any family, it could be shown that one individual had been on the Macedonian side, the single instance of fidelity outweighed the treason of the other members, and the whole family was saved. And the officers appointed to carry out these provisions were liberal in the interpretation and application of them, so as to save as many as there could be any possible pretext for saving. The descendants and family connections of Pindar, the celebrated poet, who has been already mentioned as having been born in Thebes, were all pardoned also, whichever side they may have taken in the contest. The truth was, that Alexander, though he had the sagacity to see that he was placed in circumstances where prodigious moral effect in strengthening his position would be produced by an act of great severity, was swayed by so many generous impulses, which raised him above the ordinary excitements of irritation and revenge, that he had every desire to make the suffering as light, and to limit it by as narrow bounds, as the nature of the case would allow. He doubtless also had an instinctive feeling that the moral effect itself of so dreadful a retribution as he was about to inflict upon the devoted city would be very much increased by forbearance and generosity, and by extreme regard for the security and protection of those who had shown themselves his friends. After all these exceptions had been made, and the persons to whom they applied had been dismissed, the rest of the population were sold into slavery, and then the city was utterly and entirely destroyed. The number thus sold was about thirty thousand, and six thousand had been killed in the assault and storming of the city. Thus Thebes was made a ruin and a desolation, and it remained so, a monument of Alexander's terrible energy and decision, for twenty years. The effect of the destruction of Thebes upon the other cities and states of Greece was what might have been expected. It came upon them like a thunder-bolt. Although Thebes was the only city which had openly revolted, there had been strong symptoms of disaffection in many other places. Demosthenes, who had been silent while Alexander was present in Greece, during his first visit there, had again been endeavoring to arouse opposition to Macedonian ascendency, and to concentrate and bring out into action the influences which were hostile to Alexander. He said in his speeches that Alexander was a mere boy, and that it was disgraceful for such cities as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes to submit to his sway. Alexander had heard of these things, and, as he was coming down into Greece, through the Straits of Thermopylæ, before the destruction of Thebes, he said, "They say I am a boy. I am coming to teach them that I am a man." He did teach them that he was a man. His unexpected appearance, when they imagined him entangled among the mountains and wilds of unknown regions in the north; his sudden investiture of Thebes; the assault; the calm deliberations in respect to the destiny of the city, and the slow, cautious, discriminating, but inexorable energy with which the decision was carried into effect, all coming in such rapid succession, impressed the Grecian commonwealth with the conviction that the personage they had to deal with was no boy in character, whatever might be his years. All symptoms of disaffection against the rule of Alexander instantly disappeared, and did not soon revive again. Nor was this effect due entirely to the terror inspired by the retribution which had been visited upon Thebes. All Greece was impressed with a new admiration for Alexander's character as they witnessed these events, in which his impetuous energy, his cool and calm decision, his forbearance, his magnanimity, and his faithfulness to his friends, were all so conspicuous. His pardoning the priests, whether they had been for him or against him, made every friend of religion incline to his favor. The same interposition in behalf of the poet's family and descendants spoke directly to the heart of every poet, orator, historian, and philosopher throughout the country, and tended to make all the lovers of literature his friends. His magnanimity, also, in deciding that one single friend of his in a family should save that family, instead of ordaining, as a more short-sighted conqueror would have done, that a single enemy should condemn it, must have awakened a strong feeling of gratitude and regard in the hearts of all who could appreciate fidelity to friends and generosity of spirit. Thus, as the news of the destruction of Thebes, and the selling of so large a portion of the inhabitants into slavery, spread over the land, its effect was to turn over so great a part of the population to a feeling of admiration of Alexander's character, and confidence in his extraordinary powers, as to leave only a small minority disposed to take sides with the punished rebels, or resent the destruction of the city. From Thebes Alexander proceeded to the southward. Deputations from the cities were sent to him, congratulating him on his victories, and offering their adhesion to his cause. His influence and ascendency seemed firmly established now in the country of the Greeks, and in due time he returned to Macedon, and celebrated at Ægæ, which was at this time his capital, the establishment and confirmation of his power, by games, shows, spectacles, illuminations, and sacrifices to the gods, offered on a scale of the greatest pomp and magnificence. He was now ready to turn his thoughts toward the long-projected plan of the expedition into Asia.	4,977	ENGLISH	1
Area ranching originated in the 1880's and still plays a strong role in Ouray’s economy. The U.S. Army opened the first Indian Agency in Conejos, New Mexico in 1869 called Los Pinos. This agency was established to integrate the Ute Indians and the westward Pioneers. Six years later, the agency moved into the Uncompahgre Valley, north of what would eventually have become Colona, Colorado. The Ute Indians camped and hunted in the area beside the Uncompahgre River, but as soon as the settlers arrived and farming came into practice, their game started to dwindle. Businesses in the Ouray County started to boom with the arrival of the railroad in the late 1880s – running approximately where Highway 550, running between Ouray and Montrose, is located today – and the establishments of the silver mines above Ouray and Telluride. What initially started as mining camps blossomed into civilized, thriving towns. Ores were shipped out to provide the miners with food and beef, which was in high demand in the area, and was plentiful starting from the foot of the San Juan Mountains. As a result, government cattle had to be brought in from Gunnison to ensure that the agency was provided with food. Soon after, the land was open to legal homesteading and the needs for farming and ranching prospered. More ranchers came along to settle in the area. At first, ranching for them was challenging, especially with the high altitude, which created long, extended winters. Due to the desert high country landscape, much of the land consisted of dry and rocky soils, which was one of the reasons ranching was so difficult. The Ouray County ranch history demonstrates that close-knit communities were essential through helping each other out with ranching activities such as fall roundups and spring calving. Ranch rodeos were the among the favorite social acitivites in the area. They demonstrated cowboy activities like roping and riding, and they started off as spectator sports, with little to no barriers between the audience and the participants. Ranching still remains a core part of the valley's economic history, and the Ouray Country Ranch History Museum aims to preserve that history and protect its legacy.	<urn:uuid:2722ea0a-a742-4e91-9060-c8c05e93242b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ocrhm.org/ranching-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00482.warc.gz	en	0.980385	468	3.296875	3	[ 0.11066934466362, -0.2933659553527832, 0.1983012706041336, 0.29754504561424255, 0.14906300604343414, -0.27618053555488586, -0.2339238077402115, 0.11149611324071884, -0.18926410377025604, -0.3418903648853302, 0.11356184631586075, -0.25505515933036804, 0.5092387795448303, 0.05753174796700477...	2	Area ranching originated in the 1880's and still plays a strong role in Ouray’s economy. The U.S. Army opened the first Indian Agency in Conejos, New Mexico in 1869 called Los Pinos. This agency was established to integrate the Ute Indians and the westward Pioneers. Six years later, the agency moved into the Uncompahgre Valley, north of what would eventually have become Colona, Colorado. The Ute Indians camped and hunted in the area beside the Uncompahgre River, but as soon as the settlers arrived and farming came into practice, their game started to dwindle. Businesses in the Ouray County started to boom with the arrival of the railroad in the late 1880s – running approximately where Highway 550, running between Ouray and Montrose, is located today – and the establishments of the silver mines above Ouray and Telluride. What initially started as mining camps blossomed into civilized, thriving towns. Ores were shipped out to provide the miners with food and beef, which was in high demand in the area, and was plentiful starting from the foot of the San Juan Mountains. As a result, government cattle had to be brought in from Gunnison to ensure that the agency was provided with food. Soon after, the land was open to legal homesteading and the needs for farming and ranching prospered. More ranchers came along to settle in the area. At first, ranching for them was challenging, especially with the high altitude, which created long, extended winters. Due to the desert high country landscape, much of the land consisted of dry and rocky soils, which was one of the reasons ranching was so difficult. The Ouray County ranch history demonstrates that close-knit communities were essential through helping each other out with ranching activities such as fall roundups and spring calving. Ranch rodeos were the among the favorite social acitivites in the area. They demonstrated cowboy activities like roping and riding, and they started off as spectator sports, with little to no barriers between the audience and the participants. Ranching still remains a core part of the valley's economic history, and the Ouray Country Ranch History Museum aims to preserve that history and protect its legacy.	472	ENGLISH	1
- For other incidents referred to by this name, see Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday is a term used to describe two controversial events in Irish history, the first of which was the massacre of players and people attending a gaelic football match in Croke Park in Dublin in 1920. Bloody Sunday had its origins in the Irish War of Independence (1919-21), which followed the formation of an Irish Republic and its self-declared parliament, Dáil Éireann. The army of the self-declared 'republic', the Irish Republican Army waged a guerrilla war against the Royal Irish Constabulary and the British army, who were determined to suppress Irish separatism. In response, the British Government formed its own paramilitary forces, the Black and Tans (a nickname arising from their mixture of uniforms), and the Auxiliary Division (generally known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies). The behaviour of the Black and Tans immediately became controversial (one major critic was King George V) for their brutality and violence towards not just the IRA but Irish people in general, but it was the Auxiliaries that were responsible for the Bloody Sunday massacre. On November 21 1920, Irish Finance Minister and head of the Irish Republican Brotherhood Michael Collins ordered the assassination of what was known as the 'Cairo Gang', fourteen high-ranking British Intelligence officers sent to infiltrate Irish nationalist organisations. Early that morning, the fourteen were killed - a number of them in their own homes, and in some cases with their family in close proximity. This action severely crippled British intelligence in Ireland and caused consternation among forces of the Crown. The Dublin Gaelic football team was scheduled to play the Tipperary team later the same day in Croke Park, the Gaelic Athletic Association's major football ground. One of the British auxiliaries involved in 'Bloody Sunday' recalled that they tossed a coin over whether they would go on a killing spree in Croke Park or loot Sackville Street (Dublin's main street, now called O'Connell Street) instead. Despite the general unease in the Dublin as news broke of the killings by the IRA the previous day, a war-weary populace continued with life. Approximately 10,000 spectators went to Croke Park for the match. However within minutes of the start of the game, an airplane flew over the ground and a red flare was shot from the cockpit. Auxiliaries began raiding the ground while an officer on top of the wall fired a revolver shot. After a burst of gunfire, the crowd began to stampede away from the gunfire. Two football players, Michael Hogan and Jim Egan, were shot; Hogan died from his injuries. A young Wexford man who attempted to whisper an Act of Contrition into the dying Hogan's ear was also shot dead. The casualties included Jeannie Boyle, who had gone to the match with her fiancée and was due to be married five days later, and John Scott, who was fourteen and so mutilated that it was initially thought that he had been savagely bayoneted. The youngest victims were aged 10 and 11. The actions of the Auxiliaries, like many of their actions and the actions of the Black and Tans, were unauthorised and were greeted with public horror by the Dublin Castle-based British authorities. In an effort to cover up the nature of the behaviour by forces of the Crown, a press release was issued which claimed: A number of men came to Dublin on Saturday under the guise of asking to attend a football match between Tipperary and Dublin. But their real intention was to take part in the series of murderous outrages which took place in Dublin that morning. Learning on Saturday that a number of these gunmen were present in Croke Park, the crown forces went to raid the field. It was the original intention that an officer would go to the centre of the field and speaking from a megaphone, invite the assassins to come forward. But on their approach, armed pickets gave warning. Shots were fired to warn the wanted men, who caused a stampede and escaped in the confusion. The behaviour of the Auxiliaries and the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence, most of it secretly sanctioned and approved, helped turn the Irish public against the Crown. Some British politicians and the King made no secret of their horror at the behaviour of forces of the Crown. The mass murder of men, women and children, both spectators and football players, made international headlines, damaging British credibility. A combination of the loss of the Cairo Gang, which devastated British Intelligence in Ireland, and the public relations disaster that was Bloody Sunday severely damaged the cause of British rule in Ireland and increased support for the republican government under Eamon de Valera. The events of Bloody Sunday have survived in public memory. The Gaelic Athletic Association named one of the stands in Croke Park the 'Hogan Stand' in memory of Michael Hogan, one of the murdered football players.	<urn:uuid:b9d2fccb-e44b-4003-af5b-f899f9556f55>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Bloody-Sunday-(Ireland-1920)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00130.warc.gz	en	0.980508	1,022	3.703125	4	[ 0.04297052323818207, 0.13249579071998596, -0.12927547097206116, 0.04987005889415741, 0.3083609342575073, 0.4026321768760681, 0.4872804284095764, -0.07088860124349594, 0.11393071711063385, -0.18931375443935394, 0.037317827343940735, -0.09348189830780029, -0.015378871001303196, 0.63855177164...	1	- For other incidents referred to by this name, see Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday is a term used to describe two controversial events in Irish history, the first of which was the massacre of players and people attending a gaelic football match in Croke Park in Dublin in 1920. Bloody Sunday had its origins in the Irish War of Independence (1919-21), which followed the formation of an Irish Republic and its self-declared parliament, Dáil Éireann. The army of the self-declared 'republic', the Irish Republican Army waged a guerrilla war against the Royal Irish Constabulary and the British army, who were determined to suppress Irish separatism. In response, the British Government formed its own paramilitary forces, the Black and Tans (a nickname arising from their mixture of uniforms), and the Auxiliary Division (generally known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies). The behaviour of the Black and Tans immediately became controversial (one major critic was King George V) for their brutality and violence towards not just the IRA but Irish people in general, but it was the Auxiliaries that were responsible for the Bloody Sunday massacre. On November 21 1920, Irish Finance Minister and head of the Irish Republican Brotherhood Michael Collins ordered the assassination of what was known as the 'Cairo Gang', fourteen high-ranking British Intelligence officers sent to infiltrate Irish nationalist organisations. Early that morning, the fourteen were killed - a number of them in their own homes, and in some cases with their family in close proximity. This action severely crippled British intelligence in Ireland and caused consternation among forces of the Crown. The Dublin Gaelic football team was scheduled to play the Tipperary team later the same day in Croke Park, the Gaelic Athletic Association's major football ground. One of the British auxiliaries involved in 'Bloody Sunday' recalled that they tossed a coin over whether they would go on a killing spree in Croke Park or loot Sackville Street (Dublin's main street, now called O'Connell Street) instead. Despite the general unease in the Dublin as news broke of the killings by the IRA the previous day, a war-weary populace continued with life. Approximately 10,000 spectators went to Croke Park for the match. However within minutes of the start of the game, an airplane flew over the ground and a red flare was shot from the cockpit. Auxiliaries began raiding the ground while an officer on top of the wall fired a revolver shot. After a burst of gunfire, the crowd began to stampede away from the gunfire. Two football players, Michael Hogan and Jim Egan, were shot; Hogan died from his injuries. A young Wexford man who attempted to whisper an Act of Contrition into the dying Hogan's ear was also shot dead. The casualties included Jeannie Boyle, who had gone to the match with her fiancée and was due to be married five days later, and John Scott, who was fourteen and so mutilated that it was initially thought that he had been savagely bayoneted. The youngest victims were aged 10 and 11. The actions of the Auxiliaries, like many of their actions and the actions of the Black and Tans, were unauthorised and were greeted with public horror by the Dublin Castle-based British authorities. In an effort to cover up the nature of the behaviour by forces of the Crown, a press release was issued which claimed: A number of men came to Dublin on Saturday under the guise of asking to attend a football match between Tipperary and Dublin. But their real intention was to take part in the series of murderous outrages which took place in Dublin that morning. Learning on Saturday that a number of these gunmen were present in Croke Park, the crown forces went to raid the field. It was the original intention that an officer would go to the centre of the field and speaking from a megaphone, invite the assassins to come forward. But on their approach, armed pickets gave warning. Shots were fired to warn the wanted men, who caused a stampede and escaped in the confusion. The behaviour of the Auxiliaries and the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence, most of it secretly sanctioned and approved, helped turn the Irish public against the Crown. Some British politicians and the King made no secret of their horror at the behaviour of forces of the Crown. The mass murder of men, women and children, both spectators and football players, made international headlines, damaging British credibility. A combination of the loss of the Cairo Gang, which devastated British Intelligence in Ireland, and the public relations disaster that was Bloody Sunday severely damaged the cause of British rule in Ireland and increased support for the republican government under Eamon de Valera. The events of Bloody Sunday have survived in public memory. The Gaelic Athletic Association named one of the stands in Croke Park the 'Hogan Stand' in memory of Michael Hogan, one of the murdered football players.	1,034	ENGLISH	1
The origins of Bristol Cathedral date back to 1140, when Robert Fitzharding(e) founded St Augustine’s Abbey on the Deanery Road site and it is a phantom monk that is said to remain and haunt the building. This abbey was designed in the Norman style though very little of this remains today, though the gatehouse and chapterhouse are 12th century. Alterations and additions continued to be added until 1539 and Henry VIII’s Dissolution of the Monasteries when it was closed and several parts of the Abbey demolished, including the new unfinished Nave. In 1542 the building became Bristol Cathedral and the Diocese of Bristol created with the first Bishop being Paul Bushe (born 1490 – died 1558). Further major additions to the Cathedral were made during the Gothic revival in the 19th century. The ghost is said to be a monk dressed in a grey habit. It has been put forward that as the ghost was not wearing a black habit it could not have been an Augustinian monk and therefore must have been a visitor to the abbey. However, Augustinians were assigned the black habit by the Pope to distinguish them from Franciscan monks, but this was probably some time after the abbey was built, as in 1274 at the Second Council of Lyon, Augustinian monks were wearing a variety of coloured habits and in 1290 the variety of habits was noted at the Rome Province Chapter. Therefore we cannot assume the monk was not an Augustinian based dress code. The monk is said to haunt both the Cathedral and the library next door and has apparently been seen by a number of visitors. According to one article in the Bristol Evening Post the ghost usually appears around 4.30pm.	<urn:uuid:b8ce7dc0-eafd-4fa2-a331-8dc054d2fb15>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/hauntings/bristol-cathedral/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00197.warc.gz	en	0.990041	353	3.328125	3	[ -0.09664762765169144, 0.044661540538072586, -0.1236894354224205, 0.031580545008182526, 0.08414997905492783, 0.2913634181022644, -0.2752194106578827, -0.21481041610240936, 0.2543516457080841, -0.10197975486516953, 0.012280973605811596, -0.18679092824459076, -0.10722728818655014, 0.586502015...	10	The origins of Bristol Cathedral date back to 1140, when Robert Fitzharding(e) founded St Augustine’s Abbey on the Deanery Road site and it is a phantom monk that is said to remain and haunt the building. This abbey was designed in the Norman style though very little of this remains today, though the gatehouse and chapterhouse are 12th century. Alterations and additions continued to be added until 1539 and Henry VIII’s Dissolution of the Monasteries when it was closed and several parts of the Abbey demolished, including the new unfinished Nave. In 1542 the building became Bristol Cathedral and the Diocese of Bristol created with the first Bishop being Paul Bushe (born 1490 – died 1558). Further major additions to the Cathedral were made during the Gothic revival in the 19th century. The ghost is said to be a monk dressed in a grey habit. It has been put forward that as the ghost was not wearing a black habit it could not have been an Augustinian monk and therefore must have been a visitor to the abbey. However, Augustinians were assigned the black habit by the Pope to distinguish them from Franciscan monks, but this was probably some time after the abbey was built, as in 1274 at the Second Council of Lyon, Augustinian monks were wearing a variety of coloured habits and in 1290 the variety of habits was noted at the Rome Province Chapter. Therefore we cannot assume the monk was not an Augustinian based dress code. The monk is said to haunt both the Cathedral and the library next door and has apparently been seen by a number of visitors. According to one article in the Bristol Evening Post the ghost usually appears around 4.30pm.	376	ENGLISH	1
19th century 'Protestant work ethic' at heart of Europe's North/South debt crisis split Research from the University of Warwick suggests the 19th Century 'protestant work ethic' could have given the economies of northern Europe a head start on their southern neighbours, and is still shaping popular northern European feeling that rankles against bailing out struggling southerners. Sascha Becker, Deputy Director of the University's Centre for Advantage in the Global Economy (CAGE), collated data to discover if Max Weber's Protestant Work Ethic theory, that Protestantism encouraged hard work as a duty of faith, really did help explain how Protestant areas developed compared to Catholic areas. Dr Becker used data from 19th Century Prussia and looked at 450 counties. He found that educational attainment was higher in Protestant areas and there were more people working in services and manufacturing, rather than agriculture. He also found a larger income gap between those in Protestant areas and those in Catholic areas. He said: "We looked at Prussia in the 19th Century because this was the society that Max Weber was born into. Religiosity was also more pervasive at this time. It seems religion was the main driver behind education differences, Protestants were more encouraged to go to school and read the bible, and this higher level of education translated into higher incomes than their Catholic neighbours." In Protestant areas in the 16th Century Reformers pushed to make sure there were church schools operating in all parishes. Dr Becker said this gave Protestants an educational advantage over Catholics and it took more than 100 years for Catholics to catch up. Dr Becker said: "It was only centuries later when compulsory schooling was introduced that the Catholics began to catch up with the Protestants. Even today, looking at data from 2000 in Germany we found that Protestants had higher level or more education than Catholics. They also had a higher probability of going to University and finishing their course." The research found that women in Protestant areas tended to be more liberated because girls were educated along with the boys. Dr Becker said: "Again it is this educational advantage that Protestant girls were sent to school with the boys in the early years of the Reformation. It seems Protestantism was an early driver of emancipation. The order seems to be Protestant men, Protestant women, Catholic men and then far, far below are Catholic women. It is surprising that even today we find that in Scandinavia the majority of women go out to work, but in Italy it is more traditional and a larger number stay home to look after the children." He added that his findings were particularly interesting in light of the recent European Sovereign debt crisis. He said: "It is noticeable that the Northern European countries seem to be doing well to keep their finances in check whereas in Southern European countries such as Spain and Italy, everything is running out of order. I would not say you can attribute this to religion per se, but it certainly had a bearing on the way their respective economies have developed. There is a North/South divide and a popular feeling in Northern Europe that they should not have to bail out their debt-ridden Southern neighbours."	<urn:uuid:f73d8348-67ac-4f67-9daa-dbf8646d930a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://phys.org/news/2011-09-19th-century-protestant-ethic-heart.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00018.warc.gz	en	0.983965	636	3.4375	3	[ 0.0832415521144867, 0.004778471775352955, -0.08463461697101593, -0.22910596430301666, 0.4478403329849243, -0.11182247847318649, -0.752453625202179, 0.2094178944826126, -0.06659146398305893, -0.2727714478969574, -0.2442861795425415, -0.21432003378868103, -0.0928579568862915, 0.0364740341901...	2	19th century 'Protestant work ethic' at heart of Europe's North/South debt crisis split Research from the University of Warwick suggests the 19th Century 'protestant work ethic' could have given the economies of northern Europe a head start on their southern neighbours, and is still shaping popular northern European feeling that rankles against bailing out struggling southerners. Sascha Becker, Deputy Director of the University's Centre for Advantage in the Global Economy (CAGE), collated data to discover if Max Weber's Protestant Work Ethic theory, that Protestantism encouraged hard work as a duty of faith, really did help explain how Protestant areas developed compared to Catholic areas. Dr Becker used data from 19th Century Prussia and looked at 450 counties. He found that educational attainment was higher in Protestant areas and there were more people working in services and manufacturing, rather than agriculture. He also found a larger income gap between those in Protestant areas and those in Catholic areas. He said: "We looked at Prussia in the 19th Century because this was the society that Max Weber was born into. Religiosity was also more pervasive at this time. It seems religion was the main driver behind education differences, Protestants were more encouraged to go to school and read the bible, and this higher level of education translated into higher incomes than their Catholic neighbours." In Protestant areas in the 16th Century Reformers pushed to make sure there were church schools operating in all parishes. Dr Becker said this gave Protestants an educational advantage over Catholics and it took more than 100 years for Catholics to catch up. Dr Becker said: "It was only centuries later when compulsory schooling was introduced that the Catholics began to catch up with the Protestants. Even today, looking at data from 2000 in Germany we found that Protestants had higher level or more education than Catholics. They also had a higher probability of going to University and finishing their course." The research found that women in Protestant areas tended to be more liberated because girls were educated along with the boys. Dr Becker said: "Again it is this educational advantage that Protestant girls were sent to school with the boys in the early years of the Reformation. It seems Protestantism was an early driver of emancipation. The order seems to be Protestant men, Protestant women, Catholic men and then far, far below are Catholic women. It is surprising that even today we find that in Scandinavia the majority of women go out to work, but in Italy it is more traditional and a larger number stay home to look after the children." He added that his findings were particularly interesting in light of the recent European Sovereign debt crisis. He said: "It is noticeable that the Northern European countries seem to be doing well to keep their finances in check whereas in Southern European countries such as Spain and Italy, everything is running out of order. I would not say you can attribute this to religion per se, but it certainly had a bearing on the way their respective economies have developed. There is a North/South divide and a popular feeling in Northern Europe that they should not have to bail out their debt-ridden Southern neighbours."	652	ENGLISH	1
The Easter bunny was originally a Hare but it was so steeped in Pagan folklore that it was deemed ‘unfitting’ for Christian purposes. Hares, hide from predators by making a shallow indentation in the soil known as a form. Lapwings classically inhabit the same territories as hares and make a scrape of a nest on the ground. Lapwings were know to use a hare’s form as a nest and so eggs where often found in a form and occasionally assumed to have been laid by the Hare Lapwings and Hare.. The lapwing’s call heralded of the start of Spring and many Easter customs are linked to it. Most birds eggs were eaten at Easter but the lapwing suffered most being a ground nesting bird, it became a vast commercial market, Queen Victoria favoured her plover eggs cooked in aspic. Within 20 years they had stripped the whole of the south of England as far as Lincolnshire. Nearing extinction in 1926 the introduction of the Lapwing Act officially stopped this practice although farming practices and habitat loss still drastically threaten them still.	<urn:uuid:4acac70f-3e90-496f-960d-df4a737859cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://suzysharpe.wordpress.com/2019/03/29/3807/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00099.warc.gz	en	0.984055	222	3.53125	4	[ 0.30115988850593567, -0.5198807120323181, 0.10301279276609421, 0.5595337152481079, 0.2169782668352127, 0.35947129130363464, -0.03553330898284912, 0.09567379951477051, 0.10643433779478073, 0.27918344736099243, -0.36421746015548706, -0.4972306787967682, 0.18639637529850006, 0.084618479013443...	2	The Easter bunny was originally a Hare but it was so steeped in Pagan folklore that it was deemed ‘unfitting’ for Christian purposes. Hares, hide from predators by making a shallow indentation in the soil known as a form. Lapwings classically inhabit the same territories as hares and make a scrape of a nest on the ground. Lapwings were know to use a hare’s form as a nest and so eggs where often found in a form and occasionally assumed to have been laid by the Hare Lapwings and Hare.. The lapwing’s call heralded of the start of Spring and many Easter customs are linked to it. Most birds eggs were eaten at Easter but the lapwing suffered most being a ground nesting bird, it became a vast commercial market, Queen Victoria favoured her plover eggs cooked in aspic. Within 20 years they had stripped the whole of the south of England as far as Lincolnshire. Nearing extinction in 1926 the introduction of the Lapwing Act officially stopped this practice although farming practices and habitat loss still drastically threaten them still.	228	ENGLISH	1
Could hearing loss be treated with a shot to the ear? If you've ever been warned about listening to too much loud music, then you may have heard that the sound-processing cells in our inner ear are killed by loud noises … and they don't regenerate. Well, it's true. Known as hair cells, they detect sound waves and convert them into nerve signals. We start out with only about 15,000 of them in each cochlea, and once any of them are gone, they're gone for good. There may now be hope for restoring that lost hearing, however, as scientists have reported a new method of regrowing hair cells in substantial numbers. Along with loud sounds, hair cells are also destroyed by certain medications, or just die off as we age. In the case of animals such as birds and amphibians, however, those cells do grow back. Inspired by that fact, a team of researchers from Brigham & Women's Hospital, MIT and Massachusetts Eye & Ear set out to see if the same could be done with human hair cells. Using previous research on regenerating intestinal cells as a jumping-off point, they placed immature cochlear progenitor cells from mice in a lab dish – progenitor cells are like stem cells, in that they can convert into other types of cells. The researchers then added a drug "cocktail," which caused those cells to rapidly multiply. Once a sufficient number of those progenitor cells were grown, they were then stimulated with additional drugs to differentiate into mature hair cells. When the procedure was attempted on an extracted mouse cochlea, the second step wasn't needed, as the progenitors were naturally signalled to differentiate. The process (which was also successfully tried using human cells) produced about 60 times more hair cells than the existing next-best technique, in which progenitor cells were prompted to differentiate, but a sizeable population of them wasn't grown first. The scientists now believe that treatment for hearing loss could be as simple as administering an injection into the ear. To that end, they have formed a spinoff company to commercialize the technology, and hope to begin clinical trials within 18 months. A paper on the research was recently published in the journal Cell Reports. "Hearing loss is a real problem as people get older," says MIT's Prof. Robert Langer, one of the senior authors. "It's very much of an unmet need, and this is an entirely new approach."	<urn:uuid:7a0c442d-d4dd-48a3-92e6-85fdc31e7f67>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newatlas.com/hearing-loss-hair-cell-regeneration/48036/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00276.warc.gz	en	0.983065	510	3.875	4	[ 0.005191556178033352, -0.4700615108013153, 0.2451239824295044, -0.20425599813461304, -0.38084155321121216, 0.12896013259887695, 0.2960396409034729, 0.03918883949518204, -0.032523930072784424, -0.27921703457832336, 0.5329025983810425, -0.29394975304603577, 0.3061830997467041, 0.187489479780...	8	Could hearing loss be treated with a shot to the ear? If you've ever been warned about listening to too much loud music, then you may have heard that the sound-processing cells in our inner ear are killed by loud noises … and they don't regenerate. Well, it's true. Known as hair cells, they detect sound waves and convert them into nerve signals. We start out with only about 15,000 of them in each cochlea, and once any of them are gone, they're gone for good. There may now be hope for restoring that lost hearing, however, as scientists have reported a new method of regrowing hair cells in substantial numbers. Along with loud sounds, hair cells are also destroyed by certain medications, or just die off as we age. In the case of animals such as birds and amphibians, however, those cells do grow back. Inspired by that fact, a team of researchers from Brigham & Women's Hospital, MIT and Massachusetts Eye & Ear set out to see if the same could be done with human hair cells. Using previous research on regenerating intestinal cells as a jumping-off point, they placed immature cochlear progenitor cells from mice in a lab dish – progenitor cells are like stem cells, in that they can convert into other types of cells. The researchers then added a drug "cocktail," which caused those cells to rapidly multiply. Once a sufficient number of those progenitor cells were grown, they were then stimulated with additional drugs to differentiate into mature hair cells. When the procedure was attempted on an extracted mouse cochlea, the second step wasn't needed, as the progenitors were naturally signalled to differentiate. The process (which was also successfully tried using human cells) produced about 60 times more hair cells than the existing next-best technique, in which progenitor cells were prompted to differentiate, but a sizeable population of them wasn't grown first. The scientists now believe that treatment for hearing loss could be as simple as administering an injection into the ear. To that end, they have formed a spinoff company to commercialize the technology, and hope to begin clinical trials within 18 months. A paper on the research was recently published in the journal Cell Reports. "Hearing loss is a real problem as people get older," says MIT's Prof. Robert Langer, one of the senior authors. "It's very much of an unmet need, and this is an entirely new approach."	498	ENGLISH	1
The time period from 1955-1968 was the hot point of black detrimental rights activism. When people think of civil legal rights, they usually think of either Matn Luther King, Jr., or Rosa Leisure areas. However , there were many other civil rights activists who were quite popular at that time, but vaguely remembered. Malcolm X, given birth to Malcolm Small on May nineteenth, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska, grew up to get one of the most major Civil Privileges activists ever. Malcolm Very little grew up at home where his father was obviously a preacher who supported dark nationalism and the beliefs of Marcus Garvey, and his mother was a home-maker. While having been a small kid living with his family in Omaha, his father was a target of the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist group. The family sooner or later moved to East Lansing, The state of michigan. While surviving in Michigan, the family's residence was torched by Ku Klux Klan members, which can be far more serious than the problems caused in Omaha. Afterwards, Malcolm's father's body was found on train tracks, lifeless. Even though the family understood that white colored supremacists were the cause of this, the court docket deemed it as a suicide. This drove Malcolm's mom insane, obtaining her within a mental company. When Malcolm was in midsection school, he was a great pupil, and excelled in his studies. However , at school, he was the only black child, and seemed a " class petвЂќ. When certainly one of his professors asked him what this individual wanted to become when he were raised, he said that he wanted to be a legal professional. His teacher's reaction was somewhat baffled, telling him that he should follow something like construction or carpentry. Afterwards, Malcolm relocated to Boston to have with his sister, giving up about education. Once Malcolm started to be old enough to get away and away on his own, using the working for a train that ran coming from New York to Boston, which will resulted in him going to many clubs in several places, and getting involved with prescription drugs, crime, white-colored women and robbery. After receiving caught robbing a house, Malcolm and his...	<urn:uuid:7ef0dd7d-e76c-452b-a79d-a51e8a050532>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gedungjayamusik.com/malcolm-back-button-research/02263-malcolm-times-research-composition.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00193.warc.gz	en	0.989458	452	3.515625	4	[ -0.4144798815250397, 0.16572034358978271, 0.08200634270906448, -0.3413776159286499, -0.1757231056690216, 0.12091254442930222, 0.13574790954589844, -0.33089831471443176, -0.22540082037448883, -0.12954184412956238, -0.0012198156910017133, 0.4995971918106079, 0.14163833856582642, 0.1632561385...	1	The time period from 1955-1968 was the hot point of black detrimental rights activism. When people think of civil legal rights, they usually think of either Matn Luther King, Jr., or Rosa Leisure areas. However , there were many other civil rights activists who were quite popular at that time, but vaguely remembered. Malcolm X, given birth to Malcolm Small on May nineteenth, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska, grew up to get one of the most major Civil Privileges activists ever. Malcolm Very little grew up at home where his father was obviously a preacher who supported dark nationalism and the beliefs of Marcus Garvey, and his mother was a home-maker. While having been a small kid living with his family in Omaha, his father was a target of the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist group. The family sooner or later moved to East Lansing, The state of michigan. While surviving in Michigan, the family's residence was torched by Ku Klux Klan members, which can be far more serious than the problems caused in Omaha. Afterwards, Malcolm's father's body was found on train tracks, lifeless. Even though the family understood that white colored supremacists were the cause of this, the court docket deemed it as a suicide. This drove Malcolm's mom insane, obtaining her within a mental company. When Malcolm was in midsection school, he was a great pupil, and excelled in his studies. However , at school, he was the only black child, and seemed a " class petвЂќ. When certainly one of his professors asked him what this individual wanted to become when he were raised, he said that he wanted to be a legal professional. His teacher's reaction was somewhat baffled, telling him that he should follow something like construction or carpentry. Afterwards, Malcolm relocated to Boston to have with his sister, giving up about education. Once Malcolm started to be old enough to get away and away on his own, using the working for a train that ran coming from New York to Boston, which will resulted in him going to many clubs in several places, and getting involved with prescription drugs, crime, white-colored women and robbery. After receiving caught robbing a house, Malcolm and his...	459	ENGLISH	1
Wikijunior:World War II/Battleships Battleships are large, armored ships that can carry huge guns. They are the descendants of the sailing "Ship of the Line" (the line being the "line of battle", so "Line of Battle Ship"). They played a major role in the war in the Pacific and Atlantic. By the end of the war, the aircraft carrier had made the battleship less useful, and apart from shore bombardment they were rarely used again. The last time a battleship fired its guns in anger was the first Gulf War in the 1990s. - 1 What is a battleship? - 2 What each country had at the beginning of the war - 3 What stuff was on Battleships at this time? - 4 Battlecruiser (a.k.a.: Battleship-Lite, Pocket-Battleship) - 5 What each Country planned to do with their battleships - 6 The role of battleships in the War What is a battleship?Edit As listed above, battleships are large, armored ships that can carry huge guns. Because of their large power, they were the cool toy that every country wanted one to show that they were the best. Of course, they cost a lot. Because of the battleship's large size, it was the large bully of the sea. If the commanding country felt like it, it could send a battleship into the ocean to sink ships that were owned by other countries, only only other battleships could stop it. What each country had at the beginning of the warEdit If we look at this table, we see that the Great Britain has the most, with United States and Japan following it. Also, we see that Russia had very few battleships. Now for an explanation. Some countries, like the United States, Italy, Great Britain and France, had kept a bunch of old battleships that were too old fashioned for use in the war. Great Britain had 13 battleships built before 1925 and France had 6 that were very old. The U.S. was pretty much the same, but had a different story. After the Washington Naval Treaty (1922), which basically said that no country could have a lot of these ships, the U.S. stopped building battleships, and only started again in World War 2. That's why 15 of the ships were old ones. The U.S. managed to build ten more during World War 2, but it was a close call. Italy, which had a smaller navy, only had 3 old ships. Meanwhile Japan had re-modernized each of their ships around 1930, so all of their ships were high-tech and ready to go. Russia's navy was pretty much destroyed at the Battle of Shiatsu in 1905, but they got a few ships on loan from other countries to help them. All we have left to explain is Germany. Before World War 1, Germany had a "race" with Great Britain to see who could build the best and most battleships. By World War One, it had become a tie. Some German ships were old, but the number was about the same as Italy had. Germany also had started to build larger battleships called the Tirpitz and Bismarck as well as some battle cruisers (called pocket-battleships, more on this later) that were already roaming the seas, ready to attack when war started. What stuff was on Battleships at this time?Edit The big gunsEdit Guns were the main thing on battleships. I mean, without guns, you can't do anything useful with a battleship. Most guns during this time were measured by the diameter of the shell, or hunk of metal they fired in inches. Common main guns were 14 and 16 inch guns, with 8 and 6 inch as "backup" guns and a bunch of 3 and 5 inch guns in case aircraft attacked. Now pause right here and go take out a yardstick and measure 14 inches. If you draw a circle that long, imagine what it was like to have those things, which were full of explosives crashing into ships. Not a very good sight. The shells of the largest guns weighed nearly 2 tons. To protect from those shells, battleships, as all other ships, had to have armor. Armor for ships is just basically a large wall of metal "hooked" onto the ship to protect it from shells. This was also usually about 14 to 15 inches thick. Battleships also had to be protected from torpedoes launched by submarines and destroyers, a topic explained later in this book. To do so, countries had to attach large semi-spheres of metal to battleships so as to stop that from happening. If armor was not used, than battleships would have been sunk in seconds after starting to fight with other battleships. Some battleships had space for accessories, which in this case was stuff like airplane launchers and radar towers. Radar towers were large masts which, when with a radar room in the ship that had a bunch of machines in it, could track whatever approached a set distance from the ship. If something came, crew would be given a warning and would stand ready. Nothing could sneak up on those things for a long while. Another thing added to some ships was an airplane catapult. This wasn't your old catapult of the Middle Ages, but rather a thing that pushed a plane forward very quickly, which could then take off and attack, sort of like a mini aircraft carrier. Battlecruiser (a.k.a.: Battleship-Lite, Pocket-Battleship)Edit The Battlecruiser, Pocket Battleship, or as we've nicknamed it in the title, Battleship-Lite, was a sort of mini battleship. It was fast enough to run away from anything that was bigger than it, but powerful enough to beat senseless anything that was quicker than it. The British and Germans had some at the beginning of World War One, and after that war ended, every country wanted to have them. They saw how cool they were, and they were anxious to get some. Germany and Britain both planned to have a lot, but because of the Washington Naval Treaty, those ships had to be canceled, but Britain did manage to build one battlecruiser. The Germans however "worked around" the Washington Naval Treaty by creating "pocket-battleships", which were basically just battle-cruisers with a different name. Seeing that two countries already had some, the Russians, Americans and Japanese also wanted to have a fleet of battlecruisers. Japan was the only able to do so, since it built them during the 1930s, when no one cared anymore about the Naval Treaties. What each Country planned to do with their battleshipsEdit Each country knew that, in case of war, they had to have a plan, just like you should have a plan when you play chess or some other strategy game. Here's each group's plans: Two Allied countries (France and Russia) had small navies, mainly because France's economy went whacko whenever they tried to build a large fleet, and Russia had a small group because, after the disaster at Tsushima (Russia vs. Japan battle in 1905), they did not have enough time to build a large navy before war started (in this case, World War 1 and 2). One thing Russia had a bit of luck with was that they only had one real main port, which was St. Petersburg (in World War 2 called Leningrad). So Russia used most of their fleet to set up a defensive barricade near Lenningrad, and they didn't have to worry about anything else. This was basically the same with the French. Their ships were old, but they had enough to defend each of their main ports. Of course, when Germans arrived and bombed them, the French didn't stay and fight, but ran. They got to a port in Africa, then joined the Germans. After that, they were bombed by British bombers. So, if we take out those two Allied navies, we have two left. Britain, which is an island, needed a navy as its main defensive weapon. If Britain did not have a navy, then it couldn't protect ships bringing in food and the people would starve. This leaves the United States to explain. The U.S. was neither of the ones above, it was actually a large part of a continent and it had a large enough navy to make normal attack operations. The problem was this: How to connect the west and east coast of the country? You can't bring ships over land, so there had to be a water way connecting the two oceans. The answer? The Panama Canal, a canal built in 1914 across the tip of the country of Panama, that connected the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The problem was that the canal could only move ships that were a set width or less. Anything else would have to move all the way across the coast of South America, which was a very long journey. Since the U.S. did not want these long journeys to take place, they had to rely on weaker ships to be able to defend both coasts of the country. Let's start with an explanation about Italy's plans. Italy was mainly the "little brother" of Germany and Japan. It had a weaker army and a weaker navy, although they had just built four new ships right before the beginning of the war. Italy's main goals were African countries. To capture those countries, they would need to have a troop launching pad, so as troops could sail across the Mediterranean Sea and invade Africa. For that, they had to get rid of British bases and ships in Egypt. Besides those actions, Italy's battleships were not supposed to do anything else. Now for Japan. Japan was an island country, just like Britain. Unlike Britain, she was not really surrounded by any enemy country that had a good navy (Russia's was nearly destroyed and most of it was in the Baltic Sea, while the U.S. was a whole ocean away). Japan could thus maneuver freely, destroying any ships that got in her way. They also had large ships like the Yamato and Musashi, which were super-heavy ships with large guns. If the U.S. tried to build some, they would be too big to fit through the Panama Canal. And now for Germany. Germany is in a worse situation than Britain: it's close to 3 enemy countries (France, Britain, and Russia), and it's got only two or three seaports. To fix this Germany had to capture more ports, which they did when they invaded Norway. Before that, however, Germany already had some pocket-battleships roaming the seas, ready to strike. They had gotten out between World War 1 and 2. With that in mind, let's see if their plans worked out. The role of battleships in the WarEdit Although Japan was fighting with China since 1937, World War 2 officially started on September 1st, 1939, when Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. One of the first battles was the Battle of Westerplatte, where an old German battleship named the SMS Schleswig-Holstein supported shock troopers with shell fire. After seven days of tough fighting, the garrison surrendered. The Schleswig-Holstein continued to provide fire support to other troops attacking Polish ports, and was hit by a 152 mm shell at the last one she attacked, Hel. This marked the first shore retaliation against a ship in World War 2. Graf Spee: High Seas BullyEdit One of the Germans' pocket battleships was the Graf Spee. The Graf Spee was in the South Atlantic when war started, and managed to sink 9 ships before the British chased her into Montiviedo, a harbor in Uruguay. After 72 hours of the British waiting for the Graf Spee to come out and fight, the captain of the Graf Spee decided that he would rather save all his men and loose his ship than loose all of both. So, thinking hits, he blew up the Graf Spee, preventing the British from capturing her or sinking her.	<urn:uuid:81cdbf83-d29c-40a5-b551-bc0fb6e87977>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Battleships	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00155.warc.gz	en	0.989192	2,512	3.46875	3	[ -0.27243703603744507, -0.03858824819326401, 0.04839317873120308, -0.892684817314148, -0.1931239813566208, -0.34052515029907227, -0.16499532759189606, 0.1437605917453766, -0.09619668126106262, -0.2894430160522461, 0.309712678194046, 0.17129585146903992, 0.19428634643554688, 0.35738632082939...	1	Wikijunior:World War II/Battleships Battleships are large, armored ships that can carry huge guns. They are the descendants of the sailing "Ship of the Line" (the line being the "line of battle", so "Line of Battle Ship"). They played a major role in the war in the Pacific and Atlantic. By the end of the war, the aircraft carrier had made the battleship less useful, and apart from shore bombardment they were rarely used again. The last time a battleship fired its guns in anger was the first Gulf War in the 1990s. - 1 What is a battleship? - 2 What each country had at the beginning of the war - 3 What stuff was on Battleships at this time? - 4 Battlecruiser (a.k.a.: Battleship-Lite, Pocket-Battleship) - 5 What each Country planned to do with their battleships - 6 The role of battleships in the War What is a battleship?Edit As listed above, battleships are large, armored ships that can carry huge guns. Because of their large power, they were the cool toy that every country wanted one to show that they were the best. Of course, they cost a lot. Because of the battleship's large size, it was the large bully of the sea. If the commanding country felt like it, it could send a battleship into the ocean to sink ships that were owned by other countries, only only other battleships could stop it. What each country had at the beginning of the warEdit If we look at this table, we see that the Great Britain has the most, with United States and Japan following it. Also, we see that Russia had very few battleships. Now for an explanation. Some countries, like the United States, Italy, Great Britain and France, had kept a bunch of old battleships that were too old fashioned for use in the war. Great Britain had 13 battleships built before 1925 and France had 6 that were very old. The U.S. was pretty much the same, but had a different story. After the Washington Naval Treaty (1922), which basically said that no country could have a lot of these ships, the U.S. stopped building battleships, and only started again in World War 2. That's why 15 of the ships were old ones. The U.S. managed to build ten more during World War 2, but it was a close call. Italy, which had a smaller navy, only had 3 old ships. Meanwhile Japan had re-modernized each of their ships around 1930, so all of their ships were high-tech and ready to go. Russia's navy was pretty much destroyed at the Battle of Shiatsu in 1905, but they got a few ships on loan from other countries to help them. All we have left to explain is Germany. Before World War 1, Germany had a "race" with Great Britain to see who could build the best and most battleships. By World War One, it had become a tie. Some German ships were old, but the number was about the same as Italy had. Germany also had started to build larger battleships called the Tirpitz and Bismarck as well as some battle cruisers (called pocket-battleships, more on this later) that were already roaming the seas, ready to attack when war started. What stuff was on Battleships at this time?Edit The big gunsEdit Guns were the main thing on battleships. I mean, without guns, you can't do anything useful with a battleship. Most guns during this time were measured by the diameter of the shell, or hunk of metal they fired in inches. Common main guns were 14 and 16 inch guns, with 8 and 6 inch as "backup" guns and a bunch of 3 and 5 inch guns in case aircraft attacked. Now pause right here and go take out a yardstick and measure 14 inches. If you draw a circle that long, imagine what it was like to have those things, which were full of explosives crashing into ships. Not a very good sight. The shells of the largest guns weighed nearly 2 tons. To protect from those shells, battleships, as all other ships, had to have armor. Armor for ships is just basically a large wall of metal "hooked" onto the ship to protect it from shells. This was also usually about 14 to 15 inches thick. Battleships also had to be protected from torpedoes launched by submarines and destroyers, a topic explained later in this book. To do so, countries had to attach large semi-spheres of metal to battleships so as to stop that from happening. If armor was not used, than battleships would have been sunk in seconds after starting to fight with other battleships. Some battleships had space for accessories, which in this case was stuff like airplane launchers and radar towers. Radar towers were large masts which, when with a radar room in the ship that had a bunch of machines in it, could track whatever approached a set distance from the ship. If something came, crew would be given a warning and would stand ready. Nothing could sneak up on those things for a long while. Another thing added to some ships was an airplane catapult. This wasn't your old catapult of the Middle Ages, but rather a thing that pushed a plane forward very quickly, which could then take off and attack, sort of like a mini aircraft carrier. Battlecruiser (a.k.a.: Battleship-Lite, Pocket-Battleship)Edit The Battlecruiser, Pocket Battleship, or as we've nicknamed it in the title, Battleship-Lite, was a sort of mini battleship. It was fast enough to run away from anything that was bigger than it, but powerful enough to beat senseless anything that was quicker than it. The British and Germans had some at the beginning of World War One, and after that war ended, every country wanted to have them. They saw how cool they were, and they were anxious to get some. Germany and Britain both planned to have a lot, but because of the Washington Naval Treaty, those ships had to be canceled, but Britain did manage to build one battlecruiser. The Germans however "worked around" the Washington Naval Treaty by creating "pocket-battleships", which were basically just battle-cruisers with a different name. Seeing that two countries already had some, the Russians, Americans and Japanese also wanted to have a fleet of battlecruisers. Japan was the only able to do so, since it built them during the 1930s, when no one cared anymore about the Naval Treaties. What each Country planned to do with their battleshipsEdit Each country knew that, in case of war, they had to have a plan, just like you should have a plan when you play chess or some other strategy game. Here's each group's plans: Two Allied countries (France and Russia) had small navies, mainly because France's economy went whacko whenever they tried to build a large fleet, and Russia had a small group because, after the disaster at Tsushima (Russia vs. Japan battle in 1905), they did not have enough time to build a large navy before war started (in this case, World War 1 and 2). One thing Russia had a bit of luck with was that they only had one real main port, which was St. Petersburg (in World War 2 called Leningrad). So Russia used most of their fleet to set up a defensive barricade near Lenningrad, and they didn't have to worry about anything else. This was basically the same with the French. Their ships were old, but they had enough to defend each of their main ports. Of course, when Germans arrived and bombed them, the French didn't stay and fight, but ran. They got to a port in Africa, then joined the Germans. After that, they were bombed by British bombers. So, if we take out those two Allied navies, we have two left. Britain, which is an island, needed a navy as its main defensive weapon. If Britain did not have a navy, then it couldn't protect ships bringing in food and the people would starve. This leaves the United States to explain. The U.S. was neither of the ones above, it was actually a large part of a continent and it had a large enough navy to make normal attack operations. The problem was this: How to connect the west and east coast of the country? You can't bring ships over land, so there had to be a water way connecting the two oceans. The answer? The Panama Canal, a canal built in 1914 across the tip of the country of Panama, that connected the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The problem was that the canal could only move ships that were a set width or less. Anything else would have to move all the way across the coast of South America, which was a very long journey. Since the U.S. did not want these long journeys to take place, they had to rely on weaker ships to be able to defend both coasts of the country. Let's start with an explanation about Italy's plans. Italy was mainly the "little brother" of Germany and Japan. It had a weaker army and a weaker navy, although they had just built four new ships right before the beginning of the war. Italy's main goals were African countries. To capture those countries, they would need to have a troop launching pad, so as troops could sail across the Mediterranean Sea and invade Africa. For that, they had to get rid of British bases and ships in Egypt. Besides those actions, Italy's battleships were not supposed to do anything else. Now for Japan. Japan was an island country, just like Britain. Unlike Britain, she was not really surrounded by any enemy country that had a good navy (Russia's was nearly destroyed and most of it was in the Baltic Sea, while the U.S. was a whole ocean away). Japan could thus maneuver freely, destroying any ships that got in her way. They also had large ships like the Yamato and Musashi, which were super-heavy ships with large guns. If the U.S. tried to build some, they would be too big to fit through the Panama Canal. And now for Germany. Germany is in a worse situation than Britain: it's close to 3 enemy countries (France, Britain, and Russia), and it's got only two or three seaports. To fix this Germany had to capture more ports, which they did when they invaded Norway. Before that, however, Germany already had some pocket-battleships roaming the seas, ready to strike. They had gotten out between World War 1 and 2. With that in mind, let's see if their plans worked out. The role of battleships in the WarEdit Although Japan was fighting with China since 1937, World War 2 officially started on September 1st, 1939, when Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. One of the first battles was the Battle of Westerplatte, where an old German battleship named the SMS Schleswig-Holstein supported shock troopers with shell fire. After seven days of tough fighting, the garrison surrendered. The Schleswig-Holstein continued to provide fire support to other troops attacking Polish ports, and was hit by a 152 mm shell at the last one she attacked, Hel. This marked the first shore retaliation against a ship in World War 2. Graf Spee: High Seas BullyEdit One of the Germans' pocket battleships was the Graf Spee. The Graf Spee was in the South Atlantic when war started, and managed to sink 9 ships before the British chased her into Montiviedo, a harbor in Uruguay. After 72 hours of the British waiting for the Graf Spee to come out and fight, the captain of the Graf Spee decided that he would rather save all his men and loose his ship than loose all of both. So, thinking hits, he blew up the Graf Spee, preventing the British from capturing her or sinking her.	2,559	ENGLISH	1
September 27Edgar Degas was a French artist and sculptor. See Article History Alternative Titles: Ballet dancers and women at their toilette would preoccupy him throughout his career. Degas was the only Impressionist to truly bridge the gap between traditional academic art and the radical movements of the early 20th century, a restless innovator who often set the pace for his younger colleagues. Acknowledged as one of the finest draftsmen of his age, Degas experimented with a wide variety of media, including oilpastelgouacheetchinglithographymonotypewax modeling, and photography. In his last decades, both his subject matter and technique became simplified, resulting in a new art of vivid colour and expressive form, and in long sequences of closely linked compositions. Jun 09, · History of Edgar Degas (great for art lessons and kids) Edgar Degas brief biography and artwork. Berthe Morisot - French Impressionist Painter - . French painter and sculptor Edgar DEGAS () is considered to be one of the major representatives of Impressionism, due to his innovating composition and his perspective analysis of motion.. He also was one of the most active organizers of the Impressionist movement, even though his artistic ideas were distinct from those of his Impressionist friends. French painter and sculptor Edgar DEGAS () is considered to be one of the major representatives of Impressionism, due to his innovating composition and his perspective analysis of motion.. He also was one of the most active organizers of the Impressionist movement, even though his artistic ideas were distinct from those of his . Beginnings Born in Paris just south of Montmartre, Degas always remained a proud Parisian, living and working in the same area of the city throughout his career. Though detailed knowledge of his middle-class family is limited, it is known that they maintained the outward forms of polite society and that they were related to minor aristocracy in Italy and to the business community in New OrleansLouisianaU. He also began his first solemn explorations of the self-portrait. Woman Reading, monotype by Edgar Degas, c. Staying first with relatives in Napleshe later worked in Rome and Florencefilling notebooks with sketches of faces, historic buildings, and the landscape, and with hundreds of rapid pencil copies from frescoes and oil paintings he admired. Among these were copies after GiottoMichelangeloLeonardo da Vinciand Titianartists who were to echo through his compositions for decades; the inclusion of less-expected works, however, such as those by Sir Anthony van Dyck and Frans Snydershinted at wider interests. The same sketchbooks include written notes and reflections, as well as drafts for his own figure-based paintings in a variety of eclectic styles. Together they suggest a literate and serious young artist with high ambitions, but one who still lacked direction. Colour and line From his beginnings, Degas seemed equally attracted to the severity of line and to the sensuous delights of colour, echoing a historic tension that was still much debated in his time. In Italy he consciously modeled some drawings on the linear restraint of the Florentine masters, such as Michelangelo, although he gradually acknowledged the lure of the Venetian painters, such as Titian, and their densely hued surfaces. Returning to Paris in AprilDegas attempted to launch himself through the established art-world channels of the day, though with little success. He painted large portraits of family members and grandiose, historically inspired canvases such as The Daughter of Jephthah —60 and Semiramis Building Babylonintending to submit them to the annual state-sponsored Salon. Each work was painstakingly prepared in drawings that still rank among the most beautiful of his career, but he found the paintings themselves difficult to complete to his satisfaction. Perhaps humbled by his exposure to the Italian masters, Degas scraped down and reworked parts of his own canvases, initiating a habit of technical self-criticism that was to last a lifetime. In his more simply executed Scene of War in the Middle Ages was accepted by the Salon jury, but it remained almost unnoticed in the thronged exhibition halls. The following year his dramatic painting Scene from the Steeplechase: The Fallen Jockey was again met with indifference, despite its startlingly close-up view of a contemporary horse race that seems, in retrospect, like the public announcement of a transformation in his art. Scene from the Steeplechase: The Fallen Jockey, oil on canvas by Edgar Degas,reworked —81 and c. Before he left Italy, he had made drawings of street characters and paintings of fashionable horse-riders, but always on a small scale. Like most of the future ImpressionistsDegas lightened his palette and adopted more abrupt, simplified compositions during this period, partly under the influence of Japanese prints, which were very popular among contemporary artists. But, unlike his colleagues, who were experimenting with painting en plein-airDegas affected disdain toward the improvised outdoor landscape studies for which many of the Impressionists became known. Although he clung to the habit of drawing in preparation for his pictures and insisted on working in the studio rather than outdoors, in Degas did experiment in private with a series of pastel landscapes executed on the Normandy coast. While he is not generally associated with them, he would turn to other rural subjects on several occasions in later life.Edgar Degas was a French artist and sculptor. He is famous for his amazing works of art, paintings, prints and drawings. He is famous for his amazing works of art, paintings, prints and drawings. He painted many of his paintings on Ballet dance and dancers. Edgar Degas was a 19th century artist from France who is best known for paintings, pastels and drawings of dancers, women at the toilette and Parisian street scenes. The product of a wealthy Parisian banking family, Degas studied art extensively and became a master draftsman by the s. Introduction to Edgar Degas, French sculptor & impressionist painter, whose favorite theme became the female ballet dancer during the early s. Born in Paris, July 19, , died Sept. 26, Edgar Degas was a 19th century artist from France who is best known for paintings, pastels and drawings of dancers, women at the toilette and Parisian street scenes. The product of a wealthy Parisian banking family, Degas studied art extensively and became a master draftsman by the s. Degas is often identified as an Impressionist, an understandable but insufficient description. Impressionism originated in the s and s and grew, in part, from the realism of such painters as Courbet and Corot. Edgar Degas was the eldest of five children of Célestine Musson de Gas, an American by birth, and Auguste de Gas, a banker. Edgar later changed his surname to the less aristocratic sounding 'Degas' in Nationality: French.	<urn:uuid:cfdf806a-da21-4a9a-832c-f9a410577d44>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vyvexaqyxen.kaja-net.com/a-brief-biography-of-degas-edgar-french-painter-32708gd.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00170.warc.gz	en	0.986462	1,475	3.265625	3	[ -0.12754517793655396, 0.10833735764026642, 0.5818911194801331, 0.05813179537653923, -0.29129427671432495, -0.002675865776836872, 0.0931730568408966, 0.00011293543502688408, -0.15195517241954803, -0.5341886281967163, -0.1219107061624527, -0.23737898468971252, 0.05001745745539665, 0.37855285...	1	September 27Edgar Degas was a French artist and sculptor. See Article History Alternative Titles: Ballet dancers and women at their toilette would preoccupy him throughout his career. Degas was the only Impressionist to truly bridge the gap between traditional academic art and the radical movements of the early 20th century, a restless innovator who often set the pace for his younger colleagues. Acknowledged as one of the finest draftsmen of his age, Degas experimented with a wide variety of media, including oilpastelgouacheetchinglithographymonotypewax modeling, and photography. In his last decades, both his subject matter and technique became simplified, resulting in a new art of vivid colour and expressive form, and in long sequences of closely linked compositions. Jun 09, · History of Edgar Degas (great for art lessons and kids) Edgar Degas brief biography and artwork. Berthe Morisot - French Impressionist Painter - . French painter and sculptor Edgar DEGAS () is considered to be one of the major representatives of Impressionism, due to his innovating composition and his perspective analysis of motion.. He also was one of the most active organizers of the Impressionist movement, even though his artistic ideas were distinct from those of his Impressionist friends. French painter and sculptor Edgar DEGAS () is considered to be one of the major representatives of Impressionism, due to his innovating composition and his perspective analysis of motion.. He also was one of the most active organizers of the Impressionist movement, even though his artistic ideas were distinct from those of his . Beginnings Born in Paris just south of Montmartre, Degas always remained a proud Parisian, living and working in the same area of the city throughout his career. Though detailed knowledge of his middle-class family is limited, it is known that they maintained the outward forms of polite society and that they were related to minor aristocracy in Italy and to the business community in New OrleansLouisianaU. He also began his first solemn explorations of the self-portrait. Woman Reading, monotype by Edgar Degas, c. Staying first with relatives in Napleshe later worked in Rome and Florencefilling notebooks with sketches of faces, historic buildings, and the landscape, and with hundreds of rapid pencil copies from frescoes and oil paintings he admired. Among these were copies after GiottoMichelangeloLeonardo da Vinciand Titianartists who were to echo through his compositions for decades; the inclusion of less-expected works, however, such as those by Sir Anthony van Dyck and Frans Snydershinted at wider interests. The same sketchbooks include written notes and reflections, as well as drafts for his own figure-based paintings in a variety of eclectic styles. Together they suggest a literate and serious young artist with high ambitions, but one who still lacked direction. Colour and line From his beginnings, Degas seemed equally attracted to the severity of line and to the sensuous delights of colour, echoing a historic tension that was still much debated in his time. In Italy he consciously modeled some drawings on the linear restraint of the Florentine masters, such as Michelangelo, although he gradually acknowledged the lure of the Venetian painters, such as Titian, and their densely hued surfaces. Returning to Paris in AprilDegas attempted to launch himself through the established art-world channels of the day, though with little success. He painted large portraits of family members and grandiose, historically inspired canvases such as The Daughter of Jephthah —60 and Semiramis Building Babylonintending to submit them to the annual state-sponsored Salon. Each work was painstakingly prepared in drawings that still rank among the most beautiful of his career, but he found the paintings themselves difficult to complete to his satisfaction. Perhaps humbled by his exposure to the Italian masters, Degas scraped down and reworked parts of his own canvases, initiating a habit of technical self-criticism that was to last a lifetime. In his more simply executed Scene of War in the Middle Ages was accepted by the Salon jury, but it remained almost unnoticed in the thronged exhibition halls. The following year his dramatic painting Scene from the Steeplechase: The Fallen Jockey was again met with indifference, despite its startlingly close-up view of a contemporary horse race that seems, in retrospect, like the public announcement of a transformation in his art. Scene from the Steeplechase: The Fallen Jockey, oil on canvas by Edgar Degas,reworked —81 and c. Before he left Italy, he had made drawings of street characters and paintings of fashionable horse-riders, but always on a small scale. Like most of the future ImpressionistsDegas lightened his palette and adopted more abrupt, simplified compositions during this period, partly under the influence of Japanese prints, which were very popular among contemporary artists. But, unlike his colleagues, who were experimenting with painting en plein-airDegas affected disdain toward the improvised outdoor landscape studies for which many of the Impressionists became known. Although he clung to the habit of drawing in preparation for his pictures and insisted on working in the studio rather than outdoors, in Degas did experiment in private with a series of pastel landscapes executed on the Normandy coast. While he is not generally associated with them, he would turn to other rural subjects on several occasions in later life.Edgar Degas was a French artist and sculptor. He is famous for his amazing works of art, paintings, prints and drawings. He is famous for his amazing works of art, paintings, prints and drawings. He painted many of his paintings on Ballet dance and dancers. Edgar Degas was a 19th century artist from France who is best known for paintings, pastels and drawings of dancers, women at the toilette and Parisian street scenes. The product of a wealthy Parisian banking family, Degas studied art extensively and became a master draftsman by the s. Introduction to Edgar Degas, French sculptor & impressionist painter, whose favorite theme became the female ballet dancer during the early s. Born in Paris, July 19, , died Sept. 26, Edgar Degas was a 19th century artist from France who is best known for paintings, pastels and drawings of dancers, women at the toilette and Parisian street scenes. The product of a wealthy Parisian banking family, Degas studied art extensively and became a master draftsman by the s. Degas is often identified as an Impressionist, an understandable but insufficient description. Impressionism originated in the s and s and grew, in part, from the realism of such painters as Courbet and Corot. Edgar Degas was the eldest of five children of Célestine Musson de Gas, an American by birth, and Auguste de Gas, a banker. Edgar later changed his surname to the less aristocratic sounding 'Degas' in Nationality: French.	1,443	ENGLISH	1

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