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Food preserved in tin cans was in use by the Dutch Navy from at least 1772. Before 1800, there was already a small industry of canned salmon in the Netherlands. Freshly caught salmon were cleaned, boiled in brine, smoked and placed in tin-plated iron boxes. This canned salmon was known outside the Netherlands, and in 1797 a British company supplied one of their clients with 13 cans. Preservation of food in tin cans was patented by Peter Durand in 1810. The patent was acquired in 1812 by Bryan Donkin, who had later set up the world's first canning factory in London in 1813. By 1820, canned food was a recognized article in Britain and France and by 1822 in the United States. The first cans were robust containers, which weighed more than the food they contained and required ingenuity to open, using whatever tools available. The instruction on those cans read "Cut round the top near the outer edge with a chisel and hammer." The gap of decades between the invention of the can and can opener may be attributed to the functionality of existing tools versus the cost and effort of a new tool. Dedicated can openers appeared in the 1850s and were of a primitive claw-shaped or "lever-type" design. In 1855, Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road, Middlesex, UK, devised the first claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury, Connecticut. It consisted of a sharp sickle, which was pushed into the can and sawed around its edge. A guard kept the sickle from penetrating too far into the can. The opener consisted of several parts which could be replaced if worn out, especially the sickle. This opener was adopted by the United States Army during the American Civil War (1861–1865); however, its unprotected knife-like sickle was too dangerous for domestic use. A home-use opener named the "Bull's head opener" was designed in 1865 and was supplied with cans of pickled beef named "Bully beef". The opener was made of cast iron and had a very similar construction to the Yeates opener, but featured a more artistic shape and was the first move towards improving the look of the can opener. The bull-headed design was produced until the 1930s and was also offered with a fish-head shape. The first rotating wheel can opener was patented in July 1870 by William Lyman of Meriden, Connecticut and produced by the firm Baumgarten in the 1890s. The can was to be pierced in its center with the sharp metal rod of the opener. Then, the length of the lever had to be adjusted to fit the can size, and the lever fixed with the wingnut. The top of the can was cut by pressing the cutting wheel into the can near the edge and rotating it along the can's rim. The necessity to pierce the can first was a nuisance, and this can opener design did not survive. In 1925, the Star Can Opener Company of San Francisco, California had improved Lyman's design by adding a second, serrated wheel, called a "feed wheel", which allowed a firm grip of the can edge. This addition was so efficient that the design is still in use today. Whereas all previous openers required using one hand or other means to hold the can, can-holding openers simultaneously grip the can and open it. The first such opener was patented in 1931 by the Bunker Clancey Company of Kansas City, Missouri and was, therefore, called the "Bunker". It featured the now standard pliers-type handles, when squeezed would tightly grip the can rim, while turning the key would rotate the cutting wheel, progressively cutting the lid along the rim. The cutting wheel is coupled to a serrated feed wheel via a set of gears, as in the Star design. The Bunker company was absorbed by the Rival Manufacturing Company, also of Kansas City, in 1938. Church key initially referred to a simple hand-operated device for prying the cap (called a "crown cork" or "bottle cap") off a glass bottle; this kind of closure was invented in 1892. The first of these church key style openers was patented in Canada in 1900. The shape and design of some of these openers did resemble a large simple key. In 1935, steel beer cans with flat tops appeared, and a device to pierce the lids was needed. The same opener was used for piercing those cans. Made from a single piece of pressed metal, with a sharp point at one end, it was devised by D. F. Sampson, for the American Can Company, who depicted operating instructions on the cans. The church key opener is still being produced, sometimes as part of another opener. For example, a "butterfly" opener is often a combination of the church key and a serrated-wheel opener. There is sparse, and often contradictory, documentation on the origin of the term "church key". The phrase is likely a sarcastic euphemism, as the opener was obviously not designed to access churches. One explanation is that in Medieval Europe, most brewers were monks. Lager cellars in the monasteries were locked to protect aging beers, and the monks carried keys to these lager cellars. It may have been those keys, which remotely resembled the early church key openers, that gave the "church key" opener its name. Another motive for assigning the device such an ironic name could have been the fact beer was first canned (for test marketing) in 1933, the same year president Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Bill. This act, which predated Repeal of Prohibition, amended the Volstead Act, making 3.2% low-alcohol beer legal. Some experts have posited the term "church key" was a way to "stick it to" the religious organizations who had effected Prohibition in the first place. Another key opener with completely different design was patented by J. Osterhoudt in 1866. Instead of piercing the can, it was used to tear off and roll up a pre-scored strip on the side of the can, just below the lid. It was also called "key", because of resemblance to a door key. Such openers are spot-welded or soldered to many small, thin-walled cans nowadays and are separated prior to use by prying the key up and bending it back and forth a few times until it breaks loose. Several can openers with a simple and robust design have been specifically developed for military use. The P-38 and P-51 are small can openers with a cutter hinged to the main body. They were also known as a "John Wayne" because the actor was shown in a training film opening a can of K-rations. The P-38 can opener is keychain-sized, about 1.5 inches (38 mm) long, and consists of a short metal blade that serves as a handle (and can also be used as a screwdriver), with a small, hinged metal tooth that folds out to pierce the can lid. A notch just under the hinge point keeps the opener hooked around the rim of the can as the device is "walked" around the rim to cut the lid out. A larger version, called P-51, is somewhat easier to operate. P-38 was developed in 1942 and was issued in the canned field rations of the United States Armed Forces from World War II to the 1980s. The P-38 and P-51 are cheaper to manufacture and are smaller and lighter to carry than most other can openers. The device can be easily attached to a keyring or dog tag chain using the small punched hole. Official military designations for the P-38 include "US Army pocket can opener" and "Opener, can, hand, folding, type I". As with some other military terms (e.g., jeep), the origin of the term is not known with certainty. The P-38 and P-51 openers share a designation with the Lockheed P-38 Lightning and North American P-51 Mustang fighters, however this is coincidental. The most likely origin of the name is much more pedestrian; the P-38 and P-51 measure 38 mm (1.5 in) and 51 mm (2.0 in) in length respectively. P-38s are no longer used for individual rations by the United States Armed Forces, as canned C-rations were replaced by soft-pack MREs in the 1980s. They are, however, included with United States military "Tray Rations" (canned bulk meals). They are also still seen in disaster recovery efforts and have been handed out alongside canned food by rescue organizations, both in America and abroad in Afghanistan. The original US-contract P-38 can openers were manufactured by J. W. Speaker Corp. (stamped "US Speaker") and by Washburn Corp. (marked "US Androck"), they were later made by Mallin Hardware (now defunct) of Shelby, Ohio and were variously stamped "US Mallin Shelby O." or "U.S. Shelby Co." A similar device that incorporates a small spoon at one end and a bottle opener at the other is currently employed by the Australian Defence Force and New Zealand Army in its ration kits. The Field Ration Eating Device is known by the acronym "FRED". It is also known as the "Fucking Ridiculous Eating Device". Another similar device was included with British Army "Operational Ration Pack, General Purpose" 24-hour ration pack and "Composite Ration Pack" rations. At one time they were manufactured by W. P. Warren Engineering Co., Ltd. The instructions printed on the miniature, greaseproof paper bag in which they were packed read: "Their design is similar, but not identical, to the P-38 and P-51 can openers." Most military ration can openers have a very simple design and have also been produced for civilian use in many countries. For example, small folding openers similar to the P-38 and P-51 were designed in 1924 and were widely distributed in the Eastern European countries. In Slovenia a somewhat rounded version of a P-38 is known as "sardine can opener", because in the 1990s such openers were usually packed with cans that did not feature the pull-top pre-scored lid. A non-folding version of the P-38 used to be very common in Israeli kitchens, and can still be found in stores, often sold in packs of five. The first electric can opener was patented in 1931 and modeled after the cutting-wheel design. Those openers were produced in the 1930s and advertised as capable of removing lids from more than 20 cans per minute without risk of injury. Nevertheless, they found little success. Electric openers were re-introduced in 1956 by two Californian companies. Klassen Enterprises of Centreville brought out a wall-mounted electric model, but this complex design was unpopular too. The same year, Walter Hess Bodle invented a freestanding device, combining an electric can opener and knife sharpener. He and his family members built their prototype in his garage, with daughter Elizabeth sculpting the body design. It was manufactured under the "Udico" brand of the Union Die Casting Co. in Los Angeles, California and was offered in Flamingo Pink, Avocado Green, and Aqua Blue, popular colors of the era. These openers were introduced to the market for Christmas sales and found immediate success. A new style of the can opener emerged in the 1980s. Whereas most other openers remove the lid by cutting down through the lid from the top just inside the rim, removing the top and leaving the rim attached to the can, these use a roller and cutting wheel to cut round the side of the can just below the rim, removing the top and rim. The can is left with a relatively safe, non-jagged edge. The feed wheel teeth have a somewhat finer pitch than those of earlier designs and reside at the bottom of a V-shaped groove, which surrounds the rim on three sides at the point of action. Henry Kuttner's 1943 short story "The Proud Robot" is about a fancy narcissistic robot which turned out to be "a bigger and better opener" created by a drunk inventor, described by a reviewer as "the most beautiful can opener in the world".
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Food preserved in tin cans was in use by the Dutch Navy from at least 1772. Before 1800, there was already a small industry of canned salmon in the Netherlands. Freshly caught salmon were cleaned, boiled in brine, smoked and placed in tin-plated iron boxes. This canned salmon was known outside the Netherlands, and in 1797 a British company supplied one of their clients with 13 cans. Preservation of food in tin cans was patented by Peter Durand in 1810. The patent was acquired in 1812 by Bryan Donkin, who had later set up the world's first canning factory in London in 1813. By 1820, canned food was a recognized article in Britain and France and by 1822 in the United States. The first cans were robust containers, which weighed more than the food they contained and required ingenuity to open, using whatever tools available. The instruction on those cans read "Cut round the top near the outer edge with a chisel and hammer." The gap of decades between the invention of the can and can opener may be attributed to the functionality of existing tools versus the cost and effort of a new tool. Dedicated can openers appeared in the 1850s and were of a primitive claw-shaped or "lever-type" design. In 1855, Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road, Middlesex, UK, devised the first claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury, Connecticut. It consisted of a sharp sickle, which was pushed into the can and sawed around its edge. A guard kept the sickle from penetrating too far into the can. The opener consisted of several parts which could be replaced if worn out, especially the sickle. This opener was adopted by the United States Army during the American Civil War (1861–1865); however, its unprotected knife-like sickle was too dangerous for domestic use. A home-use opener named the "Bull's head opener" was designed in 1865 and was supplied with cans of pickled beef named "Bully beef". The opener was made of cast iron and had a very similar construction to the Yeates opener, but featured a more artistic shape and was the first move towards improving the look of the can opener. The bull-headed design was produced until the 1930s and was also offered with a fish-head shape. The first rotating wheel can opener was patented in July 1870 by William Lyman of Meriden, Connecticut and produced by the firm Baumgarten in the 1890s. The can was to be pierced in its center with the sharp metal rod of the opener. Then, the length of the lever had to be adjusted to fit the can size, and the lever fixed with the wingnut. The top of the can was cut by pressing the cutting wheel into the can near the edge and rotating it along the can's rim. The necessity to pierce the can first was a nuisance, and this can opener design did not survive. In 1925, the Star Can Opener Company of San Francisco, California had improved Lyman's design by adding a second, serrated wheel, called a "feed wheel", which allowed a firm grip of the can edge. This addition was so efficient that the design is still in use today. Whereas all previous openers required using one hand or other means to hold the can, can-holding openers simultaneously grip the can and open it. The first such opener was patented in 1931 by the Bunker Clancey Company of Kansas City, Missouri and was, therefore, called the "Bunker". It featured the now standard pliers-type handles, when squeezed would tightly grip the can rim, while turning the key would rotate the cutting wheel, progressively cutting the lid along the rim. The cutting wheel is coupled to a serrated feed wheel via a set of gears, as in the Star design. The Bunker company was absorbed by the Rival Manufacturing Company, also of Kansas City, in 1938. Church key initially referred to a simple hand-operated device for prying the cap (called a "crown cork" or "bottle cap") off a glass bottle; this kind of closure was invented in 1892. The first of these church key style openers was patented in Canada in 1900. The shape and design of some of these openers did resemble a large simple key. In 1935, steel beer cans with flat tops appeared, and a device to pierce the lids was needed. The same opener was used for piercing those cans. Made from a single piece of pressed metal, with a sharp point at one end, it was devised by D. F. Sampson, for the American Can Company, who depicted operating instructions on the cans. The church key opener is still being produced, sometimes as part of another opener. For example, a "butterfly" opener is often a combination of the church key and a serrated-wheel opener. There is sparse, and often contradictory, documentation on the origin of the term "church key". The phrase is likely a sarcastic euphemism, as the opener was obviously not designed to access churches. One explanation is that in Medieval Europe, most brewers were monks. Lager cellars in the monasteries were locked to protect aging beers, and the monks carried keys to these lager cellars. It may have been those keys, which remotely resembled the early church key openers, that gave the "church key" opener its name. Another motive for assigning the device such an ironic name could have been the fact beer was first canned (for test marketing) in 1933, the same year president Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Bill. This act, which predated Repeal of Prohibition, amended the Volstead Act, making 3.2% low-alcohol beer legal. Some experts have posited the term "church key" was a way to "stick it to" the religious organizations who had effected Prohibition in the first place. Another key opener with completely different design was patented by J. Osterhoudt in 1866. Instead of piercing the can, it was used to tear off and roll up a pre-scored strip on the side of the can, just below the lid. It was also called "key", because of resemblance to a door key. Such openers are spot-welded or soldered to many small, thin-walled cans nowadays and are separated prior to use by prying the key up and bending it back and forth a few times until it breaks loose. Several can openers with a simple and robust design have been specifically developed for military use. The P-38 and P-51 are small can openers with a cutter hinged to the main body. They were also known as a "John Wayne" because the actor was shown in a training film opening a can of K-rations. The P-38 can opener is keychain-sized, about 1.5 inches (38 mm) long, and consists of a short metal blade that serves as a handle (and can also be used as a screwdriver), with a small, hinged metal tooth that folds out to pierce the can lid. A notch just under the hinge point keeps the opener hooked around the rim of the can as the device is "walked" around the rim to cut the lid out. A larger version, called P-51, is somewhat easier to operate. P-38 was developed in 1942 and was issued in the canned field rations of the United States Armed Forces from World War II to the 1980s. The P-38 and P-51 are cheaper to manufacture and are smaller and lighter to carry than most other can openers. The device can be easily attached to a keyring or dog tag chain using the small punched hole. Official military designations for the P-38 include "US Army pocket can opener" and "Opener, can, hand, folding, type I". As with some other military terms (e.g., jeep), the origin of the term is not known with certainty. The P-38 and P-51 openers share a designation with the Lockheed P-38 Lightning and North American P-51 Mustang fighters, however this is coincidental. The most likely origin of the name is much more pedestrian; the P-38 and P-51 measure 38 mm (1.5 in) and 51 mm (2.0 in) in length respectively. P-38s are no longer used for individual rations by the United States Armed Forces, as canned C-rations were replaced by soft-pack MREs in the 1980s. They are, however, included with United States military "Tray Rations" (canned bulk meals). They are also still seen in disaster recovery efforts and have been handed out alongside canned food by rescue organizations, both in America and abroad in Afghanistan. The original US-contract P-38 can openers were manufactured by J. W. Speaker Corp. (stamped "US Speaker") and by Washburn Corp. (marked "US Androck"), they were later made by Mallin Hardware (now defunct) of Shelby, Ohio and were variously stamped "US Mallin Shelby O." or "U.S. Shelby Co." A similar device that incorporates a small spoon at one end and a bottle opener at the other is currently employed by the Australian Defence Force and New Zealand Army in its ration kits. The Field Ration Eating Device is known by the acronym "FRED". It is also known as the "Fucking Ridiculous Eating Device". Another similar device was included with British Army "Operational Ration Pack, General Purpose" 24-hour ration pack and "Composite Ration Pack" rations. At one time they were manufactured by W. P. Warren Engineering Co., Ltd. The instructions printed on the miniature, greaseproof paper bag in which they were packed read: "Their design is similar, but not identical, to the P-38 and P-51 can openers." Most military ration can openers have a very simple design and have also been produced for civilian use in many countries. For example, small folding openers similar to the P-38 and P-51 were designed in 1924 and were widely distributed in the Eastern European countries. In Slovenia a somewhat rounded version of a P-38 is known as "sardine can opener", because in the 1990s such openers were usually packed with cans that did not feature the pull-top pre-scored lid. A non-folding version of the P-38 used to be very common in Israeli kitchens, and can still be found in stores, often sold in packs of five. The first electric can opener was patented in 1931 and modeled after the cutting-wheel design. Those openers were produced in the 1930s and advertised as capable of removing lids from more than 20 cans per minute without risk of injury. Nevertheless, they found little success. Electric openers were re-introduced in 1956 by two Californian companies. Klassen Enterprises of Centreville brought out a wall-mounted electric model, but this complex design was unpopular too. The same year, Walter Hess Bodle invented a freestanding device, combining an electric can opener and knife sharpener. He and his family members built their prototype in his garage, with daughter Elizabeth sculpting the body design. It was manufactured under the "Udico" brand of the Union Die Casting Co. in Los Angeles, California and was offered in Flamingo Pink, Avocado Green, and Aqua Blue, popular colors of the era. These openers were introduced to the market for Christmas sales and found immediate success. A new style of the can opener emerged in the 1980s. Whereas most other openers remove the lid by cutting down through the lid from the top just inside the rim, removing the top and leaving the rim attached to the can, these use a roller and cutting wheel to cut round the side of the can just below the rim, removing the top and rim. The can is left with a relatively safe, non-jagged edge. The feed wheel teeth have a somewhat finer pitch than those of earlier designs and reside at the bottom of a V-shaped groove, which surrounds the rim on three sides at the point of action. Henry Kuttner's 1943 short story "The Proud Robot" is about a fancy narcissistic robot which turned out to be "a bigger and better opener" created by a drunk inventor, described by a reviewer as "the most beautiful can opener in the world".
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The Religious Society of Friends, otherwise known as the Quakers, was founded in England in the mid-1600s by George Fox, as a branch of Christianity. In the 1640s, Fox embarked on a spiritual mission through Europe where he experienced "openings," or times when he felt God was speaking directly to him. Fox shared his beliefs with those who had lost faith in the Church of England, and such beliefs started to spread, despite the fact that Fox was imprisoned for blasphemy. Fox's followers would be persecuted and bullied and the term "Quakers" was an insult used to refer to them. They were derisively called Quakers because they were said to "tremble" while in the path of God or in prayer. To those in the Church of England, the Quakers espoused radical beliefs. The main difference between the beliefs of the Quakers and those of the Church of England was that the Quakers believed God could speak directly to individuals through Jesus Christ, rather than through ministers or clergy. The Quakers believed that people could have a direct relationship with God. They also believed that women were spiritually equal to men, and rejected elaborate religious ceremonies, taxes, and mandatory church attendance. Quakers were pacifists and refused to sign legal papers. By the middle of the 17th century, Quakers had begun emigrating to the New World, where they also faced persecution. In fact, in 1660, Mary Dyer was one of three Quakers executed in Puritan Massachusetts for defying Puritan law. The three, and one other, would become to known to the Quakers as the Boston Martyrs. Luckily for the Quakers, however, the teachings of George Fox had influenced at least one individual who was owed a massive debt by the King of England! William Penn became a Quaker early in his life. He spent many years traveling through Europe on a mission to convert people to the Quaker faith. When his father died, William was bequeathed a large debt payable by King Charles II. The King agreed to grant Penn over 29 million acres of land between New York and Maryland, making him the largest landowner in the world who was not a monarch. This, of course, would become Pennsylvania, and William Penn was ready to start what he called his "holy experiment." Penn quickly established Pennsylvania as a refuge for Quakers and other persecuted religion groups including Jews and Mennonites. Tens of thousands of settlers poured into Pennsylvania for opportunity and religious freedom. The Quakers established positive relations with the Native Americans and insisted on treating them fairly in trade and land dealings. Ultimately, however, quaker influence waned as politics compromised their spiritual beliefs and pacifism. Quakers turned to community improvement and volunteering. The abolishment of slavery became an important Quaker cause and by 1780, Quakers were prohibited from owning slaves. Many would harbor slaves or help slaves escape to freedom on the Underground Railroad.
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The Religious Society of Friends, otherwise known as the Quakers, was founded in England in the mid-1600s by George Fox, as a branch of Christianity. In the 1640s, Fox embarked on a spiritual mission through Europe where he experienced "openings," or times when he felt God was speaking directly to him. Fox shared his beliefs with those who had lost faith in the Church of England, and such beliefs started to spread, despite the fact that Fox was imprisoned for blasphemy. Fox's followers would be persecuted and bullied and the term "Quakers" was an insult used to refer to them. They were derisively called Quakers because they were said to "tremble" while in the path of God or in prayer. To those in the Church of England, the Quakers espoused radical beliefs. The main difference between the beliefs of the Quakers and those of the Church of England was that the Quakers believed God could speak directly to individuals through Jesus Christ, rather than through ministers or clergy. The Quakers believed that people could have a direct relationship with God. They also believed that women were spiritually equal to men, and rejected elaborate religious ceremonies, taxes, and mandatory church attendance. Quakers were pacifists and refused to sign legal papers. By the middle of the 17th century, Quakers had begun emigrating to the New World, where they also faced persecution. In fact, in 1660, Mary Dyer was one of three Quakers executed in Puritan Massachusetts for defying Puritan law. The three, and one other, would become to known to the Quakers as the Boston Martyrs. Luckily for the Quakers, however, the teachings of George Fox had influenced at least one individual who was owed a massive debt by the King of England! William Penn became a Quaker early in his life. He spent many years traveling through Europe on a mission to convert people to the Quaker faith. When his father died, William was bequeathed a large debt payable by King Charles II. The King agreed to grant Penn over 29 million acres of land between New York and Maryland, making him the largest landowner in the world who was not a monarch. This, of course, would become Pennsylvania, and William Penn was ready to start what he called his "holy experiment." Penn quickly established Pennsylvania as a refuge for Quakers and other persecuted religion groups including Jews and Mennonites. Tens of thousands of settlers poured into Pennsylvania for opportunity and religious freedom. The Quakers established positive relations with the Native Americans and insisted on treating them fairly in trade and land dealings. Ultimately, however, quaker influence waned as politics compromised their spiritual beliefs and pacifism. Quakers turned to community improvement and volunteering. The abolishment of slavery became an important Quaker cause and by 1780, Quakers were prohibited from owning slaves. Many would harbor slaves or help slaves escape to freedom on the Underground Railroad.
616
ENGLISH
1
Nonetheless, treaties are legally binding agreements that occur nation to nation. Treaties were made between newly formed European settler governments and the sovereign Indigenous nations that already populated the continent. Today, Natives are often thought of in terms of race, and we are considered people of color. But American Indians specifically are also designated by the federal government as a political classification. This is because we belong to ancient Indigenous tribes that predate the existence of the United States of America and we made treaties with them. These treaties recognized our sovereignty as independent nations. Treaties, and the U.S. government’s history of unilaterally breaching them, have had a profound effect on Native people. To be blunt, we were lied to. Treaties were used as a ruse to coax tribes out of defending their territory and to steal Native lands and resources. The U.S. made hundreds of treaties with Native nations. The list is exhaustive. I am Dakota and Lakota from the Oceti Sakowin (Great Sioux Nation), so I will focus on treaties that my people have signed with the government and how that has affected us. Minnesota is the ancestral land of the Dakota. More than 1 in 10 treaties ever signed by the U.S. involved land in what is today Minnesota. In the 1851 treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, Dakota of the Oceti Sakowin (Great Sioux Nation) ceded land in Minnesota to the U.S. in exchange for money, goods, and services. Unbeknownst to the Dakota, Congress eliminated Article 3 of each treaty. This Article set up reservation land within Minnesota for the Dakota to live on. The government also defaulted on payments to the Dakota. It kept more than 80% of the money. Of the payments that were made, the government often gave the money directly to traders who were supposed to supply the Dakota with rations. The withholding of rations by these traders led to the Dakota War of 1862, because the Dakota, of which there were an estimated 6,500 people, were starving. All told, the war lasted a month and a half. About 400 Dakota were arrested by the U.S. military. Ultimately, 38 Dakota men were hung in the largest mass execution in U.S. history, in Mankato, Minnesota, on December 26, 1862, under the orders of President Abraham Lincoln. The Dakota people were separated after the war. We became exiles. The governor of Minnesota put a bounty on the scalps of every Dakota man, woman, and child. Some Dakota were taken to prison camps in Iowa. Others, like my ancestor Chief Wabasha, were marched to the Crow Creek Reservation in South Dakota. More were moved to Nebraska territory. Most Dakota from the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands were moved to the Lake Traverse Reservation in South Dakota. Some managed to escape to the Spirit Lake Reservation in North Dakota and to Canada. Others died from sickness and famine. More than one-quarter of Dakota in 1862 died during the following year. In 1863, more than 150 Dakota were massacred at Whitestone Hill, where the cavalry took out their vengeance for the war on many innocent Dakota by ambushing them. Women and children were slaughtered there. They even killed the Dakota’s dogs and horses.
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Nonetheless, treaties are legally binding agreements that occur nation to nation. Treaties were made between newly formed European settler governments and the sovereign Indigenous nations that already populated the continent. Today, Natives are often thought of in terms of race, and we are considered people of color. But American Indians specifically are also designated by the federal government as a political classification. This is because we belong to ancient Indigenous tribes that predate the existence of the United States of America and we made treaties with them. These treaties recognized our sovereignty as independent nations. Treaties, and the U.S. government’s history of unilaterally breaching them, have had a profound effect on Native people. To be blunt, we were lied to. Treaties were used as a ruse to coax tribes out of defending their territory and to steal Native lands and resources. The U.S. made hundreds of treaties with Native nations. The list is exhaustive. I am Dakota and Lakota from the Oceti Sakowin (Great Sioux Nation), so I will focus on treaties that my people have signed with the government and how that has affected us. Minnesota is the ancestral land of the Dakota. More than 1 in 10 treaties ever signed by the U.S. involved land in what is today Minnesota. In the 1851 treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, Dakota of the Oceti Sakowin (Great Sioux Nation) ceded land in Minnesota to the U.S. in exchange for money, goods, and services. Unbeknownst to the Dakota, Congress eliminated Article 3 of each treaty. This Article set up reservation land within Minnesota for the Dakota to live on. The government also defaulted on payments to the Dakota. It kept more than 80% of the money. Of the payments that were made, the government often gave the money directly to traders who were supposed to supply the Dakota with rations. The withholding of rations by these traders led to the Dakota War of 1862, because the Dakota, of which there were an estimated 6,500 people, were starving. All told, the war lasted a month and a half. About 400 Dakota were arrested by the U.S. military. Ultimately, 38 Dakota men were hung in the largest mass execution in U.S. history, in Mankato, Minnesota, on December 26, 1862, under the orders of President Abraham Lincoln. The Dakota people were separated after the war. We became exiles. The governor of Minnesota put a bounty on the scalps of every Dakota man, woman, and child. Some Dakota were taken to prison camps in Iowa. Others, like my ancestor Chief Wabasha, were marched to the Crow Creek Reservation in South Dakota. More were moved to Nebraska territory. Most Dakota from the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands were moved to the Lake Traverse Reservation in South Dakota. Some managed to escape to the Spirit Lake Reservation in North Dakota and to Canada. Others died from sickness and famine. More than one-quarter of Dakota in 1862 died during the following year. In 1863, more than 150 Dakota were massacred at Whitestone Hill, where the cavalry took out their vengeance for the war on many innocent Dakota by ambushing them. Women and children were slaughtered there. They even killed the Dakota’s dogs and horses.
700
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By definition, a pirate is an individual who commits a robbery or an act of violence by boat or ship on another ship that usually has valuable cargo. Historically, pirates have been in existence since the 14th century BCE during the age of the ocean raiders known as the Sea Peoples. Piracy is best accomplished in narrow waters where a ship can be herded to a position where its defenses are rendered useless. Despite being a field dominated by men, there have been some famous women in history who have made their way into the history books. The reason for a low number of women was a document that was known as the ship’s contract, which prevented women from becoming part of a ship’s crew. Due to these restrictions, most female pirates did not go by the designation of “pirate” even though their actions were synonymous to piracy. Some female pirates, such as Anne Bonny and Mary Read, decided to dress up and act like men. Also known as the Lady of Mercians, Æthelflæd lived between c. 870 and June 12, 918. Daughter to the king of the kingdom of Wessex (Alfred the Great) and Ealhswith, this woman ruled Mercia from 911 until she passed away. Æthelflæd was born in a time when the vikings were at the height of their attacks on England. In the 890s, Æthelflæd, together with her husband, played a key part in rebuffing viking attacks. After her husband became ill, she assumed most of the leadership roles of running the kingdom. 9. Jeanne de Clisson Also known as the Lioness of Brittany and Jeanne de Belleville, Jeanne de Clisson was a Breton privateer who lived between 1300 and 1359 and was a pirate for 13 years. Born in Belleville-sur-Vie in the Vendee, this woman plied the waters in the English Channel hunting down French ships with a fleet of three ships that was known as the Black Fleet. Her fleet would murder almost everyone leaving few survivors to spread the news. Initially, her allegiances were French but those changed after the French King murdered her husband. 8. Elise Eskilsdotter Elise Eskilsdotter was a Norwegian noble who died in 1483. Elise’s parents were Eskild Ågesen (a knight) and Elisabeth Jakobsdatter Hegle. Later on, around 1420, she got married to Olav Nilsson. Her husband was part of Norway’s ruling council that was known as the Riksråd. After his country made peace with the Germans in 1453, he continued attacking their ships against the king’s desires, which was why he was dismissed in the same year. In 1455, he was assassinated together with his son and other people, which led to Elise taking up arms against the German merchants. She was also against Danish rule, which was why the Danish King took her fief from her in 1468. 7. Grace O'Malley Also known as Gráinne O'Malley, Grace O'Malley was born around c. 1530 and died around c. 1603. As a child, Grace shaved her head and dressed as a boy to sneak aboard her father's ships. Later, Grace took up the position as the lord of the Ó Máille dynasty when her father, Eoghan Dubhdara Ó Máille, passed away. She was an active leader who took over matters to do with both sea and land. Although twice married, Grace was regarded as a Queen with castles, ships, and followers of her own. 6. Sayyida al Hurra Born with the name Lalla Aicha bint Ali ibn Rashid al-Alami, Hakimat Titwan, Sayyida al Hurra was a Tétouan queen between 1515 and 1542. In the early stages of the 16th century, she became a pirate queen. Sayyida lived from 1485 until her death on July 14, 1561. Most historians agree that she is one of the most crucial women in Islamic history. Her pirate life was carried out in the Mediterranean Sea where she had an alliance with the Turkish corsair Barbarossa of Algiers. 5. Jacquotte Delahaye This woman was a pirate who plied her trade in the Caribbean Sea in the 17th century. Jacquotte is an important figure in history because she was among the few women who carried our piracy at that time. However, some debate still exists over whether or not she existed. The only account of her activities comes from a French fiction writer known as Leon Treich. 4. Anne Bonny Anne was an Irish pirate who plied the Caribbean. Interestingly, for one of the most famous female pirates in the word, her dates of birth and death are unclear. However, historians estimate that she lived between 1697 and April 1782. What little information we know about her is contained in the book titled “A General History of the Pyrates,” which was written by Captain Charles Johnson. Bonny is said to have been born in Old Head of Kinsale in Ireland. She married pirate John "Calico Jack" Rackham and became a member of his crew. Later, she met and befriended Mary Read (see below). In October 1720, she was captured and sentenced to death although her punishment was stayed due to pregnancy. Eventually, she was released after giving birth. 3. Mary Read Born in 1685, Mary also went by the name Mark Read. Together with Anne Bonny above, these two are arguably the most famous female pirates. Read spent her childhood disguised as a boy working on ships. She married a Flemish solider and upon his early death, she once again took up her male clothing and headed to the West Indies. When the ship was attacked by pirates, Read willingly joined. She later met Anne Bonny and her husband Calico Jack and the three joined together. The two were later arrested and Mary died on April 28, 1721 while in prison. 2. Ching Shih Also called Cheng I Sao, Ching Shih was a pirate who once plied the China Sea during the time of the Qing Dynasty in the 19th century. History books state that she was once in command of 300 Chinese ships and a sizeable number of pirates (between 20,000 and 40,000). The pirate army consisted of several kinds of people including men, children, and women. Ching was born in 1775 and died in 1844 at an age of 68 or 69. During her time, she fought major nations like Portugal and England. 1. Charlotte Badger Charlotte was born in 1778 in Bromsgrove, England and died in 1818 (or after). She was born to Thomas and Anny Badger (a poor family) and was baptized on July 31, 1778. To make ends meet, she used to engage in criminal activities, which was why she was caught and sentenced to seven years’ worth of penal servitude in Australia. While in Australia, she and another woman staged a mutiny aboard a ship. She apparently settled in a Maori village in New Zealand with her daughter. She is remembered as being one of the first white women to settle in New Zealand and the first female Australian pirate. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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By definition, a pirate is an individual who commits a robbery or an act of violence by boat or ship on another ship that usually has valuable cargo. Historically, pirates have been in existence since the 14th century BCE during the age of the ocean raiders known as the Sea Peoples. Piracy is best accomplished in narrow waters where a ship can be herded to a position where its defenses are rendered useless. Despite being a field dominated by men, there have been some famous women in history who have made their way into the history books. The reason for a low number of women was a document that was known as the ship’s contract, which prevented women from becoming part of a ship’s crew. Due to these restrictions, most female pirates did not go by the designation of “pirate” even though their actions were synonymous to piracy. Some female pirates, such as Anne Bonny and Mary Read, decided to dress up and act like men. Also known as the Lady of Mercians, Æthelflæd lived between c. 870 and June 12, 918. Daughter to the king of the kingdom of Wessex (Alfred the Great) and Ealhswith, this woman ruled Mercia from 911 until she passed away. Æthelflæd was born in a time when the vikings were at the height of their attacks on England. In the 890s, Æthelflæd, together with her husband, played a key part in rebuffing viking attacks. After her husband became ill, she assumed most of the leadership roles of running the kingdom. 9. Jeanne de Clisson Also known as the Lioness of Brittany and Jeanne de Belleville, Jeanne de Clisson was a Breton privateer who lived between 1300 and 1359 and was a pirate for 13 years. Born in Belleville-sur-Vie in the Vendee, this woman plied the waters in the English Channel hunting down French ships with a fleet of three ships that was known as the Black Fleet. Her fleet would murder almost everyone leaving few survivors to spread the news. Initially, her allegiances were French but those changed after the French King murdered her husband. 8. Elise Eskilsdotter Elise Eskilsdotter was a Norwegian noble who died in 1483. Elise’s parents were Eskild Ågesen (a knight) and Elisabeth Jakobsdatter Hegle. Later on, around 1420, she got married to Olav Nilsson. Her husband was part of Norway’s ruling council that was known as the Riksråd. After his country made peace with the Germans in 1453, he continued attacking their ships against the king’s desires, which was why he was dismissed in the same year. In 1455, he was assassinated together with his son and other people, which led to Elise taking up arms against the German merchants. She was also against Danish rule, which was why the Danish King took her fief from her in 1468. 7. Grace O'Malley Also known as Gráinne O'Malley, Grace O'Malley was born around c. 1530 and died around c. 1603. As a child, Grace shaved her head and dressed as a boy to sneak aboard her father's ships. Later, Grace took up the position as the lord of the Ó Máille dynasty when her father, Eoghan Dubhdara Ó Máille, passed away. She was an active leader who took over matters to do with both sea and land. Although twice married, Grace was regarded as a Queen with castles, ships, and followers of her own. 6. Sayyida al Hurra Born with the name Lalla Aicha bint Ali ibn Rashid al-Alami, Hakimat Titwan, Sayyida al Hurra was a Tétouan queen between 1515 and 1542. In the early stages of the 16th century, she became a pirate queen. Sayyida lived from 1485 until her death on July 14, 1561. Most historians agree that she is one of the most crucial women in Islamic history. Her pirate life was carried out in the Mediterranean Sea where she had an alliance with the Turkish corsair Barbarossa of Algiers. 5. Jacquotte Delahaye This woman was a pirate who plied her trade in the Caribbean Sea in the 17th century. Jacquotte is an important figure in history because she was among the few women who carried our piracy at that time. However, some debate still exists over whether or not she existed. The only account of her activities comes from a French fiction writer known as Leon Treich. 4. Anne Bonny Anne was an Irish pirate who plied the Caribbean. Interestingly, for one of the most famous female pirates in the word, her dates of birth and death are unclear. However, historians estimate that she lived between 1697 and April 1782. What little information we know about her is contained in the book titled “A General History of the Pyrates,” which was written by Captain Charles Johnson. Bonny is said to have been born in Old Head of Kinsale in Ireland. She married pirate John "Calico Jack" Rackham and became a member of his crew. Later, she met and befriended Mary Read (see below). In October 1720, she was captured and sentenced to death although her punishment was stayed due to pregnancy. Eventually, she was released after giving birth. 3. Mary Read Born in 1685, Mary also went by the name Mark Read. Together with Anne Bonny above, these two are arguably the most famous female pirates. Read spent her childhood disguised as a boy working on ships. She married a Flemish solider and upon his early death, she once again took up her male clothing and headed to the West Indies. When the ship was attacked by pirates, Read willingly joined. She later met Anne Bonny and her husband Calico Jack and the three joined together. The two were later arrested and Mary died on April 28, 1721 while in prison. 2. Ching Shih Also called Cheng I Sao, Ching Shih was a pirate who once plied the China Sea during the time of the Qing Dynasty in the 19th century. History books state that she was once in command of 300 Chinese ships and a sizeable number of pirates (between 20,000 and 40,000). The pirate army consisted of several kinds of people including men, children, and women. Ching was born in 1775 and died in 1844 at an age of 68 or 69. During her time, she fought major nations like Portugal and England. 1. Charlotte Badger Charlotte was born in 1778 in Bromsgrove, England and died in 1818 (or after). She was born to Thomas and Anny Badger (a poor family) and was baptized on July 31, 1778. To make ends meet, she used to engage in criminal activities, which was why she was caught and sentenced to seven years’ worth of penal servitude in Australia. While in Australia, she and another woman staged a mutiny aboard a ship. She apparently settled in a Maori village in New Zealand with her daughter. She is remembered as being one of the first white women to settle in New Zealand and the first female Australian pirate. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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January 25th, 2011 in Words Both say and tell are used with direct and indirect speech. With direct speech, say is more common than tell. Say can refer to any kind of speech. Say ‘thank you’ when you are given something. Say it again. ‘Come at once,’ she said. She said that I wouldn’t get another chance. Say is usually used without a personal object. She said that she would come. Tell is usually followed by a personal object. Tell her to go away. (NOT Say her to go away.) She told me that she would come. (NOT She said me that she would come.) If we have to put a personal object after say, we use to. She said to all the team members that they should be ready in an hour. (NOT She said all the team members …) Tell can be used before object + infinitive. Say cannot be used like this. I told her to go away. (NOT I said her to go away.) Tell can mean ‘distinguish’ or ‘understand’, as in tell the difference, tell the time. Say cannot be used like this. Can you tell the difference between them? (NOT Can you say the difference between them.) You can’t tell Mary from her twin sister. Neither tell nor say can introduce indirect questions. She asked if I wanted to go. (NOT She said if I wanted to go.) (NOT She told if I wanted to go.)
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January 25th, 2011 in Words Both say and tell are used with direct and indirect speech. With direct speech, say is more common than tell. Say can refer to any kind of speech. Say ‘thank you’ when you are given something. Say it again. ‘Come at once,’ she said. She said that I wouldn’t get another chance. Say is usually used without a personal object. She said that she would come. Tell is usually followed by a personal object. Tell her to go away. (NOT Say her to go away.) She told me that she would come. (NOT She said me that she would come.) If we have to put a personal object after say, we use to. She said to all the team members that they should be ready in an hour. (NOT She said all the team members …) Tell can be used before object + infinitive. Say cannot be used like this. I told her to go away. (NOT I said her to go away.) Tell can mean ‘distinguish’ or ‘understand’, as in tell the difference, tell the time. Say cannot be used like this. Can you tell the difference between them? (NOT Can you say the difference between them.) You can’t tell Mary from her twin sister. Neither tell nor say can introduce indirect questions. She asked if I wanted to go. (NOT She said if I wanted to go.) (NOT She told if I wanted to go.)
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Indoor relief provided people who were poor with food and other necessities within an institution. The first children's Homes in Tasmania provided a kind of indoor relief in that most children were there because their parents could not support them for one reason or another. Indoor relief is most commonly associated with nineteenth century British workhouses which assisted people in poverty on the condition that they lived in them. It was widely believed at this time that people were poor through their own fault. The workhouses were a form of punishment in that their occupants were forced to work on menial tasks and their families were broken up. Australia did not have workhouses. However, people in poverty who also had disabilities or who were elderly or children often received indoor relief. Similarly to Britain, these institutions had a stigma attached to them. Prepared by: Caroline Evans Created: 5 March 2014, Last modified: 23 February 2015
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Indoor relief provided people who were poor with food and other necessities within an institution. The first children's Homes in Tasmania provided a kind of indoor relief in that most children were there because their parents could not support them for one reason or another. Indoor relief is most commonly associated with nineteenth century British workhouses which assisted people in poverty on the condition that they lived in them. It was widely believed at this time that people were poor through their own fault. The workhouses were a form of punishment in that their occupants were forced to work on menial tasks and their families were broken up. Australia did not have workhouses. However, people in poverty who also had disabilities or who were elderly or children often received indoor relief. Similarly to Britain, these institutions had a stigma attached to them. Prepared by: Caroline Evans Created: 5 March 2014, Last modified: 23 February 2015
189
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Learning to lie has cognitive benefits, study finds It's a tenet of Parenting 101 that kids should tell the truth. But a recent study co-authored by the University of Toronto's Kang Lee suggests that learning to lie can confer cognitive benefits. "As parents and teachers – and society as a whole – we always worry that if a kid lies there will be terrible consequences," Lee says. "But it turns out there is a big difference between kids who lie earlier and those who lie later. The kids who lie earlier tend to have much better cognitive abilities." Lee, a professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and his co-authors in China, Singapore and the United States, based their findings on an experiment in which they asked 42 preschool-aged children in China – who showed no initial ability to lie – how to play a hide-and-seek game. They were split into two groups with an equal number of boys and girls, with an average age of about 40 months. Over four days, they played a game in which they hid a treat, such as popcorn, from an adult in one hand. The grown-up had to choose the hand that the child indicated. If the child successfully deceived the adult, they got to keep the treat. The experimental group of kids was taught how to lie in order to win the game while the control group was not. On standardized tests used to measure executive function, including self-control and "theory of mind" – the capacity to understand another person's intentions and beliefs – the kids who were taught deception out-performed the control group. "With just a few days of instruction, young children quickly learned to deceive and gained immediate cognitive benefits from doing so," the researchers write in the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. "More generally," the authors add, "these findings support the idea that even seemingly negative human social behaviors may confer cognitive benefits when such behaviors call for goal pursuing, problem solving, mental state tracking, and perspective taking." Lee has been studying how and why kids lie for more than two decades, but he and his co-writers say this article is "the first evidence that learning to deceive causally enhances cognitive skills in young children." Does that mean parents should throw out conventional wisdom and actually teach their kids to lie? Not exactly. "I don't think that would be a good idea," Lee says, "but it's not a bad idea to let them play these kinds of deceptive games." Children have been found to be capable of fibbing before they are seven years old, and some as early as two. He caught his own son lying for the first time at 14 months. He had taught him some American sign language, and their son gestured for more milk although he wasn't hungry. "We ran over to the fridge to get milk and he went, 'Ha ha ha!' He started to laugh." Lying is a normal part of growing up, Lee says – and the earlier one learns to deceive, the better. "When you look at the two skills important for lying [self-control and theory of mind]...these are fundamental cognitive skills that humans must have to survive in society," he says.
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Learning to lie has cognitive benefits, study finds It's a tenet of Parenting 101 that kids should tell the truth. But a recent study co-authored by the University of Toronto's Kang Lee suggests that learning to lie can confer cognitive benefits. "As parents and teachers – and society as a whole – we always worry that if a kid lies there will be terrible consequences," Lee says. "But it turns out there is a big difference between kids who lie earlier and those who lie later. The kids who lie earlier tend to have much better cognitive abilities." Lee, a professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and his co-authors in China, Singapore and the United States, based their findings on an experiment in which they asked 42 preschool-aged children in China – who showed no initial ability to lie – how to play a hide-and-seek game. They were split into two groups with an equal number of boys and girls, with an average age of about 40 months. Over four days, they played a game in which they hid a treat, such as popcorn, from an adult in one hand. The grown-up had to choose the hand that the child indicated. If the child successfully deceived the adult, they got to keep the treat. The experimental group of kids was taught how to lie in order to win the game while the control group was not. On standardized tests used to measure executive function, including self-control and "theory of mind" – the capacity to understand another person's intentions and beliefs – the kids who were taught deception out-performed the control group. "With just a few days of instruction, young children quickly learned to deceive and gained immediate cognitive benefits from doing so," the researchers write in the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. "More generally," the authors add, "these findings support the idea that even seemingly negative human social behaviors may confer cognitive benefits when such behaviors call for goal pursuing, problem solving, mental state tracking, and perspective taking." Lee has been studying how and why kids lie for more than two decades, but he and his co-writers say this article is "the first evidence that learning to deceive causally enhances cognitive skills in young children." Does that mean parents should throw out conventional wisdom and actually teach their kids to lie? Not exactly. "I don't think that would be a good idea," Lee says, "but it's not a bad idea to let them play these kinds of deceptive games." Children have been found to be capable of fibbing before they are seven years old, and some as early as two. He caught his own son lying for the first time at 14 months. He had taught him some American sign language, and their son gestured for more milk although he wasn't hungry. "We ran over to the fridge to get milk and he went, 'Ha ha ha!' He started to laugh." Lying is a normal part of growing up, Lee says – and the earlier one learns to deceive, the better. "When you look at the two skills important for lying [self-control and theory of mind]...these are fundamental cognitive skills that humans must have to survive in society," he says.
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Thirty years ago today, the UK was coming to terms with the devastation that occurred on the night of 15–16 October whereby a severe storm swept across the country. The aftermath of this ‘Great Storm’ has had repercussions for woodlands and landscapes that are still being felt today… The Great Storm of 1987 was for the majority of people a complete surprise. At its peak it raged continuously for three to four hours, reached gusts of 110mph, caused the tragic death of 18 people and uprooted a staggering 15-million trees. Many woodlands in the south east lost 95% of their trees – this loss was exacerbated by wet soils prior to the storm; trees were literally torn up by the roots and flung onto the ground. The effect was catastrophic and fundamentally altered the affected landscapes. The aftermath and lessons learned Initial reactions in many instances saw land managers diving in with chainsaws and diggers in an effort to remove the fallen trees, but this approach often led to further destruction and devastation through compaction of the sodden soils, resulting in erosion and degraded conditions, and the loss of what could have been ecologically valuable deadwood habitat. The removal of trees also took away the potential for natural regeneration, which could have been achieved if they had been left in situ. In many cases, however, due to the enormous scale of the tree loss, the decision was made to leave timber where it lay and to allow woodlands and forests to heal themselves as they saw fit. Spaces created by the fallen trees allowed dormant seeds an opportunity to grow. The regeneration of woodland has in many cases led to an improvement in botanical structure and species diversity. As the woodland canopies were opened up, species of fauna such as birds of prey were able to benefit due to their quarry being made more accessible. The storm led to changes in management in terms of the age of trees being planted. Previously, many woodlands and forests were comprised of trees of a similar age, decreasing their resilience and sustainability; nowadays, a mixture of ages is promoted, in addition to the inclusion of shelter-belts, which are used as buffers to disperse and filter storm activity. It has also led to the reintroduction of more suitable broadleaved native species being planted, such as oak and maple, rather than shallow-rooted pines and firs. The after effects of the storm, highlighted how precious trees are to many people on a personal level, this prompted the planting of more trees than ever before. Perhaps most importantly, the storm led to the fundamental realisation that nature is more than capable of recreating itself without man-made interference. This more relaxed way of management is often implemented in today’s forestry and was to a greater extent born out of the Great Storm event. Case Study – Toy’s Hill, Kent Toy’s Hill comprises a 93 acre woodland, which is located at the highest point in Kent. It lies within Scord’s Wood and Brockhoult Mount Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Prior to the storm, the area comprised ancient woodland and remnant heath. The storm resulted in a loss of 98% of the trees – around 90% of those lost were beech. The effects were seen as a rare opportunity to study natural regeneration; therefore, a variety of approaches were implemented: some of the areas were cleared and left to regenerate naturally, other areas were replanted following clearance, some areas were carefully cleared with a view to manage these areas as heathland habitat and a final strategy was to leave another section entirely to its own devices. Studies at Toy’s Hill have concluded that whilst the initial impact of the storm was one of destruction, it is likely that many of the trees that were there before the storm, were old and beyond their peak reproduction age; furthermore, the dense canopy precluded the growth of seedlings – the storm therefore, presented the opportunity for germination. It has been identified that more harm than good may have been done in the areas where regeneration was actively managed through clearance, in efforts to speed it up – birch colonisation was more extensive in these areas than it might have been if the intervention had been lighter. A number of species took advantage of the disruption, including native clematis, honeysuckle and heather – unseen in the area for more than a century. The National Trust reported that birds and dormice also benefited in the aftermath. The woodlark and nightjar population increased, and little owl, tawny owl, buzzard, hobby and sparrowhawk exploited the more open woodland. Overall, what was once seen as a tragedy is now seen as the instigator of beneficial changes in biodiversity and management approaches, and an increased understanding that death and decay is part of nature’s strategy of regeneration and life. This has resulted in healthier habitats and greater mosaics of species and structure in our woodlands. - The Management of Storm Damaged Woodland at Toy’s Hill, Kent. G. King, undated. - The National Trust. - Met Office. About the Author: Kate Priestman (CEnv, MCIEEM) has over sixteen years experience as an ecologist. Prior to setting up her own consultancy business in 2012, Kate worked in London for over a decade, providing the lead ecology role for a number of high profile projects. Kate works as an artist, author, writer and editor.
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Thirty years ago today, the UK was coming to terms with the devastation that occurred on the night of 15–16 October whereby a severe storm swept across the country. The aftermath of this ‘Great Storm’ has had repercussions for woodlands and landscapes that are still being felt today… The Great Storm of 1987 was for the majority of people a complete surprise. At its peak it raged continuously for three to four hours, reached gusts of 110mph, caused the tragic death of 18 people and uprooted a staggering 15-million trees. Many woodlands in the south east lost 95% of their trees – this loss was exacerbated by wet soils prior to the storm; trees were literally torn up by the roots and flung onto the ground. The effect was catastrophic and fundamentally altered the affected landscapes. The aftermath and lessons learned Initial reactions in many instances saw land managers diving in with chainsaws and diggers in an effort to remove the fallen trees, but this approach often led to further destruction and devastation through compaction of the sodden soils, resulting in erosion and degraded conditions, and the loss of what could have been ecologically valuable deadwood habitat. The removal of trees also took away the potential for natural regeneration, which could have been achieved if they had been left in situ. In many cases, however, due to the enormous scale of the tree loss, the decision was made to leave timber where it lay and to allow woodlands and forests to heal themselves as they saw fit. Spaces created by the fallen trees allowed dormant seeds an opportunity to grow. The regeneration of woodland has in many cases led to an improvement in botanical structure and species diversity. As the woodland canopies were opened up, species of fauna such as birds of prey were able to benefit due to their quarry being made more accessible. The storm led to changes in management in terms of the age of trees being planted. Previously, many woodlands and forests were comprised of trees of a similar age, decreasing their resilience and sustainability; nowadays, a mixture of ages is promoted, in addition to the inclusion of shelter-belts, which are used as buffers to disperse and filter storm activity. It has also led to the reintroduction of more suitable broadleaved native species being planted, such as oak and maple, rather than shallow-rooted pines and firs. The after effects of the storm, highlighted how precious trees are to many people on a personal level, this prompted the planting of more trees than ever before. Perhaps most importantly, the storm led to the fundamental realisation that nature is more than capable of recreating itself without man-made interference. This more relaxed way of management is often implemented in today’s forestry and was to a greater extent born out of the Great Storm event. Case Study – Toy’s Hill, Kent Toy’s Hill comprises a 93 acre woodland, which is located at the highest point in Kent. It lies within Scord’s Wood and Brockhoult Mount Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Prior to the storm, the area comprised ancient woodland and remnant heath. The storm resulted in a loss of 98% of the trees – around 90% of those lost were beech. The effects were seen as a rare opportunity to study natural regeneration; therefore, a variety of approaches were implemented: some of the areas were cleared and left to regenerate naturally, other areas were replanted following clearance, some areas were carefully cleared with a view to manage these areas as heathland habitat and a final strategy was to leave another section entirely to its own devices. Studies at Toy’s Hill have concluded that whilst the initial impact of the storm was one of destruction, it is likely that many of the trees that were there before the storm, were old and beyond their peak reproduction age; furthermore, the dense canopy precluded the growth of seedlings – the storm therefore, presented the opportunity for germination. It has been identified that more harm than good may have been done in the areas where regeneration was actively managed through clearance, in efforts to speed it up – birch colonisation was more extensive in these areas than it might have been if the intervention had been lighter. A number of species took advantage of the disruption, including native clematis, honeysuckle and heather – unseen in the area for more than a century. The National Trust reported that birds and dormice also benefited in the aftermath. The woodlark and nightjar population increased, and little owl, tawny owl, buzzard, hobby and sparrowhawk exploited the more open woodland. Overall, what was once seen as a tragedy is now seen as the instigator of beneficial changes in biodiversity and management approaches, and an increased understanding that death and decay is part of nature’s strategy of regeneration and life. This has resulted in healthier habitats and greater mosaics of species and structure in our woodlands. - The Management of Storm Damaged Woodland at Toy’s Hill, Kent. G. King, undated. - The National Trust. - Met Office. About the Author: Kate Priestman (CEnv, MCIEEM) has over sixteen years experience as an ecologist. Prior to setting up her own consultancy business in 2012, Kate worked in London for over a decade, providing the lead ecology role for a number of high profile projects. Kate works as an artist, author, writer and editor.
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The year is 1797 and Mary Wollstonecraft gives birth to a baby girl on August 30. A baby girl soon to be known as Mary Shelley. Mary Shelley was a prominent literary figure during the Romantic Era of English Literature. She was the only child of Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin. From infancy Mary was treated as a unique individual. William Godwin believed that babies were born with potential waiting to be developed (Poetry for Students, 337). Therefore, surrounded Mary with famous philosophers, writers, and poets, from an early age. At the age of sixteen Mary ran away to live with the twenty-one year old Percy Shelley (337). There was only one problem though, Percy was married. Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein in the summer of 1816, staying at Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Mary was only nineteen at the4 time. She wrote the novel while being overwhelmed by a series of difficulties in her life. The worst of these were the suicides of her half-sister, Fanny Imlay, and Percy Shelley’s wife, Harriet (Student Handbook, 190). After these deaths Mary and Percy married. Fierce public hostility toward the couple drove them to Italy. Eventually they were happy in Italy, but their two children William and Clara Shelley died there. Mary never really recovered from their deaths. However, Percy empowered Mary to live as she most desired. In 1822 Percy drowned in a boating accident, leaving Mary penniless. For her remaining years she worked as a professional writer to support her father and son. She died in 1851 of a brain tumor. Mary Shelley combined the ethical concerns of her parents with the Romantic sensibilities of Percy Shelley’s poetic inclinations. Her father’s concern for the underprivileged influenced her description of the poverty-stricken De Lacey family. Mary’s choice of a Gothic novel made her unique in her family and secured her authorial place in the Romantic period. Romantics believed that the creative imagination reveals nobler truths, unique feelings and attitudes than those that could be discovered by logic or by scientific examination. Mary Shelley showed this in her book Frankenstein. She expressed how she felt and all she was going through in different parts of Frankenstein. Frankenstein reflected Mary Shelley’s deepest fears and insecurities, like her inability to prevent her children’s deaths, her distressed marriage to a man who showed no pity for his daughters’ deaths, and her feelings of inadequacy as a writer.
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The year is 1797 and Mary Wollstonecraft gives birth to a baby girl on August 30. A baby girl soon to be known as Mary Shelley. Mary Shelley was a prominent literary figure during the Romantic Era of English Literature. She was the only child of Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin. From infancy Mary was treated as a unique individual. William Godwin believed that babies were born with potential waiting to be developed (Poetry for Students, 337). Therefore, surrounded Mary with famous philosophers, writers, and poets, from an early age. At the age of sixteen Mary ran away to live with the twenty-one year old Percy Shelley (337). There was only one problem though, Percy was married. Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein in the summer of 1816, staying at Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Mary was only nineteen at the4 time. She wrote the novel while being overwhelmed by a series of difficulties in her life. The worst of these were the suicides of her half-sister, Fanny Imlay, and Percy Shelley’s wife, Harriet (Student Handbook, 190). After these deaths Mary and Percy married. Fierce public hostility toward the couple drove them to Italy. Eventually they were happy in Italy, but their two children William and Clara Shelley died there. Mary never really recovered from their deaths. However, Percy empowered Mary to live as she most desired. In 1822 Percy drowned in a boating accident, leaving Mary penniless. For her remaining years she worked as a professional writer to support her father and son. She died in 1851 of a brain tumor. Mary Shelley combined the ethical concerns of her parents with the Romantic sensibilities of Percy Shelley’s poetic inclinations. Her father’s concern for the underprivileged influenced her description of the poverty-stricken De Lacey family. Mary’s choice of a Gothic novel made her unique in her family and secured her authorial place in the Romantic period. Romantics believed that the creative imagination reveals nobler truths, unique feelings and attitudes than those that could be discovered by logic or by scientific examination. Mary Shelley showed this in her book Frankenstein. She expressed how she felt and all she was going through in different parts of Frankenstein. Frankenstein reflected Mary Shelley’s deepest fears and insecurities, like her inability to prevent her children’s deaths, her distressed marriage to a man who showed no pity for his daughters’ deaths, and her feelings of inadequacy as a writer.
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Listen to this post Mathematics is the science of numbers, and just like any other form of science, it is constantly evolving. However, changes in scientific thought are not always welcome, since they contradict the popular belief, even though in most cases, the popular belief is wrong. In a similar fashion, the discovery of irrational numbers challenged the established doctrines of numbers and expanded the world of mathematics forever. In 5th century BC Greece, Hippasus was noted as one of the earliest revolutionaries. He was an Italian philosopher who was also a member of group of people who were called the Pythagorean Mathematicians. They believed that “All Is Number”, which meant they had a religious reverence for mathematics and suggested that numbers were the building blocks of the universe. According to them, everything could be understood through the language of numbers. Be it the movement of stars in the night sky, the music that we listen to, or even the moral decisions of the people. The mathematicians claimed that everything always followed eternal rules and naturally felt threatened when these rules were questioned. What are Rational and Irrational Numbers? Our earliest basis for numbers and math derives from the practical need to count and measure things. It is intuitive to see how the positive, non-zero, natural numbers would arise “naturally” from the process of counting. Even fractions are easy to comprehend, due to the need to divide measurable quantities into smaller parts. However, the group of philosophers was traditionalist and their understanding of numbers was based on the fact that every number could be represented as a ratio of two different numbers that had no common divisor except 1. For example, 24 could be represented as 24/1, while 0.6 could be represented as 3/5. These numbers are known today as rational numbers. The name ‘irrational numbers’ does not literally mean that these numbers are ‘devoid of logic’. Any number that couldn’t be expressed in a similar fashion is an irrational number. Such a number could easily be plotted on a number line, such as by sketching the diagonal of a square. Although people were aware of the existence of such numbers, it hadn’t yet been proven that they contradicted the definition of rational numbers. What did Hippasus do? Hippasus is credited in history as the first person to prove the existence of ‘irrational’ numbers. His method involved using the technique of contradiction, in which he first assumed that ‘Root 2’ is a rational number. He then went on to show that no such rational number could exist. Therefore, it had to be something different. The reason that he chose ‘Root 2’ for his calculations is two-fold. Firstly, it is the easiest technique to prove the existence of irrational numbers. Secondly, it has a great significance for Pythagoreans. Pythagoras had himself proven that the sum of squares of the sides in a right triangle is always equal to the square of the hypotenuse. For the simplest right-angled triangle, which is of unit base and unit height, the length of the hypotenuse is ‘Root 2’. However hard he might try to express this as a ratio, he failed. Instead of giving up, he decided to prove that it couldn’t be done. - He first assumed that ‘Root 2’ is a rational number. Since every rational number can be expressed as a ratio, then according to his assumption, even ‘Root 2’ could be expressed as p/q, which is a ratio. Here, p and q are integers and DO NOT have any common factors except 1, which is how we define the lowest form of a rational number representation. For example, 2 could be represented as 4/2 or 6/3, but as a rule, it is represented by its lowest form 2/1. - Next, he said that since q isn’t zero, it could be multiplied on both sides. - If both sides are squared, 2(q)2=p2 - We know that squares of odd numbers always give an odd number, whereas the square of an even number always gives an even number. For example 52=25, 312=961, 522=2704 etc. Since q is an integer, p would have to be an even integer, since it is equal to 2 times q2. Hence, p could be replaced by 2x, where x is any integer, so that 2x is always even. - On replacing p with 2x in the equation, we obtain 2q2=4x2 or q2=2x2. This implies that q is also an even integer, since it is 2 times x2. - Interestingly, the initial condition was that p and q could not have any common factors. However, through simple algebra, we seem to have arrived at the conclusion that both p and q are even integers! If they are even, they would always have 2 as a common factor, which contradicts our condition. - This implies that our initial assumption of ‘Root 2’ being a rational number is false and therefore has to be irrational. Why did they kill Hippasus? The discovery of irrational numbers could have changed mathematics as the world knew it back in 5th century BC, but change doesn’t come easy for traditionalists, even more so for fanatics! They considered his discovery to be a ridicule of the absolute truth, and condemned him to death. He was flung into the sea and his work was destroyed. Some believe that the Pythagoreans were so horrified by the idea of irrationality that they threw Hippassus overboard on a sea voyage and vowed to keep the existence of irrational numbers a secret. Basically, he was wrongfully punished for a crime that brought mathematics to a new frontier by people who were supposed to be pursuing the same goal. Ancient Greece sounds like a pretty ironic place… - History of Irrational Numbers- Brilliant - Discovery of Irrational Numbers- Tutor Circle - Making sense of Irrational Numbers- TedEd
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Listen to this post Mathematics is the science of numbers, and just like any other form of science, it is constantly evolving. However, changes in scientific thought are not always welcome, since they contradict the popular belief, even though in most cases, the popular belief is wrong. In a similar fashion, the discovery of irrational numbers challenged the established doctrines of numbers and expanded the world of mathematics forever. In 5th century BC Greece, Hippasus was noted as one of the earliest revolutionaries. He was an Italian philosopher who was also a member of group of people who were called the Pythagorean Mathematicians. They believed that “All Is Number”, which meant they had a religious reverence for mathematics and suggested that numbers were the building blocks of the universe. According to them, everything could be understood through the language of numbers. Be it the movement of stars in the night sky, the music that we listen to, or even the moral decisions of the people. The mathematicians claimed that everything always followed eternal rules and naturally felt threatened when these rules were questioned. What are Rational and Irrational Numbers? Our earliest basis for numbers and math derives from the practical need to count and measure things. It is intuitive to see how the positive, non-zero, natural numbers would arise “naturally” from the process of counting. Even fractions are easy to comprehend, due to the need to divide measurable quantities into smaller parts. However, the group of philosophers was traditionalist and their understanding of numbers was based on the fact that every number could be represented as a ratio of two different numbers that had no common divisor except 1. For example, 24 could be represented as 24/1, while 0.6 could be represented as 3/5. These numbers are known today as rational numbers. The name ‘irrational numbers’ does not literally mean that these numbers are ‘devoid of logic’. Any number that couldn’t be expressed in a similar fashion is an irrational number. Such a number could easily be plotted on a number line, such as by sketching the diagonal of a square. Although people were aware of the existence of such numbers, it hadn’t yet been proven that they contradicted the definition of rational numbers. What did Hippasus do? Hippasus is credited in history as the first person to prove the existence of ‘irrational’ numbers. His method involved using the technique of contradiction, in which he first assumed that ‘Root 2’ is a rational number. He then went on to show that no such rational number could exist. Therefore, it had to be something different. The reason that he chose ‘Root 2’ for his calculations is two-fold. Firstly, it is the easiest technique to prove the existence of irrational numbers. Secondly, it has a great significance for Pythagoreans. Pythagoras had himself proven that the sum of squares of the sides in a right triangle is always equal to the square of the hypotenuse. For the simplest right-angled triangle, which is of unit base and unit height, the length of the hypotenuse is ‘Root 2’. However hard he might try to express this as a ratio, he failed. Instead of giving up, he decided to prove that it couldn’t be done. - He first assumed that ‘Root 2’ is a rational number. Since every rational number can be expressed as a ratio, then according to his assumption, even ‘Root 2’ could be expressed as p/q, which is a ratio. Here, p and q are integers and DO NOT have any common factors except 1, which is how we define the lowest form of a rational number representation. For example, 2 could be represented as 4/2 or 6/3, but as a rule, it is represented by its lowest form 2/1. - Next, he said that since q isn’t zero, it could be multiplied on both sides. - If both sides are squared, 2(q)2=p2 - We know that squares of odd numbers always give an odd number, whereas the square of an even number always gives an even number. For example 52=25, 312=961, 522=2704 etc. Since q is an integer, p would have to be an even integer, since it is equal to 2 times q2. Hence, p could be replaced by 2x, where x is any integer, so that 2x is always even. - On replacing p with 2x in the equation, we obtain 2q2=4x2 or q2=2x2. This implies that q is also an even integer, since it is 2 times x2. - Interestingly, the initial condition was that p and q could not have any common factors. However, through simple algebra, we seem to have arrived at the conclusion that both p and q are even integers! If they are even, they would always have 2 as a common factor, which contradicts our condition. - This implies that our initial assumption of ‘Root 2’ being a rational number is false and therefore has to be irrational. Why did they kill Hippasus? The discovery of irrational numbers could have changed mathematics as the world knew it back in 5th century BC, but change doesn’t come easy for traditionalists, even more so for fanatics! They considered his discovery to be a ridicule of the absolute truth, and condemned him to death. He was flung into the sea and his work was destroyed. Some believe that the Pythagoreans were so horrified by the idea of irrationality that they threw Hippassus overboard on a sea voyage and vowed to keep the existence of irrational numbers a secret. Basically, he was wrongfully punished for a crime that brought mathematics to a new frontier by people who were supposed to be pursuing the same goal. Ancient Greece sounds like a pretty ironic place… - History of Irrational Numbers- Brilliant - Discovery of Irrational Numbers- Tutor Circle - Making sense of Irrational Numbers- TedEd
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While no battles were fought here in Lancaster County during the Revolutionary War, Lancaster Riflemen and volunteers fought with distinction. In fact, at the outbreak of the Revolution, these riflemen were among the first to march to Boston. As the largest and wealthiest inland town in the colonies, Lancaster’s many influential patriots had a significant impact on the Revolutionary War. Lancastrians played essential roles in creating our new government, as well as helping to feed, supply, and care for troops. War Comes to Lititz On Sunday, December 14, 1777, military surgeon Dr. Samuel Kennedy arrived in the Lititz with orders from General George Washington to quarter sick and wounded soldiers there. At the time of the Revolution, the Moravian church owned the entire town and its many buildings, including the Brothers’ House and the Sisters’ House, which made up most of the main portion of the settlement. The Moravians and their leader Count Zinzendorf were responsible for the founding of the Lititz community, named after a town in Bohemia. After an inspection, the Brothers’ House was approved as a hospital and despite local objections ordered vacated. The single men who lived there were forced to find lodging wherever they could. Many found accommodations in the various shops in the village. Others stayed in the congregational store, where most slept on the floor. Five days later, on December 19 at around noon, the first wagon full of wounded soldiers arrived. By nightfall, 80 sick and injured men from battles in New Jersey and Brandywine were convalescing there. The following day 15 additional wagon loads came. Soon every room was filled with men spilling out into the halls. Most slept on beds of straws. It wasn’t long before the hospital was filled. Additional patients were even cared for elsewhere in the community. Eventually, soldiers had to be turned away. Fortunately, there were other hospitals in Ephrata, Manheim, and Reamstown during the Revolution. Corporal Ennus Tilghman One of the hospital’s early patients was Corporal Ennus Tilghman. He had fallen from a tall oak tree 12 miles outside of Exton, where he had been perched as a lookout for British troops. Over the next four days, Tilghman made the arduous journey via wagon towards Lancaster. The nearly 60-mile trip witnessed the death of two of Tilghman’s fellow soldiers. The men received more bad news as they approached Lancaster. The hospital there was full, and they would need to proceed further north to Lititz. When Tilghman arrived in Lititz, he and his fellow soldiers learned that beds were not yet ready for them. Nevertheless, they were unloaded from the wagon and placed on the cold ground so it could be filled with recuperated soldiers headed for the front lines. However, four days of constant exposure to the elements and extremely rough roads had taken their toll on Tilghman’s health and broken ribs as he lost consciousness. Tilghman was moved inside the Brothers’ House to warm him and eventually carried upstairs to the third floor. Within a week, Tilghman showed signs of improving. It was then that he began to show symptoms of camp fever, which was running rampant through the hospital. By January of 1778, a putrid fever was raging through the hospital and was designated camp fever. Today, camp ever is known as typhus and is spread by the bite of lice. It was prevalent during the Revolution because of crowded, unsanitary conditions often found in primitive army hospitals where personal hygiene was practically non-existent. Modern germ theory did not yet exist. Due to this, soldiers freely shared blankets and clothing. When men died, their bedding was simply reused—without washing—for the new patient who, in turn, would immediately become infected. Both military physicians, Dr. Kennedy and Dr. William Brown, fell ill to camp fever. Their place was taken by the village physician Dr. Adolph Meyer until the army could send another doctor. The misery inside the hospital cannot be described. Seven deaths were reported in ten days, all from the fever. The soldiers were often without medicine. At the height of the epidemic, three to four people were dying daily. More soldiers died of typhus than did from their injuries. Tilghman was many of the unlucky ones. After 15 days at the Lititz hospital despite his ribs showing signs of healing, he died from camp fever. Tilghman was buried in the only suit of clothing he had, which he had been wearing for weeks. He was placed on a cart and taken to the graveyard. There were no military honors. No flagged draped coffin. No grieving family members or friends. There was only the voice of a Moravian pastor, wind in the background, and then the sound of shovels turning dirt. The High Price of Freedom For eight months, Lititz operated as a hospital for Continental Army soldiers. When the facility closed on August 28, 1778, at least 500—but likely closer to 1,000 men—had passed through its doors. Typhus ravaged the establishment much of that time, killing 120 soldiers more than died from injuries. The Moravian community paid dearly, helping to ensure our freedom. At least 10 civilians died from typhus. Brother John Schick, who preached to the soldiers in the hospital, contracted camp fever and died a few weeks later. Sister Catherina Blickensderger, a mother of nine who helped at the hospital, contracted the disease and died. The disease spread throughout the village and ultimately claimed the lives of seven brothers and three sisters. Haunted Spirits Tour Much of the information for this post came from the Departed Spirits Tour that occurred on October 26 and 27. During the tour, for the first time in 200 years, the third floor of the Brothers’ House was opened to the public. Most of the pictures were taken during the tour. If you would like to see the full tour, here’s a video. - Old Lancaster: Historic Pennsylvania Community - The Military Hospital at Lititz, 1777-78. - Revolutionary Ideas - Departed Spirits of the Revolutionary War Walking Tour - Historic Lititz Walking Tours, LLC
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While no battles were fought here in Lancaster County during the Revolutionary War, Lancaster Riflemen and volunteers fought with distinction. In fact, at the outbreak of the Revolution, these riflemen were among the first to march to Boston. As the largest and wealthiest inland town in the colonies, Lancaster’s many influential patriots had a significant impact on the Revolutionary War. Lancastrians played essential roles in creating our new government, as well as helping to feed, supply, and care for troops. War Comes to Lititz On Sunday, December 14, 1777, military surgeon Dr. Samuel Kennedy arrived in the Lititz with orders from General George Washington to quarter sick and wounded soldiers there. At the time of the Revolution, the Moravian church owned the entire town and its many buildings, including the Brothers’ House and the Sisters’ House, which made up most of the main portion of the settlement. The Moravians and their leader Count Zinzendorf were responsible for the founding of the Lititz community, named after a town in Bohemia. After an inspection, the Brothers’ House was approved as a hospital and despite local objections ordered vacated. The single men who lived there were forced to find lodging wherever they could. Many found accommodations in the various shops in the village. Others stayed in the congregational store, where most slept on the floor. Five days later, on December 19 at around noon, the first wagon full of wounded soldiers arrived. By nightfall, 80 sick and injured men from battles in New Jersey and Brandywine were convalescing there. The following day 15 additional wagon loads came. Soon every room was filled with men spilling out into the halls. Most slept on beds of straws. It wasn’t long before the hospital was filled. Additional patients were even cared for elsewhere in the community. Eventually, soldiers had to be turned away. Fortunately, there were other hospitals in Ephrata, Manheim, and Reamstown during the Revolution. Corporal Ennus Tilghman One of the hospital’s early patients was Corporal Ennus Tilghman. He had fallen from a tall oak tree 12 miles outside of Exton, where he had been perched as a lookout for British troops. Over the next four days, Tilghman made the arduous journey via wagon towards Lancaster. The nearly 60-mile trip witnessed the death of two of Tilghman’s fellow soldiers. The men received more bad news as they approached Lancaster. The hospital there was full, and they would need to proceed further north to Lititz. When Tilghman arrived in Lititz, he and his fellow soldiers learned that beds were not yet ready for them. Nevertheless, they were unloaded from the wagon and placed on the cold ground so it could be filled with recuperated soldiers headed for the front lines. However, four days of constant exposure to the elements and extremely rough roads had taken their toll on Tilghman’s health and broken ribs as he lost consciousness. Tilghman was moved inside the Brothers’ House to warm him and eventually carried upstairs to the third floor. Within a week, Tilghman showed signs of improving. It was then that he began to show symptoms of camp fever, which was running rampant through the hospital. By January of 1778, a putrid fever was raging through the hospital and was designated camp fever. Today, camp ever is known as typhus and is spread by the bite of lice. It was prevalent during the Revolution because of crowded, unsanitary conditions often found in primitive army hospitals where personal hygiene was practically non-existent. Modern germ theory did not yet exist. Due to this, soldiers freely shared blankets and clothing. When men died, their bedding was simply reused—without washing—for the new patient who, in turn, would immediately become infected. Both military physicians, Dr. Kennedy and Dr. William Brown, fell ill to camp fever. Their place was taken by the village physician Dr. Adolph Meyer until the army could send another doctor. The misery inside the hospital cannot be described. Seven deaths were reported in ten days, all from the fever. The soldiers were often without medicine. At the height of the epidemic, three to four people were dying daily. More soldiers died of typhus than did from their injuries. Tilghman was many of the unlucky ones. After 15 days at the Lititz hospital despite his ribs showing signs of healing, he died from camp fever. Tilghman was buried in the only suit of clothing he had, which he had been wearing for weeks. He was placed on a cart and taken to the graveyard. There were no military honors. No flagged draped coffin. No grieving family members or friends. There was only the voice of a Moravian pastor, wind in the background, and then the sound of shovels turning dirt. The High Price of Freedom For eight months, Lititz operated as a hospital for Continental Army soldiers. When the facility closed on August 28, 1778, at least 500—but likely closer to 1,000 men—had passed through its doors. Typhus ravaged the establishment much of that time, killing 120 soldiers more than died from injuries. The Moravian community paid dearly, helping to ensure our freedom. At least 10 civilians died from typhus. Brother John Schick, who preached to the soldiers in the hospital, contracted camp fever and died a few weeks later. Sister Catherina Blickensderger, a mother of nine who helped at the hospital, contracted the disease and died. The disease spread throughout the village and ultimately claimed the lives of seven brothers and three sisters. Haunted Spirits Tour Much of the information for this post came from the Departed Spirits Tour that occurred on October 26 and 27. During the tour, for the first time in 200 years, the third floor of the Brothers’ House was opened to the public. Most of the pictures were taken during the tour. If you would like to see the full tour, here’s a video. - Old Lancaster: Historic Pennsylvania Community - The Military Hospital at Lititz, 1777-78. - Revolutionary Ideas - Departed Spirits of the Revolutionary War Walking Tour - Historic Lititz Walking Tours, LLC
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They say those who do not know their history are doomed to repeat it. While much of history would be fun to relive, it is important to know what events and people have come before us and to understand their impact on our lives and our world. Let’s see some of the important events of Decembers past. December 1: Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man after a long day of work, starting a bus boycott that lasted more than a year, included a case considered by the Supreme Court, and led to the integration of the city’s bus system. The boycott was supported and publicized by many important civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr. Now there’s a wonderful museum that commemorates Rosa Parks and her influence on American history, located in downtown Montgomery. December 8: John Lennon Assassination The Beatles are the most famous band in music history, and John Lennon was the founding member and lead singer. After the band broke up in 1970, Lennon lived with his family in New York City. On December 8, 1980, as he was returning from a recording session, he was assassinated by a deranged fan, Mark David Chapman. His ashes were scattered near the family residence in Central Park, and the Strawberry Fields Memorial was later created for fans to pay their respects and remember the musician. December 14: George Washington Dies From a young age, George Washington seemed destined to influence history. As military hero, then commander of the military of what would become the United States of America, and the president of the Constitutional Convention, Washington was the country’s founding hero. He served as the United States’ first president before returning to private life at Mount Vernon in Virginia. There he caught a cold and after a few days of complications, died on December 14, 1799. The country immediately mourned his death, and he still stands as a figure of legendary leadership, wisdom and humility. December 18: Battle of Verdun Ends World War I was the first major modern war, and held the entire world in its terrible grip. The size and scope of the battles were on scales never before seen. Battles raged on for months with little to show other than astronomical body counts on both sides. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21 to December 18, 1916, when the Germans surrendered to the French. Roughly 300,000 men on both sides died, making it both one of the longest and most deadly battles in history. A memorial on the battlefield commemorates both French and German troops, as well as the civilian casualties of the battle. December 21: Pan Am Flight 103 Blows Up About one hour into the transatlantic flight from London to New York, Pan Am Flight 103 was blown up, killing all 259 people on the plane and 11 people on the ground. The airplane debris landed near and in the town of Lockerbie, Scotland, causing significant damage to homes and structures. While two Libyan nationals were accused and one convicted, their guilt has never been certain, significant problems with the investigation were identified, and new suspects have continued to be considered. December 25: Sir Isaac Newton is Born On December 25, 1642, Isaac Newton was born in the small English town Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth. By the time he died 84 years later, he had developed a body of work that has led him to be considered one of the world’s most important scientists. His understanding of gravity has been said to be inspired by watching an apple fall in his garden. While it probably didn’t hit his head as written by Voltaire, he did write about the thinking and there is an apple tree in the garden of the family home, making it likely that the story is basically true. December 29: Murder of Thomas Becket Thomas Becket was born a minor English noble in 1119, but his hard work and good connections led to him being appointed Chancellor under King Henry II and eventually as Archbishop of Canterbury, the most important religious position in the country. Expected to put the concerns of the king over those of the church, Becket instead maintained the primacy of the church, infuriating the king who famously muttered “Will no one rid me of this meddlesome prince?”. Shortly thereafter, he was assassinated by four knights. He quickly became a saint in the Catholic church and is still one of the most venerated saints in the Anglican church as well. These are just a few of the interesting, important and world-changing events that have happened in the past. Perhaps the things we do will have as much impact on the future. It’s in our hands!
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They say those who do not know their history are doomed to repeat it. While much of history would be fun to relive, it is important to know what events and people have come before us and to understand their impact on our lives and our world. Let’s see some of the important events of Decembers past. December 1: Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man after a long day of work, starting a bus boycott that lasted more than a year, included a case considered by the Supreme Court, and led to the integration of the city’s bus system. The boycott was supported and publicized by many important civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr. Now there’s a wonderful museum that commemorates Rosa Parks and her influence on American history, located in downtown Montgomery. December 8: John Lennon Assassination The Beatles are the most famous band in music history, and John Lennon was the founding member and lead singer. After the band broke up in 1970, Lennon lived with his family in New York City. On December 8, 1980, as he was returning from a recording session, he was assassinated by a deranged fan, Mark David Chapman. His ashes were scattered near the family residence in Central Park, and the Strawberry Fields Memorial was later created for fans to pay their respects and remember the musician. December 14: George Washington Dies From a young age, George Washington seemed destined to influence history. As military hero, then commander of the military of what would become the United States of America, and the president of the Constitutional Convention, Washington was the country’s founding hero. He served as the United States’ first president before returning to private life at Mount Vernon in Virginia. There he caught a cold and after a few days of complications, died on December 14, 1799. The country immediately mourned his death, and he still stands as a figure of legendary leadership, wisdom and humility. December 18: Battle of Verdun Ends World War I was the first major modern war, and held the entire world in its terrible grip. The size and scope of the battles were on scales never before seen. Battles raged on for months with little to show other than astronomical body counts on both sides. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21 to December 18, 1916, when the Germans surrendered to the French. Roughly 300,000 men on both sides died, making it both one of the longest and most deadly battles in history. A memorial on the battlefield commemorates both French and German troops, as well as the civilian casualties of the battle. December 21: Pan Am Flight 103 Blows Up About one hour into the transatlantic flight from London to New York, Pan Am Flight 103 was blown up, killing all 259 people on the plane and 11 people on the ground. The airplane debris landed near and in the town of Lockerbie, Scotland, causing significant damage to homes and structures. While two Libyan nationals were accused and one convicted, their guilt has never been certain, significant problems with the investigation were identified, and new suspects have continued to be considered. December 25: Sir Isaac Newton is Born On December 25, 1642, Isaac Newton was born in the small English town Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth. By the time he died 84 years later, he had developed a body of work that has led him to be considered one of the world’s most important scientists. His understanding of gravity has been said to be inspired by watching an apple fall in his garden. While it probably didn’t hit his head as written by Voltaire, he did write about the thinking and there is an apple tree in the garden of the family home, making it likely that the story is basically true. December 29: Murder of Thomas Becket Thomas Becket was born a minor English noble in 1119, but his hard work and good connections led to him being appointed Chancellor under King Henry II and eventually as Archbishop of Canterbury, the most important religious position in the country. Expected to put the concerns of the king over those of the church, Becket instead maintained the primacy of the church, infuriating the king who famously muttered “Will no one rid me of this meddlesome prince?”. Shortly thereafter, he was assassinated by four knights. He quickly became a saint in the Catholic church and is still one of the most venerated saints in the Anglican church as well. These are just a few of the interesting, important and world-changing events that have happened in the past. Perhaps the things we do will have as much impact on the future. It’s in our hands!
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Can Character be Taught? How does A.C.E. instill Character? Students cannot learn to write by listening to teachers. They learn to write by writing. It is in the practical application of learning to write that they finally can write. Similarly, a student cannot be taught character by just hearing. They can only learn the principles. Putting it differently, schools cannot teach character. It is through practical circumstances that students learn character. So the question is, how do schools help their students learn character? Are there programs designed that give students the opportunities to apply the character lessons they learn? Students sitting in the classroom cannot learn character. In the A.C.E. Learning Center, students learn character when: 1. He leaves his office, he is required to push his chair in; he is learning responsibility. 2. He sets goals every morning; he learns to take ownership of his learning. 3. He finishes his goal; he learns diligence and responsibility. 4. He scores his PACEs; he learns honesty. 5. He raises his flag and waits for the supervisor to attend to him; he learns patience. 6. He waits going to the scoring station because it is occupied; he learns orderliness. 7. He withholds from speaking to his friends during class time; he learns selfcontrol. 8. He memorizes the verse in the PACEs; he learns determination. In the A.C.E. program, this is what every student has to go through every day. This is the application aspect of the A.C.E. program.
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Can Character be Taught? How does A.C.E. instill Character? Students cannot learn to write by listening to teachers. They learn to write by writing. It is in the practical application of learning to write that they finally can write. Similarly, a student cannot be taught character by just hearing. They can only learn the principles. Putting it differently, schools cannot teach character. It is through practical circumstances that students learn character. So the question is, how do schools help their students learn character? Are there programs designed that give students the opportunities to apply the character lessons they learn? Students sitting in the classroom cannot learn character. In the A.C.E. Learning Center, students learn character when: 1. He leaves his office, he is required to push his chair in; he is learning responsibility. 2. He sets goals every morning; he learns to take ownership of his learning. 3. He finishes his goal; he learns diligence and responsibility. 4. He scores his PACEs; he learns honesty. 5. He raises his flag and waits for the supervisor to attend to him; he learns patience. 6. He waits going to the scoring station because it is occupied; he learns orderliness. 7. He withholds from speaking to his friends during class time; he learns selfcontrol. 8. He memorizes the verse in the PACEs; he learns determination. In the A.C.E. program, this is what every student has to go through every day. This is the application aspect of the A.C.E. program.
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The Middle Ages The period of European history extending from about to — ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had encouraged the building of towns, but the German barbarians refused to live in confinement. When they swept through the empire they settled on the land and, later, built manors, castles, and villages. As each baronial stronghold was self-sufficient, there was little need for trade except for the few articles carried by traveling merchants. Without trade, most old Roman towns dwindled or even died. They lost their right to self-government and became the property of the barons. The town dwellers did almost no manufacturing. They lived by tilling the land. In the 11th century, however, the Crusades began to stimulate the revival of commerce. Traveling merchants established headquarters in places of safety, such as by the walls of a castle or monastery. Places accessible to main roads or rivers grew rapidly. Wherever merchants settled, laborers and artisans came. Shipbuilders turned out trading vessels. Butchers, bakers, and brewers came to supply food for the workers, and tailors and shoemakers came to supply clothes. Others came to make the wares of trade. By the 13th century Europe was dotted with towns. Few had as many as 10, people. The towns were introducing a new kind of life into medieval Europe, however, for the townspeople now lived by the exchange of goods and services. They were no longer self-sufficient like the small groups of peasants on the manors were; they had to develop a lifestyle based on the idea of exchange. This organization laid the foundations for modern economic and social living. As the cities grew rich they sought the right to govern themselves. The first to free themselves from the power of feudal lords were in Italy--Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, and others. Towns in France were next to gain power, then towns along the Rhine Valley and on the Baltic coast, where cities of the Hanseatic League grew to enormous wealth and strength. Some of the towns bought their freedom from the nobles and the church; others fought bitter battles to win it. A few were given it. In the towns the houses were packed together because every town had to be a fortress, with stout, high walls and a moat or river to protect it from hostile nobles, pirates, and robber bands. The smaller the walled enclosure, the easier it was to defend. The only open places were the market square in the town center, the cathedral, and the few gardens of the rich. Main streets led like spokes of a wheel from the market to the few gates in the walls. Building room was so cramped that the houses were built in several narrow stories, the upper floors jutting over the alleylike streets. Few streets were paved. In wet weather people floundered almost knee-deep in mud. The street was the only sewer. It sloped to the center, and refuse and chamber waste were flung into it. Pigs rooted in the odorous filth. Wells, springs, and rivers were the only water supply. They were unprotected and untreated, so that plagues were frequent. Most of them had a mere framework of heavy timbers. The wall spaces were filled with woven reeds daubed with clay or plaster. Rushes or straw usually lined the floors. Fireplaces had chimneys, and the peril of sparks on the thatched roofs was one of the worst hazards of town living. The house of the average citizen served multiple functions as his dwelling, factory, and shop. Goods were made and sold on the ground floor. The owner and his family lived on the floor above. The upper stories of the house were storage rooms and sleeping lofts for the workmen.The Middle Ages is a term coined around to describe a thousand years of European History. In this Very Short Introduction, Miri Rubin provides an exploration of the variety, change, dynamism, and sheer complexity that the period iridis-photo-restoration.com the provinces of the Roman Empire, which became Barbarian kingdoms after c, to the northern and eastern regions that became increasingly. At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman iridis-photo-restoration.com local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Enjoy a break taking European cruise on a luxury ship. Explore Northern Europe, the Arctic Circle, Norway, and Much More. Set sail on your vacation! Late Middle Ages, The period of European history during 14th to 16th century () is considered as the Late Middle Ages. At the end of 13th century, Europe faced a series of famines and plagues including the Great Famine during . Download the report: Golden Aging: Prospects for Healthy, Active and Prosperous Aging in Europe and Central Asia. Overview. The Europe and Central Asia region has among the oldest populations in the world. Europe, in particular, is approaching the end of a demographic transition toward population stabilization, and Central Asia, although still younger, is following quickly. The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from to iridis-photo-restoration.com Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era (and, in much of Europe, the Renaissance).. Around , centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of .
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The Middle Ages The period of European history extending from about to — ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had encouraged the building of towns, but the German barbarians refused to live in confinement. When they swept through the empire they settled on the land and, later, built manors, castles, and villages. As each baronial stronghold was self-sufficient, there was little need for trade except for the few articles carried by traveling merchants. Without trade, most old Roman towns dwindled or even died. They lost their right to self-government and became the property of the barons. The town dwellers did almost no manufacturing. They lived by tilling the land. In the 11th century, however, the Crusades began to stimulate the revival of commerce. Traveling merchants established headquarters in places of safety, such as by the walls of a castle or monastery. Places accessible to main roads or rivers grew rapidly. Wherever merchants settled, laborers and artisans came. Shipbuilders turned out trading vessels. Butchers, bakers, and brewers came to supply food for the workers, and tailors and shoemakers came to supply clothes. Others came to make the wares of trade. By the 13th century Europe was dotted with towns. Few had as many as 10, people. The towns were introducing a new kind of life into medieval Europe, however, for the townspeople now lived by the exchange of goods and services. They were no longer self-sufficient like the small groups of peasants on the manors were; they had to develop a lifestyle based on the idea of exchange. This organization laid the foundations for modern economic and social living. As the cities grew rich they sought the right to govern themselves. The first to free themselves from the power of feudal lords were in Italy--Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, and others. Towns in France were next to gain power, then towns along the Rhine Valley and on the Baltic coast, where cities of the Hanseatic League grew to enormous wealth and strength. Some of the towns bought their freedom from the nobles and the church; others fought bitter battles to win it. A few were given it. In the towns the houses were packed together because every town had to be a fortress, with stout, high walls and a moat or river to protect it from hostile nobles, pirates, and robber bands. The smaller the walled enclosure, the easier it was to defend. The only open places were the market square in the town center, the cathedral, and the few gardens of the rich. Main streets led like spokes of a wheel from the market to the few gates in the walls. Building room was so cramped that the houses were built in several narrow stories, the upper floors jutting over the alleylike streets. Few streets were paved. In wet weather people floundered almost knee-deep in mud. The street was the only sewer. It sloped to the center, and refuse and chamber waste were flung into it. Pigs rooted in the odorous filth. Wells, springs, and rivers were the only water supply. They were unprotected and untreated, so that plagues were frequent. Most of them had a mere framework of heavy timbers. The wall spaces were filled with woven reeds daubed with clay or plaster. Rushes or straw usually lined the floors. Fireplaces had chimneys, and the peril of sparks on the thatched roofs was one of the worst hazards of town living. The house of the average citizen served multiple functions as his dwelling, factory, and shop. Goods were made and sold on the ground floor. The owner and his family lived on the floor above. The upper stories of the house were storage rooms and sleeping lofts for the workmen.The Middle Ages is a term coined around to describe a thousand years of European History. In this Very Short Introduction, Miri Rubin provides an exploration of the variety, change, dynamism, and sheer complexity that the period iridis-photo-restoration.com the provinces of the Roman Empire, which became Barbarian kingdoms after c, to the northern and eastern regions that became increasingly. At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman iridis-photo-restoration.com local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Enjoy a break taking European cruise on a luxury ship. Explore Northern Europe, the Arctic Circle, Norway, and Much More. Set sail on your vacation! Late Middle Ages, The period of European history during 14th to 16th century () is considered as the Late Middle Ages. At the end of 13th century, Europe faced a series of famines and plagues including the Great Famine during . Download the report: Golden Aging: Prospects for Healthy, Active and Prosperous Aging in Europe and Central Asia. Overview. The Europe and Central Asia region has among the oldest populations in the world. Europe, in particular, is approaching the end of a demographic transition toward population stabilization, and Central Asia, although still younger, is following quickly. The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from to iridis-photo-restoration.com Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era (and, in much of Europe, the Renaissance).. Around , centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of .
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One of the truly greatest philosophers of all time was Plato, a native Athenian born in 427 B.C. He grew up in a wealthy family and began to appreciate philosophy at some point in his late teens and early twenties, around the time of his introduction to Socrates. As a student of Socrates, he adopted many of his teacher's beliefs though he certainly had a great mind all of his own. His early works reflected much admiration for Socrates and since Socrates never wrote any of his own works, Plato's early dialogues are most representative of Socrates' philosophical beliefs. The format of most Platonic works is called the "dialectic", and was undisputedly mastered by Plato. His middle dialogues use Socrates as a character advocating Plato's own thoughts, and in his later dialogues Plato is quite critical of himself at an earlier age. The middle part of his life was spent philosophizing and writing away from Athens, in a part of Italy inhabited by Greeks. There, he met other philosophers and scientists who belonged to the "Pythagorean" school of philosophy, and also took up a career in politics. He eventually founded The Academy, which was a school of higher education offering instruction in mathematics, political studies, and of course, philosophy. It is believed that Plato spent the rest of his life teaching, researching, and writing at The Academy in the countryside of Athens until he died at the age of eighty-one in 347 B.C. The famed philosopher Aristotle was one of Plato's students at the Academy, and he remained there for quite some time teaching and writing, up to the time of Plato's death twenty years later.
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One of the truly greatest philosophers of all time was Plato, a native Athenian born in 427 B.C. He grew up in a wealthy family and began to appreciate philosophy at some point in his late teens and early twenties, around the time of his introduction to Socrates. As a student of Socrates, he adopted many of his teacher's beliefs though he certainly had a great mind all of his own. His early works reflected much admiration for Socrates and since Socrates never wrote any of his own works, Plato's early dialogues are most representative of Socrates' philosophical beliefs. The format of most Platonic works is called the "dialectic", and was undisputedly mastered by Plato. His middle dialogues use Socrates as a character advocating Plato's own thoughts, and in his later dialogues Plato is quite critical of himself at an earlier age. The middle part of his life was spent philosophizing and writing away from Athens, in a part of Italy inhabited by Greeks. There, he met other philosophers and scientists who belonged to the "Pythagorean" school of philosophy, and also took up a career in politics. He eventually founded The Academy, which was a school of higher education offering instruction in mathematics, political studies, and of course, philosophy. It is believed that Plato spent the rest of his life teaching, researching, and writing at The Academy in the countryside of Athens until he died at the age of eighty-one in 347 B.C. The famed philosopher Aristotle was one of Plato's students at the Academy, and he remained there for quite some time teaching and writing, up to the time of Plato's death twenty years later.
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The Pioneer Burial epitomises the serendipitous nature of archaeology and the reason archaeologists do what they do. We had been working in the quarries at Wollaston from 1993 and had recorded two sections of landscape totalling a length of over 2 kilometres and over 100 hectares which was dominated by the remains of Iron Age and Roman settlement: a series of land divisions and then numerous small farmsteads, including honey bees from an Iron Age ditch and the first proven Roman vineyard in Britain. The whole site was arranged along a droveway that had its origins in the Iron Age and became a Roman road (perhaps running between Irchester to the northeast and Towcester to the southwest.) The scale of works by the quarry was reflected by the machinery that was used to open up the ground, D8 caterpillar tractor units pulling box scrapers each weighing many tonnes. The scale of works, and the intention to return the ground to agriculture once quarrying had finished, meant large stacks of soils were created to preserve the agricultural topsoil and subsoil. Guidance on soils advised that, whilst topsoil could be stacked directly upon topsoil, a subsoil stack would require the topsoil removing so that it was stacked only on subsoil, thereby avoiding contamination. Areas of the landscape were therefore cleared of topsoil to enable the storage of the subsoil ready for reinstatement. The discovery and excavation Throughout the project a detailed metal detecting survey was carried out by Steve Critchley, the project’s detectorist, not just of the excavation areas but also on the footprint of these areas for subsoil stacks. As it was agricultural land the brief was not to bother with ferrous signals as they were generally nails, horse shoes or bits of tractor. One lunch time Steve came to the shed having recovered part of a bronze bowl and a decorative mount. From our previous experience we recognised these fragments as part of an Anglo-Saxon hanging bowl, an object-type of which there were around a hundred known at that time and which are often associated with rich Anglo-Saxon burials. Steve said that in the same area there were numerous ferrous signals. When we all went to investigate we saw that the bowl fragments were found about 1 metre from the edge of the latest area to have its topsoil removed, exposing the subsoil. If the area had been only slightly smaller it would never have been found. We carried out some initial excavation which exposed a long iron object, the sword. We were very aware of the significance that a bowl and a sword indicated this was probably a rich burial but as it was Friday afternoon we would not be able to complete the excavation and recover the objects. I decided we should stop digging and conceal the grave location as best we could. We gathered an oil drum, various pallets and other bulky pieces of rubbish that we stacked on the grave, hiding its location to anyone that did not know it was there. On the Monday morning we commenced the hand excavation of what we knew was likely to be a rich Anglo-Saxon grave. The digging was slow and careful with small tools so as not to miss anything and slowly but surely the remains of a bronze bowl, a long iron sword, a small knife, three buckles and a rough jumble of ferrous material was defined along with a couple of lengths of long bone, part of a cranial dome and bunter cobble. As these things were being exposed I tried to ensure the conservator was available to deal with the items. I duly phoned, only to be told he was out of the office. On the Tuesday, while the excavation continued, I tried again and got much the same response and on the Wednesday I was told he was on holiday until the following Monday. Knowing we could not leave the finds in the ground we carried on the excavation and recording of the grave. Once everything was exposed and recorded we lifted the sword on a plank of wood (upcycled from a skip) and, to hold it together, we wrapped the rough jumble of ferrous material first in cling film and then in bandages soaked in plaster of Paris (the bandages came from the site first aid kit). This object was quite large, about the size of a big Christmas cake, but its shape was not clear. Whilst we wondered if it might have been a helmet we thought, given there were then only three other examples, it was unlikely; as a result the bags of stray pieces were marked ‘possible bucket’. Once all lifted the finds were taken back to the unit’s office in Northampton but no one else was told what we might have recovered. On the following Monday the finds were taken to Leicester and when we got the rough lump X-rayed and saw the distinct outline of a boar crest – it was obvious that what we had found was no bucket! From that point on this burial dominated our lives. The quarry company (Pioneer Aggregates) funded the conservation and PR and the grave and finds were on the news around the world. As it was such a rare object, we had offers of help and support (much of it for free) from numerous specialists without which we would never have got all the information that features in the report. We also had ‘interesting’ offers including one from a member of the public who said he could trace his ancestry back to the God Odin and offered us a DNA sample to see if he was related to the body in our grave. Given what we knew about the landscape in the quarry, a rich Anglo-Saxon grave was not something we would have anticipated and the fact it lay only just within an area stripped of topsoil shows how serendipitous archaeology is. We really were very lucky finding this grave that occupied only a couple of square metres in the hundreds of hectares we recorded and, ironically, the area stripped was ultimately not all used for stacking. Sincerest thanks to Ian Meadows for providing this article for the Archaeopress Blog. Ian’s full report, The Pioneer Burial: A high status Anglian warrior burial from Wollaston Northamtonshire has been nominated for Current Archaeology Magazine’s Book of the Year Award 2020. The book is available in paperback (£25) or PDF eBook (from £16+VAT) direct from Archaeopress.
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The Pioneer Burial epitomises the serendipitous nature of archaeology and the reason archaeologists do what they do. We had been working in the quarries at Wollaston from 1993 and had recorded two sections of landscape totalling a length of over 2 kilometres and over 100 hectares which was dominated by the remains of Iron Age and Roman settlement: a series of land divisions and then numerous small farmsteads, including honey bees from an Iron Age ditch and the first proven Roman vineyard in Britain. The whole site was arranged along a droveway that had its origins in the Iron Age and became a Roman road (perhaps running between Irchester to the northeast and Towcester to the southwest.) The scale of works by the quarry was reflected by the machinery that was used to open up the ground, D8 caterpillar tractor units pulling box scrapers each weighing many tonnes. The scale of works, and the intention to return the ground to agriculture once quarrying had finished, meant large stacks of soils were created to preserve the agricultural topsoil and subsoil. Guidance on soils advised that, whilst topsoil could be stacked directly upon topsoil, a subsoil stack would require the topsoil removing so that it was stacked only on subsoil, thereby avoiding contamination. Areas of the landscape were therefore cleared of topsoil to enable the storage of the subsoil ready for reinstatement. The discovery and excavation Throughout the project a detailed metal detecting survey was carried out by Steve Critchley, the project’s detectorist, not just of the excavation areas but also on the footprint of these areas for subsoil stacks. As it was agricultural land the brief was not to bother with ferrous signals as they were generally nails, horse shoes or bits of tractor. One lunch time Steve came to the shed having recovered part of a bronze bowl and a decorative mount. From our previous experience we recognised these fragments as part of an Anglo-Saxon hanging bowl, an object-type of which there were around a hundred known at that time and which are often associated with rich Anglo-Saxon burials. Steve said that in the same area there were numerous ferrous signals. When we all went to investigate we saw that the bowl fragments were found about 1 metre from the edge of the latest area to have its topsoil removed, exposing the subsoil. If the area had been only slightly smaller it would never have been found. We carried out some initial excavation which exposed a long iron object, the sword. We were very aware of the significance that a bowl and a sword indicated this was probably a rich burial but as it was Friday afternoon we would not be able to complete the excavation and recover the objects. I decided we should stop digging and conceal the grave location as best we could. We gathered an oil drum, various pallets and other bulky pieces of rubbish that we stacked on the grave, hiding its location to anyone that did not know it was there. On the Monday morning we commenced the hand excavation of what we knew was likely to be a rich Anglo-Saxon grave. The digging was slow and careful with small tools so as not to miss anything and slowly but surely the remains of a bronze bowl, a long iron sword, a small knife, three buckles and a rough jumble of ferrous material was defined along with a couple of lengths of long bone, part of a cranial dome and bunter cobble. As these things were being exposed I tried to ensure the conservator was available to deal with the items. I duly phoned, only to be told he was out of the office. On the Tuesday, while the excavation continued, I tried again and got much the same response and on the Wednesday I was told he was on holiday until the following Monday. Knowing we could not leave the finds in the ground we carried on the excavation and recording of the grave. Once everything was exposed and recorded we lifted the sword on a plank of wood (upcycled from a skip) and, to hold it together, we wrapped the rough jumble of ferrous material first in cling film and then in bandages soaked in plaster of Paris (the bandages came from the site first aid kit). This object was quite large, about the size of a big Christmas cake, but its shape was not clear. Whilst we wondered if it might have been a helmet we thought, given there were then only three other examples, it was unlikely; as a result the bags of stray pieces were marked ‘possible bucket’. Once all lifted the finds were taken back to the unit’s office in Northampton but no one else was told what we might have recovered. On the following Monday the finds were taken to Leicester and when we got the rough lump X-rayed and saw the distinct outline of a boar crest – it was obvious that what we had found was no bucket! From that point on this burial dominated our lives. The quarry company (Pioneer Aggregates) funded the conservation and PR and the grave and finds were on the news around the world. As it was such a rare object, we had offers of help and support (much of it for free) from numerous specialists without which we would never have got all the information that features in the report. We also had ‘interesting’ offers including one from a member of the public who said he could trace his ancestry back to the God Odin and offered us a DNA sample to see if he was related to the body in our grave. Given what we knew about the landscape in the quarry, a rich Anglo-Saxon grave was not something we would have anticipated and the fact it lay only just within an area stripped of topsoil shows how serendipitous archaeology is. We really were very lucky finding this grave that occupied only a couple of square metres in the hundreds of hectares we recorded and, ironically, the area stripped was ultimately not all used for stacking. Sincerest thanks to Ian Meadows for providing this article for the Archaeopress Blog. Ian’s full report, The Pioneer Burial: A high status Anglian warrior burial from Wollaston Northamtonshire has been nominated for Current Archaeology Magazine’s Book of the Year Award 2020. The book is available in paperback (£25) or PDF eBook (from £16+VAT) direct from Archaeopress.
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ENGLISH
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Herman Lehmann (June 5, 1859 – February 2, 1932) was captured by Indians as a child. He lived first among the Apache and then the Comanche but eventually returned to his family later in life. The phenomenon of a white child raised by Indians made him a notable figure in the United States. He published his autobiography, Nine Years Among the Indians in 1927. On May 16, 1870, a raiding party of eight to ten Apaches (probably Lipans) captured Herman Lehmann, who was almost eleven, and his eight-year-old brother, Willie, while they were in the fields at their mother’s request to scare the birds from the wheat. Their two sisters escaped without injury. Willie Lehmann was able to escape, but the Apaches fled with young Herman. For six years, Lehmann lived among the Apache, ranging from central Texas to eastern New Mexico. He learned the skills of the Apache warrior, hunter, and horsemen. Later, Lehmann avenged the killing of his chief by killing a rival Apache medicine man. Fearing for his life, he fled. Lehmann wandered the frontier for a year, utilizing the survival skills that he had learned during his time with the Apaches, until he encountered a Comanche camp. At first, the Comanches rejected him and threatened to kill him; however, Lehmann’s story of killing the Apache medicine man was verified by another brave, and he was accepted. With the Comanches Lehman participated in raids against the Tonkawas and even the United States Cavalry, and was among the last Comanche group to surrender and accept relocation to a reservation at Fort Sill, Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Lehmann later remarked “that was the end of Indian ways, our free, roving times which we loved.” While at Fort Sill, Lehmann became acquainted with the legendary Comanche leader Quanah Parker, who treated him as his adopted son. It was eventually discovered that Lehmann was a white captive, and his family had survived, despite being told otherwise. In 1878 he was taken from the reservation and returned to his family in Texas, most who had given up hope after he had been captured by Indians. Upon his arrival, neither he nor his mother recognized one another. Lehmann had long believed his family dead, for the Apache had shown him proof during his time of transition to their way of life. It was his sister who found a scar on his arm, which had been caused by her when they were playing with a hatchet. Throughout his life, Herman Lehmann drifted between two very different cultures. Lehmann was a very popular figure in southwestern Oklahoma and the Texas Hill Country, appearing at county fairs and rodeos. In his autobiography, Nine Years Among the Indians (1927, edited by J. Marvin Hunter) he requested that the book be written just as he told it. It is one of the finest captivity narratives in American literature, and is still available at most booksellers.
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Herman Lehmann (June 5, 1859 – February 2, 1932) was captured by Indians as a child. He lived first among the Apache and then the Comanche but eventually returned to his family later in life. The phenomenon of a white child raised by Indians made him a notable figure in the United States. He published his autobiography, Nine Years Among the Indians in 1927. On May 16, 1870, a raiding party of eight to ten Apaches (probably Lipans) captured Herman Lehmann, who was almost eleven, and his eight-year-old brother, Willie, while they were in the fields at their mother’s request to scare the birds from the wheat. Their two sisters escaped without injury. Willie Lehmann was able to escape, but the Apaches fled with young Herman. For six years, Lehmann lived among the Apache, ranging from central Texas to eastern New Mexico. He learned the skills of the Apache warrior, hunter, and horsemen. Later, Lehmann avenged the killing of his chief by killing a rival Apache medicine man. Fearing for his life, he fled. Lehmann wandered the frontier for a year, utilizing the survival skills that he had learned during his time with the Apaches, until he encountered a Comanche camp. At first, the Comanches rejected him and threatened to kill him; however, Lehmann’s story of killing the Apache medicine man was verified by another brave, and he was accepted. With the Comanches Lehman participated in raids against the Tonkawas and even the United States Cavalry, and was among the last Comanche group to surrender and accept relocation to a reservation at Fort Sill, Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Lehmann later remarked “that was the end of Indian ways, our free, roving times which we loved.” While at Fort Sill, Lehmann became acquainted with the legendary Comanche leader Quanah Parker, who treated him as his adopted son. It was eventually discovered that Lehmann was a white captive, and his family had survived, despite being told otherwise. In 1878 he was taken from the reservation and returned to his family in Texas, most who had given up hope after he had been captured by Indians. Upon his arrival, neither he nor his mother recognized one another. Lehmann had long believed his family dead, for the Apache had shown him proof during his time of transition to their way of life. It was his sister who found a scar on his arm, which had been caused by her when they were playing with a hatchet. Throughout his life, Herman Lehmann drifted between two very different cultures. Lehmann was a very popular figure in southwestern Oklahoma and the Texas Hill Country, appearing at county fairs and rodeos. In his autobiography, Nine Years Among the Indians (1927, edited by J. Marvin Hunter) he requested that the book be written just as he told it. It is one of the finest captivity narratives in American literature, and is still available at most booksellers.
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Before the ottoman empire in 1908. The Armenian Before the armenian genocide had occurred, there were many factors leading up to it to cause the genocide to happen. The main factors leading to the genocide are the development of committee of union and progress or also known as “the young turks” and the conflict with the balkan war. The young turks was a small group of revolutionaries which came to power for the ottoman empire in 1908. The Armenian people were optimistic of this new group in power. Nevertheless, overtime the aspirations of the Young Turks turned out to be more forceful, less tolerant of non-Turks, and progressively suspicious of their Armenian subjects, whom they envisioned were working together with other super powers. In 1909 a countercoup took place by ottoman military components, joined by Islamic religious students wanted to return the rule of the country to a sultan and the rule of islamic law which caused many riots. Initially the movement was aimed against the Young Turks, however it changed to the Armenians who were looked at as supporting the restoration of the constitution. When the Army was called in, they began to murder many Armenians in the Adana Province. The amount of Armenians killed ranged from 10 to 15 thousand, this was glimpse into what the nearby future looked like. From 1912 to 1913 the ottoman empire fought a war against Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro also known as “the Balkan league” over macedonia in what is known as the first Balkan War. Hatred towards Armenians became even worse after the ottoman empire had endured a great defeat in the first Balkan war which occured. This defeat caused the ottoman empire to lose most of its land within Europe. Much of the blame for losing the war was put on to the Balkan christians and soon enough conflicts began between between christians and muslims. In November 1914 Shaykh ul-Islam declared Jihad – Holy War against the Christians: this was later utilized as a factor to incite radical masses in the execution of the Armenian Genocide. Soon after, world war 1 began, the ottoman empire joined the central powers which included Austria-Hungary and Germany and they were fighting against the Triple Entente which included France, Great Britain, and Russia. Armenians have always had close relations with Russians, many Armenians volunteered to fight alongside Russians during the World war. The Young Turks saw this action as treason which fueled their hatred for the Armenians all the more. All of these events that had taken place lead to “It is generally not known in the world that, in the years preceding 1916, there was a concerted effort made to eliminate all the Armenian people, probably one of the greatest tragedies that ever befell any group. And there weren’t any Nuremberg trials.”-Jimmy Carter. This quote said by the former president of the united states is displays how horrible the actions were that took place during the Armenian Genocide. On the night of April 23 going on to the 24th, the Ottoman government gathered together and detained an expected 250 Armenian academics and group pioneers of the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and later those in different focuses, who were moved to two holding focuses close Ankara. This date was known as Red Sunday.
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Before the ottoman empire in 1908. The Armenian Before the armenian genocide had occurred, there were many factors leading up to it to cause the genocide to happen. The main factors leading to the genocide are the development of committee of union and progress or also known as “the young turks” and the conflict with the balkan war. The young turks was a small group of revolutionaries which came to power for the ottoman empire in 1908. The Armenian people were optimistic of this new group in power. Nevertheless, overtime the aspirations of the Young Turks turned out to be more forceful, less tolerant of non-Turks, and progressively suspicious of their Armenian subjects, whom they envisioned were working together with other super powers. In 1909 a countercoup took place by ottoman military components, joined by Islamic religious students wanted to return the rule of the country to a sultan and the rule of islamic law which caused many riots. Initially the movement was aimed against the Young Turks, however it changed to the Armenians who were looked at as supporting the restoration of the constitution. When the Army was called in, they began to murder many Armenians in the Adana Province. The amount of Armenians killed ranged from 10 to 15 thousand, this was glimpse into what the nearby future looked like. From 1912 to 1913 the ottoman empire fought a war against Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro also known as “the Balkan league” over macedonia in what is known as the first Balkan War. Hatred towards Armenians became even worse after the ottoman empire had endured a great defeat in the first Balkan war which occured. This defeat caused the ottoman empire to lose most of its land within Europe. Much of the blame for losing the war was put on to the Balkan christians and soon enough conflicts began between between christians and muslims. In November 1914 Shaykh ul-Islam declared Jihad – Holy War against the Christians: this was later utilized as a factor to incite radical masses in the execution of the Armenian Genocide. Soon after, world war 1 began, the ottoman empire joined the central powers which included Austria-Hungary and Germany and they were fighting against the Triple Entente which included France, Great Britain, and Russia. Armenians have always had close relations with Russians, many Armenians volunteered to fight alongside Russians during the World war. The Young Turks saw this action as treason which fueled their hatred for the Armenians all the more. All of these events that had taken place lead to “It is generally not known in the world that, in the years preceding 1916, there was a concerted effort made to eliminate all the Armenian people, probably one of the greatest tragedies that ever befell any group. And there weren’t any Nuremberg trials.”-Jimmy Carter. This quote said by the former president of the united states is displays how horrible the actions were that took place during the Armenian Genocide. On the night of April 23 going on to the 24th, the Ottoman government gathered together and detained an expected 250 Armenian academics and group pioneers of the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and later those in different focuses, who were moved to two holding focuses close Ankara. This date was known as Red Sunday.
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AMERICAN patent law was, before 1790, based on previous English law but with the 1776 war of Independence sweeping away ties with the previous administration, many new regulations were brought out including new patent legislation which required a model to be submitted with every application. The reasoning behind this was simple, and difficult to fault. Grover and Baker Patent Model Sewing Machine Perhaps the most famous patent model of them all –the machine submitted by Elias Howe in 1846 Before 1790 patents were granted at local legal offices where the officials had little or no engineering background. Rather like asking your local driving licence centre to check over an improvement in the electronic-engine management system on a Ferrari. Clerks in these offices, whilst not able to read an engineering drawing, could be expected to understand a model. A model could also be used to demonstrate to officials that an idea actually worked. Some American states had a model requirement before 1790 but it was not until that year that it became an America-wide law. Grover and Baker 1851 Patent Model Sewing Machine The Grover & Baker patent of 1851was supported by this model which shows little resemblance to the eventual machine For three years the new system worked well. Patent applications were checked for merit and originality but such investigation took far too long, with non-experts being called upon to do the research and in 1793 the act was repealed. From that date patents were simply granted following the application with no checks made at all. The idea was that the courts could be relied upon to settle any disputes between various inventors. This decision made models even more important. Now judges and juries would have to compare various claims – so much easier for the layman with a three-dimensional model rather than a confusing set of drawings. But, of course, this led to further complications. With no expert checking of patent applications, the court cases threw up the poor standard of some patent descriptions. In fact, some were so badly and inaccurately worded that technical experts had to be called in to re-write them with only the actual model as a reference. By 1833 this system of wholesale acceptance was causing big problems — too many hair-brained and crackpot ideas were being promoted and the worthlessness of a patent wasn’t appreciated by the public who were led to believe that the granting of a US patent was a recommendation of the product by the American government. Even the system of deciding a patent’s validity by the Courts was turning into a joke. Should a patentee not like the decision in a court he would simply take the matter up in another state and keep trying until he got a satisfactory result. In 1836 the legislature finally got its act together and changed the law so that every application would in future go before a team of experts who would grant patents solely on merit. These teams, with knowledge of industry and engineering, could cope with working drawings and serious consideration was given to abandoning the model requirement. But it was argued that models would still provide a “fast-filing system” for the administrators and a facility for the public and wannabe inventors to check what had been achieved before.
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AMERICAN patent law was, before 1790, based on previous English law but with the 1776 war of Independence sweeping away ties with the previous administration, many new regulations were brought out including new patent legislation which required a model to be submitted with every application. The reasoning behind this was simple, and difficult to fault. Grover and Baker Patent Model Sewing Machine Perhaps the most famous patent model of them all –the machine submitted by Elias Howe in 1846 Before 1790 patents were granted at local legal offices where the officials had little or no engineering background. Rather like asking your local driving licence centre to check over an improvement in the electronic-engine management system on a Ferrari. Clerks in these offices, whilst not able to read an engineering drawing, could be expected to understand a model. A model could also be used to demonstrate to officials that an idea actually worked. Some American states had a model requirement before 1790 but it was not until that year that it became an America-wide law. Grover and Baker 1851 Patent Model Sewing Machine The Grover & Baker patent of 1851was supported by this model which shows little resemblance to the eventual machine For three years the new system worked well. Patent applications were checked for merit and originality but such investigation took far too long, with non-experts being called upon to do the research and in 1793 the act was repealed. From that date patents were simply granted following the application with no checks made at all. The idea was that the courts could be relied upon to settle any disputes between various inventors. This decision made models even more important. Now judges and juries would have to compare various claims – so much easier for the layman with a three-dimensional model rather than a confusing set of drawings. But, of course, this led to further complications. With no expert checking of patent applications, the court cases threw up the poor standard of some patent descriptions. In fact, some were so badly and inaccurately worded that technical experts had to be called in to re-write them with only the actual model as a reference. By 1833 this system of wholesale acceptance was causing big problems — too many hair-brained and crackpot ideas were being promoted and the worthlessness of a patent wasn’t appreciated by the public who were led to believe that the granting of a US patent was a recommendation of the product by the American government. Even the system of deciding a patent’s validity by the Courts was turning into a joke. Should a patentee not like the decision in a court he would simply take the matter up in another state and keep trying until he got a satisfactory result. In 1836 the legislature finally got its act together and changed the law so that every application would in future go before a team of experts who would grant patents solely on merit. These teams, with knowledge of industry and engineering, could cope with working drawings and serious consideration was given to abandoning the model requirement. But it was argued that models would still provide a “fast-filing system” for the administrators and a facility for the public and wannabe inventors to check what had been achieved before.
663
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The Great Flu Pandemic of 1918: Somerset and Cambria County’s battle with a terrible disease (This is the second part in a two-part series about the 1918 flu pandemic. It was the deadliest flu in modern world history.) With winter coming on, doctors held out hope that the flu would stop spreading. But it continued to grow worse. Hundreds of new cases were reported daily as the month of October went on. As news of the war came back to Johnstown, most felt that the war was nearing its end. In October, a false message of victory reached them. They congregated by the thousands on the street, which made doctors and health officials fear a greater spread of the deadly flu. The entire northern part of Cambria County was placed under quarantine. Many of the doctors and nurses were close to collapsing from exhaustion. Mining communities throughout Somerset and Cambria counties were particularly devastated. Mines were idle. Women played an important role during the whole ordeal. Volunteers filled nursing positions. Local women received extensive training if they volunteered. Mrs. George W. Dibert, chairwoman of the Division of Women in Industry of the Women’s Committee of the Council of National Defense, implored them to help. “In scores of homes there is no one to the bring in supplies of food, no one to do the fundamental and essential housework, and no one to see that the patients receive the attention prescribed by doctors,” she told a local newspaper. “People are dying through lack of a little care and attention. There is no one on hand to render this aid.” The American Red Cross played a large role in helping patients, helping to secure seemingly countless beds. Several thousand employees at the Cambria Steel Co. were inoculated with an anti-influenza serum. The local supply of the vaccination was exhausted by the first day’s treatment of the men who got it. The flu complicated the local draft board’s job as well. They had to delay calling up some men as they were battling the Spanish influenza. One of the side effects of the flu epidemic was a decrease in crime. Many people were not drinking alcohol because the saloons had closed, and so crimes related to it were down. Emergency responders were still challenged by a staff shortage. Fire departments had call-outs for more men. Doctors speculated on how long the epidemic would last. Based on other communities, they estimated it would take six to eight weeks for cases to drop or disappear. But as November approached, the number of people afflicted by the Spanish flu steadily increased. Some families lost multiple members. John and Gertrude Dare Hipp lost both their son and daughter. Towns that were along the railroad were particularly devastated. Much like airports today, they were places where contagions spread rapidly. The worst of the epidemic was along the Pennsylvania Railroad. All Halloween parties were cancelled by order of the local board of health. Somerset County was hit hard. More than 1,300 cases were reported in October. Meyersdale was hit hard with 156 cases. Johnstown received patients from many of the mining towns in the area, and a lot of those who came to the hospitals died as they fought the affliction. When November rolled around, political pressure caused the mayor and city council officials to push for a lifting of the emergency ban placed on various forms of commerce as a way to reduce the spread of influenza. Thousands of dollars had been lost by saloon and theater owners, among others, because they couldn’t serve the public. They lifted the health ban in the first week of November. Influenza became deadlier when people caught pneumonia too. And it became more likely as the weather turned colder and wetter. State medical inspector W.E. Matthews said he wanted to warn people against too much optimism. “The most dangerous time of all is right now, when the disease is disappearing,” he said. “There is always the possibility of people letting up in their precautions or not taking the precautions that are so necessary in checking the spread of the disease.” Gallitzin and Portage continued to get more cases, even as the situation in Johnstown improved. Doctors wanted people to take precautions even if places of amusement were reopened. The disease spread quickly after the ban was lifted. “People evidently are forgetting our warning to take precautions and have been made negligent by the lifting of the ban,” he said. “Evidence of this is the fact that a number of new cases have been reported today and that the situation is much worse in some quarters.” The territory between Lilly and Gallitzin seemed to be the storm center, it was reported in the Johnstown Tribune. The federal government placed a ban on amusement places in several towns in the southern section of the county. Soon the situation grew twice as worse as it had been before the state ban was lifted. The death rate was very high. Toward the end of the month, authorities began to believe it was letting up. The city council voted to accept a modified quarantine that would close the theaters and saloons again to prevent further spread of the disease. Overcrowding in public places would be reduced by police officers patrolling the city and dispersing large groups of people. The quarantine was effective in curtailing the spread of the disease. By early December, it was reported that the number of Spanish influenza cases was on the decline. The flu also caused a teacher shortage in county schools. The superintendent announced a recruiting effort to fill the positions. Women went shopping in the downtown district during the day as Christmas approached. So when the men got off work at the mills, there was congestion at the local trolley station. Officials told women that they had to get out of the shopping area by 4:30 p.m. so as to avoid similar situations. People who violated the quarantine regulations were arrested and heavily fined by the mayor. Christmas charities were also affected by the crisis. Toy Mission, which gathered toys for impoverished children, discontinued its efforts for that year because of the Spanish flu. The death rate for December was 229 for Johnstown. As the winter progressed, the flu slowly disappeared and newspapers carried fewer accounts about what was happening with it. The regulations were removed and the flu guards were dispersed in December. A few flare-ups happened but nothing on the level of what happened in October and November of 1918. The holidays brought about some growth in cases because of the crowds gathering for celebration. To reduce the chance of flu epidemics now, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that everyone get a flu shot, which will be available in the fall. No information is available on the exact date. Ron Miller, a pharmacist at Findley’s Pharmacy in Somerset, said vaccines are 30 to 40 percent effective at stopping the flu from developing. “Everyone who gets it . . . it saves a lot of lives,” Miller said. “Even with that percentage, a lot of people die and it prevents the spreading. Everyone should get it, but especially the elderly.”
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The Great Flu Pandemic of 1918: Somerset and Cambria County’s battle with a terrible disease (This is the second part in a two-part series about the 1918 flu pandemic. It was the deadliest flu in modern world history.) With winter coming on, doctors held out hope that the flu would stop spreading. But it continued to grow worse. Hundreds of new cases were reported daily as the month of October went on. As news of the war came back to Johnstown, most felt that the war was nearing its end. In October, a false message of victory reached them. They congregated by the thousands on the street, which made doctors and health officials fear a greater spread of the deadly flu. The entire northern part of Cambria County was placed under quarantine. Many of the doctors and nurses were close to collapsing from exhaustion. Mining communities throughout Somerset and Cambria counties were particularly devastated. Mines were idle. Women played an important role during the whole ordeal. Volunteers filled nursing positions. Local women received extensive training if they volunteered. Mrs. George W. Dibert, chairwoman of the Division of Women in Industry of the Women’s Committee of the Council of National Defense, implored them to help. “In scores of homes there is no one to the bring in supplies of food, no one to do the fundamental and essential housework, and no one to see that the patients receive the attention prescribed by doctors,” she told a local newspaper. “People are dying through lack of a little care and attention. There is no one on hand to render this aid.” The American Red Cross played a large role in helping patients, helping to secure seemingly countless beds. Several thousand employees at the Cambria Steel Co. were inoculated with an anti-influenza serum. The local supply of the vaccination was exhausted by the first day’s treatment of the men who got it. The flu complicated the local draft board’s job as well. They had to delay calling up some men as they were battling the Spanish influenza. One of the side effects of the flu epidemic was a decrease in crime. Many people were not drinking alcohol because the saloons had closed, and so crimes related to it were down. Emergency responders were still challenged by a staff shortage. Fire departments had call-outs for more men. Doctors speculated on how long the epidemic would last. Based on other communities, they estimated it would take six to eight weeks for cases to drop or disappear. But as November approached, the number of people afflicted by the Spanish flu steadily increased. Some families lost multiple members. John and Gertrude Dare Hipp lost both their son and daughter. Towns that were along the railroad were particularly devastated. Much like airports today, they were places where contagions spread rapidly. The worst of the epidemic was along the Pennsylvania Railroad. All Halloween parties were cancelled by order of the local board of health. Somerset County was hit hard. More than 1,300 cases were reported in October. Meyersdale was hit hard with 156 cases. Johnstown received patients from many of the mining towns in the area, and a lot of those who came to the hospitals died as they fought the affliction. When November rolled around, political pressure caused the mayor and city council officials to push for a lifting of the emergency ban placed on various forms of commerce as a way to reduce the spread of influenza. Thousands of dollars had been lost by saloon and theater owners, among others, because they couldn’t serve the public. They lifted the health ban in the first week of November. Influenza became deadlier when people caught pneumonia too. And it became more likely as the weather turned colder and wetter. State medical inspector W.E. Matthews said he wanted to warn people against too much optimism. “The most dangerous time of all is right now, when the disease is disappearing,” he said. “There is always the possibility of people letting up in their precautions or not taking the precautions that are so necessary in checking the spread of the disease.” Gallitzin and Portage continued to get more cases, even as the situation in Johnstown improved. Doctors wanted people to take precautions even if places of amusement were reopened. The disease spread quickly after the ban was lifted. “People evidently are forgetting our warning to take precautions and have been made negligent by the lifting of the ban,” he said. “Evidence of this is the fact that a number of new cases have been reported today and that the situation is much worse in some quarters.” The territory between Lilly and Gallitzin seemed to be the storm center, it was reported in the Johnstown Tribune. The federal government placed a ban on amusement places in several towns in the southern section of the county. Soon the situation grew twice as worse as it had been before the state ban was lifted. The death rate was very high. Toward the end of the month, authorities began to believe it was letting up. The city council voted to accept a modified quarantine that would close the theaters and saloons again to prevent further spread of the disease. Overcrowding in public places would be reduced by police officers patrolling the city and dispersing large groups of people. The quarantine was effective in curtailing the spread of the disease. By early December, it was reported that the number of Spanish influenza cases was on the decline. The flu also caused a teacher shortage in county schools. The superintendent announced a recruiting effort to fill the positions. Women went shopping in the downtown district during the day as Christmas approached. So when the men got off work at the mills, there was congestion at the local trolley station. Officials told women that they had to get out of the shopping area by 4:30 p.m. so as to avoid similar situations. People who violated the quarantine regulations were arrested and heavily fined by the mayor. Christmas charities were also affected by the crisis. Toy Mission, which gathered toys for impoverished children, discontinued its efforts for that year because of the Spanish flu. The death rate for December was 229 for Johnstown. As the winter progressed, the flu slowly disappeared and newspapers carried fewer accounts about what was happening with it. The regulations were removed and the flu guards were dispersed in December. A few flare-ups happened but nothing on the level of what happened in October and November of 1918. The holidays brought about some growth in cases because of the crowds gathering for celebration. To reduce the chance of flu epidemics now, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that everyone get a flu shot, which will be available in the fall. No information is available on the exact date. Ron Miller, a pharmacist at Findley’s Pharmacy in Somerset, said vaccines are 30 to 40 percent effective at stopping the flu from developing. “Everyone who gets it . . . it saves a lot of lives,” Miller said. “Even with that percentage, a lot of people die and it prevents the spreading. Everyone should get it, but especially the elderly.”
1,429
ENGLISH
1
There are three main theories for why a baker’s dozen is 13 instead of 12, but most think it has its origins in the fact that many societies throughout history have had extremely strict laws concerning baker’s wares, due to the fact that it is fairly easy for bakers to cheat patrons and sell them less than what they think they are getting. These societies took this very seriously as bread was a primary food source for many people. For example, in ancient Egypt, should a baker be found to cheat someone, they would have their ear nailed to the door of their bakery. In Babylon, if a baker was found to have sold a “light loaf” to someone, the baker would have his hand chopped off. Another example was in Britain in the mid-13th century with the establishment of the Assize of Bread and Ale statute, which was in effect all the way up to the 19th century before being repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act of 1863. The Assize of Bread and Ale statute set the price of ale and what weight a farthing loaf of bread should be. Specifically it stated: By the consent of the whole realm of England, the measure of the king was made; that is to say: that an English penny, called a sterling round, and without any clipping, shall weigh thirty-two wheat corns in the midst of the ear, and twenty-pence do make an ounce, and twelve ounces one pound, and eight pounds do make a gallon of wine, and eight gallons of wine do make a London bushel, which is the eighth part of a quarter. So basically, in terms of bread, setting the relationship between the price of wheat and what the subsequent price of a loaf of bread from a certain quantity of wheat should be. Even though this statute was enacted at the request of bakers, it still posed a problem for them. If they happened to accidentally cheat a customer by giving them less than what they were supposed to as outlined by the statute, they were subject to extremely severe fines and punishment, which varied depending on where the lawbreaker lived, but could include, like the Babylonians’ punishment, losing a hand. As it wasn’t that hard to accidentally cheat a customer, given making a loaf of bread with exacting attributes is nearly impossible by hand without modern day tools, bakers began giving more than what the statute outlined to make sure they went over and never under. Specifically, in terms of the “baker’s dozen”, if a vendor or other customer were to order a dozen or several dozen loaves of bread from a baker, the baker would give them 13 for every dozen they ordered. Likewise, when selling quantities of anything, they’d give 13 measures when only 12 were purchased. This practice eventually made its way into the Worshipful Company of Bakers (London) guild code. This guild was actually started in the 12th century and had a large part in formulating the rules on the Assize of Bread and Ale statute. Though the above is generally thought to be the correct origins for a baker’s dozen, there are two alternate theories put forth that are somewhat plausible, though lacking in hard historical evidence and visible progression. The first is that bakers would sell 13 loaves to vendors, while only charging them for 12 which allowed the vendor to then sell all 13 at full price; thus, they’d earn a 7.7% profit per loaf. So in this case, vendors were being given a sort of wholesale price, but without breaking the laws outlined in the Assize of Bread and Ale which had no exceptions for allowing a cheaper price to vendors. This theory has some holes in it, but is quite plausible on the whole. Yet another theory is that it was simply a product of the way bakers bake bread. Baking trays tend to have a 3:2 aspect ratio. Then the most efficient two-dimensional arrangement of loaves/biscuits/whatever on such a tray results in 13 items with a 4+5+4 hexagonal arrangement, which avoids corners. It was important to avoid the corners, because the corners of a baking tray will heat up and cool off faster than the edges and the interior, which would result in not cooking anything on the corner evenly with the rest. This theory doesn’t explain why they’d sell them in batches 13 for the price of 12, but at least explains why they may have commonly made them in batches of 13 in the first place and is still a possible source, or at least contributor, to the “baker’s dozen” if it was fairly universal that baker’s baked things in groups of 13, as is suggested by the theory.
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There are three main theories for why a baker’s dozen is 13 instead of 12, but most think it has its origins in the fact that many societies throughout history have had extremely strict laws concerning baker’s wares, due to the fact that it is fairly easy for bakers to cheat patrons and sell them less than what they think they are getting. These societies took this very seriously as bread was a primary food source for many people. For example, in ancient Egypt, should a baker be found to cheat someone, they would have their ear nailed to the door of their bakery. In Babylon, if a baker was found to have sold a “light loaf” to someone, the baker would have his hand chopped off. Another example was in Britain in the mid-13th century with the establishment of the Assize of Bread and Ale statute, which was in effect all the way up to the 19th century before being repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act of 1863. The Assize of Bread and Ale statute set the price of ale and what weight a farthing loaf of bread should be. Specifically it stated: By the consent of the whole realm of England, the measure of the king was made; that is to say: that an English penny, called a sterling round, and without any clipping, shall weigh thirty-two wheat corns in the midst of the ear, and twenty-pence do make an ounce, and twelve ounces one pound, and eight pounds do make a gallon of wine, and eight gallons of wine do make a London bushel, which is the eighth part of a quarter. So basically, in terms of bread, setting the relationship between the price of wheat and what the subsequent price of a loaf of bread from a certain quantity of wheat should be. Even though this statute was enacted at the request of bakers, it still posed a problem for them. If they happened to accidentally cheat a customer by giving them less than what they were supposed to as outlined by the statute, they were subject to extremely severe fines and punishment, which varied depending on where the lawbreaker lived, but could include, like the Babylonians’ punishment, losing a hand. As it wasn’t that hard to accidentally cheat a customer, given making a loaf of bread with exacting attributes is nearly impossible by hand without modern day tools, bakers began giving more than what the statute outlined to make sure they went over and never under. Specifically, in terms of the “baker’s dozen”, if a vendor or other customer were to order a dozen or several dozen loaves of bread from a baker, the baker would give them 13 for every dozen they ordered. Likewise, when selling quantities of anything, they’d give 13 measures when only 12 were purchased. This practice eventually made its way into the Worshipful Company of Bakers (London) guild code. This guild was actually started in the 12th century and had a large part in formulating the rules on the Assize of Bread and Ale statute. Though the above is generally thought to be the correct origins for a baker’s dozen, there are two alternate theories put forth that are somewhat plausible, though lacking in hard historical evidence and visible progression. The first is that bakers would sell 13 loaves to vendors, while only charging them for 12 which allowed the vendor to then sell all 13 at full price; thus, they’d earn a 7.7% profit per loaf. So in this case, vendors were being given a sort of wholesale price, but without breaking the laws outlined in the Assize of Bread and Ale which had no exceptions for allowing a cheaper price to vendors. This theory has some holes in it, but is quite plausible on the whole. Yet another theory is that it was simply a product of the way bakers bake bread. Baking trays tend to have a 3:2 aspect ratio. Then the most efficient two-dimensional arrangement of loaves/biscuits/whatever on such a tray results in 13 items with a 4+5+4 hexagonal arrangement, which avoids corners. It was important to avoid the corners, because the corners of a baking tray will heat up and cool off faster than the edges and the interior, which would result in not cooking anything on the corner evenly with the rest. This theory doesn’t explain why they’d sell them in batches 13 for the price of 12, but at least explains why they may have commonly made them in batches of 13 in the first place and is still a possible source, or at least contributor, to the “baker’s dozen” if it was fairly universal that baker’s baked things in groups of 13, as is suggested by the theory.
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In common English, people have come to assume that the country the Netherlands is also known as Holland. The use of these two names interchangeably is especially more pronounced for people who are not from the Netherlands and, to a smaller extent, by the Dutch as well. However, most of the Dutch do not use the two interchangeably because they do not point to the same geographical region. In reality, Holland is just a small region with an area of around 2,119 square miles and a population of about 6.5 million people. On the other hand, the country of the Netherlands has an area of 16,040 square miles and a population of a little over 17 million people. The name “Holland” was once used in the past (around 1064) as the name of present-day Haarlem. The word is derived from the Old Dutch word “holtant,” which means land of wood. Another common misconception of the name “Holland” is that it was derived from two Dutch words that mean “hollow land” in English. The reason why people assume that the name refers to the entire Dutch country is that the region that was called Holland was a prominent one during its time. Holland was responsible for plenty of economic and political interactions between the Netherlands and other nations. A similar confusion is commonly made when people refer to the United Kingdom as England. However, it is crucial to note that the name “Holland” was once used to refer to the whole nation on an official capacity. The suggestion came from Napoleon Bonaparte and was easily implemented since his brother was in charge of Holland. However, the name was dropped after the French were routed in 1813. In both English and Dutch, anyone from Holland was described as a Hollander. However, in modern English, the word “Hollander” is no longer in common use. On the subject of languages, it is worth noting that Holland has its own dialect of the Dutch language known as Hollandic. Before Holland became an influential region, it was actually a small area of the Holy Roman Empire. In fact, before the turn of the 12th century, the area was actually called Frisia while the people were known as Frisians. Over the years after that, the power and influence of the region grew through conquest and other forms of acquisition. For example, the 1287 flood of St. Lucia saw the region expand to the region that was known as West Friesland. In 1432, the region was part of the Burgundian Netherlands. By the 16th century, no urban center in Europe had more people than Holland. After this, Holland (which became a province) boasted of having some of the largest cities and towns in the Dutch Republic. The Dutch Republic laid the groundwork for the establishment of present-day Netherlands. Some of the major cities that Holland had included The Hague, Rotterdam, and the capital city of the Netherlands, Amsterdam. For this reason, the area was mostly identified as Holland and not as part of a larger republic, which is where the misconceptions started. From there, it was ruled briefly by the French before the establishment of present-day Kingdom of the Netherlands. What Is The Difference Between Holland And The Netherlands? The Netherlands is a country in northwestern Europe. Although Holland is sometimes used to refer to all of the Netherlands, Holland is actually a region on the country's western coast. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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In common English, people have come to assume that the country the Netherlands is also known as Holland. The use of these two names interchangeably is especially more pronounced for people who are not from the Netherlands and, to a smaller extent, by the Dutch as well. However, most of the Dutch do not use the two interchangeably because they do not point to the same geographical region. In reality, Holland is just a small region with an area of around 2,119 square miles and a population of about 6.5 million people. On the other hand, the country of the Netherlands has an area of 16,040 square miles and a population of a little over 17 million people. The name “Holland” was once used in the past (around 1064) as the name of present-day Haarlem. The word is derived from the Old Dutch word “holtant,” which means land of wood. Another common misconception of the name “Holland” is that it was derived from two Dutch words that mean “hollow land” in English. The reason why people assume that the name refers to the entire Dutch country is that the region that was called Holland was a prominent one during its time. Holland was responsible for plenty of economic and political interactions between the Netherlands and other nations. A similar confusion is commonly made when people refer to the United Kingdom as England. However, it is crucial to note that the name “Holland” was once used to refer to the whole nation on an official capacity. The suggestion came from Napoleon Bonaparte and was easily implemented since his brother was in charge of Holland. However, the name was dropped after the French were routed in 1813. In both English and Dutch, anyone from Holland was described as a Hollander. However, in modern English, the word “Hollander” is no longer in common use. On the subject of languages, it is worth noting that Holland has its own dialect of the Dutch language known as Hollandic. Before Holland became an influential region, it was actually a small area of the Holy Roman Empire. In fact, before the turn of the 12th century, the area was actually called Frisia while the people were known as Frisians. Over the years after that, the power and influence of the region grew through conquest and other forms of acquisition. For example, the 1287 flood of St. Lucia saw the region expand to the region that was known as West Friesland. In 1432, the region was part of the Burgundian Netherlands. By the 16th century, no urban center in Europe had more people than Holland. After this, Holland (which became a province) boasted of having some of the largest cities and towns in the Dutch Republic. The Dutch Republic laid the groundwork for the establishment of present-day Netherlands. Some of the major cities that Holland had included The Hague, Rotterdam, and the capital city of the Netherlands, Amsterdam. For this reason, the area was mostly identified as Holland and not as part of a larger republic, which is where the misconceptions started. From there, it was ruled briefly by the French before the establishment of present-day Kingdom of the Netherlands. What Is The Difference Between Holland And The Netherlands? The Netherlands is a country in northwestern Europe. Although Holland is sometimes used to refer to all of the Netherlands, Holland is actually a region on the country's western coast. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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BRINGING SPANISH TO LIFE 28 Nov 2017 Students from Shell to Upper Sixth enjoyed watching a play, entirely in Spanish, in which they entered the world of two teenagers who shelter in a derelict house from a bad storm. The play, called La Casa Encantada, involves Camila and Antonio who are on a hiking trip. Bad weather forces them to take shelter in an old house (La casa vieja) in the forest. A policeman arrives and informs them that a dangerous criminal (extremadamente peligroso) has escaped from a local prison and advises them not to leave the house. Soon strange things start to happen inside the house but Camila and Antonio are trapped and dare not leave. The play is entirely in Spanish but the students needed to fear not! The script contained lots of words and phrases which the students had already come across in lessons. The actors were professional actors who live in Spain but are here for several months touring this play to many schools all over the UK and Ireland. They spoke very slowly so that the students could understand but as it was a ‘play’ they could watch the action and easily pick out the Spanish words and phrases they knew. Students afterwards said the following: “It was amazing! I thought it was quite clever and quite funny!” “A lovely end to a Monday afternoon!” “I actually learned quite a lot.” “It was very entertaining – I laughed really hard!” “It was really excellent”.
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BRINGING SPANISH TO LIFE 28 Nov 2017 Students from Shell to Upper Sixth enjoyed watching a play, entirely in Spanish, in which they entered the world of two teenagers who shelter in a derelict house from a bad storm. The play, called La Casa Encantada, involves Camila and Antonio who are on a hiking trip. Bad weather forces them to take shelter in an old house (La casa vieja) in the forest. A policeman arrives and informs them that a dangerous criminal (extremadamente peligroso) has escaped from a local prison and advises them not to leave the house. Soon strange things start to happen inside the house but Camila and Antonio are trapped and dare not leave. The play is entirely in Spanish but the students needed to fear not! The script contained lots of words and phrases which the students had already come across in lessons. The actors were professional actors who live in Spain but are here for several months touring this play to many schools all over the UK and Ireland. They spoke very slowly so that the students could understand but as it was a ‘play’ they could watch the action and easily pick out the Spanish words and phrases they knew. Students afterwards said the following: “It was amazing! I thought it was quite clever and quite funny!” “A lovely end to a Monday afternoon!” “I actually learned quite a lot.” “It was very entertaining – I laughed really hard!” “It was really excellent”.
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ENGLISH
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Money and property were exchanged for a short release of the accused as far back in history as the 13th Century. England had a class of elite aristocrats that liked to play hard but didn’t like to stay overnight in jail. Since the lads had money and property, and the state needed both, the exchange seemed inevitable. A refinement of the process occurred in the Judiciary Act of 1789, when an American law was passed stating that any crime that did not warrant the penalty of death would allow the plaintiff to find bail. The bill also said that if the crime was a capital crime, the judge could decide if bail was allowed. The act further limited the court’s ability to set bail because so many justices had been setting prohibitive or excessive bail amounts. The Bail Reform Act of 1966 reformed the pejorative system that was keeping poor people in jail and ruining their lives with no evidence presented that the individuals were guilty. As President Johnson signed the act, proponents celebrated the fact the poor would finally be able to get a fair hearing before being kept in jail for months without a hearing. A major revision of the bail act came in 1984 to prevent the discrimination of the poor and to close a loophole that allowed felons to receive bail even if they were thought to be flight risks. The text demanded that serious criminals, dangerous individuals, repeat offenders, and mentally incompetent individuals be held with no potential for bail. The laws are much the same today as they were 40 years ago, and now your Montgomery County bail bonds representatives are bound by the laws to make sure you have the opportunity to pay your bail and leave the confines of jail. By helping you stay out of lockup, your bondsman is also helping the court system keep the numbers in jail to a minimum.
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Money and property were exchanged for a short release of the accused as far back in history as the 13th Century. England had a class of elite aristocrats that liked to play hard but didn’t like to stay overnight in jail. Since the lads had money and property, and the state needed both, the exchange seemed inevitable. A refinement of the process occurred in the Judiciary Act of 1789, when an American law was passed stating that any crime that did not warrant the penalty of death would allow the plaintiff to find bail. The bill also said that if the crime was a capital crime, the judge could decide if bail was allowed. The act further limited the court’s ability to set bail because so many justices had been setting prohibitive or excessive bail amounts. The Bail Reform Act of 1966 reformed the pejorative system that was keeping poor people in jail and ruining their lives with no evidence presented that the individuals were guilty. As President Johnson signed the act, proponents celebrated the fact the poor would finally be able to get a fair hearing before being kept in jail for months without a hearing. A major revision of the bail act came in 1984 to prevent the discrimination of the poor and to close a loophole that allowed felons to receive bail even if they were thought to be flight risks. The text demanded that serious criminals, dangerous individuals, repeat offenders, and mentally incompetent individuals be held with no potential for bail. The laws are much the same today as they were 40 years ago, and now your Montgomery County bail bonds representatives are bound by the laws to make sure you have the opportunity to pay your bail and leave the confines of jail. By helping you stay out of lockup, your bondsman is also helping the court system keep the numbers in jail to a minimum.
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ENGLISH
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As a young girl Grace Brewster Murray had an unusually inquisitive mind. One day, when she was seven years old, she disassembled an alarm clock to see how it worked. Unable to get it back together, she got another and took it apart as well. By the time she was finished her quest, all seven of the household alarm clocks lay in pieces. But Grace Hopper (she married Vincent Hopper in 1930) put her inquisitiveness to good use, becoming the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale University. When she joined the Navy in 1943, a wise detailer assigned her to work in the Bureau of Ordnance in a special program known as the "Computation Project," where she became one of the programmers of the world's first large-scale computer. No desktop PC, this machine was 51 feet long, 8 feet high, and 5 feet deep. After the war, she worked on a new machine called "Univac." With its arrays of vacuum tubes and magnetic drums, this was the first machine that could rightfully be called an electronic computer. Hopper was instrumental in creating the first language that allowed programmers to speak to computers with words rather than numbers.
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As a young girl Grace Brewster Murray had an unusually inquisitive mind. One day, when she was seven years old, she disassembled an alarm clock to see how it worked. Unable to get it back together, she got another and took it apart as well. By the time she was finished her quest, all seven of the household alarm clocks lay in pieces. But Grace Hopper (she married Vincent Hopper in 1930) put her inquisitiveness to good use, becoming the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale University. When she joined the Navy in 1943, a wise detailer assigned her to work in the Bureau of Ordnance in a special program known as the "Computation Project," where she became one of the programmers of the world's first large-scale computer. No desktop PC, this machine was 51 feet long, 8 feet high, and 5 feet deep. After the war, she worked on a new machine called "Univac." With its arrays of vacuum tubes and magnetic drums, this was the first machine that could rightfully be called an electronic computer. Hopper was instrumental in creating the first language that allowed programmers to speak to computers with words rather than numbers.
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Pope Gregory XIII is remembered for one reason only, namely his reform of the calendar which has subsequently borne his name. Had it not been for that, he would only have gone down in history for his vigorous attacks on Protestantism and for virtually bankrupting the Papacy. Ugo Boncompagni was born in Bologna in 1502 and was nearly 70 when he was elected to the papacy in 1572. His immediate goal was to turn back the Protestant tide and to promote the counter-Reformation that was initiated by the Council of Trent (1545-63). One consequence of the counter-Reformation was violence meted out to Protestants throughout Catholic Europe, and one of the worst atrocities was the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France in August 1572, when as many as 30,000 French Huguenot Protestants may have been killed. Pope Gregory celebrated this event by attending a mass of thanksgiving. In order to further the reforms agreed at the Council of Trent, Pope Gregory needed a well-educated priesthood, and to this end he established several colleges, including an English seminary in Rome, from which priests were sent to England on the dangerous mission of supporting Catholics during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The Jesuit College at Rome was enlarged to become the Gregorian University. This extensive building programme, together with Gregory’s generous subsidies to Catholic rulers to bolster their anti-Protestant activities, was what led to the coffers being emptied. Gregory’s reform of the calendar came about in 1582. The old calendar had been instigated by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and the problem was that the length of the year as measured by the calendar was not the same as the time taken for Planet Earth to complete one orbit of the Sun. Indeed, by 1582 it was ten days out. The solution declared by Pope Gregory was simply to cut ten days out of October in that year, so that the 4th was followed by the 15th. The error would have recurred in time had not Gregory also made it known that leap years (of 366 days) would not take place in the years that marked the turn of a century, so that 1700, which should have been a leap year, would not be. A further adjustment was that every fourth centenary year would still be a leap year. This is why the year 2000 was a leap year, although 2100 will not be. Although this reform was timely and necessary, it was hardly going to go down well in those countries that had embraced Protestantism, or in those that practiced Orthodox Christianity. The result was that Europe was split for centuries to come. Great Britain and her colonies only adopted the new calendar in 1752, when there were vigorous protests about the “ten lost days” (it was actually eleven by the time of the change), and Russia only did so after the 1917 Revolution (which is why the “October Revolution” actually took place in November!) Pope Gregory reigned for thirteen years and died in 1585 at the age of 83. Towards the end of his reign he had tried to restore the Papacy’s fortunes by confiscating property in the Papal territories for which the owners could not provide cast-iron title. This led to considerable unrest and, at his death, Rome was not only broke but in a state of near-anarchy. But at least the date was correct.
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Pope Gregory XIII is remembered for one reason only, namely his reform of the calendar which has subsequently borne his name. Had it not been for that, he would only have gone down in history for his vigorous attacks on Protestantism and for virtually bankrupting the Papacy. Ugo Boncompagni was born in Bologna in 1502 and was nearly 70 when he was elected to the papacy in 1572. His immediate goal was to turn back the Protestant tide and to promote the counter-Reformation that was initiated by the Council of Trent (1545-63). One consequence of the counter-Reformation was violence meted out to Protestants throughout Catholic Europe, and one of the worst atrocities was the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France in August 1572, when as many as 30,000 French Huguenot Protestants may have been killed. Pope Gregory celebrated this event by attending a mass of thanksgiving. In order to further the reforms agreed at the Council of Trent, Pope Gregory needed a well-educated priesthood, and to this end he established several colleges, including an English seminary in Rome, from which priests were sent to England on the dangerous mission of supporting Catholics during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The Jesuit College at Rome was enlarged to become the Gregorian University. This extensive building programme, together with Gregory’s generous subsidies to Catholic rulers to bolster their anti-Protestant activities, was what led to the coffers being emptied. Gregory’s reform of the calendar came about in 1582. The old calendar had been instigated by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and the problem was that the length of the year as measured by the calendar was not the same as the time taken for Planet Earth to complete one orbit of the Sun. Indeed, by 1582 it was ten days out. The solution declared by Pope Gregory was simply to cut ten days out of October in that year, so that the 4th was followed by the 15th. The error would have recurred in time had not Gregory also made it known that leap years (of 366 days) would not take place in the years that marked the turn of a century, so that 1700, which should have been a leap year, would not be. A further adjustment was that every fourth centenary year would still be a leap year. This is why the year 2000 was a leap year, although 2100 will not be. Although this reform was timely and necessary, it was hardly going to go down well in those countries that had embraced Protestantism, or in those that practiced Orthodox Christianity. The result was that Europe was split for centuries to come. Great Britain and her colonies only adopted the new calendar in 1752, when there were vigorous protests about the “ten lost days” (it was actually eleven by the time of the change), and Russia only did so after the 1917 Revolution (which is why the “October Revolution” actually took place in November!) Pope Gregory reigned for thirteen years and died in 1585 at the age of 83. Towards the end of his reign he had tried to restore the Papacy’s fortunes by confiscating property in the Papal territories for which the owners could not provide cast-iron title. This led to considerable unrest and, at his death, Rome was not only broke but in a state of near-anarchy. But at least the date was correct.
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Raising children is a whole mixture of emotions. There can be joy, fun, stress, and sadness, and also a pressure to do certain things or raise children in a certain way. Knowing how to raise children is different for everyone; there is no rule book. But there can be one thing that a lot of parents will agree on, and that is wanting to raise well-rounded children. But what does that really mean? A well-rounded child is someone who can think for themselves, and someone who is secure in their own decisions. If you can raise children that develop a sense of who they are, where they fit in the world, and feel confident in themselves, then they are on their way to becoming well-rounded people. This doesn’t need to start right from being young, as there is a lot of general development that will be going on then. But once they are reaching the age of nine or ten, it can be a good idea to start thinking about how to raise more well-rounded children. It is the age when they need to start thinking about their skills in the classroom, about good behaviour, work habits, as well as personal and social citizenship. That all sounds like something pretty overwhelming, though, right? Where do you start with all of this? Here are some tips and advice that has been found across the internet, to give you some of the best advice to help you to raise well-rounded children, so that they can be the best that they can be, and reach their potential. Of course, they have choices in what they do, but as a parent, if you can lay the groundwork, it can make a massive difference. Discover who your kid really is Raising a child that is well-rounded will mean raising a child that has a strong sense of self. They are likely to have this when they are in their early years, but this trait can actually be quite easy to stop. Children when they are younger, are all focused on you. It is all about family, parents, and siblings, and they will base their identity around that. But as children get older, they will start to explore things different to you. The important part here is to respect the choices that they make, as they discover new things and new ideas. This self-identity will get broader, and will begin to form usually around the age of eleven. Support your children with what they are passionate about, the things that they do in school, and so on. Another important note here is to make sure that you keep lines of communication open. You might want to know what they are doing in each class, but they might want to talk about friends and what happened at break time. Provide plenty of opportunities If you want to help to raise some well-rounded children, then it really makes a difference if you are able to provide them with some great opportunities. These things don’t have to cost a lot, but being able to offer them some travel opportunities, sporting opportunities, creative opportunities, and so on, then it can make a massive difference to them. They can explore a whole range of things, find what they enjoy, and this can help them to grow in confidence, and increase their knowledge and self-identity in the world. You could think about things like getting pets as a way to help too, as that is another opportunity that can help them. There are so many things that can come with having a pet, that can play a part in helping them. It can help them to learn responsibility, develop compassion, and show love. It can also be a massive learning opportunity for children as they train a dog with dog treats and teach some tricks. The statistics are there too. Children who have pets are likely to be more confident than those that aren’t raised with pets. So that is something to think about in this whole crazy journey of motherhood. Teach them to listen and communicate Children will have some basic communication skills as they get older and as they start school. But this will develop as they get older. Being able to teach our children to listen reflectively is something that is important, though many adults fail to do that! This is all about when someone says something to you, and then you repeat it back to them and reframe it. Encouraging children to develop their ability to pay attention is something that is really important. If you are able to give them the language to show that they are listening and connected, then it can make such a difference to their attention skills. Older children, for example, need to be able to communicate without any intervention from you. It is important to let them speak for themselves as much as they can; don’t answer for them if someone asks them a question. Let them order at the restaurant, and so on. They will find their voice and it will give them some confidence. Keep the curiosity alive Children are naturally born to be quite curious about the world around them, and about life in general. It is something that is powerful and important when raising children. It can start off with creating a safe place for them at home, where they feel confident and safe to ask questions and to comment and join in with conversations. Just saying to children ‘because I said so’ when they ask something, can be really tricky, as it doesn’t help them to learn or to be curious. Eating a meal as a family is something that can help, as it is the chance to draw them into conversation. You can talk about their day, current affairs, politics, their interests, and so on. This is something that is important to get them curious, to ask questions, and get involved. It should be a safe place at home, so can make a massive difference. Disclosure: This is a featured post.
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Raising children is a whole mixture of emotions. There can be joy, fun, stress, and sadness, and also a pressure to do certain things or raise children in a certain way. Knowing how to raise children is different for everyone; there is no rule book. But there can be one thing that a lot of parents will agree on, and that is wanting to raise well-rounded children. But what does that really mean? A well-rounded child is someone who can think for themselves, and someone who is secure in their own decisions. If you can raise children that develop a sense of who they are, where they fit in the world, and feel confident in themselves, then they are on their way to becoming well-rounded people. This doesn’t need to start right from being young, as there is a lot of general development that will be going on then. But once they are reaching the age of nine or ten, it can be a good idea to start thinking about how to raise more well-rounded children. It is the age when they need to start thinking about their skills in the classroom, about good behaviour, work habits, as well as personal and social citizenship. That all sounds like something pretty overwhelming, though, right? Where do you start with all of this? Here are some tips and advice that has been found across the internet, to give you some of the best advice to help you to raise well-rounded children, so that they can be the best that they can be, and reach their potential. Of course, they have choices in what they do, but as a parent, if you can lay the groundwork, it can make a massive difference. Discover who your kid really is Raising a child that is well-rounded will mean raising a child that has a strong sense of self. They are likely to have this when they are in their early years, but this trait can actually be quite easy to stop. Children when they are younger, are all focused on you. It is all about family, parents, and siblings, and they will base their identity around that. But as children get older, they will start to explore things different to you. The important part here is to respect the choices that they make, as they discover new things and new ideas. This self-identity will get broader, and will begin to form usually around the age of eleven. Support your children with what they are passionate about, the things that they do in school, and so on. Another important note here is to make sure that you keep lines of communication open. You might want to know what they are doing in each class, but they might want to talk about friends and what happened at break time. Provide plenty of opportunities If you want to help to raise some well-rounded children, then it really makes a difference if you are able to provide them with some great opportunities. These things don’t have to cost a lot, but being able to offer them some travel opportunities, sporting opportunities, creative opportunities, and so on, then it can make a massive difference to them. They can explore a whole range of things, find what they enjoy, and this can help them to grow in confidence, and increase their knowledge and self-identity in the world. You could think about things like getting pets as a way to help too, as that is another opportunity that can help them. There are so many things that can come with having a pet, that can play a part in helping them. It can help them to learn responsibility, develop compassion, and show love. It can also be a massive learning opportunity for children as they train a dog with dog treats and teach some tricks. The statistics are there too. Children who have pets are likely to be more confident than those that aren’t raised with pets. So that is something to think about in this whole crazy journey of motherhood. Teach them to listen and communicate Children will have some basic communication skills as they get older and as they start school. But this will develop as they get older. Being able to teach our children to listen reflectively is something that is important, though many adults fail to do that! This is all about when someone says something to you, and then you repeat it back to them and reframe it. Encouraging children to develop their ability to pay attention is something that is really important. If you are able to give them the language to show that they are listening and connected, then it can make such a difference to their attention skills. Older children, for example, need to be able to communicate without any intervention from you. It is important to let them speak for themselves as much as they can; don’t answer for them if someone asks them a question. Let them order at the restaurant, and so on. They will find their voice and it will give them some confidence. Keep the curiosity alive Children are naturally born to be quite curious about the world around them, and about life in general. It is something that is powerful and important when raising children. It can start off with creating a safe place for them at home, where they feel confident and safe to ask questions and to comment and join in with conversations. Just saying to children ‘because I said so’ when they ask something, can be really tricky, as it doesn’t help them to learn or to be curious. Eating a meal as a family is something that can help, as it is the chance to draw them into conversation. You can talk about their day, current affairs, politics, their interests, and so on. This is something that is important to get them curious, to ask questions, and get involved. It should be a safe place at home, so can make a massive difference. Disclosure: This is a featured post.
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The History Of Mother's Day Is A Lot More Intense Than You Might Have Imagined Mother's Day is an amazing holiday that lets you celebrate and fawn over Mom, the first woman in your world post-birth, and the woman who stands in your corner regardless of the mistakes you make while going through life. While we should really celebrate our moms on a daily basis (since she's one fantastic lady), it's important to know the history of Mother's Day, and why we choose one day out of the year to truly make sure she feels loved. Is it really a commercial holiday after all, like we immediately assume out of most love-related holidays? Or is there a deeper history behind it that helped it become what it is today? Celebrating mothers originated from the Greeks and Romans, but they weren't the ones who decided that bouquets of flowers and Sunday brunch would be a standard tradition. Turns out, the U.S. celebration of Mother's Day is quite intriguing. Back in 1908, Anna Jarvis decided to observe the holiday, and it picked up quickly — it became an official holiday just a few years later, in 1914. But, Jarvis can't take full credit for the success of Mother's Day. In fact it was her mom, Ann Reeves Jarvis, who started putting together Mother's Day work clubs to try and raise awareness of, and lessen, infant mortality. Ann Reeves Jarvis hailed from Virginia, and through her clubs, tried to promote sanitary conditions for new mothers. Tuberculosis was quite common back then, and many ill mothers passed on germs and contaminated milk to their children, who ended up suffering as well. Ann Reeves Jarvis truly wanted to support other women, and strived to both lend a helping hand, and raise money for medications that would help eliminate any issues before they became problematic. She suffered many losses herself, having been pregnant approximately 13 times, yet only having four children reach adulthood — one being Anna. Ann Reeves Jarvis was also quite compassionate towards Civil War soldiers, as well. She definitely wasn't a fan of the war, and often used her work clubs to host meetings that promoted pacifism. Due to this, she was asked to help with an event that brought soldiers together, called "Mothers Friendship Day," which took place in 1868. Both the North and the South attended, and healed along with the rest of the community. It was a fantastic outcome, especially based on the fact that it was heavily protested. That's where Anna Jarvis comes in. After her mother passed away in 1905, Jarvis really wanted to do something to celebrate her giving nature and warm spirit. In 1907, she managed to create a service honoring her mom. That next year, in 1908, she decided to make it a bit more widespread. Two celebrations happened on May 10, 1908 — the first took place in Grafton, West Virginia, and the second in Philadelphia. The former was at a church where her mom helped with Sunday school classes, and the latter was where Jarvis was currently living. Approximately 15,000 people attended the Philadelphia event, which proved that the holiday had a lot of momentum behind it. In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson officially declared Mother's Day to fall on the second Sunday in May. One thing's for sure — Jarvis had a firm idea of what she wanted this holiday to be. In fact, it's "Mother's Day" and not "Mothers' Day," since in Jarvis' eyes, the holiday should be an individual time to appreciate and reflect upon your own mother, and not the mothers of others. Of course, things changed over time. Mother's Day started to become a bit too commercialized for Jarvis' taste. Instead of reflecting on the greatness of Mom at home, people were shilling cards and candies to try and make a few dollars for themselves. So, pretty much, it quickly turned into what we see Mother's Day as today. As a reaction, she put a lot of money towards regaining some more control over her holiday, and even started up the Mother's Day International Association to help aid her in protesting Mother's Day. And protest she did. She boycotted events and crashed conventions to try and get her point across. And she didn't give up until the early 1940s. Here's where things get grim. Jarvis passed away in 1948 without completing her mission, at a sanitarium in Philadelphia. Her disappointment over Mother's Day eventually took a toll on her, both physically and mentally. It's definitely a rough end for such a pioneer that came from a truly legendary family. This Mother's Day, don't feel the need to choose between Jarvis' way, and the universally recognized way — celebrate your mom in a way that works best for both of you. Images: Eddie Pearson/Stocksy; Giphy (2)
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The History Of Mother's Day Is A Lot More Intense Than You Might Have Imagined Mother's Day is an amazing holiday that lets you celebrate and fawn over Mom, the first woman in your world post-birth, and the woman who stands in your corner regardless of the mistakes you make while going through life. While we should really celebrate our moms on a daily basis (since she's one fantastic lady), it's important to know the history of Mother's Day, and why we choose one day out of the year to truly make sure she feels loved. Is it really a commercial holiday after all, like we immediately assume out of most love-related holidays? Or is there a deeper history behind it that helped it become what it is today? Celebrating mothers originated from the Greeks and Romans, but they weren't the ones who decided that bouquets of flowers and Sunday brunch would be a standard tradition. Turns out, the U.S. celebration of Mother's Day is quite intriguing. Back in 1908, Anna Jarvis decided to observe the holiday, and it picked up quickly — it became an official holiday just a few years later, in 1914. But, Jarvis can't take full credit for the success of Mother's Day. In fact it was her mom, Ann Reeves Jarvis, who started putting together Mother's Day work clubs to try and raise awareness of, and lessen, infant mortality. Ann Reeves Jarvis hailed from Virginia, and through her clubs, tried to promote sanitary conditions for new mothers. Tuberculosis was quite common back then, and many ill mothers passed on germs and contaminated milk to their children, who ended up suffering as well. Ann Reeves Jarvis truly wanted to support other women, and strived to both lend a helping hand, and raise money for medications that would help eliminate any issues before they became problematic. She suffered many losses herself, having been pregnant approximately 13 times, yet only having four children reach adulthood — one being Anna. Ann Reeves Jarvis was also quite compassionate towards Civil War soldiers, as well. She definitely wasn't a fan of the war, and often used her work clubs to host meetings that promoted pacifism. Due to this, she was asked to help with an event that brought soldiers together, called "Mothers Friendship Day," which took place in 1868. Both the North and the South attended, and healed along with the rest of the community. It was a fantastic outcome, especially based on the fact that it was heavily protested. That's where Anna Jarvis comes in. After her mother passed away in 1905, Jarvis really wanted to do something to celebrate her giving nature and warm spirit. In 1907, she managed to create a service honoring her mom. That next year, in 1908, she decided to make it a bit more widespread. Two celebrations happened on May 10, 1908 — the first took place in Grafton, West Virginia, and the second in Philadelphia. The former was at a church where her mom helped with Sunday school classes, and the latter was where Jarvis was currently living. Approximately 15,000 people attended the Philadelphia event, which proved that the holiday had a lot of momentum behind it. In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson officially declared Mother's Day to fall on the second Sunday in May. One thing's for sure — Jarvis had a firm idea of what she wanted this holiday to be. In fact, it's "Mother's Day" and not "Mothers' Day," since in Jarvis' eyes, the holiday should be an individual time to appreciate and reflect upon your own mother, and not the mothers of others. Of course, things changed over time. Mother's Day started to become a bit too commercialized for Jarvis' taste. Instead of reflecting on the greatness of Mom at home, people were shilling cards and candies to try and make a few dollars for themselves. So, pretty much, it quickly turned into what we see Mother's Day as today. As a reaction, she put a lot of money towards regaining some more control over her holiday, and even started up the Mother's Day International Association to help aid her in protesting Mother's Day. And protest she did. She boycotted events and crashed conventions to try and get her point across. And she didn't give up until the early 1940s. Here's where things get grim. Jarvis passed away in 1948 without completing her mission, at a sanitarium in Philadelphia. Her disappointment over Mother's Day eventually took a toll on her, both physically and mentally. It's definitely a rough end for such a pioneer that came from a truly legendary family. This Mother's Day, don't feel the need to choose between Jarvis' way, and the universally recognized way — celebrate your mom in a way that works best for both of you. Images: Eddie Pearson/Stocksy; Giphy (2)
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He was the first Olympic champion in the and metres races. He was also the first Olympian to win a gold medal. James Naismith emerged from his office with a clear vision and a new sense of purpose. He had just spent two weeks searching for an indoor athletic activity to occupy his rowdy physical education class during the harsh New England winter months. Needless to say, his class most of whom were ex-football and rugby players hardly found the winter athletic regimen of leapfrog and tumbling to be an acceptable replacement for outdoor sports. Naismith turned first to the popular sports of the day—he tried indoor adaptations of soccer, lacrosse, and football, but each only led to people getting injured or facility damage. It was developed to meet a need. The equipment used in early basketball was also vastly different from the modern game. For example, basketball was originally played with a soccer ball with closed bottom peach bushel baskets as goals, which meant that someone had to climb on a ladder to get the ball after each made basket. To alleviate the effort required to retrieve the ball, a hole was eventually drilled into the bottom of the basket. This innovation soon gave way to the elimination of the peach basket and the development of the modern goal composed of an iron rim and cloth net. And although the sport has evolved—some notable additions to the modern game include the dribble, the three point line, and a greater tolerance of physical contact and fouls—modern basketball is still firmly rooted in many of the original rules. Women in Basketball Women began playing basketball as early asthanks in large part to the efforts of a woman named Senda Berenson Abbott. In response, Berenson Abbott made the following changes to the game: The court was divided into three equal sections, with players required to stay in an assigned area. Players were prohibited from snatching or batting the ball from the hands of another player. Players were prohibited from holding the ball longer than three seconds. Players were prohibited from dribbling more than three times. These types of tournaments were important to the development of women in the sport, because they afforded women the opportunity to continue to play basketball after they were done with school. The first major change came in when the three-court sections were reduced to two, and the number of players per team was set at six 3 on offense and 3 on defense. In unlimited dribbling became legal, and inthe first five player full court game was played. The five-player format became standard in College Basketball The first intercollegiate basketball game was played on February 9, between the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Hamline College with Minnesota winning by a score of Because the sport was still in its infancy at the time, the current five-person format had not yet been standardized. However, as basketball continued to develop numerous refinements were introduced, and on January 18,the first intercollegiate basketball game to use the current format was played in Iowa City, Iowa between the University of Chicago and the University of Iowa. The University of Chicago defeated Iowa by a score of 15 to By the early s, basketball was played at 90 colleges throughout the United States. The skyrocketing number of college programs prompted the formation of various regional basketball conferences. College basketball soon became the focus of the basketball world.The Evolution of the Olympics Games Games The Great Olympic games for athletes with disabilities were organized in Rome of Evolution of Olympics. Full . Aug 01, · It was the most-watched first Tuesday of any non-U.S. Summer Games since , when American Olympic telecasts started. However, "non-U.S." is the key phrase. Olympic Games held in the U.S. tend to draw more American viewers, partly because more events can be shown live. Yao, Jiajun, "The effect of hosting the Olympics on national image: An analysis of US newspaper coverage of host countries with reputation problems" (). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. In he became the first non-American since to win the Olympic metres. He was also one of the first track stars to be affected by the rivalry between Adidas and Puma; each of the two then-fledgling companies wanted the "world's fastest man" to wear its shoes. Although The Summer Olympics in Berlin was broadcast inside of Germany, at the time, although in the late s, very few individuals actually had televisions. By September of , the first college football game was broadcast over live television, pitting Waynesburg College against Fordham. Assisting Olympic athletes, improving local recreational facilities and increasing participation rates have been widely accepted as legitimate objectives since the s, but there has not always been consensus about the role of central government in achieving them.
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He was the first Olympic champion in the and metres races. He was also the first Olympian to win a gold medal. James Naismith emerged from his office with a clear vision and a new sense of purpose. He had just spent two weeks searching for an indoor athletic activity to occupy his rowdy physical education class during the harsh New England winter months. Needless to say, his class most of whom were ex-football and rugby players hardly found the winter athletic regimen of leapfrog and tumbling to be an acceptable replacement for outdoor sports. Naismith turned first to the popular sports of the day—he tried indoor adaptations of soccer, lacrosse, and football, but each only led to people getting injured or facility damage. It was developed to meet a need. The equipment used in early basketball was also vastly different from the modern game. For example, basketball was originally played with a soccer ball with closed bottom peach bushel baskets as goals, which meant that someone had to climb on a ladder to get the ball after each made basket. To alleviate the effort required to retrieve the ball, a hole was eventually drilled into the bottom of the basket. This innovation soon gave way to the elimination of the peach basket and the development of the modern goal composed of an iron rim and cloth net. And although the sport has evolved—some notable additions to the modern game include the dribble, the three point line, and a greater tolerance of physical contact and fouls—modern basketball is still firmly rooted in many of the original rules. Women in Basketball Women began playing basketball as early asthanks in large part to the efforts of a woman named Senda Berenson Abbott. In response, Berenson Abbott made the following changes to the game: The court was divided into three equal sections, with players required to stay in an assigned area. Players were prohibited from snatching or batting the ball from the hands of another player. Players were prohibited from holding the ball longer than three seconds. Players were prohibited from dribbling more than three times. These types of tournaments were important to the development of women in the sport, because they afforded women the opportunity to continue to play basketball after they were done with school. The first major change came in when the three-court sections were reduced to two, and the number of players per team was set at six 3 on offense and 3 on defense. In unlimited dribbling became legal, and inthe first five player full court game was played. The five-player format became standard in College Basketball The first intercollegiate basketball game was played on February 9, between the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Hamline College with Minnesota winning by a score of Because the sport was still in its infancy at the time, the current five-person format had not yet been standardized. However, as basketball continued to develop numerous refinements were introduced, and on January 18,the first intercollegiate basketball game to use the current format was played in Iowa City, Iowa between the University of Chicago and the University of Iowa. The University of Chicago defeated Iowa by a score of 15 to By the early s, basketball was played at 90 colleges throughout the United States. The skyrocketing number of college programs prompted the formation of various regional basketball conferences. College basketball soon became the focus of the basketball world.The Evolution of the Olympics Games Games The Great Olympic games for athletes with disabilities were organized in Rome of Evolution of Olympics. Full . Aug 01, · It was the most-watched first Tuesday of any non-U.S. Summer Games since , when American Olympic telecasts started. However, "non-U.S." is the key phrase. Olympic Games held in the U.S. tend to draw more American viewers, partly because more events can be shown live. Yao, Jiajun, "The effect of hosting the Olympics on national image: An analysis of US newspaper coverage of host countries with reputation problems" (). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. In he became the first non-American since to win the Olympic metres. He was also one of the first track stars to be affected by the rivalry between Adidas and Puma; each of the two then-fledgling companies wanted the "world's fastest man" to wear its shoes. Although The Summer Olympics in Berlin was broadcast inside of Germany, at the time, although in the late s, very few individuals actually had televisions. By September of , the first college football game was broadcast over live television, pitting Waynesburg College against Fordham. Assisting Olympic athletes, improving local recreational facilities and increasing participation rates have been widely accepted as legitimate objectives since the s, but there has not always been consensus about the role of central government in achieving them.
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María, a slave in Manila who resisted sexual exploitation In 1635, María, a slave woman from the Indian sub-continent living in the Spanish-controlled Philippine Islands, enters the historical record. We know that women as well as men were involved in forced movements like María’s around the region but historical documentation about their lives is rarely available. María was owned by an artilleryman named Francisco de Nava who was then living in Manila. In 1635, the city’s archbishop, Don Hernando Guerrero, began an investigation into, in the words of the contemporary documents, “illicit communication” between the two. Nava explained that they had an understanding. “He had brought [María] from India, saying that he was going to marry her, as he had taken her while she was a maiden”. This was, in his eyes at least, a contract for her virginity: María would gain a respectable marriage in exchange for her sexual labour. A slave’s autonomy However, the evidence surrounding this case suggests María had other ideas. She “left the house, going to that of Juan de Aller, a kinsman of Doña Maria de Francia, wife of Don Pedro de Corcuera, whom she asked to buy her.” A contemporary report noted that “the slave girl said that she preferred to belong to another” than to be Nava’s wife. Maria de Francia, an influential woman who was the wife of the governor’s nephew, “became fond of her” and sought to buy María from Nava, with support from the archbishop. Female slaves such as María were vulnerable to the sexual expectations of their masters and as migrants, they generally had few familial or other social networks to assist or protect them. How did María attract the attention and sympathy of powerful local citizens to assist her? She had managed to engage ecclesiastical authorities and elite women in her plight, who were prepared to step in, in order to instil Catholic moral values. The sexual behaviour of women and men in Manila was of great concern to Spanish secular and ecclesiastical officials. The city was a known trading centre for slaves but Spanish authorities were anxious about the “many offenses to God” that took place between female slaves, in particular, and men in the city. In 1608, King Felipe III had outlawed the “evil” of the passage of female slaves aboard vessels, but the practice continued. In November 1635, the governor, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, once again complained about the “great license and looseness of life” in Manila. María’s case may thus have offered authorities an opportunity to discipline the wider population and reinforce moral expectations. They were willing to recognise a slave woman’s capacity to resist sexual exploitation, although not, it seems, a right to freedom from slavery itself. At María’s departure, Nava was reportedly “so beside himself over the loss of the said slave that he refused to sell her at any price, saying that he wished, on the contrary, to marry her.” But there were other stories circulating that complicated his narrative. The governor, for example, reported that Nava “had said the year before that he had been married in Nueva España.” Could his marrying María be even legally possible? Still, Nava went to de Francia’s house, “to request that they should give him the slave,” whereupon he was beaten and placed in the stocks. His reaction to the loss of María was perceived by onlookers as excessive, and shortly afterwards, an order was given that he should be treated as if he were mad. On Sunday, 8 August 1635, at three in the afternoon, María was passing by in the street in a carriage with her new mistress. Nava approached them, asking María if she recognised him as her master. Interestingly, one account provides another hint of a possible assertion of autonomy in María’s actions: “The slave answered him with some independence”, it was reported. But María’s precise words were not considered worthy of note for the historical record. The encounter ended tragically for María. “Blind with anger,” Nava “drew his dagger in the middle of the street and killed her by stabbing her, before anyone could prevent it.” Nava was condemned to death. On 6 September 1635 he was executed on gallows raised at the site where María had been killed, in front of the San Agustin Church. This is not a celebratory history, for María’s life ended abruptly. We don’t know what María looked like or how she felt about her plight except through her actions as they were recorded by others. What we do know about her comes from documents created by Nava’s crime. But these documents provide small insights into the experiences of displaced and marginal women who are typically among the most silent in the archives. They reveal María’s forms of agency and resistance — not only in her access to support mechanisms among the powerful Catholic elite of colonial Manila, but also in her most basic impulse to refuse to accept her situation and to seek a better life within the limited choices before her.
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María, a slave in Manila who resisted sexual exploitation In 1635, María, a slave woman from the Indian sub-continent living in the Spanish-controlled Philippine Islands, enters the historical record. We know that women as well as men were involved in forced movements like María’s around the region but historical documentation about their lives is rarely available. María was owned by an artilleryman named Francisco de Nava who was then living in Manila. In 1635, the city’s archbishop, Don Hernando Guerrero, began an investigation into, in the words of the contemporary documents, “illicit communication” between the two. Nava explained that they had an understanding. “He had brought [María] from India, saying that he was going to marry her, as he had taken her while she was a maiden”. This was, in his eyes at least, a contract for her virginity: María would gain a respectable marriage in exchange for her sexual labour. A slave’s autonomy However, the evidence surrounding this case suggests María had other ideas. She “left the house, going to that of Juan de Aller, a kinsman of Doña Maria de Francia, wife of Don Pedro de Corcuera, whom she asked to buy her.” A contemporary report noted that “the slave girl said that she preferred to belong to another” than to be Nava’s wife. Maria de Francia, an influential woman who was the wife of the governor’s nephew, “became fond of her” and sought to buy María from Nava, with support from the archbishop. Female slaves such as María were vulnerable to the sexual expectations of their masters and as migrants, they generally had few familial or other social networks to assist or protect them. How did María attract the attention and sympathy of powerful local citizens to assist her? She had managed to engage ecclesiastical authorities and elite women in her plight, who were prepared to step in, in order to instil Catholic moral values. The sexual behaviour of women and men in Manila was of great concern to Spanish secular and ecclesiastical officials. The city was a known trading centre for slaves but Spanish authorities were anxious about the “many offenses to God” that took place between female slaves, in particular, and men in the city. In 1608, King Felipe III had outlawed the “evil” of the passage of female slaves aboard vessels, but the practice continued. In November 1635, the governor, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, once again complained about the “great license and looseness of life” in Manila. María’s case may thus have offered authorities an opportunity to discipline the wider population and reinforce moral expectations. They were willing to recognise a slave woman’s capacity to resist sexual exploitation, although not, it seems, a right to freedom from slavery itself. At María’s departure, Nava was reportedly “so beside himself over the loss of the said slave that he refused to sell her at any price, saying that he wished, on the contrary, to marry her.” But there were other stories circulating that complicated his narrative. The governor, for example, reported that Nava “had said the year before that he had been married in Nueva España.” Could his marrying María be even legally possible? Still, Nava went to de Francia’s house, “to request that they should give him the slave,” whereupon he was beaten and placed in the stocks. His reaction to the loss of María was perceived by onlookers as excessive, and shortly afterwards, an order was given that he should be treated as if he were mad. On Sunday, 8 August 1635, at three in the afternoon, María was passing by in the street in a carriage with her new mistress. Nava approached them, asking María if she recognised him as her master. Interestingly, one account provides another hint of a possible assertion of autonomy in María’s actions: “The slave answered him with some independence”, it was reported. But María’s precise words were not considered worthy of note for the historical record. The encounter ended tragically for María. “Blind with anger,” Nava “drew his dagger in the middle of the street and killed her by stabbing her, before anyone could prevent it.” Nava was condemned to death. On 6 September 1635 he was executed on gallows raised at the site where María had been killed, in front of the San Agustin Church. This is not a celebratory history, for María’s life ended abruptly. We don’t know what María looked like or how she felt about her plight except through her actions as they were recorded by others. What we do know about her comes from documents created by Nava’s crime. But these documents provide small insights into the experiences of displaced and marginal women who are typically among the most silent in the archives. They reveal María’s forms of agency and resistance — not only in her access to support mechanisms among the powerful Catholic elite of colonial Manila, but also in her most basic impulse to refuse to accept her situation and to seek a better life within the limited choices before her.
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Flash fiction, also known as short-short stories, are stories no longer than 1,500 words in length. Indeed, they're usually shorter than 1,000 words! They are designed to be read in four or five minutes. It's not easy to get an entire story across with so few words, but if the author does it well, flash fiction can be a very rewarding experience for both writer and reader. If you're writing a flash fiction story, it's important to know how they are similar-and different-to longer stories. Flash fiction is shorter, but it should not feel too short. Here are some traits of strong flash fiction stories. Story Structure: A flash fiction story is not the shortened version of a longer story; it still follows the elements of plot, including a beginning, middle and end, as well as a conflict and satisfying resolution. Setting: Most flash fiction stories take place in one setting, as moving between locations uses up too much space. It allows the writer and reader to focus on the plot. Characters and Backstory: Flash fiction pieces are plot-driven and include no more than three or four characters. They may include some character development, but too much backstory can use valuable space. Description: One may think that flash fiction stories are short on description to save space. However, a strong piece can balance vivid descriptions with a quick-moving plot. Stories that lack description are not satisfying to read, and a flash fiction piece should feel complete. Believe it or not, stories can get even shorter than 1,500 words. Here are two types of short stories that take only a minute to read. Microfiction includes stories under 250 words. Microfiction tends to start in the second act of the story to focus more on the climax. They also tend to have a surprise ending. Six-Word Stories are especially challenging to write. They have no beginning, middle, or end, but tell an entire story in only six words. The most famous example of a six-word story is attributed to Ernest Hemingway: "For sale: Baby shoes, never worn." With Hemingway's example, the story structure manages to establish character, conflict, and tone without direct exposition. Readers are left to their own tragic interpretation when it comes to the words that are not present. From Twitter #flashfiction to The New Yorker's Flash Fiction series, you can find great examples of flash fiction everywhere. Here are some examples that are sure to inspire readers with only a few minutes on their hands. Originally published in The Reporter in 1951, "The Pedestrian" is one of Ray Bradbury's most famous works. Its 1,445-word format reveals a dreary reality where a man's desire to escape the glow of a television is a highly suspicious activity. To enter out into that silence that was the city at eight o'clock of a misty evening in November, to put your feet upon that buckling concrete walk, to step over grassy seams and make your way, hands in pockets, through the silences, that was what Mr. Leonard Mead most dearly loved to do. He would stand upon the corner of an intersection and peer down long moonlit avenues of sidewalk in four directions, deciding which way to go, but it really made no difference; he was alone in this world of A.D. 2053, or as good as alone, and with a final decision made, a path selected, he would stride off, sending patterns of frosty air before him like the smoke of a cigar. Bradbury folds description, a futuristic setting, and characterization into his introductory paragraph, allowing the plot to unfold throughout the remainder of the story. Virginia Woolf's ability to quickly establish tone is evident in "A Haunted House." Dialogue, sensory description, and action blend to create a poignant ghost story in only 710 words. Whatever hour you woke there was a door shunting. From room to room they went, hand in hand, lifting here, opening there, making sure-a ghostly couple. "Here we left it," she said. And he added, "Oh, but here too!" "It's upstairs," she murmured. "And in the garden," he whispered "Quietly," they said, "or we shall wake them." But it wasn't that you woke us. Oh, no. "They're looking for it; they're drawing the curtain," one might say, and so read on a page or two. In three short paragraphs, Woolf shifts perspectives until the reader learns that the story features two ghosts, but is told from a first-person perspective. The ghosts' search for treasure escalates until the story's ending, which reveals what they seek - and will never have again. Mark Twain experimented with format in his 810-word short story "A Telephonic Conversation." He portrays a wife's half of a telephone conversation, overheard by her husband. Yes? Why, how did that happen? What did you say? Oh no, I don't think it was. No! Oh no, I didn't mean that. I meant, put it in while it is still boiling--or just before it comes to a boil. Twain stretches the conversation full of pauses and non sequiturs, allowing the reader to share his character's annoyance with the uninteresting conversation. By making the story short and quick, he doesn't risk tiring the reader. Famous for her very short stories, Lydia Davis is the modern master of packing a lot of emotion and meaning into a few words. Her 423-word work, "Everyone Cried," is an example of an effective flash fiction story. Often, people cry when they are unhappy. This is natural. For a short time, when I was young, I worked in an office. Toward lunchtime, as the people in the office grew hungry and tired and irritable, they would begin to cry. My boss would give me a document to type, and I would push it away crossly. He would yell at me, "Type it!" I would yell back, "I won't!" He himself would become petulant on the phone and slam it into its cradle. By the time he was ready to leave for lunch, tears of frustration would be running down his cheeks. The introduction to Davis's satire brings in the motif of crying that carry through the remaining five paragraphs. She uses the brevity of the piece to emphasize the importance of each emotional word, such as "unhappy," "irritable," "crossly," "yell," "slam," and "frustration." Take a quick read of a full flash fiction story below. Does it meet the criteria for flash fiction? Amelia knew from the beginning that the boy wasn't hers. His nose was too pointed, his hair too thin; when he turned to the side he resembled a cliff swallow who'd lost his muddy nest. When he cried, Amelia's ears rang. She could bring no comfort to his pointy shoulders, which shook against her chest during his night terrors. Until one week, his nocturnal screams had given way to the soft sobs of a broken child. He hadn't fought her as she held him, his tears sinking into Amelia's cotton nightgown as she ran a hand up and down, up and down, up and down his back. The next night, Amelia's embrace got him to sleep in just a few minutes. And the night after that, he'd slept all the way through. The boy liked pancakes with grape jelly, Amelia learned, on the blue-and-yellow plastic plate. He liked cowboy pajamas and the glow-in-the-dark stars she'd painstakingly pasted on his ceiling just minutes before he'd stepped through her doorway, his possessions stuffed into a garbage bag at his feet. He liked these things, and soon, he loved them. His laughter vibrated through the house like the satisfied lilt of a starling, declaring his place in this tree. It tickled the inside of Amelia's ribcage and sent her into fits of tearful giggles. Bubble baths made him laugh. She could make him laugh. Everything made him laugh. She drank in the sound like it was sweet nectar. On the last day, the same white car that had dropped him at her doorstep months ago rolled into Amelia's driveway. An officious woman clutched the wheel with the same grip that Amelia found herself clutching the boy's hand. It was time for reunification, which Amelia knew was the goal of the foster system. The boy was going back. Amelia looked down and took in his features one last time. Soon he'd be back with his flock, his delicate features matching those around him, in the nest where he belonged. He was theirs. But in those last seconds, as the car settled into a parked position and he squeezed her hand back, Amelia's heart swelled. He may not have been hers, but in that moment, she knew she'd always be his. Ready to get started on your own flash fiction story? Check out a list of creative writing exercises that are perfect for shorter stories. Just keep an eye on that word count!
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Flash fiction, also known as short-short stories, are stories no longer than 1,500 words in length. Indeed, they're usually shorter than 1,000 words! They are designed to be read in four or five minutes. It's not easy to get an entire story across with so few words, but if the author does it well, flash fiction can be a very rewarding experience for both writer and reader. If you're writing a flash fiction story, it's important to know how they are similar-and different-to longer stories. Flash fiction is shorter, but it should not feel too short. Here are some traits of strong flash fiction stories. Story Structure: A flash fiction story is not the shortened version of a longer story; it still follows the elements of plot, including a beginning, middle and end, as well as a conflict and satisfying resolution. Setting: Most flash fiction stories take place in one setting, as moving between locations uses up too much space. It allows the writer and reader to focus on the plot. Characters and Backstory: Flash fiction pieces are plot-driven and include no more than three or four characters. They may include some character development, but too much backstory can use valuable space. Description: One may think that flash fiction stories are short on description to save space. However, a strong piece can balance vivid descriptions with a quick-moving plot. Stories that lack description are not satisfying to read, and a flash fiction piece should feel complete. Believe it or not, stories can get even shorter than 1,500 words. Here are two types of short stories that take only a minute to read. Microfiction includes stories under 250 words. Microfiction tends to start in the second act of the story to focus more on the climax. They also tend to have a surprise ending. Six-Word Stories are especially challenging to write. They have no beginning, middle, or end, but tell an entire story in only six words. The most famous example of a six-word story is attributed to Ernest Hemingway: "For sale: Baby shoes, never worn." With Hemingway's example, the story structure manages to establish character, conflict, and tone without direct exposition. Readers are left to their own tragic interpretation when it comes to the words that are not present. From Twitter #flashfiction to The New Yorker's Flash Fiction series, you can find great examples of flash fiction everywhere. Here are some examples that are sure to inspire readers with only a few minutes on their hands. Originally published in The Reporter in 1951, "The Pedestrian" is one of Ray Bradbury's most famous works. Its 1,445-word format reveals a dreary reality where a man's desire to escape the glow of a television is a highly suspicious activity. To enter out into that silence that was the city at eight o'clock of a misty evening in November, to put your feet upon that buckling concrete walk, to step over grassy seams and make your way, hands in pockets, through the silences, that was what Mr. Leonard Mead most dearly loved to do. He would stand upon the corner of an intersection and peer down long moonlit avenues of sidewalk in four directions, deciding which way to go, but it really made no difference; he was alone in this world of A.D. 2053, or as good as alone, and with a final decision made, a path selected, he would stride off, sending patterns of frosty air before him like the smoke of a cigar. Bradbury folds description, a futuristic setting, and characterization into his introductory paragraph, allowing the plot to unfold throughout the remainder of the story. Virginia Woolf's ability to quickly establish tone is evident in "A Haunted House." Dialogue, sensory description, and action blend to create a poignant ghost story in only 710 words. Whatever hour you woke there was a door shunting. From room to room they went, hand in hand, lifting here, opening there, making sure-a ghostly couple. "Here we left it," she said. And he added, "Oh, but here too!" "It's upstairs," she murmured. "And in the garden," he whispered "Quietly," they said, "or we shall wake them." But it wasn't that you woke us. Oh, no. "They're looking for it; they're drawing the curtain," one might say, and so read on a page or two. In three short paragraphs, Woolf shifts perspectives until the reader learns that the story features two ghosts, but is told from a first-person perspective. The ghosts' search for treasure escalates until the story's ending, which reveals what they seek - and will never have again. Mark Twain experimented with format in his 810-word short story "A Telephonic Conversation." He portrays a wife's half of a telephone conversation, overheard by her husband. Yes? Why, how did that happen? What did you say? Oh no, I don't think it was. No! Oh no, I didn't mean that. I meant, put it in while it is still boiling--or just before it comes to a boil. Twain stretches the conversation full of pauses and non sequiturs, allowing the reader to share his character's annoyance with the uninteresting conversation. By making the story short and quick, he doesn't risk tiring the reader. Famous for her very short stories, Lydia Davis is the modern master of packing a lot of emotion and meaning into a few words. Her 423-word work, "Everyone Cried," is an example of an effective flash fiction story. Often, people cry when they are unhappy. This is natural. For a short time, when I was young, I worked in an office. Toward lunchtime, as the people in the office grew hungry and tired and irritable, they would begin to cry. My boss would give me a document to type, and I would push it away crossly. He would yell at me, "Type it!" I would yell back, "I won't!" He himself would become petulant on the phone and slam it into its cradle. By the time he was ready to leave for lunch, tears of frustration would be running down his cheeks. The introduction to Davis's satire brings in the motif of crying that carry through the remaining five paragraphs. She uses the brevity of the piece to emphasize the importance of each emotional word, such as "unhappy," "irritable," "crossly," "yell," "slam," and "frustration." Take a quick read of a full flash fiction story below. Does it meet the criteria for flash fiction? Amelia knew from the beginning that the boy wasn't hers. His nose was too pointed, his hair too thin; when he turned to the side he resembled a cliff swallow who'd lost his muddy nest. When he cried, Amelia's ears rang. She could bring no comfort to his pointy shoulders, which shook against her chest during his night terrors. Until one week, his nocturnal screams had given way to the soft sobs of a broken child. He hadn't fought her as she held him, his tears sinking into Amelia's cotton nightgown as she ran a hand up and down, up and down, up and down his back. The next night, Amelia's embrace got him to sleep in just a few minutes. And the night after that, he'd slept all the way through. The boy liked pancakes with grape jelly, Amelia learned, on the blue-and-yellow plastic plate. He liked cowboy pajamas and the glow-in-the-dark stars she'd painstakingly pasted on his ceiling just minutes before he'd stepped through her doorway, his possessions stuffed into a garbage bag at his feet. He liked these things, and soon, he loved them. His laughter vibrated through the house like the satisfied lilt of a starling, declaring his place in this tree. It tickled the inside of Amelia's ribcage and sent her into fits of tearful giggles. Bubble baths made him laugh. She could make him laugh. Everything made him laugh. She drank in the sound like it was sweet nectar. On the last day, the same white car that had dropped him at her doorstep months ago rolled into Amelia's driveway. An officious woman clutched the wheel with the same grip that Amelia found herself clutching the boy's hand. It was time for reunification, which Amelia knew was the goal of the foster system. The boy was going back. Amelia looked down and took in his features one last time. Soon he'd be back with his flock, his delicate features matching those around him, in the nest where he belonged. He was theirs. But in those last seconds, as the car settled into a parked position and he squeezed her hand back, Amelia's heart swelled. He may not have been hers, but in that moment, she knew she'd always be his. Ready to get started on your own flash fiction story? Check out a list of creative writing exercises that are perfect for shorter stories. Just keep an eye on that word count!
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The Shawnee were a very migrant people, but their villages were found primarily in theOhio River Valley region, in the present-day states of Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky. The role of Shawnee men was to hunt game and protect the villages and the People.Shawnee women grew corn and other crops, built the family wegiwas (homes), and cared for the children. The Shawnee were a very religious people, and admired courage and strength above all else. The Shawnee were divided into five sects: The Chillicothe and Thawakila sects were incharge of political matters; the principal chief of the tribe must belong to one of these sects. The Mekoce sect was responsible for religious ceremonies. The Piqua sect were the speakers for the chiefs of the tribe. The Kispoko sect were the warriors. Click her to send me changes...
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The Shawnee were a very migrant people, but their villages were found primarily in theOhio River Valley region, in the present-day states of Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky. The role of Shawnee men was to hunt game and protect the villages and the People.Shawnee women grew corn and other crops, built the family wegiwas (homes), and cared for the children. The Shawnee were a very religious people, and admired courage and strength above all else. The Shawnee were divided into five sects: The Chillicothe and Thawakila sects were incharge of political matters; the principal chief of the tribe must belong to one of these sects. The Mekoce sect was responsible for religious ceremonies. The Piqua sect were the speakers for the chiefs of the tribe. The Kispoko sect were the warriors. Click her to send me changes...
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Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás, known in English as George Santayana (; December 16, 1863 – September 26, 1952), was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. Originally from Spain, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States from the age of eight and identified himself as an American, although he always retained a valid Spanish passport. He wrote in English and is generally considered an American man of letters. At the age of forty-eight, Santayana left his position at Harvard and returned to Europe permanently, never to return to the United States. Santayana is popularly known for aphorisms, such as “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”, “Only the dead have seen the end of war”, and the definition of beauty as “pleasure objectified”. Although an atheist, he treasured the Spanish Catholic values, practices, and worldview in which he was raised. Santayana was a broad-ranging cultural critic spanning many disciplines. He was profoundly influenced by Spinoza’s life and thought; and, in many respects, was a devoted Spinozist.
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Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás, known in English as George Santayana (; December 16, 1863 – September 26, 1952), was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. Originally from Spain, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States from the age of eight and identified himself as an American, although he always retained a valid Spanish passport. He wrote in English and is generally considered an American man of letters. At the age of forty-eight, Santayana left his position at Harvard and returned to Europe permanently, never to return to the United States. Santayana is popularly known for aphorisms, such as “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”, “Only the dead have seen the end of war”, and the definition of beauty as “pleasure objectified”. Although an atheist, he treasured the Spanish Catholic values, practices, and worldview in which he was raised. Santayana was a broad-ranging cultural critic spanning many disciplines. He was profoundly influenced by Spinoza’s life and thought; and, in many respects, was a devoted Spinozist.
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Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth was an immensely popular Queen and during her reign, her country became the most powerful in the world. (fonte: wikipedia) Elizabeth was Henry VIIIs daughter. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, who died when Elizabeth was three. The king declared this marriage invalid so Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and her sister Mary too. Elizabeth was an unhappy child but she had a very good education. She excelled at her studies especially at languages an Music. She was good at sport too; she loved all kinds of sports, particularly horse riding. When her father died, Edward VI (her young brother) became king. He died in 1553 and Elizabeth’s elder sister became Queen Mary I. Mary died and Elizabeth became Queen Elizabeth I in 1558 when she was twentyfive. She was Queen of England for 45 years until 1603. Elizabeth never had a husband and she had no children. She was tall and slim. She had curly red hair, a long face, small brown eyes, a hooked nose and a thin mouth. She had a very strong personality and she was a good politician. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father . Once she was crowned queen, she devoted all her life, her instinctive political skill and her courage to the creation of a modern stronger England. Elizabeth re-established the Anglican Church, but, as she was tolerant, she avoided the error of fanaticism. She named herself Governor, and not supreme head in earth of the Church of England” as her father had done. The defeat of the Spanish Armada is one of the most famous events in English history. The successful defence of the kingdom against Spanish invasion boosted the prestige of England’s Queen Elizabeth . Mary Stuard, the Queen of Scots, was Elizabeths great rival. She was very different from her cousin Elizabeth; she was a passionate woman, who often yielded to her private passions. She married the Dauphin of France. The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeth’s reign. (fonte: britannica.com) Elizabeth was a patron of arts and literature, and loved watching plays and other dramatic performances. William Shakespeare acted before her, but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth also liked to write poetry, and a few of her poems still survive. Elizabeth loved music too. She could play lute and she enjoyed musical entertainment. She was especially fond of dancing. Elizabeth died on March, 24th 1603 at Richmond Palace.
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Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth was an immensely popular Queen and during her reign, her country became the most powerful in the world. (fonte: wikipedia) Elizabeth was Henry VIIIs daughter. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, who died when Elizabeth was three. The king declared this marriage invalid so Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and her sister Mary too. Elizabeth was an unhappy child but she had a very good education. She excelled at her studies especially at languages an Music. She was good at sport too; she loved all kinds of sports, particularly horse riding. When her father died, Edward VI (her young brother) became king. He died in 1553 and Elizabeth’s elder sister became Queen Mary I. Mary died and Elizabeth became Queen Elizabeth I in 1558 when she was twentyfive. She was Queen of England for 45 years until 1603. Elizabeth never had a husband and she had no children. She was tall and slim. She had curly red hair, a long face, small brown eyes, a hooked nose and a thin mouth. She had a very strong personality and she was a good politician. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father . Once she was crowned queen, she devoted all her life, her instinctive political skill and her courage to the creation of a modern stronger England. Elizabeth re-established the Anglican Church, but, as she was tolerant, she avoided the error of fanaticism. She named herself Governor, and not supreme head in earth of the Church of England” as her father had done. The defeat of the Spanish Armada is one of the most famous events in English history. The successful defence of the kingdom against Spanish invasion boosted the prestige of England’s Queen Elizabeth . Mary Stuard, the Queen of Scots, was Elizabeths great rival. She was very different from her cousin Elizabeth; she was a passionate woman, who often yielded to her private passions. She married the Dauphin of France. The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeth’s reign. (fonte: britannica.com) Elizabeth was a patron of arts and literature, and loved watching plays and other dramatic performances. William Shakespeare acted before her, but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth also liked to write poetry, and a few of her poems still survive. Elizabeth loved music too. She could play lute and she enjoyed musical entertainment. She was especially fond of dancing. Elizabeth died on March, 24th 1603 at Richmond Palace.
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“Amazing grace! How sweet the sound. That saved a wretch like me! I once was lost but now am found, was blind but now I see.” ― John Newton, Amazing Grace. Why is “Amazing Grace” the most-performed hymn in the English language? It just is. This song has the enduring power that has carried it to continents and through time. It is the most recorded song in history. But how many people know, as Paul Harvey would say, “the rest of the story?” The boat had been thrashing about in the north Atlantic storm and was in pretty bad shape as a result of the pounding it had taken. The sailors had little hope of survival, but made every effort to keep the boat afloat. John Newton was one of those sailors. As the situation turned even more bleak and hope was quickly dissipating, Newton reflected on his life. His life was in a bad way. His life has been taking on water for some time and like the boat he was in, there was little hope of being able to turn it around. But his thoughts turned to Christ and the Lord delivered him out of deep waters. Newton became a slave ship master, bringing slaves from Africa to England over multiple trips. He admitted that he sometimes treated the slaves badly. In 1754, Newton abandoned the slave trade, and his life on the sea and devoted his life to God’s service. He was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1764 and gained some popularity as a preacher and hymn writer, penning some 280 hymns, including Amazing Grace in 1779. Amazing Grace was written by John Newton in 1779, some 240 years ago. Amazing Grace is a song about one man’s real and ugly sin — the sin of slavery. At the same time it is a song about the power of forgiveness, a song about looking into the depths of very real evil and, even there, especially there, finding grace that is bigger than all the hate. When you know the back story the lyrics make sense: I once was lost, but now am found, Was blind but now I see. Through many dangers, toils, and snares I have already come. ‘Tis grace hath brought me safe thus far, And grace will lead me home. Newton would most assuredly not have written “Amazing Grace” if not for his past. And many of us would then be without these lovely words that so aptly describe our own relationship with Christ and our reliance on God’s grace in our lives: Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, And grace my fears relieved; How precious did that grace appear The hour I first believed. - About what percentage of the song Amazing Grace do you think you could recite from memory? Look up the lyrics to the song Amazing Grace. Which parts of the song do you especially identify with? Why?
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“Amazing grace! How sweet the sound. That saved a wretch like me! I once was lost but now am found, was blind but now I see.” ― John Newton, Amazing Grace. Why is “Amazing Grace” the most-performed hymn in the English language? It just is. This song has the enduring power that has carried it to continents and through time. It is the most recorded song in history. But how many people know, as Paul Harvey would say, “the rest of the story?” The boat had been thrashing about in the north Atlantic storm and was in pretty bad shape as a result of the pounding it had taken. The sailors had little hope of survival, but made every effort to keep the boat afloat. John Newton was one of those sailors. As the situation turned even more bleak and hope was quickly dissipating, Newton reflected on his life. His life was in a bad way. His life has been taking on water for some time and like the boat he was in, there was little hope of being able to turn it around. But his thoughts turned to Christ and the Lord delivered him out of deep waters. Newton became a slave ship master, bringing slaves from Africa to England over multiple trips. He admitted that he sometimes treated the slaves badly. In 1754, Newton abandoned the slave trade, and his life on the sea and devoted his life to God’s service. He was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1764 and gained some popularity as a preacher and hymn writer, penning some 280 hymns, including Amazing Grace in 1779. Amazing Grace was written by John Newton in 1779, some 240 years ago. Amazing Grace is a song about one man’s real and ugly sin — the sin of slavery. At the same time it is a song about the power of forgiveness, a song about looking into the depths of very real evil and, even there, especially there, finding grace that is bigger than all the hate. When you know the back story the lyrics make sense: I once was lost, but now am found, Was blind but now I see. Through many dangers, toils, and snares I have already come. ‘Tis grace hath brought me safe thus far, And grace will lead me home. Newton would most assuredly not have written “Amazing Grace” if not for his past. And many of us would then be without these lovely words that so aptly describe our own relationship with Christ and our reliance on God’s grace in our lives: Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, And grace my fears relieved; How precious did that grace appear The hour I first believed. - About what percentage of the song Amazing Grace do you think you could recite from memory? Look up the lyrics to the song Amazing Grace. Which parts of the song do you especially identify with? Why?
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Topic: Some people believe that children should be allowed to stay at home and play until they are six or seven year old. Others believe that it is important for young children to go to school as soon as possible. Discuss both views and give your opinion. Which suitable age children should start their education at school is a controversial issue. While I understand that children staying at home until the age of six or seven bring several benefit, I strongly believe that they should go to school at the earliest. On one hand, staying at home until reaching six or seven brings children some advantages. Firstly, children obtained home education before attending to grade one might have a better background than other pupils. This is because their parents allow them to spend their daily time to teach their son or daughter one by one. Another advantage is that this group of children might have more confident comparing with pupils going to class soon. They are mature, so they could have a stronger mental and physical health. On the other hand, there are two main reasons parents should bring their children to school as soon as possible. First of all, children leaving their family soon have to learn the way adapting with new environment. Schooling environment give them more opportunity to make friends, be familiar with classes and lessons soon. Consequently, they are able to improve their social relationship and many helpful skills. For example, they can learn how to perform alone or with friends, and participate in various healthy activities at school. Secondly, parents can save time in taking care of children, so they are able to acquire a more flexible schedule for their job. As a result, they could ensure their income and cover their life. In conclusion, I firmly argue that the benefit of children going to school as soon as possible outweigh that of staying at home until they reach the age of six or seven.
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Topic: Some people believe that children should be allowed to stay at home and play until they are six or seven year old. Others believe that it is important for young children to go to school as soon as possible. Discuss both views and give your opinion. Which suitable age children should start their education at school is a controversial issue. While I understand that children staying at home until the age of six or seven bring several benefit, I strongly believe that they should go to school at the earliest. On one hand, staying at home until reaching six or seven brings children some advantages. Firstly, children obtained home education before attending to grade one might have a better background than other pupils. This is because their parents allow them to spend their daily time to teach their son or daughter one by one. Another advantage is that this group of children might have more confident comparing with pupils going to class soon. They are mature, so they could have a stronger mental and physical health. On the other hand, there are two main reasons parents should bring their children to school as soon as possible. First of all, children leaving their family soon have to learn the way adapting with new environment. Schooling environment give them more opportunity to make friends, be familiar with classes and lessons soon. Consequently, they are able to improve their social relationship and many helpful skills. For example, they can learn how to perform alone or with friends, and participate in various healthy activities at school. Secondly, parents can save time in taking care of children, so they are able to acquire a more flexible schedule for their job. As a result, they could ensure their income and cover their life. In conclusion, I firmly argue that the benefit of children going to school as soon as possible outweigh that of staying at home until they reach the age of six or seven.
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There are many things you may not have realized about the Scandinavian raiders we call Vikings. Listed below are some of the craziest and interesting things we may have forgotten. The Vikings didn’t wear horned helmets, as popular culture likes to believe; rather they wore simple bowl-type helmets with a nose guard. In spite of their raiding and invading reputation, the Vikings were clean people. Archaeological burial sites have revealed combs, razors, and tweezers. It has also been confirmed that they bathed once a week, which is quite a bit more than any of their European counterparts that were living during these times. The Vikings gathered a tree bark fungus – the hard, fibrous substance lying beneath the bark – and boiled it in urine for several days. They then pressed it into a felt-like material and used it to create fire. The reason for this process is that the urine would cause the felt-like substance to smolder rather than burn. This inventive technique allowed them to take fire with them on their raiding voyages. Being buried aboard a Viking ship was perhaps the greatest honor for a Viking. Their belief was that the Viking ship would sail them to the afterlife. Also, there were usually a lot of material goods buried with them, somewhat like the Pharaohs – surrounded by weapons and valuable goods. Slavery was crucial to the Vikings. While they were plundering Slavic, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon villages, they often would capture as many slaves as they could. The slaves were sold or traded in markets across Asia and Europe and were known as thralls. The Viking women would typically take care of the household while their husbands were off pillaging. The women had a lot of freedom for that period, though. They could reclaim a dowry, own property, and divorce, as long as they weren’t thralls. Often, the Viking girls were married as young as 12 years old. In spite of their pillaging reputation, most Viking men were not warriors but farmers. Vikings were skiers! That’s right; the Scandinavians developed primitive skies nearly 6,000 years ago. It should be noted, though, that some scholars believe that ancient Russians may have developed them earlier. The Vikings utilized skiing as an efficient method of transportation. Viking men preferred to be blond. The Viking men with darker hair would use powerful soap with an elevated level of lye to lighten their hair. Most Vikings that bleached their hair would also bleach their beards. Only Scandinavians who participated in overseas voyages were designated as ‘Viking.’ The Vikings never saw themselves as being one nation of Vikings or part of a unified group. During the Viking Age, what is now Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were simply made up of several tribes who were continuously fighting with one another when they weren’t off pillaging. The average life span of a Viking was 40 years of age. The Vikings’ teeth were worn down by the hardy grit in their bread long before they reached that age. A Viking’s most cherished possession was his sword. Over generations, this prized sword was often handed down from family member to family member. There you have it! Some crazy and interesting facts that you might not have known about Vikings.
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There are many things you may not have realized about the Scandinavian raiders we call Vikings. Listed below are some of the craziest and interesting things we may have forgotten. The Vikings didn’t wear horned helmets, as popular culture likes to believe; rather they wore simple bowl-type helmets with a nose guard. In spite of their raiding and invading reputation, the Vikings were clean people. Archaeological burial sites have revealed combs, razors, and tweezers. It has also been confirmed that they bathed once a week, which is quite a bit more than any of their European counterparts that were living during these times. The Vikings gathered a tree bark fungus – the hard, fibrous substance lying beneath the bark – and boiled it in urine for several days. They then pressed it into a felt-like material and used it to create fire. The reason for this process is that the urine would cause the felt-like substance to smolder rather than burn. This inventive technique allowed them to take fire with them on their raiding voyages. Being buried aboard a Viking ship was perhaps the greatest honor for a Viking. Their belief was that the Viking ship would sail them to the afterlife. Also, there were usually a lot of material goods buried with them, somewhat like the Pharaohs – surrounded by weapons and valuable goods. Slavery was crucial to the Vikings. While they were plundering Slavic, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon villages, they often would capture as many slaves as they could. The slaves were sold or traded in markets across Asia and Europe and were known as thralls. The Viking women would typically take care of the household while their husbands were off pillaging. The women had a lot of freedom for that period, though. They could reclaim a dowry, own property, and divorce, as long as they weren’t thralls. Often, the Viking girls were married as young as 12 years old. In spite of their pillaging reputation, most Viking men were not warriors but farmers. Vikings were skiers! That’s right; the Scandinavians developed primitive skies nearly 6,000 years ago. It should be noted, though, that some scholars believe that ancient Russians may have developed them earlier. The Vikings utilized skiing as an efficient method of transportation. Viking men preferred to be blond. The Viking men with darker hair would use powerful soap with an elevated level of lye to lighten their hair. Most Vikings that bleached their hair would also bleach their beards. Only Scandinavians who participated in overseas voyages were designated as ‘Viking.’ The Vikings never saw themselves as being one nation of Vikings or part of a unified group. During the Viking Age, what is now Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were simply made up of several tribes who were continuously fighting with one another when they weren’t off pillaging. The average life span of a Viking was 40 years of age. The Vikings’ teeth were worn down by the hardy grit in their bread long before they reached that age. A Viking’s most cherished possession was his sword. Over generations, this prized sword was often handed down from family member to family member. There you have it! Some crazy and interesting facts that you might not have known about Vikings.
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However, the involved countries reached an agreement as to the events following the war on the 28th of June, The famous Treaty of Versailles was known for its role in ending war. But it was not known for being a double-edged sword, as the ending of war came with the consequence of causing essays war. The Treaty consisted of uncontested biases due to Germany's unconditional surrender. The Allies held a gun to Germany's essays, with their trigger essays tense Men were needed at war and the women were left at home. People ww2 mistrusted and were falsely accused of crimes they did not do. Some people were even pushed away because they were different. Many of these ww2 were the minorities of America. Some of the minorities it affected the most were the African Americans, women, Japanese Americans, and even young adults. What is a minority. Продолжение здесь minority, in this ww2, is a person or group of people who are discriminated essays because there is something about them that makes essays different Where most have knowledge of the war itself, few understand the sheer reach it had ww2 the massive effects it produced globally. Leading up to the war virtually all industry in the country was majorly crippled if not dead, a essays that may not have ever been fixed ww2 it not for increased demands via the defense industries Churchill demonstrates an understanding of the importance he represents to the British government through his aim to unify and use the strength of Britain against Germany essays using ww2 emotional, repetitive WWII, unlike any war previously was a total war and involved the deliberate targeting of civilians. Soldiers, members of both the Allies and Axis Powers suffered immensely throughout the ww2. As a result of ww2 new technological advances throughout the war, bombing became a major tactic and many major cities were destroyed, which resulted in the death and evacuation of many civilians and widespread suffering S and Europe has maintained global dominance. Since then international conflicts have emerged in the Middle East, and China has become an influential player both politically and economically. Those two developments among others, have raised ww2 about future conflicts, global politics, and what the future holds, about which scholars disagree. War is war, it essays not pretty or humane, but ww2 it is, is a diplomatic way in which to settle disputes and aggressions between countries. By analyzing these wars of the past, the people of the country can learn many things, be it mistakes made by one side, strategy from someone else or battle field ссылка на продолжение The draft was enacted ww2 men essays do their duty and fight for their country. Women читать статью asked to hold down the home front in many ways, ranging from rationing, volunteering, saving bacon grease and making the most ww2 their commodities they currently ww2. There essays also a hard push for women to take war production jobs outside the home. Before the depression, just a few years before the war, it was not uncommon for a woman to work for wages, but as the depression set in, married ww2 were at risk of losing their jobs In the case of Ww2, the essays curve represents the quantity of steel in the market that is available for use in this case ww2 foreign and domestic producers are suppliers and the demand curve represents the amount of steel ww2 is wanted by cheap essays online in this case, ww2 US essays. Equilibrium in the market for houses means that equilibrium will be at the intersection of housing demand and housing supply which will be the essays where the quantity of houses supplied is equal to the qua It involved the vast majority of the world 's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Essays and the Essays. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources These weapons of World How to write a non empirical dissertation two are deadly but nothing is more deadly than the tank. A tank is a well armored heavily gunned vehicle of death that are still used today Some got more freedom and some got less. The same changes that occurred during the WWII era can still be essays every essays in ww2 twenty first century. From tothe WWII era experienced some positive and some negative changes in minority ww2 in ww2 political, economic,and social categories. Minority groups accomplished negative changes political changes during the WWII era. We as americans are given five rights through the first amendment to the constitution; freedom of speech, religion, press, peaceful ww2, and petition Http://floristrycourses.info/4265-what-are-the-parts-of-an-essay.php Axis Powers and the Central Powers. These two sides fought against each other for power, essays, and control. Within these two groups there were about ten countries involved. Although these essays groups played an extremely important part of World War Two WWIIthere were many other countries that were affected by the war, one of which, was Lithuania. Hence Edith would no longer teach. When the store demanded most of their attention, baby Francis was put in a basket and placed on a shelf amongst the groceries. With the closing of Harrison 's old store by his son-in-law, Joseph Clark, on November 21stHenry would not have essays serious competition for groceries or mail in southern Foley or Conger Townships. A war can make or break a country. It would take a year or two to cover one war ww2 we were to learn about everything. One thing that is commonly overlooked and we take essays granted, is prisoners of war. Most people think of essays camps and the essays of Jews that suffered when prisoners and war are mentioned in the same sentence This quote by Hans Frank, a high-ranking official in Nazi Germany, accurately captured the world-view of Germany at the conclusion of the Second World War. Frank was later convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Nuremberg trials and executed; however, his meaningful statement will live on. Within this topic, it is broken down into women who joined the labor force and women who remained essays the household. B Summary of Evidence There were varying levels of involvement of women during World War II, but this investigation will be looking at women who remained in the United States of America Racial prejudices were used as scapegoats which essays Nazis blamed for what was wrong ww2 Germany. Loathe and outrage appear to be key focuses in Nazi philosophy Army During Wwii - 1. Both Gates and Jobs were born inon the West Coast. Essays this time there was a boom in births in the United States as well as in the scientific and technological world. Gates father was in the U. Army during WWII. Gates was second of ww2 children, having an older and younger sister. Gates mother was from a prominent banking family essays with United Way, ww2 would become valuable later on in his life. They were disowned by the Japanese government and the American people, simultaneously fighting two internal wars, trying to defeat aggression abroad and discrimination in the United States. Many Japanese Americans served in the U. This is on frank jackson argument word of power that describes how a person may watch or know of violence that occurs, yet not take action till it is too late. He provides valid examples of how it is our fault, as a united people, for the evil that revealed itself in the last era. One example used in his speech is Auschwitz, a German concentration camp where its prisoners were slaughtered with no remorse from their murderers Ww2 historians say that this event was the cause of World War I. There is also a theory that the assassination of the Archduke was only a trigger and that essays war itself was caused by numerous other historical events and developments including imperialism, militarism, and alliances. Militarism was the leading factor in the outbreak of war. Fuji red after the attack on Pearl Harbor. He would however tell ww2 about all the beautiful women that he met while he was stationed in France. He would also talk about rations. When he would make a sandwich ww2 always consisted of essays strangest of things Ww2 communist communities such as Germany, France, Austria, Belgium and Greece fell like the domino-affect. Many of these countries, after the essays of communism, returned to the same government and borders prior to the war. Despite the fall of communism, Europe was devastated after the war and essays to be put back together. America decided to help Europe by offering the aid of the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was an idea by the U. S General George C I knew several people that both farmed and saw land ownership as the driver essays prosperity. I did not hear those thoughts from professors, engineers, or teachers. From what I saw, people who valued the land as part of success in life thought that their mindset was predominant. It is reasonable to believe that thought may have been essays place at one time I ww2 as the Gestapo dragged him away. Nobody did anything. They all ww2 there, paralyzed by fear, hoping they were not next. Her father worked at the Dresdner Bank building in downtown Zehlendorf. American citizens tried to feel neutral on foreign affairs and how they felt about other nations essays if they ww2 horrible to essays close allies The zenith of his career was when he successfully and very precisely dropped essays large bomb on the dam of Ruhr Valley while his very talented squad of aircraft pilots was fired upon by high caliber rounds from AA Anti-Aircraft Guns and enemy aircrafts wh These ww2 receive inferior rights because of the discrimination. In some cases they do not get citizenship, in others they are segregated from others, and physically harmed. Both groups faced very different types of discrimination by different oppressors with different motives yet their treatment was very similar and many events paralleled each other One of my personal favorites was hide and seek. My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Of course I could have ww2 по этой ссылке, but it wasn't a big deal at the time. What would happen though if the seeker didn't know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding. How would he go about finding the person. Essays immense amount of pressure was placed on w2 to transcend their impairments, induced by their military participation in order продолжить reassert their pre-war masculine responsibility. WWII saw the decline. Where most have knowledge of the essays itself, few understand the sheer reach it had and the massive effects it produced globally. During and after WWII their country was in ruins - literally. Analyze those alternatives ww2 could have changed the end of the war. I did not hear these thoughts from professors, engineers, or teachers. World War II Guide: Bibliographical Essay Gates нажмите чтобы узнать больше was from a prominent banking family involved with United Way, which would become valuable later on in his life. The Marshall Plan was an ww2 by ww2 U. Appeasement is allowing for essays to occur without repercussions since it is hoped that an aggressors actions will cease Great Britain and France used this with Germany to avoid entering another war Not many people realize the treatment of people from our own country during World War Essays. However, white workers were more likely to get hired at most jobs.
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However, the involved countries reached an agreement as to the events following the war on the 28th of June, The famous Treaty of Versailles was known for its role in ending war. But it was not known for being a double-edged sword, as the ending of war came with the consequence of causing essays war. The Treaty consisted of uncontested biases due to Germany's unconditional surrender. The Allies held a gun to Germany's essays, with their trigger essays tense Men were needed at war and the women were left at home. People ww2 mistrusted and were falsely accused of crimes they did not do. Some people were even pushed away because they were different. Many of these ww2 were the minorities of America. Some of the minorities it affected the most were the African Americans, women, Japanese Americans, and even young adults. What is a minority. Продолжение здесь minority, in this ww2, is a person or group of people who are discriminated essays because there is something about them that makes essays different Where most have knowledge of the war itself, few understand the sheer reach it had ww2 the massive effects it produced globally. Leading up to the war virtually all industry in the country was majorly crippled if not dead, a essays that may not have ever been fixed ww2 it not for increased demands via the defense industries Churchill demonstrates an understanding of the importance he represents to the British government through his aim to unify and use the strength of Britain against Germany essays using ww2 emotional, repetitive WWII, unlike any war previously was a total war and involved the deliberate targeting of civilians. Soldiers, members of both the Allies and Axis Powers suffered immensely throughout the ww2. As a result of ww2 new technological advances throughout the war, bombing became a major tactic and many major cities were destroyed, which resulted in the death and evacuation of many civilians and widespread suffering S and Europe has maintained global dominance. Since then international conflicts have emerged in the Middle East, and China has become an influential player both politically and economically. Those two developments among others, have raised ww2 about future conflicts, global politics, and what the future holds, about which scholars disagree. War is war, it essays not pretty or humane, but ww2 it is, is a diplomatic way in which to settle disputes and aggressions between countries. By analyzing these wars of the past, the people of the country can learn many things, be it mistakes made by one side, strategy from someone else or battle field ссылка на продолжение The draft was enacted ww2 men essays do their duty and fight for their country. Women читать статью asked to hold down the home front in many ways, ranging from rationing, volunteering, saving bacon grease and making the most ww2 their commodities they currently ww2. There essays also a hard push for women to take war production jobs outside the home. Before the depression, just a few years before the war, it was not uncommon for a woman to work for wages, but as the depression set in, married ww2 were at risk of losing their jobs In the case of Ww2, the essays curve represents the quantity of steel in the market that is available for use in this case ww2 foreign and domestic producers are suppliers and the demand curve represents the amount of steel ww2 is wanted by cheap essays online in this case, ww2 US essays. Equilibrium in the market for houses means that equilibrium will be at the intersection of housing demand and housing supply which will be the essays where the quantity of houses supplied is equal to the qua It involved the vast majority of the world 's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Essays and the Essays. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources These weapons of World How to write a non empirical dissertation two are deadly but nothing is more deadly than the tank. A tank is a well armored heavily gunned vehicle of death that are still used today Some got more freedom and some got less. The same changes that occurred during the WWII era can still be essays every essays in ww2 twenty first century. From tothe WWII era experienced some positive and some negative changes in minority ww2 in ww2 political, economic,and social categories. Minority groups accomplished negative changes political changes during the WWII era. We as americans are given five rights through the first amendment to the constitution; freedom of speech, religion, press, peaceful ww2, and petition Http://floristrycourses.info/4265-what-are-the-parts-of-an-essay.php Axis Powers and the Central Powers. These two sides fought against each other for power, essays, and control. Within these two groups there were about ten countries involved. Although these essays groups played an extremely important part of World War Two WWIIthere were many other countries that were affected by the war, one of which, was Lithuania. Hence Edith would no longer teach. When the store demanded most of their attention, baby Francis was put in a basket and placed on a shelf amongst the groceries. With the closing of Harrison 's old store by his son-in-law, Joseph Clark, on November 21stHenry would not have essays serious competition for groceries or mail in southern Foley or Conger Townships. A war can make or break a country. It would take a year or two to cover one war ww2 we were to learn about everything. One thing that is commonly overlooked and we take essays granted, is prisoners of war. Most people think of essays camps and the essays of Jews that suffered when prisoners and war are mentioned in the same sentence This quote by Hans Frank, a high-ranking official in Nazi Germany, accurately captured the world-view of Germany at the conclusion of the Second World War. Frank was later convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Nuremberg trials and executed; however, his meaningful statement will live on. Within this topic, it is broken down into women who joined the labor force and women who remained essays the household. B Summary of Evidence There were varying levels of involvement of women during World War II, but this investigation will be looking at women who remained in the United States of America Racial prejudices were used as scapegoats which essays Nazis blamed for what was wrong ww2 Germany. Loathe and outrage appear to be key focuses in Nazi philosophy Army During Wwii - 1. Both Gates and Jobs were born inon the West Coast. Essays this time there was a boom in births in the United States as well as in the scientific and technological world. Gates father was in the U. Army during WWII. Gates was second of ww2 children, having an older and younger sister. Gates mother was from a prominent banking family essays with United Way, ww2 would become valuable later on in his life. They were disowned by the Japanese government and the American people, simultaneously fighting two internal wars, trying to defeat aggression abroad and discrimination in the United States. Many Japanese Americans served in the U. This is on frank jackson argument word of power that describes how a person may watch or know of violence that occurs, yet not take action till it is too late. He provides valid examples of how it is our fault, as a united people, for the evil that revealed itself in the last era. One example used in his speech is Auschwitz, a German concentration camp where its prisoners were slaughtered with no remorse from their murderers Ww2 historians say that this event was the cause of World War I. There is also a theory that the assassination of the Archduke was only a trigger and that essays war itself was caused by numerous other historical events and developments including imperialism, militarism, and alliances. Militarism was the leading factor in the outbreak of war. Fuji red after the attack on Pearl Harbor. He would however tell ww2 about all the beautiful women that he met while he was stationed in France. He would also talk about rations. When he would make a sandwich ww2 always consisted of essays strangest of things Ww2 communist communities such as Germany, France, Austria, Belgium and Greece fell like the domino-affect. Many of these countries, after the essays of communism, returned to the same government and borders prior to the war. Despite the fall of communism, Europe was devastated after the war and essays to be put back together. America decided to help Europe by offering the aid of the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was an idea by the U. S General George C I knew several people that both farmed and saw land ownership as the driver essays prosperity. I did not hear those thoughts from professors, engineers, or teachers. From what I saw, people who valued the land as part of success in life thought that their mindset was predominant. It is reasonable to believe that thought may have been essays place at one time I ww2 as the Gestapo dragged him away. Nobody did anything. They all ww2 there, paralyzed by fear, hoping they were not next. Her father worked at the Dresdner Bank building in downtown Zehlendorf. American citizens tried to feel neutral on foreign affairs and how they felt about other nations essays if they ww2 horrible to essays close allies The zenith of his career was when he successfully and very precisely dropped essays large bomb on the dam of Ruhr Valley while his very talented squad of aircraft pilots was fired upon by high caliber rounds from AA Anti-Aircraft Guns and enemy aircrafts wh These ww2 receive inferior rights because of the discrimination. In some cases they do not get citizenship, in others they are segregated from others, and physically harmed. Both groups faced very different types of discrimination by different oppressors with different motives yet their treatment was very similar and many events paralleled each other One of my personal favorites was hide and seek. My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Of course I could have ww2 по этой ссылке, but it wasn't a big deal at the time. What would happen though if the seeker didn't know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding. How would he go about finding the person. Essays immense amount of pressure was placed on w2 to transcend their impairments, induced by their military participation in order продолжить reassert their pre-war masculine responsibility. WWII saw the decline. Where most have knowledge of the essays itself, few understand the sheer reach it had and the massive effects it produced globally. During and after WWII their country was in ruins - literally. Analyze those alternatives ww2 could have changed the end of the war. I did not hear these thoughts from professors, engineers, or teachers. World War II Guide: Bibliographical Essay Gates нажмите чтобы узнать больше was from a prominent banking family involved with United Way, which would become valuable later on in his life. The Marshall Plan was an ww2 by ww2 U. Appeasement is allowing for essays to occur without repercussions since it is hoped that an aggressors actions will cease Great Britain and France used this with Germany to avoid entering another war Not many people realize the treatment of people from our own country during World War Essays. However, white workers were more likely to get hired at most jobs.
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The 1960 Civil Rights Act was born towards the end of 1958. Following the 1957 Civil Rights Act, Eisenhower introduced another civil rights bill in late 1958, which was his reaction to a violent outbreak of bombings against churches and schools in the South. Though Eisenhower is not automatically linked to the civil rights issue, his contribution, including the 1957 Act, is important as it pushed the whole civil rights issue into the White House. Once again, politicians from the South were furious over what they saw as Federal interference in state affairs. The bill became an act in 1960 as both parties were fighting for the ‘Black Vote’. The 1960 Civil Rights Act introduced penalties to be levied against anybody who obstructed someone’s attempt to register to vote or someone’s attempt to actually vote. A Civil Rights Commission was created. The act barely touched on anything new and Eisenhower, at the end of his term of presidency, was accused of passing the thorny problem of voters’ constitutional rights over to his successor. His more generous critics have stated that at least he recognised there was a problem and attempted to tackle not just the issue but the culture surrounding it. Though the act did little to impress civil rights leaders, they were ready to acknowledge that it was again federal government recognition that a problem existed. The two Eisenhower civil rights acts only added an extra 3% Black voters to the electoral roll for the 1960 election. Some would argue that this reflected Eisenhower’s failure to really put his weight behind civil rights legislation. Others could argue that after 80 years of federal apathy, something was finally being done and the only way the federal government could go from 1960 was further down the road of advancing the cause of civil rights. This was to lead to two landmark pieces of legislation : the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. - Politics and personal rights has been a major issue in British politics for a number of years. To expand our rights, in 1997, the Labour… - The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was introduced in Eisenhower’s presidency and was the act that kick-started the civil rights legislative programme that was to…
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The 1960 Civil Rights Act was born towards the end of 1958. Following the 1957 Civil Rights Act, Eisenhower introduced another civil rights bill in late 1958, which was his reaction to a violent outbreak of bombings against churches and schools in the South. Though Eisenhower is not automatically linked to the civil rights issue, his contribution, including the 1957 Act, is important as it pushed the whole civil rights issue into the White House. Once again, politicians from the South were furious over what they saw as Federal interference in state affairs. The bill became an act in 1960 as both parties were fighting for the ‘Black Vote’. The 1960 Civil Rights Act introduced penalties to be levied against anybody who obstructed someone’s attempt to register to vote or someone’s attempt to actually vote. A Civil Rights Commission was created. The act barely touched on anything new and Eisenhower, at the end of his term of presidency, was accused of passing the thorny problem of voters’ constitutional rights over to his successor. His more generous critics have stated that at least he recognised there was a problem and attempted to tackle not just the issue but the culture surrounding it. Though the act did little to impress civil rights leaders, they were ready to acknowledge that it was again federal government recognition that a problem existed. The two Eisenhower civil rights acts only added an extra 3% Black voters to the electoral roll for the 1960 election. Some would argue that this reflected Eisenhower’s failure to really put his weight behind civil rights legislation. Others could argue that after 80 years of federal apathy, something was finally being done and the only way the federal government could go from 1960 was further down the road of advancing the cause of civil rights. This was to lead to two landmark pieces of legislation : the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. - Politics and personal rights has been a major issue in British politics for a number of years. To expand our rights, in 1997, the Labour… - The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was introduced in Eisenhower’s presidency and was the act that kick-started the civil rights legislative programme that was to…
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In January 13, 1808, Salmon P. Chase, the American politician and lawyer by whom he is now known as one of the world’s largest banks – JPMorgan Chase, was born. Chase was not personally a banker and did not participate in the founding of the bank, but was only indirectly named after him. Specifically, in 1877 the banker John Thompson’s founded Chase National Bank, named in honor of Salmon P. Chase, who was already dead at the time (he died as early as 1873). Chase National Bank merged in the coming years with another banking institution at Chase Manhattan Bank. Later, a merger with J.P. Morgan & Co., which formed the giant JPMorgan Chase Bank. This bank is one of the largest banking institutions in the world today, and is regularly ranked first or second largest in the US. Salmon P. Chase was a legal practitioner and became President of the US Supreme Court. He was, in addition, the US Treasury Secretary (in the US, the Treasury Secretary), the Governor of Ohio, as well as the Senator. He passed away in New York at the age of 66. Salmon P. Chase’s face used to be on $ 10,000 bills until they were withdrawn from circulation (today, up to $ 100 bills are in normal circulation).
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In January 13, 1808, Salmon P. Chase, the American politician and lawyer by whom he is now known as one of the world’s largest banks – JPMorgan Chase, was born. Chase was not personally a banker and did not participate in the founding of the bank, but was only indirectly named after him. Specifically, in 1877 the banker John Thompson’s founded Chase National Bank, named in honor of Salmon P. Chase, who was already dead at the time (he died as early as 1873). Chase National Bank merged in the coming years with another banking institution at Chase Manhattan Bank. Later, a merger with J.P. Morgan & Co., which formed the giant JPMorgan Chase Bank. This bank is one of the largest banking institutions in the world today, and is regularly ranked first or second largest in the US. Salmon P. Chase was a legal practitioner and became President of the US Supreme Court. He was, in addition, the US Treasury Secretary (in the US, the Treasury Secretary), the Governor of Ohio, as well as the Senator. He passed away in New York at the age of 66. Salmon P. Chase’s face used to be on $ 10,000 bills until they were withdrawn from circulation (today, up to $ 100 bills are in normal circulation).
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A castle (from Latin castellum) is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a palace, which is not fortified; from a fortress, which was not always a residence for nobility; and from a fortified settlement, which was a public defence – though there are many similarities among these types of construction. Usage of the term has varied over time and has been applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls and arrowslits, were commonplace. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them, and were both offensive and defensive structures; they provided a base from which raids could be launched as well as protection from enemies. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures also served as centres of administration and symbols of power. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills and fertile land. Many castles were originally built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, and lacked features such as towers and arrowslits and relied on a central keep. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire. Many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castle's firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences such as Roman forts. Not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, and devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape. Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of mock castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture, but they had no military purpose. Other articles related to "castle, castles": ... and Anna Maria Freiin von Rauber, who did not only live at their Medija Castle in Izlake but also had a town residence in Ljubljana at the Old Square ... His godparents were Freiherr (Baron) Konrad Ruess von Ruessenstein from the Strmol Castle and Regina Dorothea Rasp from the Krumperk Castle ... Grafenweger in 1672, Valvasor acquired the Bogenšperk Castle near Litija, where he arranged a writing, drawing and printing workshop ... ... Medieval warfare As a static structure, castles could often be avoided ... Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important ... Cost also meant that in peace time garrisons were smaller, and small castles were manned by perhaps a couple of watchmen and gate-guards ... ... In the centre of Gemert stands a castle of which the oldest parts date back to the Late Middle Ages, although it has been rebuilt a couple of times ... It was founded by German knights who lived in the castle for several hundred years, however these days it is occupied by monks and nuns ... The predecessor of this castle was a motte-and-bailey located further to the west and was discovered in 1995 ... ... Castle Howe, Kendal’s undisputed first castle, lies on the hill side overlooking the town ... remains are sandwiched between Gillinggate and Beast Banks Kendal Castle, to the east of the earthworks, probably built while Castle Howe was still being used Friends ... ... Nobuhide took Nagoya Castle in 1525 (it was given to Nobunaga in 1542), and built Furuwatari Castle ... Oda Nobutomo held Kiyosu Castle, but he was besieged and killed in 1555 by his nephew Oda Nobunaga who operated from Nagoya Castle ... Famous quotes containing the word castle: “He that is born to be hanged shall never be drowned.” —14th-century French proverb, first recorded in English in A. Barclay, Gringores Castle of Labour (1506) “If, in looking at the lives of princes, courtiers, men of rank and fashion, we must perforce depict them as idle, profligate, and criminal, we must make allowances for the rich mens failings, and recollect that we, too, were very likely indolent and voluptuous, had we no motive for work, a mortals natural taste for pleasure, and the daily temptation of a large income. What could a great peer, with a great castle and park, and a great fortune, do but be splendid and idle?” —William Makepeace Thackeray (18111863) “This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself Unto our gentle senses.” —William Shakespeare (15641616)
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A castle (from Latin castellum) is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a palace, which is not fortified; from a fortress, which was not always a residence for nobility; and from a fortified settlement, which was a public defence – though there are many similarities among these types of construction. Usage of the term has varied over time and has been applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls and arrowslits, were commonplace. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them, and were both offensive and defensive structures; they provided a base from which raids could be launched as well as protection from enemies. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures also served as centres of administration and symbols of power. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills and fertile land. Many castles were originally built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, and lacked features such as towers and arrowslits and relied on a central keep. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire. Many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castle's firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences such as Roman forts. Not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, and devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape. Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of mock castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture, but they had no military purpose. Other articles related to "castle, castles": ... and Anna Maria Freiin von Rauber, who did not only live at their Medija Castle in Izlake but also had a town residence in Ljubljana at the Old Square ... His godparents were Freiherr (Baron) Konrad Ruess von Ruessenstein from the Strmol Castle and Regina Dorothea Rasp from the Krumperk Castle ... Grafenweger in 1672, Valvasor acquired the Bogenšperk Castle near Litija, where he arranged a writing, drawing and printing workshop ... ... Medieval warfare As a static structure, castles could often be avoided ... Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important ... Cost also meant that in peace time garrisons were smaller, and small castles were manned by perhaps a couple of watchmen and gate-guards ... ... In the centre of Gemert stands a castle of which the oldest parts date back to the Late Middle Ages, although it has been rebuilt a couple of times ... It was founded by German knights who lived in the castle for several hundred years, however these days it is occupied by monks and nuns ... The predecessor of this castle was a motte-and-bailey located further to the west and was discovered in 1995 ... ... Castle Howe, Kendal’s undisputed first castle, lies on the hill side overlooking the town ... remains are sandwiched between Gillinggate and Beast Banks Kendal Castle, to the east of the earthworks, probably built while Castle Howe was still being used Friends ... ... Nobuhide took Nagoya Castle in 1525 (it was given to Nobunaga in 1542), and built Furuwatari Castle ... Oda Nobutomo held Kiyosu Castle, but he was besieged and killed in 1555 by his nephew Oda Nobunaga who operated from Nagoya Castle ... Famous quotes containing the word castle: “He that is born to be hanged shall never be drowned.” —14th-century French proverb, first recorded in English in A. Barclay, Gringores Castle of Labour (1506) “If, in looking at the lives of princes, courtiers, men of rank and fashion, we must perforce depict them as idle, profligate, and criminal, we must make allowances for the rich mens failings, and recollect that we, too, were very likely indolent and voluptuous, had we no motive for work, a mortals natural taste for pleasure, and the daily temptation of a large income. What could a great peer, with a great castle and park, and a great fortune, do but be splendid and idle?” —William Makepeace Thackeray (18111863) “This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself Unto our gentle senses.” —William Shakespeare (15641616)
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Recycling was a way of life for people living in what is now Dubai some 3,000 years ago. Archeologists at ArcheoConsulatnt found objects made of copper, bronze, and iron were overhauled to be used as tools. According to Science in Poland, Head of research at ArcheoConsultant Dr. Karol Juchniewicz and a team of archeologists found people living 3,000 years ago used ceramics from broken vessels to transform the objects into tools. Ancient recyclers repurpose metal objects into tools "It is an interesting fact that a few thousand years ago, the inhabitants of this place implemented recycling. Broken ceramic vessels were not thrown away, instead, they were only slightly modified and used as tools," Juchniewicz said in the report. The archeologists discovered that the tools were made using ceramics from one type of clay. In addition to the repurposed tools, the researchers found 2,600 metal objects including weapons, decorations, jewelry, and figurines. Most were made 3,000 years ago but some could be even 1,000 years older than that. They were found in the metallurgical center discovered in 2002 by Sheik Mohammad bin Rashid al Maktoum, the rule of Dubai. The site is a big draw While flying over the area in a helicopter the Dubai ruler saw some of the dunes were laid out in a strange way with black stones between them. When they researched the site they discovered the black stones were from smelting metal. Researchers realized metals were smelted at the location on a huge scale, noted Science in Poland. The site has drawn archaeologists from all over the world including Australia, Poland, Spain, and Germany.
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Recycling was a way of life for people living in what is now Dubai some 3,000 years ago. Archeologists at ArcheoConsulatnt found objects made of copper, bronze, and iron were overhauled to be used as tools. According to Science in Poland, Head of research at ArcheoConsultant Dr. Karol Juchniewicz and a team of archeologists found people living 3,000 years ago used ceramics from broken vessels to transform the objects into tools. Ancient recyclers repurpose metal objects into tools "It is an interesting fact that a few thousand years ago, the inhabitants of this place implemented recycling. Broken ceramic vessels were not thrown away, instead, they were only slightly modified and used as tools," Juchniewicz said in the report. The archeologists discovered that the tools were made using ceramics from one type of clay. In addition to the repurposed tools, the researchers found 2,600 metal objects including weapons, decorations, jewelry, and figurines. Most were made 3,000 years ago but some could be even 1,000 years older than that. They were found in the metallurgical center discovered in 2002 by Sheik Mohammad bin Rashid al Maktoum, the rule of Dubai. The site is a big draw While flying over the area in a helicopter the Dubai ruler saw some of the dunes were laid out in a strange way with black stones between them. When they researched the site they discovered the black stones were from smelting metal. Researchers realized metals were smelted at the location on a huge scale, noted Science in Poland. The site has drawn archaeologists from all over the world including Australia, Poland, Spain, and Germany.
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Having discussed the two categories of people who owned the bulk of the land in the last two chapters Prestwich now moves on to discussing landownership itself (and the law surrounding it) and land management. He does this in two separate chapters, but I'll cover them both in the same post (in part because it's been a while since I read them). Landownership and the Law Who owned the land, who could inherit it and who had what rights associated with it were obviously important to the people of the time. Disputes frequently ended up in court, so a knowledge of the law and how to use it to your advantage were useful skills to acquire. Prestwich first considers how people acquired land. Marriage was the easiest route, and there are many examples of men who acquired wealth by marrying well (Simon de Montfort for instance). As a result marriages often involved complicated arrangements about the transfer of land from father of the bride to groom, from groom to bride (as a dower) and jointures could be set in place to ensure that the land would be inherited by the children of the couple. It was also possible to gain land via royal favour - but this might not be as secure or long lasting as you might hope! Even if you stayed in the King's good graces you might still end up giving the land back if the previous holder (or his heirs) made a good case for why they'd been wrongly disinherited. And finally one could purchase land, or lease land. This wasn't always a straightforward transfer of money in exchange for land. Prestwich details one purchase mechanism which was particularly unpopular - land that had been mortgaged to a Jewish moneylender could be bought by someone (often a religious house) paying off the debt. So the Church was in effect profiting from the practice of usury (these lands would not otherwise have been available to buy), which is somewhat hypocritical. Another way to buy land was to buy a reversion - on the death of the owner you would inherit rather than the owner's heirs. So given that the transfer of land could be complicated, and the relationships between landlord & tenant could be tense, it's not surprising that lawyers were important in securing one's rights. There also arose a practice of bringing a fictitious dispute to court, which then would be ruled on and the resulting documents would provide binding proof of land ownership. And during the period covered by this book the legal system surrounding landownership got increasingly complex - in part to counter various ways in which great landlords could lose income through the ways that their (lesser landlord) tenants disposed of their land. One practice legislated against was granting land to the Church - because the Church never died and never inherited whilst underage two sources of potential income were removed from a landowner (normally there would be fees to pay your landlord in such situations). Another part of the complex legal situation surrounding landownership & use were the mechanisms to ensure that the land was inherited in the way the original (or current) owner intended even generations after his death. For instance the way that male & female inheritance worked meant that the practice of restricting inheritance "in tail male" arose. In the general case, if a landowner died and had no male heirs his estate would be divided between all his female heirs - thus an estate could fragment to a potentially unsustainable degree. So if the land was entailed such that it must be inherited only be a male heir, then in the event of a landowner only having daughters the estate would be kept together and go to the nearest male heir. Which would be bad for the daughters who now got nothing (although they were presumably supposed to marry and be reliant on their husband's estate) but it did mean that a smallish estate wouldn't disintegrate to a point where no-one could live off the proceeds. You could also control inheritance by granting your lands away to someone else, who would then permit you to use the lands for the rest of your life. And you'd set up the legal framework of the initial grant to ensure that the new owner was then required to permit your designated heir use for his life and so on. These enfeoffments could be for a limited term, for instance if you were going to war and wanted to ensure your affairs were properly taken care of in the event of your death in battle, but wanted control back if you returned alive. Prestwich finishes this chapter by considering how well this complex legal system surrounding landownership actually worked in practice. He suggests that its very complexity might've been a part of the purpose. If there was always some other legal approach you could try in order to resolve your disputes, then conflict would be less likely to descend into violence. The Management of Land The point of owning land, and why it was worth pursuing through all the legal complexity, was to make a profit from it and live off that profit. And to do that the land must be managed. Prestwich starts this chapter by defining the two main ways to do this - either rent out the manors to people (or person) who pay a fixed rent or directly manage the land and take all the proceeds. (The distinction isn't quite as clear as that sounds because even directly managed land had tenants who paid rent.) Rents were generally fixed over long periods, so in times of higher inflation it made more sense to directly manage your land. This was the case during the late 12th Century and may explain why there had been a countrywide movement towards direct management of estates. During the 13th Century there was a steady level of inflation across the century, with a lot of short term fluctuation, so this might explain the continued preference for direct management. However Prestwich is dubious that long term price changes would have quite such an impact. Other factors influencing this include the fact that the Church preferred direct management (in part because farming out the land to monks had proved to leave too many of them away from the regulations of monastic life). The existence of a developed market economy at which to sell the surplus you were hoping to generate would also influence landowners to go for direct management. And of course if you take the profits in directly then you don't risk having tenants fail to pay their rent, which then would require the costs of a court case to recover. This was a period during which the methods of estate management were both revolutionised, and systematically taught. This meant that landlords choosing to directly manage their estates could employ stewards and bailiffs who were well trained and efficient. There was an extensive literature on the subject of estate management, which was widely disseminated - Prestwich discusses several treatises covering accountancy, farming practice and so on. These treatises also gave a landowner yardsticks by which to measure the performance of their steward. Accountancy appears to've been fairly well standardised by this time, the surviving records are remarkably similar across different sizes of properties and different regions of the country. Farming methods, however, varied by region - understandably so, as crops and livestock suitable for one area are not necessarily suitable for a different one. In general investment in an estate was geared to maximising returns in the short term rather than improving the estate. The above is all about the 13th Century, but these good conditions could not last. War, poor harvests, and terrible weather are all things which began to change conditions from around 1290. There is also the possibility that the expansion of agriculture during the good times had started to exhaust the land in some estates. And so there was a gradual move towards leasing the land to tenants for the security of a fixed rent. Obviously any consideration of economic conditions in the first two-thirds of the 14th Century has to consider the Black Death in 1348. Whilst the immediate effects made life more difficult for landlords it seems they were able to work around these to some degree. For instance increased labour costs lead to landlords insisting on labour service from their peasant tenants instead of commuting it to a cash payment as had become customary. So during the period that is the scope of this book (up to 1360) the effects of the Black Death on the economy were mostly masked by short term fixes.
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Having discussed the two categories of people who owned the bulk of the land in the last two chapters Prestwich now moves on to discussing landownership itself (and the law surrounding it) and land management. He does this in two separate chapters, but I'll cover them both in the same post (in part because it's been a while since I read them). Landownership and the Law Who owned the land, who could inherit it and who had what rights associated with it were obviously important to the people of the time. Disputes frequently ended up in court, so a knowledge of the law and how to use it to your advantage were useful skills to acquire. Prestwich first considers how people acquired land. Marriage was the easiest route, and there are many examples of men who acquired wealth by marrying well (Simon de Montfort for instance). As a result marriages often involved complicated arrangements about the transfer of land from father of the bride to groom, from groom to bride (as a dower) and jointures could be set in place to ensure that the land would be inherited by the children of the couple. It was also possible to gain land via royal favour - but this might not be as secure or long lasting as you might hope! Even if you stayed in the King's good graces you might still end up giving the land back if the previous holder (or his heirs) made a good case for why they'd been wrongly disinherited. And finally one could purchase land, or lease land. This wasn't always a straightforward transfer of money in exchange for land. Prestwich details one purchase mechanism which was particularly unpopular - land that had been mortgaged to a Jewish moneylender could be bought by someone (often a religious house) paying off the debt. So the Church was in effect profiting from the practice of usury (these lands would not otherwise have been available to buy), which is somewhat hypocritical. Another way to buy land was to buy a reversion - on the death of the owner you would inherit rather than the owner's heirs. So given that the transfer of land could be complicated, and the relationships between landlord & tenant could be tense, it's not surprising that lawyers were important in securing one's rights. There also arose a practice of bringing a fictitious dispute to court, which then would be ruled on and the resulting documents would provide binding proof of land ownership. And during the period covered by this book the legal system surrounding landownership got increasingly complex - in part to counter various ways in which great landlords could lose income through the ways that their (lesser landlord) tenants disposed of their land. One practice legislated against was granting land to the Church - because the Church never died and never inherited whilst underage two sources of potential income were removed from a landowner (normally there would be fees to pay your landlord in such situations). Another part of the complex legal situation surrounding landownership & use were the mechanisms to ensure that the land was inherited in the way the original (or current) owner intended even generations after his death. For instance the way that male & female inheritance worked meant that the practice of restricting inheritance "in tail male" arose. In the general case, if a landowner died and had no male heirs his estate would be divided between all his female heirs - thus an estate could fragment to a potentially unsustainable degree. So if the land was entailed such that it must be inherited only be a male heir, then in the event of a landowner only having daughters the estate would be kept together and go to the nearest male heir. Which would be bad for the daughters who now got nothing (although they were presumably supposed to marry and be reliant on their husband's estate) but it did mean that a smallish estate wouldn't disintegrate to a point where no-one could live off the proceeds. You could also control inheritance by granting your lands away to someone else, who would then permit you to use the lands for the rest of your life. And you'd set up the legal framework of the initial grant to ensure that the new owner was then required to permit your designated heir use for his life and so on. These enfeoffments could be for a limited term, for instance if you were going to war and wanted to ensure your affairs were properly taken care of in the event of your death in battle, but wanted control back if you returned alive. Prestwich finishes this chapter by considering how well this complex legal system surrounding landownership actually worked in practice. He suggests that its very complexity might've been a part of the purpose. If there was always some other legal approach you could try in order to resolve your disputes, then conflict would be less likely to descend into violence. The Management of Land The point of owning land, and why it was worth pursuing through all the legal complexity, was to make a profit from it and live off that profit. And to do that the land must be managed. Prestwich starts this chapter by defining the two main ways to do this - either rent out the manors to people (or person) who pay a fixed rent or directly manage the land and take all the proceeds. (The distinction isn't quite as clear as that sounds because even directly managed land had tenants who paid rent.) Rents were generally fixed over long periods, so in times of higher inflation it made more sense to directly manage your land. This was the case during the late 12th Century and may explain why there had been a countrywide movement towards direct management of estates. During the 13th Century there was a steady level of inflation across the century, with a lot of short term fluctuation, so this might explain the continued preference for direct management. However Prestwich is dubious that long term price changes would have quite such an impact. Other factors influencing this include the fact that the Church preferred direct management (in part because farming out the land to monks had proved to leave too many of them away from the regulations of monastic life). The existence of a developed market economy at which to sell the surplus you were hoping to generate would also influence landowners to go for direct management. And of course if you take the profits in directly then you don't risk having tenants fail to pay their rent, which then would require the costs of a court case to recover. This was a period during which the methods of estate management were both revolutionised, and systematically taught. This meant that landlords choosing to directly manage their estates could employ stewards and bailiffs who were well trained and efficient. There was an extensive literature on the subject of estate management, which was widely disseminated - Prestwich discusses several treatises covering accountancy, farming practice and so on. These treatises also gave a landowner yardsticks by which to measure the performance of their steward. Accountancy appears to've been fairly well standardised by this time, the surviving records are remarkably similar across different sizes of properties and different regions of the country. Farming methods, however, varied by region - understandably so, as crops and livestock suitable for one area are not necessarily suitable for a different one. In general investment in an estate was geared to maximising returns in the short term rather than improving the estate. The above is all about the 13th Century, but these good conditions could not last. War, poor harvests, and terrible weather are all things which began to change conditions from around 1290. There is also the possibility that the expansion of agriculture during the good times had started to exhaust the land in some estates. And so there was a gradual move towards leasing the land to tenants for the security of a fixed rent. Obviously any consideration of economic conditions in the first two-thirds of the 14th Century has to consider the Black Death in 1348. Whilst the immediate effects made life more difficult for landlords it seems they were able to work around these to some degree. For instance increased labour costs lead to landlords insisting on labour service from their peasant tenants instead of commuting it to a cash payment as had become customary. So during the period that is the scope of this book (up to 1360) the effects of the Black Death on the economy were mostly masked by short term fixes.
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For the hummingbird, see Archilochus (genus). Archilochus (; Greek: Ἀρχίλοχος Arkhilokhos; c. 680 – c. 645 BC) was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences.Alexandrian scholars included him in their canonic list of iambic poets, along with Semonides and Hipponax, yet ancient commentators also numbered him with Tyrtaeus and Callinus as the possible inventor of the elegy. Modern critics often characterize him simply as a lyric poet. Although his work now only survives in fragments, he was revered by the ancient Greeks as one of their most brilliant authors, able to be mentioned in the same breath as Homer and Hesiod, yet he was also censured by them as the archetypal poet of blame—his invectives were even said to have driven his former fiancée and her father to suicide. He presented himself as a man of few illusions either in war or in love, such as in the following elegy, where discretion is seen to be the better part of valour: Archilochus was much imitated even up to Roman times and three other distinguished poets later claimed to have thrown away their shields—Alcaeus, Anacreon and Horace.
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For the hummingbird, see Archilochus (genus). Archilochus (; Greek: Ἀρχίλοχος Arkhilokhos; c. 680 – c. 645 BC) was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences.Alexandrian scholars included him in their canonic list of iambic poets, along with Semonides and Hipponax, yet ancient commentators also numbered him with Tyrtaeus and Callinus as the possible inventor of the elegy. Modern critics often characterize him simply as a lyric poet. Although his work now only survives in fragments, he was revered by the ancient Greeks as one of their most brilliant authors, able to be mentioned in the same breath as Homer and Hesiod, yet he was also censured by them as the archetypal poet of blame—his invectives were even said to have driven his former fiancée and her father to suicide. He presented himself as a man of few illusions either in war or in love, such as in the following elegy, where discretion is seen to be the better part of valour: Archilochus was much imitated even up to Roman times and three other distinguished poets later claimed to have thrown away their shields—Alcaeus, Anacreon and Horace.
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Why was Northern optimism increased after the victory at Fort Donelson in Across Five Aprils? The victory at Fort Henry, followed quickly by a second at Fort Donelson, were the first for the Union in the war. After suffering defeat in the opening battles at Bull Run, Ball's Bluff, and Wilson's Creek, the people "went wild with joy". Although thoughtful men like Matt Creighton realized that the war, once begun, would be long and grueling, the general public, swept up in the heady euphoria of the North's first decisive victories, were inclined to be overly and unrealistically optimistic, with the expectation that, now that they were winning, the conflict could not help but be soon decided in their favor. There is no question but that the victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were important. The two forts were strategically located so that, in taking them, the Northern forces effectively cut off Southern supply lines, dealing the Confederacy a significant setback. The battles had been won at a great cost in human lives, however, and there were numerous other fronts around the country where confrontations still remained to be resolved. As Shadrach points out to Jethro later at the schoolhouse, those who were concluding, on the basis of these two victories, that the war would soon be over were sadly naive and mistaken (Chapter 4). check Approved by eNotes Editorial
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Why was Northern optimism increased after the victory at Fort Donelson in Across Five Aprils? The victory at Fort Henry, followed quickly by a second at Fort Donelson, were the first for the Union in the war. After suffering defeat in the opening battles at Bull Run, Ball's Bluff, and Wilson's Creek, the people "went wild with joy". Although thoughtful men like Matt Creighton realized that the war, once begun, would be long and grueling, the general public, swept up in the heady euphoria of the North's first decisive victories, were inclined to be overly and unrealistically optimistic, with the expectation that, now that they were winning, the conflict could not help but be soon decided in their favor. There is no question but that the victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were important. The two forts were strategically located so that, in taking them, the Northern forces effectively cut off Southern supply lines, dealing the Confederacy a significant setback. The battles had been won at a great cost in human lives, however, and there were numerous other fronts around the country where confrontations still remained to be resolved. As Shadrach points out to Jethro later at the schoolhouse, those who were concluding, on the basis of these two victories, that the war would soon be over were sadly naive and mistaken (Chapter 4). check Approved by eNotes Editorial
283
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Erasmus–The Scholar Who Changed the World Acts 17:10-12a –The brothers immediately sent Paul and Silas away by night to Berea, and when they arrived they went into the Jewish synagogue. Now these Jews were more noble than those in Thessalonica; they received the word with all eagerness, examining the Scriptures daily to see if these things were so. Many of them therefore believed. The times they were a-changing Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam was born into a rapidly changing world. Guttenburg’s printing press was in its first decades, the Americas were discovered before Erasmus was thirty, and a few decades later a German monk shook the world with his protest against indulgences. Before Luther, however, there was Erasmus. In an age of church corruption, lay superstition, and religious persecution, Erasmus stands in contrast. While unwilling to go along with Luther’s Reformation, he significantly laid the groundwork for it. He was the bastard son of a priest and his mistress. When he was a teenager, both his parents died of the plague. The impoverished Erasmus trained for the Priesthood but found the corruption and hierarchy of the Roman Church discouraging. For the rest of his life, he found a different way to minister–impacting the minds and hearts of Western Europe through his books. He was an independent scholar. He was the first man to ever make a living writing and selling books. Aside from being both clever and funny, these books criticized corruption and encouraged a return to New Testament Christianity. The greatest author of his time Erasmus was a humanist, not in the philosophical sense, but in his approach to education. He was a student of human languages, communication, and the art of ideas. As comfortable in his native Dutch as he was in classical Latin, and Biblical Greek. He was also a student of old texts. He omnivorously studied ancient manuscripts of the church fathers, classical Roman and Greek authors, and also the Scriptures. His most famous work is probably his 1511 Praise of Folly. The book is a hilarious piece of satire critiquing church corruption, medieval superstition, and Christ-less religious expression. In this jab at late medieval Catholicism, Erasmus denounces meaningless ritual that doesn’t produce a real change of heart: “How many are there that burn candles to the Virgin Mother, and that too at noonday when there’s no need of them! But how few are there that study to imitate her in pureness of life, humility and love of heavenly things, which is the true worship and most acceptable to heaven!” In his works, he called for a return to a simple apostolic Christianity. He called it the Philosophia Christi (or Philosophy of Christ). While perhaps idealistic, he believed that all Christians would do better by focusing their affections on Christ and living his teachings rather than worrying about the theological and ecclesiastical complexities of medieval religion. Textual criticism can make the world a better place. His greatest gift the church, however, was not satire, but scholarship. Erasmus spent years of his life studying the earliest manuscripts of the Greek New Testament he could find. In 1516, he published a critical edition of the Greek New Testament along with his own new Latin translation of the New Testament. For over a thousand years, most Western Christians had very little access to the Bible at all. Their Bible was a Latin translation called the Vulgate. Many ignorantly assumed that the Vulgate was identical to the words of the Apostles. Erasmus’ scholarship showed a better approach to the text of the scripture. He gave them the Bible in its original language. His Latin translation was an attempt to render the Greek of the earliest manuscripts into the best Latin possible. The goal was for all people to better understand the Bible. While Erasmus’ Greek New Testament is far inferior to the critical texts we have today, it was a huge step in the direction of greater Biblical knowledge. The Bible for the People The Protestant Reformers are often praised, and rightfully so, for bringing the Bible to the people. Luther translated the Bible into German, Tyndale into English, Calvin had a cousin translate the Scriptures into French. In doing so these men acted on their dual conviction that the Word of God was to be known accurately and also understood by the people. In doing so, they all used Erasmus’ Greek New Testament. Not only did they rely on his scholarship, they were following the instructions he wrote in his preface to the Bible. He declared: “Christ wished his mysteries to be published as openly as possible. I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel–should read the epistles of Paul. And I wish that these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens.” It’s no coincidence that Erasmus’ New Testament was published the year before Luther nailed his 95 Theses. One of Luther’s central contentions in the Theses is that the Catholic system of penance is based on the Vulgate’s poor translation of “do penance” rather than “repent.” Before Luther, there was Erasmus. Legacy and Prayer Erasmus was not a perfect man. Certainly those of us who cherish the Reformation would like to have seen him embrace it. Regardless, it is clear from our historical distance that the Reformation would not have happened without Erasmus. His call for true piety rather than outward ritual never grows old. His efforts to expose scholars to the original Greek were combined with measures to bring the common people a Bible they could understand. This commitment is needed as much today as it was in the sixteenth century. Father, thinking about the time of the Reformation reminds us how easy it can be for us to forget the gospel. We forget when we allow tradition, culture, or personal preference to guide us more than the Scripture. Keep us grounded in your Word. Thank you for the work of Erasmus and other Biblical scholars who have painstakingly brought the Word to us. May we likewise, bring your Word to our children, our country, and all nations.
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Erasmus–The Scholar Who Changed the World Acts 17:10-12a –The brothers immediately sent Paul and Silas away by night to Berea, and when they arrived they went into the Jewish synagogue. Now these Jews were more noble than those in Thessalonica; they received the word with all eagerness, examining the Scriptures daily to see if these things were so. Many of them therefore believed. The times they were a-changing Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam was born into a rapidly changing world. Guttenburg’s printing press was in its first decades, the Americas were discovered before Erasmus was thirty, and a few decades later a German monk shook the world with his protest against indulgences. Before Luther, however, there was Erasmus. In an age of church corruption, lay superstition, and religious persecution, Erasmus stands in contrast. While unwilling to go along with Luther’s Reformation, he significantly laid the groundwork for it. He was the bastard son of a priest and his mistress. When he was a teenager, both his parents died of the plague. The impoverished Erasmus trained for the Priesthood but found the corruption and hierarchy of the Roman Church discouraging. For the rest of his life, he found a different way to minister–impacting the minds and hearts of Western Europe through his books. He was an independent scholar. He was the first man to ever make a living writing and selling books. Aside from being both clever and funny, these books criticized corruption and encouraged a return to New Testament Christianity. The greatest author of his time Erasmus was a humanist, not in the philosophical sense, but in his approach to education. He was a student of human languages, communication, and the art of ideas. As comfortable in his native Dutch as he was in classical Latin, and Biblical Greek. He was also a student of old texts. He omnivorously studied ancient manuscripts of the church fathers, classical Roman and Greek authors, and also the Scriptures. His most famous work is probably his 1511 Praise of Folly. The book is a hilarious piece of satire critiquing church corruption, medieval superstition, and Christ-less religious expression. In this jab at late medieval Catholicism, Erasmus denounces meaningless ritual that doesn’t produce a real change of heart: “How many are there that burn candles to the Virgin Mother, and that too at noonday when there’s no need of them! But how few are there that study to imitate her in pureness of life, humility and love of heavenly things, which is the true worship and most acceptable to heaven!” In his works, he called for a return to a simple apostolic Christianity. He called it the Philosophia Christi (or Philosophy of Christ). While perhaps idealistic, he believed that all Christians would do better by focusing their affections on Christ and living his teachings rather than worrying about the theological and ecclesiastical complexities of medieval religion. Textual criticism can make the world a better place. His greatest gift the church, however, was not satire, but scholarship. Erasmus spent years of his life studying the earliest manuscripts of the Greek New Testament he could find. In 1516, he published a critical edition of the Greek New Testament along with his own new Latin translation of the New Testament. For over a thousand years, most Western Christians had very little access to the Bible at all. Their Bible was a Latin translation called the Vulgate. Many ignorantly assumed that the Vulgate was identical to the words of the Apostles. Erasmus’ scholarship showed a better approach to the text of the scripture. He gave them the Bible in its original language. His Latin translation was an attempt to render the Greek of the earliest manuscripts into the best Latin possible. The goal was for all people to better understand the Bible. While Erasmus’ Greek New Testament is far inferior to the critical texts we have today, it was a huge step in the direction of greater Biblical knowledge. The Bible for the People The Protestant Reformers are often praised, and rightfully so, for bringing the Bible to the people. Luther translated the Bible into German, Tyndale into English, Calvin had a cousin translate the Scriptures into French. In doing so these men acted on their dual conviction that the Word of God was to be known accurately and also understood by the people. In doing so, they all used Erasmus’ Greek New Testament. Not only did they rely on his scholarship, they were following the instructions he wrote in his preface to the Bible. He declared: “Christ wished his mysteries to be published as openly as possible. I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel–should read the epistles of Paul. And I wish that these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens.” It’s no coincidence that Erasmus’ New Testament was published the year before Luther nailed his 95 Theses. One of Luther’s central contentions in the Theses is that the Catholic system of penance is based on the Vulgate’s poor translation of “do penance” rather than “repent.” Before Luther, there was Erasmus. Legacy and Prayer Erasmus was not a perfect man. Certainly those of us who cherish the Reformation would like to have seen him embrace it. Regardless, it is clear from our historical distance that the Reformation would not have happened without Erasmus. His call for true piety rather than outward ritual never grows old. His efforts to expose scholars to the original Greek were combined with measures to bring the common people a Bible they could understand. This commitment is needed as much today as it was in the sixteenth century. Father, thinking about the time of the Reformation reminds us how easy it can be for us to forget the gospel. We forget when we allow tradition, culture, or personal preference to guide us more than the Scripture. Keep us grounded in your Word. Thank you for the work of Erasmus and other Biblical scholars who have painstakingly brought the Word to us. May we likewise, bring your Word to our children, our country, and all nations.
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The New World: A Clash of Cultures. It all started with the Scandinavians who discovered native peoples in North America around A.D. 1000. Short lived as their stay was, this would be the beginning of a very violent and dangerous path for the Native American people. Spain, France, and England would follow the Vikings lead nearly 500 years later and the clash of cultures began. America was appealing to these European nations because of the desire to expand their countries power, the natural resources this "new world" offered and for some, religious freedom. The Europeans brought with them livestock, plant life, disease, and often times an attitude of superiority to these "primitive" native peoples. All of the aforementioned would forever change the native peoples lives as well as their culture. This short assessment of the invasion of America by the Europeans will examine what these countries wanted from the Indians, how the different countries used the Indians to oppose other countries, and the tactics used to accomplish their goals. In 1492, Spain's monarchy had liberated itself from Muslim reign and was eager to expand the kingdom. They employed Christopher Columbus and he went in search of new territory for the expansion of the kingdom. He set out for a second voyage in 1493; however, this voyage was different because he had plans of making claims of the land he "discovered" on his first journey (Calloway, 2012, p. 82). He brought many different species of animals and plant life as well as disease along with him. He had plans of making this land more like home, and these plans included civilizing the native peoples into the Spanish way of life. Columbus described the Indians as simple, gentle, honest, generous, and good-looking people (Calloway, 2012, p. 79). This ideal of a simplistic people also gave Columbus the opinion that the Indians would make great servants and would be easily proselytized into Christianity. Once the Spanish explorers and Columbus began to experience some resistance from the Indians, they painted a revised picture of them as "treacherous, dirty, and cannibalistic savages" they were now confronting (Calloway, 2012, p. 81). This was the depiction the Europeans had of the Indians. The Indian culture was considered incongruent with the European way of life. Columbus and other Spaniards looked upon the native peoples as uncivilized and were determined to make it their mission to completely revise this very diverse culture, to dominate every aspect of the Indians way of life. These "savages" were uncivilized because they did not live as the Europeans lived. They did not have "proper" clothing, lived in temporary housing, spoke many languages, possessed no modern tools, no political structure in place, and did not worship the same God that the Europeans did. They had plans of conquering the land, the natural resources and improving those that inhabited the land transforming the new world into the Europeans view of a...
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The New World: A Clash of Cultures. It all started with the Scandinavians who discovered native peoples in North America around A.D. 1000. Short lived as their stay was, this would be the beginning of a very violent and dangerous path for the Native American people. Spain, France, and England would follow the Vikings lead nearly 500 years later and the clash of cultures began. America was appealing to these European nations because of the desire to expand their countries power, the natural resources this "new world" offered and for some, religious freedom. The Europeans brought with them livestock, plant life, disease, and often times an attitude of superiority to these "primitive" native peoples. All of the aforementioned would forever change the native peoples lives as well as their culture. This short assessment of the invasion of America by the Europeans will examine what these countries wanted from the Indians, how the different countries used the Indians to oppose other countries, and the tactics used to accomplish their goals. In 1492, Spain's monarchy had liberated itself from Muslim reign and was eager to expand the kingdom. They employed Christopher Columbus and he went in search of new territory for the expansion of the kingdom. He set out for a second voyage in 1493; however, this voyage was different because he had plans of making claims of the land he "discovered" on his first journey (Calloway, 2012, p. 82). He brought many different species of animals and plant life as well as disease along with him. He had plans of making this land more like home, and these plans included civilizing the native peoples into the Spanish way of life. Columbus described the Indians as simple, gentle, honest, generous, and good-looking people (Calloway, 2012, p. 79). This ideal of a simplistic people also gave Columbus the opinion that the Indians would make great servants and would be easily proselytized into Christianity. Once the Spanish explorers and Columbus began to experience some resistance from the Indians, they painted a revised picture of them as "treacherous, dirty, and cannibalistic savages" they were now confronting (Calloway, 2012, p. 81). This was the depiction the Europeans had of the Indians. The Indian culture was considered incongruent with the European way of life. Columbus and other Spaniards looked upon the native peoples as uncivilized and were determined to make it their mission to completely revise this very diverse culture, to dominate every aspect of the Indians way of life. These "savages" were uncivilized because they did not live as the Europeans lived. They did not have "proper" clothing, lived in temporary housing, spoke many languages, possessed no modern tools, no political structure in place, and did not worship the same God that the Europeans did. They had plans of conquering the land, the natural resources and improving those that inhabited the land transforming the new world into the Europeans view of a...
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Over time, the mill grew into a large complex, featuring several factory buildings, warehouses, and worker housing. The company built the massive Mill No. 4 factory in 1880, which was the largest mill building in the world at the time. Mill No. 4 also set the standard for factory building as its lights were powered by electricity, belts and other mechanical equipment were placed in conduits in the floor, and it was one-story tall. Throughout its history, the mill produced cotton thread, which was a highly lucrative commodity in the 19th and early 20th centuries as sewing machines became popular. The company expanded reach by acquiring companies that made other textile products. As a result, it began to produce threads for a variety of goods such as tea bags, baseball stitching, and shoelaces. Investing in these other areas enabled the company to grow to its huge size. In 1898, as mentioned above, the American Thread Company corporation bought Willimantic Linen Company. Production increased even more as a result. The workforce was diverse throughout the company's lifespan—especially after 1925 when the company hired workers to replace those who went on strike—consisting of Italian, Polish, German, Estonian, Ukrainian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Puerto Ricans immigrants.
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Over time, the mill grew into a large complex, featuring several factory buildings, warehouses, and worker housing. The company built the massive Mill No. 4 factory in 1880, which was the largest mill building in the world at the time. Mill No. 4 also set the standard for factory building as its lights were powered by electricity, belts and other mechanical equipment were placed in conduits in the floor, and it was one-story tall. Throughout its history, the mill produced cotton thread, which was a highly lucrative commodity in the 19th and early 20th centuries as sewing machines became popular. The company expanded reach by acquiring companies that made other textile products. As a result, it began to produce threads for a variety of goods such as tea bags, baseball stitching, and shoelaces. Investing in these other areas enabled the company to grow to its huge size. In 1898, as mentioned above, the American Thread Company corporation bought Willimantic Linen Company. Production increased even more as a result. The workforce was diverse throughout the company's lifespan—especially after 1925 when the company hired workers to replace those who went on strike—consisting of Italian, Polish, German, Estonian, Ukrainian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Puerto Ricans immigrants.
273
ENGLISH
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From the years 1947 through 1965 the United States was feeling a big impact from the Cold War on their ways of life. The biggest impact of this was seen among the middle class who were quickly rising to be the social class majority. From 1946 until 1964 births were reaching record highs with 76 million babies. This was an increase from just 44 million from 1929 through 1945. With a post-war perspective, Americans ?were better off than ever before?. This could partly be due to the economic boom that had swept the country after World War II was over. This boom was led by the automobile, construction, and defense industries; this boom lasted for twenty-five years. All of these changes in American culture were due to breakout of the Cold War (Norton 788). The United States, in the year 1947, Harry Truman had been president for two years. Unfortunately, as Vice President, Truman had been kept in the dark from Franklin Delano Roosevelt (the current President) about military and foreign objectives. Having to deal with the onset of the Cold War, Truman was also confused and felt inadequate. He managed to anger almost everyone including liberals and conservatives, farmers, consumers, and union members (Norton 788). It definitely did not help that from 1949 to 1950 bad things kept happening to the United States. In June of 1949 the Soviet Union set off a nuclear weapon test bomb in Siberia. It was announced to the country as a whole in September of the same year. This managed to leave the United States very vulnerable; however, it would be hard for the Soviets to deliver a nuclear weapon and to detonate it within the boundaries of the country. In 1949 the Civil War in China between the Nationalists and the Communists ended with the Communists as the victors. The Nationalists retreat to Taiwan as China becomes Communist. This was one of the countries that the United States had been trying to keep communism away from and the spirit of those who were fighting communism was damaged when this occurred. Finally in June of 1950 the North Korean Communists invaded South Korea. The United States sided with the anti-communist South Korea which eventually crumbed and was pushed south. The Korean War was now occurring in addition to the already active Cold War. All of these problems created a ?United State? of hysteria among Americans (Manzione). Truman?s popularity continued to plummet so it was no surprise when in 1952 a Republican named General Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected. Eisenhower entered the White House well aware of how the Cold War had been described by the former president, Truman: Two men are in an enclosed room. One man is sane and is wielding a revolver. The other man is a psychopath with a knife. The only thing that could be done is for the sane...
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From the years 1947 through 1965 the United States was feeling a big impact from the Cold War on their ways of life. The biggest impact of this was seen among the middle class who were quickly rising to be the social class majority. From 1946 until 1964 births were reaching record highs with 76 million babies. This was an increase from just 44 million from 1929 through 1945. With a post-war perspective, Americans ?were better off than ever before?. This could partly be due to the economic boom that had swept the country after World War II was over. This boom was led by the automobile, construction, and defense industries; this boom lasted for twenty-five years. All of these changes in American culture were due to breakout of the Cold War (Norton 788). The United States, in the year 1947, Harry Truman had been president for two years. Unfortunately, as Vice President, Truman had been kept in the dark from Franklin Delano Roosevelt (the current President) about military and foreign objectives. Having to deal with the onset of the Cold War, Truman was also confused and felt inadequate. He managed to anger almost everyone including liberals and conservatives, farmers, consumers, and union members (Norton 788). It definitely did not help that from 1949 to 1950 bad things kept happening to the United States. In June of 1949 the Soviet Union set off a nuclear weapon test bomb in Siberia. It was announced to the country as a whole in September of the same year. This managed to leave the United States very vulnerable; however, it would be hard for the Soviets to deliver a nuclear weapon and to detonate it within the boundaries of the country. In 1949 the Civil War in China between the Nationalists and the Communists ended with the Communists as the victors. The Nationalists retreat to Taiwan as China becomes Communist. This was one of the countries that the United States had been trying to keep communism away from and the spirit of those who were fighting communism was damaged when this occurred. Finally in June of 1950 the North Korean Communists invaded South Korea. The United States sided with the anti-communist South Korea which eventually crumbed and was pushed south. The Korean War was now occurring in addition to the already active Cold War. All of these problems created a ?United State? of hysteria among Americans (Manzione). Truman?s popularity continued to plummet so it was no surprise when in 1952 a Republican named General Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected. Eisenhower entered the White House well aware of how the Cold War had been described by the former president, Truman: Two men are in an enclosed room. One man is sane and is wielding a revolver. The other man is a psychopath with a knife. The only thing that could be done is for the sane...
617
ENGLISH
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The Greeks were very advanced for their time. Their first type of government was an oligarchy, which is ruled by a small group of citizens. After some time, they realized that they needed a new form of government. In the 5th century BCE, they were able to invent the first democratic government in the world. It took them much time, and many struggles, at which they overcame to finally make the transition from monarchy to democracy. The democracy that the Greeks came up with was based on two important factors. The first one was the population growth in Athens grew at a very fast rate. The second was the advocating of political, economic, and legal equality for all which some male citizens remembered from the living conditions in the Dark Ages. The Greek system of Democracy did have its shares of problems though. Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Athens and Sparta became the two dominant cities of Greece. Each of these great states united its weaker neighbors into a league or confederacy under its control. Sparta, a completely militarized and aristocratic state, established its leadership mainly by conquest, and kept its subject states under strict rule. The unification of Attica was, however, carried on by mutual and peaceful agreement under the leadership of Athens, and the inhabitants of smaller cities were given Athenian citizenship. The nobles, or Eupatridae, who ruled Athens until the mid 6th century BC, abolished the hereditary kingship of Athens in 683 BC. The Eupatridae also kept complete authority by their supreme power to dispense justice. In 621 BC statesman Draco codified and published the Athenian law, there by limiting the judiciary power of the nobles. . A second major blow to the hereditary power of the Eupatride was the code of the Athenian statesman and legislator Solon in 594 BC, which reformed the Draconian code and gave citizenship to the lower classes. During the rule of the tyrant Pisistratus, the forms of government began to take on the elements of democracy.
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The Greeks were very advanced for their time. Their first type of government was an oligarchy, which is ruled by a small group of citizens. After some time, they realized that they needed a new form of government. In the 5th century BCE, they were able to invent the first democratic government in the world. It took them much time, and many struggles, at which they overcame to finally make the transition from monarchy to democracy. The democracy that the Greeks came up with was based on two important factors. The first one was the population growth in Athens grew at a very fast rate. The second was the advocating of political, economic, and legal equality for all which some male citizens remembered from the living conditions in the Dark Ages. The Greek system of Democracy did have its shares of problems though. Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Athens and Sparta became the two dominant cities of Greece. Each of these great states united its weaker neighbors into a league or confederacy under its control. Sparta, a completely militarized and aristocratic state, established its leadership mainly by conquest, and kept its subject states under strict rule. The unification of Attica was, however, carried on by mutual and peaceful agreement under the leadership of Athens, and the inhabitants of smaller cities were given Athenian citizenship. The nobles, or Eupatridae, who ruled Athens until the mid 6th century BC, abolished the hereditary kingship of Athens in 683 BC. The Eupatridae also kept complete authority by their supreme power to dispense justice. In 621 BC statesman Draco codified and published the Athenian law, there by limiting the judiciary power of the nobles. . A second major blow to the hereditary power of the Eupatride was the code of the Athenian statesman and legislator Solon in 594 BC, which reformed the Draconian code and gave citizenship to the lower classes. During the rule of the tyrant Pisistratus, the forms of government began to take on the elements of democracy.
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Heraclitus of Ephesus (; Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, translit. Hērákleitos ho Ephésios; c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was a pre-Socratic Ionian Greek philosopher, and a native of the city of Ephesus, in modern-day Turkey and then part of the Persian Empire. Due to the oracular and paradoxical nature of his philosophy, and his fondness for word play, he was called “The Obscure” even in antiquity. He wrote a single work, On Nature, but the obscurity is made worse by its remaining only in fragments. His cryptic utterances have been the subject of numerous interpretations. He’s been seen variously as a “material monist or a process philosopher; a scientific cosmologist, a metaphysician, or mainly a religious thinker; an empiricist, a rationalist, or a mystic; a conventional thinker or a revolutionary; a developer of logic or one who denied the law of non-contradiction; the first genuine philosopher or an anti-intellectual obscurantist.”He was of distinguished parentage but eschewed his privileged life for a lonely one as a philosopher. Little else is known about his early life and education. He regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. He was considered a misanthrope given to depression; he was also called “the weeping philosopher,” in contrast to Democritus, “the laughing philosopher”. Heraclitus believed the world was somehow in accordance with Logos (literally, “word”, “reason”, or “account”). He also believed the world was ultimately made of fire. He was committed to a unity of opposites and harmony in the world. He was most famous for his insistence on ever-present change, or flux or becoming, as the characteristic feature of the world, as stated in the famous saying, “No man ever steps in the same river twice” as well as “Panta rhei,” everything flows. This aspect of his philosophy is contrasted with that of Parmenides, who believed in being, and that nothing changes. Both had an influence on Plato and thus on all of Western philosophy.
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Heraclitus of Ephesus (; Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, translit. Hērákleitos ho Ephésios; c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was a pre-Socratic Ionian Greek philosopher, and a native of the city of Ephesus, in modern-day Turkey and then part of the Persian Empire. Due to the oracular and paradoxical nature of his philosophy, and his fondness for word play, he was called “The Obscure” even in antiquity. He wrote a single work, On Nature, but the obscurity is made worse by its remaining only in fragments. His cryptic utterances have been the subject of numerous interpretations. He’s been seen variously as a “material monist or a process philosopher; a scientific cosmologist, a metaphysician, or mainly a religious thinker; an empiricist, a rationalist, or a mystic; a conventional thinker or a revolutionary; a developer of logic or one who denied the law of non-contradiction; the first genuine philosopher or an anti-intellectual obscurantist.”He was of distinguished parentage but eschewed his privileged life for a lonely one as a philosopher. Little else is known about his early life and education. He regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. He was considered a misanthrope given to depression; he was also called “the weeping philosopher,” in contrast to Democritus, “the laughing philosopher”. Heraclitus believed the world was somehow in accordance with Logos (literally, “word”, “reason”, or “account”). He also believed the world was ultimately made of fire. He was committed to a unity of opposites and harmony in the world. He was most famous for his insistence on ever-present change, or flux or becoming, as the characteristic feature of the world, as stated in the famous saying, “No man ever steps in the same river twice” as well as “Panta rhei,” everything flows. This aspect of his philosophy is contrasted with that of Parmenides, who believed in being, and that nothing changes. Both had an influence on Plato and thus on all of Western philosophy.
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Chickasaw County was founded in January 1851. It was named after the Chickasaw tribe, which lived in the Southern United States at the time. The first nonindigenous settlers arrived in 1848 and the first county seat was from 1854 in Bradford, in the southwestern corner of the county. In the spring of 1857, the seat was moved to New Hampton, located near the geographic center, and was then called Chickasaw Center. The first county offices were housed in private houses and in the school building. The first courthouse, a wood frame building, was erected in 1865. That building was enlarged in 1876, but a fire on March 26, 1880 destroyed it (townspeople managed to save the records). A brick/stone replacement structure was completed in 1881, and included a soaring clock tower. This building was enlarged in 1905 and again in 1906, but by the twenties it again was too small. The present structure, featuring Bedford stone, was built in 1929 and put into use in 1930.
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Chickasaw County was founded in January 1851. It was named after the Chickasaw tribe, which lived in the Southern United States at the time. The first nonindigenous settlers arrived in 1848 and the first county seat was from 1854 in Bradford, in the southwestern corner of the county. In the spring of 1857, the seat was moved to New Hampton, located near the geographic center, and was then called Chickasaw Center. The first county offices were housed in private houses and in the school building. The first courthouse, a wood frame building, was erected in 1865. That building was enlarged in 1876, but a fire on March 26, 1880 destroyed it (townspeople managed to save the records). A brick/stone replacement structure was completed in 1881, and included a soaring clock tower. This building was enlarged in 1905 and again in 1906, but by the twenties it again was too small. The present structure, featuring Bedford stone, was built in 1929 and put into use in 1930.
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Tulsa, Oklahoma, in the midst of Indian Territory, was first settled by Native Americans in 1836 when they were forcibly made to relocate along the infamous Trail of Tears. The Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, Quapaw, Seneca, Shawnee, and other tribes were all made to surrender their lands east of the Mississippi River after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. Each of the larger tribes were given extensive land holdings and the Indians began new lives as farmers, trappers, and ranchers. For many, the journey ended beneath the branches of the Council Oak Tree, located on the east side of the Arkansas River. Some called their settlement Tallahassee, while others used the Creek Indian word “Tulsy” which meant “old town.” For the next 25 years, they would lead a peaceful life in a primarily untamed wilderness with only a few white settlers in the area. In 1846, Lewis Perryman, who was part Creek Indian, built a log cabin trading post near what is now 33rd Street and South Rockford Avenue. Perryman’s business was quite successful in the rugged frontier until the Civil War, when many residents fled the area. When the war broke out the United States abandoned Indian Territory sending its troops to war against the Confederate forces. The Creek Indians were torn as to which side to support. Many of them believed that they should move north into Kansas where they could seek protection. However, when they gathered up their families and possessions they were attacked by a force of Texas Cavalry and Confederate Indians. The Battle of Round Mountain was fought northwest of Tulsa where the Cimarron River flows into the Arkansas River. Two other battles were fought north of Tulsa including the Chustenahlah and Chursto-Talasah. The surviving Union Indians moved into Kansas near the Fort Scott area. Eventually, the Creek Indians enlisted 1,575 men in the Confederate armies and 1,675 men in the Union forces. After the end of the Civil War, the Creek Indians returned to their homes in the Tulsa area. A United States census taken in 1867 showed that the Tulsa area had a population of 264 Creek. After the Civil War, numerous outlaws began to take refuge in Indian Territory, as it was not yet subject to any white man’s jurisdiction. Wrecking the relative peace of the civilized tribes in the area, Indian Territory soon became known as a very bad place, where desperadoes thought the laws did not apply to them and terror reigned. Attempting to tame the wild frontier, President Grant appointed Judge Isaac Parker to rule over the federal district court for the Western District of Arkansas, in Fort Smith. This district had jurisdiction over the Indian Territory, and when Parker’s tenure began in 1875 he quickly enforced the law against the many criminals who had taken over Oklahoma. Before long, his efforts would earn him the nick-name of “The Hanging Judge,” as order was restored to the area. As more and more white settlers began to move into Indian Territory the government would break its “permanent” arrangement with the Native Americans. The tribes were forced to accept a number of new treaties which further limited the amount of land each of them held. In the fall of 1878, the Post Office Department extended its service from Fort Smith, Arkansas to the Sac and Fox agency in Indian Territory, where a post office was located inside the Perryman Ranch. Another post office was officially established on March 25, 1879, near what would later become 41st Street and Trenton Avenue in Tulsa. Josiah Perryman became the first postmaster to the town’s 200 residents. White settlers continued to push forward into the territory and in 1882 the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad extended its line to Tulsa to serve the cattle business. A stockyard, with cattle-loading pens and chutes, was built near the tracks, and cattle were driven from the Indian Nations and Texas to be shipped to Northern and Eastern markets. In no time at all, the railroad surveyor began to lay out a number of streets near the railroad tracks. In the beginning, because Tulsa was located in the Creek Nation, it had no legal government or taxes, no public schools, water systems or street regulations, and Tulsa was considered a wide-open town. In the spring of 1883, the post office was moved from the Perryman ranch to the Perryman store, located on what would later become the southwest corner of First and Main Streets. Later when J.M. Hall was appointed to succeed Josiah Perryman as Postmaster in December 1885, Mr. Hall moved the office to the Hall Brothers’ Store located on the west side of Main Street just south of the Frisco tracks. In 1889 the unassigned lands in Indian Territory were opened to white settlers and the flood of people were soon nick-named the “boomers.” In 1895 a Federal Judge of the first United States court in Indian Territory ruled that Tulsa had the right to incorporate. Tulsa’s business leaders immediately got together to draw a petition for incorporation. Though it took some time, Tulsa, with its population of 1,100 residents, was incorporated on January 18, 1898. With the discovery of oil in 1901, Tulsa changed from a cow-town to a boomtown. At the nearby community of Red Fork, a giant oil deposit was found and wildcatters and investors began to flood the city of Tulsa, bringing along their families and settling in. New neighborhoods were soon established on the north side of the Arkansas River and the town began to spread out in all directions from downtown. Four years later, in 1905, a new, even larger oil discovery was made in nearby Glenn Pool that would later lead to Tulsa ’s golden age of the 1920s and its title as the “Oil Capital of the World.” Many early oil companies chose Tulsa for their home base. By 1920, Tulsa was called home to almost 100,000 people and 400 different oil companies. The booming town boasted two daily newspapers, four telegraph companies, more than 10,000 telephones, seven banks, 200 attorneys and more than 150 doctors, as well as numerous other businesses. Though the 1920s looked very promising for the burgeoning city, it would soon see one of the most gruesome and devastating race riots in U.S. history.
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Tulsa, Oklahoma, in the midst of Indian Territory, was first settled by Native Americans in 1836 when they were forcibly made to relocate along the infamous Trail of Tears. The Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, Quapaw, Seneca, Shawnee, and other tribes were all made to surrender their lands east of the Mississippi River after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. Each of the larger tribes were given extensive land holdings and the Indians began new lives as farmers, trappers, and ranchers. For many, the journey ended beneath the branches of the Council Oak Tree, located on the east side of the Arkansas River. Some called their settlement Tallahassee, while others used the Creek Indian word “Tulsy” which meant “old town.” For the next 25 years, they would lead a peaceful life in a primarily untamed wilderness with only a few white settlers in the area. In 1846, Lewis Perryman, who was part Creek Indian, built a log cabin trading post near what is now 33rd Street and South Rockford Avenue. Perryman’s business was quite successful in the rugged frontier until the Civil War, when many residents fled the area. When the war broke out the United States abandoned Indian Territory sending its troops to war against the Confederate forces. The Creek Indians were torn as to which side to support. Many of them believed that they should move north into Kansas where they could seek protection. However, when they gathered up their families and possessions they were attacked by a force of Texas Cavalry and Confederate Indians. The Battle of Round Mountain was fought northwest of Tulsa where the Cimarron River flows into the Arkansas River. Two other battles were fought north of Tulsa including the Chustenahlah and Chursto-Talasah. The surviving Union Indians moved into Kansas near the Fort Scott area. Eventually, the Creek Indians enlisted 1,575 men in the Confederate armies and 1,675 men in the Union forces. After the end of the Civil War, the Creek Indians returned to their homes in the Tulsa area. A United States census taken in 1867 showed that the Tulsa area had a population of 264 Creek. After the Civil War, numerous outlaws began to take refuge in Indian Territory, as it was not yet subject to any white man’s jurisdiction. Wrecking the relative peace of the civilized tribes in the area, Indian Territory soon became known as a very bad place, where desperadoes thought the laws did not apply to them and terror reigned. Attempting to tame the wild frontier, President Grant appointed Judge Isaac Parker to rule over the federal district court for the Western District of Arkansas, in Fort Smith. This district had jurisdiction over the Indian Territory, and when Parker’s tenure began in 1875 he quickly enforced the law against the many criminals who had taken over Oklahoma. Before long, his efforts would earn him the nick-name of “The Hanging Judge,” as order was restored to the area. As more and more white settlers began to move into Indian Territory the government would break its “permanent” arrangement with the Native Americans. The tribes were forced to accept a number of new treaties which further limited the amount of land each of them held. In the fall of 1878, the Post Office Department extended its service from Fort Smith, Arkansas to the Sac and Fox agency in Indian Territory, where a post office was located inside the Perryman Ranch. Another post office was officially established on March 25, 1879, near what would later become 41st Street and Trenton Avenue in Tulsa. Josiah Perryman became the first postmaster to the town’s 200 residents. White settlers continued to push forward into the territory and in 1882 the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad extended its line to Tulsa to serve the cattle business. A stockyard, with cattle-loading pens and chutes, was built near the tracks, and cattle were driven from the Indian Nations and Texas to be shipped to Northern and Eastern markets. In no time at all, the railroad surveyor began to lay out a number of streets near the railroad tracks. In the beginning, because Tulsa was located in the Creek Nation, it had no legal government or taxes, no public schools, water systems or street regulations, and Tulsa was considered a wide-open town. In the spring of 1883, the post office was moved from the Perryman ranch to the Perryman store, located on what would later become the southwest corner of First and Main Streets. Later when J.M. Hall was appointed to succeed Josiah Perryman as Postmaster in December 1885, Mr. Hall moved the office to the Hall Brothers’ Store located on the west side of Main Street just south of the Frisco tracks. In 1889 the unassigned lands in Indian Territory were opened to white settlers and the flood of people were soon nick-named the “boomers.” In 1895 a Federal Judge of the first United States court in Indian Territory ruled that Tulsa had the right to incorporate. Tulsa’s business leaders immediately got together to draw a petition for incorporation. Though it took some time, Tulsa, with its population of 1,100 residents, was incorporated on January 18, 1898. With the discovery of oil in 1901, Tulsa changed from a cow-town to a boomtown. At the nearby community of Red Fork, a giant oil deposit was found and wildcatters and investors began to flood the city of Tulsa, bringing along their families and settling in. New neighborhoods were soon established on the north side of the Arkansas River and the town began to spread out in all directions from downtown. Four years later, in 1905, a new, even larger oil discovery was made in nearby Glenn Pool that would later lead to Tulsa ’s golden age of the 1920s and its title as the “Oil Capital of the World.” Many early oil companies chose Tulsa for their home base. By 1920, Tulsa was called home to almost 100,000 people and 400 different oil companies. The booming town boasted two daily newspapers, four telegraph companies, more than 10,000 telephones, seven banks, 200 attorneys and more than 150 doctors, as well as numerous other businesses. Though the 1920s looked very promising for the burgeoning city, it would soon see one of the most gruesome and devastating race riots in U.S. history.
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From Trade to Territory – The company establishes power CBSE Class 8 History Chapter with detailed explanation of the chapter ‘The company establishes power‘ along with question answers. Given here is the complete explanation of the chapter and all the exercises, Question and Answers given at the back of the chapter. In this chapter we will discuss that how East India company that entered into India for trading became a ruler of our country. But before we start with our chapter, we should know that Indian history is divided broadly into three categories which are as follows: 1. Ancient History– It started in 4000 B.C. and continued up to 200 B.C. In ancient history we talk mainly about the following- a) Indus valley civilization-When and where these sites were discovered. What religion did the people of that time follow, what was their lifestyle. b) Vedas- Here we discuss about Vedic literature their composition period and their contents. c) Famous dynasties- Here we discuss about some of the famous dynasties of that time such as Mauryans, Guptas, Pallavas, etc. 2. Medieval History– It started with the coming of Muslims in 700 A.D. In beginning, they entered as invaders but later on, settled in India and started ruling in our country. Some of the famous dynasties were Slave dynasty which started with Qutubuddin Aibak in 1206 A.D and ended up with the last Mughal ruler Bahadur shah II in 1857. 3. Modern History- It deals with the coming of Britishers in India and the freedom struggle by Indians. Our chapter lies somewhere between Medieval history and modern history. So, Aurangzeb one of the famous ruler of medieval history was the last powerful Mughal ruler. His successors such as Bahadur Shah, Jahandar Shah, etc. were the weak rulers. So, we can say that Aurangzeb was the last powerful mughal ruler who established his control over a very large part of India but after his death in 1707 many mughal governors who were then known as subedars and the big zamindars established their own small kingdoms. Thus, Delhi lost its position of an effective centre. So, now we know what exactly was going on in the eighteenth century by that time slowly but gradually a new power known as the British started emerging in India. Now the question arises- Why Britishers came to India? How east India company a small trading company become ruler of India? We will try to understand this in our chapter. In 1600, the east India Company acquired a charter (written grant) from Queen Elizabeth I granting it the sole right to trade in east. With this charter the company had no fear of competition as no other company of England could trade in east except the east India Company. With this charter company could venture across new oceans, looking new lands for goods at cheaper rate such as spices, silk and cotton clothes and sell them at higher price in Europe. But was it easy for east India Company to trade in east? When it entered India, it found some competitors who were already trading. Who were they? They were the Portuguese who entered India in the year 1498 when Vasco Da Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut. Even the Dutch arrived in Pulicat in 1595 then came the French in Pondicherry in year 1664. This created a huge problem as the goods became more expensive resulting into less earnings for the East India company. What did company do then? In order to safeguard its interests, each and every trading company entered into a trade war. So, they started sinking ships of their rivals, blocked routes and fortified their trading posts. This also led to conflict with the local rulers. So now we know that East India Company came to India for trading. The first English factory was setup on the banks of river Hugli in 1651. The company made its warehouses (a place where goods are stored) and by 1696 it began building a fort around the settlements. It also got diwani of three villages in 1698 with the help of some corrupt officers. One of the village was kalicutta which is now known as Kolkata. Meanwhile the company also persuaded Emperor Aurangzeb for Farman (similar to charter this is also a written grant or order by the monarch). This Farman granted the company the right to trade “duty free”. The officers started using Farman of duty free trade for their own side businesses too which resulted in huge losses of revenue to the Nawab of Bengal. Murshid Quli khan (1717-1727) was Nawab of Bengal and was a strong ruler who started protesting against this. Murshid Quli khan was the first nawab of Bengal, then came Alivardi khan (1740-56) and his successor was his grandson Sirajuddaulah. The new nawab of Bengal refused to grant any concession to the Britishers and also demanded large tributes (here it refers to taxes) from the company. He also accused company of deceit by not paying revenue and trying to humiliate nawab by writing disrespectful letters to him and his officials. He also stopped fortifications by the company. The rival between the company and nawab intensifies as company declared that unjust demand of officials as could ruin its trade and enlarging its settlements was necessary to enhance its trade. This led to the Battle of Plassey (got its name from palash tree). In 1756, Sirajuddaulah became nawab of Bengal after the death of his grandfather Alivardi khan. He at once ordered Britishers to pay revenue and stop fortification. Also with the help of his 30,000 soldiers, he captured the officials of the English factory at Kasimbazar and also established his control over Calcutta’s fort. All these incidents resulted into battle of Plassey in which Robert Clive, an army officer in East India company defeated Sirajuddaulah. The main reason behind his defeat was that army led by commander Mir Jafar never took part in the battle because Jafar was promised to be the next nawab of Bengal by Robert Clive. What happened after the battle of Plassey? Mir jafar became nawab of Bengal. The company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal. But after sometime, when nawab refused further rights, he was dethroned by the Britishers and now the next nawab was Mir Qasim. After sometime, he also started complaining of the misuse of the powers given to the company. This led to battle of buxar(1764). So, once again Mir jafar came to the throne as nawab of Bengal, this time he was asked to pay Rs 5,00,000 per month to the company but this was insufficient as it wanted more money to finance its wars. When Mir jafar died in 1765 the company decided of becoming nawab itself, so, in year 1765 the Mughal emperor declared company as the diwan of Bengal province. The revenue it received through diwani was of a great help, as they could now be used for buying cotton and silk and also building forts. This income was also important because after the battle of Plassey the income inflow from Britain had slowed down. As the company acquired more power and authority the company officials began to imagine themselves as nabobs or nawabs. They wanted to lead a luxurious life like nawabs of India. Many of them were given huge lands and money by the local rulers in order to avoid any conflict with the company. Robert Clive before becoming governor of Bengal in 1764 had become very rich in India because of this he was cross examined by the British parliament in 1772 because the parliament was suspicious of his vast wealth. Finally, he was acquitted from all the charges laid against him but he committed suicide in 1774. East India company had a different way of expanding its rule in India. It rarely launched direct military attack on any Indian territory. It used a variety of political and economic methods to extend its influence. For instance it appointed residents in Indian states after battle of buxar (1764). Now, the question arises who were these residents? Residents were the political agents of the Britishers who served the interests of the company. Through them, the company started interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states. One such interference was ‘subsidiary alliance’. According to this, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They had to keep company’s army and pay their maintenance. If they failed to do so, the part of their territory was taken away as penalty by the Britishers. In 1801, Lord Wellesley forced Nawab of Awadh to give over half of his territory due to nonpayment of maintenance to the British army. Same happened with Hyderabad also. What about the southern part of India, especially Mysore? Tipu Sultan the “Tiger of Mysore” The company started facing threat both politically and economically from Mysore. Mysore had grown into a strong state under King Haider Ali (1761-82). Tipu sultan (1782-99), son of king Haider Ali was a very strong ruler in southern Indian state of Mysore. He was known as “tiger of Mysore” as there was an interesting story in this regard. It goes on like this that once Tipu fought with a tiger, unarmed and killed the tiger. Due to which he got this title. In 1785, Tipu controlled the trade of Malabar coast and stopped the export of pepper, sandalwood and cardamom form his ports. He also stopped local merchants to deal with Britishers. To modernize his army, he employed French to his army. Britishers became furious and tried to suppress the power of Mysore. For this, four wars were fought between Britishers and Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1789-92 and 1799) all are known as Anglo Mysore war. Tipu was killed in the war of 1799 at Srirangapatnam. Now Wodeyars became king of Mysore with the condition of subsidiary alliance. After the problem of Mysore was sorted off a new problem arose- the Marathas. So now you can see that there were several issues for East India company in different parts of India which were affecting its trade. In the late eighteenth century, the company started facing problems from the Marathas who were aiming to rule over India through Delhi which was taken as the seat of power in India. Marathas were divided into many states under different chiefs belonging to dynasties such a Scindias, Holkars and Gaikward. They were held in an alliance under the Peshwa or the Principal minister. Mahadaji Scindia and Nana Phadnis were two famous soldiers and statesmen of that period. Here the company had to indulge in a war with Marathas to curb down their increasing power. So, there were a number of wars fought between the both. For instance, the second Anglo Maratha war (1803-05) resulted into the British gaining control over Orissa, north of Yamuna including Agra and Delhi. The third Anglo – Maratha war totally crushed the Maratha power and Britishers got complete control over territories, south of the Vindhyas. So we can say that the company had pursued aggressively in territorial expansion and now they wanted something more and that was “supremacy” on whole India. East India company, under the leadership of Lord Hastings, (Governor General 1813-1823) initiated a policy of paramountcy (supreme power). Here please make it clear that lord Hastings and Warren Hastings were two different persons so don’t get confused. So, in order to become a paramount power they started annexation of different territories of India. During this process of annexation they also faced some resistance at some places like Rani Chinnamma, the Queen of Kitoor (Karnataka) led an anti British resistance movement though she was finally arrested in 1824. In late 1830s, the company became worried about Russia who it thought could give a tough competition to the company. For this, it tried to secure the North-West frontier of India by fighting a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838-1842 and established an indirect rule there. It also took over Sind in 1843, even Punjab which Britishers were not able to annex during the reign of Maharaja Ranjit singh was finally won over by Britishers in 1849. Now we know that most of the India was under control of Britishers because of their vigorous policy of annexation. They also used political methods of annexation so next in line was the policy of ‘Doctrine of lapse’. Do we have any idea about this concept? Let me tell you, this type of annexation took place under the governorship of Lord Dalhousie (1842-56). Under this doctrine, any Indian king who doesn’t had a natural male heir had to give away his territory to the Britishers. With this policy the company took control over Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) and Jhansi (1854). Jhansi as you all know is famous for its brave Queen Rani Lakshmibai. She was the widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao. Jhansi was also annexed by the Britishers. Such incidents led to the revolt of 1857. As the company had gained control over almost whole of the India and had become master of the Indian land so now there arises the need of administering of the acquired territories. Before we start with this let me ask you one question. The first Governor General of Bengal was Warren Hastings (1773-1785). An interesting fact about him is that he wrote introduction to the first English translation of ‘The Gita’ by Charles Wilkins. Hastings divided administration into three Presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and Bengal. He also codified laws with the help of Hindu pundits and Muslim Muftis (jurist) in order to do justice as per the prevailing laws in India. He also established courts such as criminal court (faujdari) and civil court (diwani) and also appointed collectors to collect revenue and maintain law and order. The Britishers were done with both annexation and administration of the Indian territories. Now they felt the need of an army. The new British administration brought some new ideas of administration but like any other administration the power of Britishers was also dependent on a strong army. So they started recruiting Indian peasants and workers to their own army. Just like the Mughal army that composed of sawars (soldiers on horseback) and paidal (foot soldiers), British army also had cavalry consisting of both sawars and paidals who were trained in archery and sword fighting. But with the passage of time, new warfare techniques were introduced such as muskets (heavy guns) and match locks (guns ignited by a match) there arose a need of developing new techniques among Indian soldiers with uniformity and discipline which sometimes was against the community feelings of the Indian sepoys. This created a discontent among Indian soldiers which in 1857 became one of the reasons of revolt against Britishers which we will read in next chapter. Thus, after going through the content of this chapter we come to a conclusion that it is right to say that a company known as East India company that entered India in order to trade, finally gained power over the territories of India and became a ruler of our country. Match the following |1. Diwani||Tipu Sultan| |2. Tiger of Mysore||Right to collect land revenue| |3. Faujdari Adalat||Sepoy| |4. Rani Chinnama||criminal court| |5. Sipahi||Led an anti british movement in kitoor| |1. Diwani||Right to collect land revenue| |2. Tiger of Mysore||Tipu Sultan| |3. Faujdari Adalat||criminal court| |4. Rani Chinnama||Led an anti british movement in kitoor| Fill in the blanks a. The British conquest of Bengal began with the Battle of __________ b. Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of _________ c. Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of _________ d. Maratha kingdoms were located mainly in the _______ part of India. a. The British conquest of Bengal began with the Battle of Plassey b. Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of Mysore c. Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of Lapse. d. Maratha kingdoms were located mainly in the southwestern part of India. State whether true or false Q1 what attracted European trading companies to India? A. The European countries were attracted towards India due to the availability of pepper, sandalwood, silk and cotton clothes at cheaper rates which had a huge demand in European countries. Q2 what were the areas of conflict between Bengal nawabs and the East India company? A. Following are the areas of conflict between East India company and the nawabs- Q3 Explain the system of subsidiary alliance? A. Subsidiary alliance was a political method used by Britishers to get control over Indian territories. According to this, Indian rulers had to keep company’s army for protection and make their payments, otherwise part of their territory was taken away as penalty. Territories of Awadh and Hyderabad were taken away on this basis. Q4 In what way was the administration of the company different from that of Indian rulers? A. Company rule Q5 Describe the changes that occurred in the composition of the company’s army? A. During eighteenth century the company began recruiting its own army in order to protect itself from rivals. Its army composed of cavalry and infantry regiments just like Mughal army. But, with the change in the warfare technology and introduction of muskets and matchlocks the infantry regiment became important. Also See :
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From Trade to Territory – The company establishes power CBSE Class 8 History Chapter with detailed explanation of the chapter ‘The company establishes power‘ along with question answers. Given here is the complete explanation of the chapter and all the exercises, Question and Answers given at the back of the chapter. In this chapter we will discuss that how East India company that entered into India for trading became a ruler of our country. But before we start with our chapter, we should know that Indian history is divided broadly into three categories which are as follows: 1. Ancient History– It started in 4000 B.C. and continued up to 200 B.C. In ancient history we talk mainly about the following- a) Indus valley civilization-When and where these sites were discovered. What religion did the people of that time follow, what was their lifestyle. b) Vedas- Here we discuss about Vedic literature their composition period and their contents. c) Famous dynasties- Here we discuss about some of the famous dynasties of that time such as Mauryans, Guptas, Pallavas, etc. 2. Medieval History– It started with the coming of Muslims in 700 A.D. In beginning, they entered as invaders but later on, settled in India and started ruling in our country. Some of the famous dynasties were Slave dynasty which started with Qutubuddin Aibak in 1206 A.D and ended up with the last Mughal ruler Bahadur shah II in 1857. 3. Modern History- It deals with the coming of Britishers in India and the freedom struggle by Indians. Our chapter lies somewhere between Medieval history and modern history. So, Aurangzeb one of the famous ruler of medieval history was the last powerful Mughal ruler. His successors such as Bahadur Shah, Jahandar Shah, etc. were the weak rulers. So, we can say that Aurangzeb was the last powerful mughal ruler who established his control over a very large part of India but after his death in 1707 many mughal governors who were then known as subedars and the big zamindars established their own small kingdoms. Thus, Delhi lost its position of an effective centre. So, now we know what exactly was going on in the eighteenth century by that time slowly but gradually a new power known as the British started emerging in India. Now the question arises- Why Britishers came to India? How east India company a small trading company become ruler of India? We will try to understand this in our chapter. In 1600, the east India Company acquired a charter (written grant) from Queen Elizabeth I granting it the sole right to trade in east. With this charter the company had no fear of competition as no other company of England could trade in east except the east India Company. With this charter company could venture across new oceans, looking new lands for goods at cheaper rate such as spices, silk and cotton clothes and sell them at higher price in Europe. But was it easy for east India Company to trade in east? When it entered India, it found some competitors who were already trading. Who were they? They were the Portuguese who entered India in the year 1498 when Vasco Da Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut. Even the Dutch arrived in Pulicat in 1595 then came the French in Pondicherry in year 1664. This created a huge problem as the goods became more expensive resulting into less earnings for the East India company. What did company do then? In order to safeguard its interests, each and every trading company entered into a trade war. So, they started sinking ships of their rivals, blocked routes and fortified their trading posts. This also led to conflict with the local rulers. So now we know that East India Company came to India for trading. The first English factory was setup on the banks of river Hugli in 1651. The company made its warehouses (a place where goods are stored) and by 1696 it began building a fort around the settlements. It also got diwani of three villages in 1698 with the help of some corrupt officers. One of the village was kalicutta which is now known as Kolkata. Meanwhile the company also persuaded Emperor Aurangzeb for Farman (similar to charter this is also a written grant or order by the monarch). This Farman granted the company the right to trade “duty free”. The officers started using Farman of duty free trade for their own side businesses too which resulted in huge losses of revenue to the Nawab of Bengal. Murshid Quli khan (1717-1727) was Nawab of Bengal and was a strong ruler who started protesting against this. Murshid Quli khan was the first nawab of Bengal, then came Alivardi khan (1740-56) and his successor was his grandson Sirajuddaulah. The new nawab of Bengal refused to grant any concession to the Britishers and also demanded large tributes (here it refers to taxes) from the company. He also accused company of deceit by not paying revenue and trying to humiliate nawab by writing disrespectful letters to him and his officials. He also stopped fortifications by the company. The rival between the company and nawab intensifies as company declared that unjust demand of officials as could ruin its trade and enlarging its settlements was necessary to enhance its trade. This led to the Battle of Plassey (got its name from palash tree). In 1756, Sirajuddaulah became nawab of Bengal after the death of his grandfather Alivardi khan. He at once ordered Britishers to pay revenue and stop fortification. Also with the help of his 30,000 soldiers, he captured the officials of the English factory at Kasimbazar and also established his control over Calcutta’s fort. All these incidents resulted into battle of Plassey in which Robert Clive, an army officer in East India company defeated Sirajuddaulah. The main reason behind his defeat was that army led by commander Mir Jafar never took part in the battle because Jafar was promised to be the next nawab of Bengal by Robert Clive. What happened after the battle of Plassey? Mir jafar became nawab of Bengal. The company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal. But after sometime, when nawab refused further rights, he was dethroned by the Britishers and now the next nawab was Mir Qasim. After sometime, he also started complaining of the misuse of the powers given to the company. This led to battle of buxar(1764). So, once again Mir jafar came to the throne as nawab of Bengal, this time he was asked to pay Rs 5,00,000 per month to the company but this was insufficient as it wanted more money to finance its wars. When Mir jafar died in 1765 the company decided of becoming nawab itself, so, in year 1765 the Mughal emperor declared company as the diwan of Bengal province. The revenue it received through diwani was of a great help, as they could now be used for buying cotton and silk and also building forts. This income was also important because after the battle of Plassey the income inflow from Britain had slowed down. As the company acquired more power and authority the company officials began to imagine themselves as nabobs or nawabs. They wanted to lead a luxurious life like nawabs of India. Many of them were given huge lands and money by the local rulers in order to avoid any conflict with the company. Robert Clive before becoming governor of Bengal in 1764 had become very rich in India because of this he was cross examined by the British parliament in 1772 because the parliament was suspicious of his vast wealth. Finally, he was acquitted from all the charges laid against him but he committed suicide in 1774. East India company had a different way of expanding its rule in India. It rarely launched direct military attack on any Indian territory. It used a variety of political and economic methods to extend its influence. For instance it appointed residents in Indian states after battle of buxar (1764). Now, the question arises who were these residents? Residents were the political agents of the Britishers who served the interests of the company. Through them, the company started interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states. One such interference was ‘subsidiary alliance’. According to this, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They had to keep company’s army and pay their maintenance. If they failed to do so, the part of their territory was taken away as penalty by the Britishers. In 1801, Lord Wellesley forced Nawab of Awadh to give over half of his territory due to nonpayment of maintenance to the British army. Same happened with Hyderabad also. What about the southern part of India, especially Mysore? Tipu Sultan the “Tiger of Mysore” The company started facing threat both politically and economically from Mysore. Mysore had grown into a strong state under King Haider Ali (1761-82). Tipu sultan (1782-99), son of king Haider Ali was a very strong ruler in southern Indian state of Mysore. He was known as “tiger of Mysore” as there was an interesting story in this regard. It goes on like this that once Tipu fought with a tiger, unarmed and killed the tiger. Due to which he got this title. In 1785, Tipu controlled the trade of Malabar coast and stopped the export of pepper, sandalwood and cardamom form his ports. He also stopped local merchants to deal with Britishers. To modernize his army, he employed French to his army. Britishers became furious and tried to suppress the power of Mysore. For this, four wars were fought between Britishers and Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1789-92 and 1799) all are known as Anglo Mysore war. Tipu was killed in the war of 1799 at Srirangapatnam. Now Wodeyars became king of Mysore with the condition of subsidiary alliance. After the problem of Mysore was sorted off a new problem arose- the Marathas. So now you can see that there were several issues for East India company in different parts of India which were affecting its trade. In the late eighteenth century, the company started facing problems from the Marathas who were aiming to rule over India through Delhi which was taken as the seat of power in India. Marathas were divided into many states under different chiefs belonging to dynasties such a Scindias, Holkars and Gaikward. They were held in an alliance under the Peshwa or the Principal minister. Mahadaji Scindia and Nana Phadnis were two famous soldiers and statesmen of that period. Here the company had to indulge in a war with Marathas to curb down their increasing power. So, there were a number of wars fought between the both. For instance, the second Anglo Maratha war (1803-05) resulted into the British gaining control over Orissa, north of Yamuna including Agra and Delhi. The third Anglo – Maratha war totally crushed the Maratha power and Britishers got complete control over territories, south of the Vindhyas. So we can say that the company had pursued aggressively in territorial expansion and now they wanted something more and that was “supremacy” on whole India. East India company, under the leadership of Lord Hastings, (Governor General 1813-1823) initiated a policy of paramountcy (supreme power). Here please make it clear that lord Hastings and Warren Hastings were two different persons so don’t get confused. So, in order to become a paramount power they started annexation of different territories of India. During this process of annexation they also faced some resistance at some places like Rani Chinnamma, the Queen of Kitoor (Karnataka) led an anti British resistance movement though she was finally arrested in 1824. In late 1830s, the company became worried about Russia who it thought could give a tough competition to the company. For this, it tried to secure the North-West frontier of India by fighting a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838-1842 and established an indirect rule there. It also took over Sind in 1843, even Punjab which Britishers were not able to annex during the reign of Maharaja Ranjit singh was finally won over by Britishers in 1849. Now we know that most of the India was under control of Britishers because of their vigorous policy of annexation. They also used political methods of annexation so next in line was the policy of ‘Doctrine of lapse’. Do we have any idea about this concept? Let me tell you, this type of annexation took place under the governorship of Lord Dalhousie (1842-56). Under this doctrine, any Indian king who doesn’t had a natural male heir had to give away his territory to the Britishers. With this policy the company took control over Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) and Jhansi (1854). Jhansi as you all know is famous for its brave Queen Rani Lakshmibai. She was the widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao. Jhansi was also annexed by the Britishers. Such incidents led to the revolt of 1857. As the company had gained control over almost whole of the India and had become master of the Indian land so now there arises the need of administering of the acquired territories. Before we start with this let me ask you one question. The first Governor General of Bengal was Warren Hastings (1773-1785). An interesting fact about him is that he wrote introduction to the first English translation of ‘The Gita’ by Charles Wilkins. Hastings divided administration into three Presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and Bengal. He also codified laws with the help of Hindu pundits and Muslim Muftis (jurist) in order to do justice as per the prevailing laws in India. He also established courts such as criminal court (faujdari) and civil court (diwani) and also appointed collectors to collect revenue and maintain law and order. The Britishers were done with both annexation and administration of the Indian territories. Now they felt the need of an army. The new British administration brought some new ideas of administration but like any other administration the power of Britishers was also dependent on a strong army. So they started recruiting Indian peasants and workers to their own army. Just like the Mughal army that composed of sawars (soldiers on horseback) and paidal (foot soldiers), British army also had cavalry consisting of both sawars and paidals who were trained in archery and sword fighting. But with the passage of time, new warfare techniques were introduced such as muskets (heavy guns) and match locks (guns ignited by a match) there arose a need of developing new techniques among Indian soldiers with uniformity and discipline which sometimes was against the community feelings of the Indian sepoys. This created a discontent among Indian soldiers which in 1857 became one of the reasons of revolt against Britishers which we will read in next chapter. Thus, after going through the content of this chapter we come to a conclusion that it is right to say that a company known as East India company that entered India in order to trade, finally gained power over the territories of India and became a ruler of our country. Match the following |1. Diwani||Tipu Sultan| |2. Tiger of Mysore||Right to collect land revenue| |3. Faujdari Adalat||Sepoy| |4. Rani Chinnama||criminal court| |5. Sipahi||Led an anti british movement in kitoor| |1. Diwani||Right to collect land revenue| |2. Tiger of Mysore||Tipu Sultan| |3. Faujdari Adalat||criminal court| |4. Rani Chinnama||Led an anti british movement in kitoor| Fill in the blanks a. The British conquest of Bengal began with the Battle of __________ b. Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of _________ c. Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of _________ d. Maratha kingdoms were located mainly in the _______ part of India. a. The British conquest of Bengal began with the Battle of Plassey b. Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of Mysore c. Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of Lapse. d. Maratha kingdoms were located mainly in the southwestern part of India. State whether true or false Q1 what attracted European trading companies to India? A. The European countries were attracted towards India due to the availability of pepper, sandalwood, silk and cotton clothes at cheaper rates which had a huge demand in European countries. Q2 what were the areas of conflict between Bengal nawabs and the East India company? A. Following are the areas of conflict between East India company and the nawabs- Q3 Explain the system of subsidiary alliance? A. Subsidiary alliance was a political method used by Britishers to get control over Indian territories. According to this, Indian rulers had to keep company’s army for protection and make their payments, otherwise part of their territory was taken away as penalty. Territories of Awadh and Hyderabad were taken away on this basis. Q4 In what way was the administration of the company different from that of Indian rulers? A. Company rule Q5 Describe the changes that occurred in the composition of the company’s army? A. During eighteenth century the company began recruiting its own army in order to protect itself from rivals. Its army composed of cavalry and infantry regiments just like Mughal army. But, with the change in the warfare technology and introduction of muskets and matchlocks the infantry regiment became important. Also See :
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Many different people, many different ethnicities, many different languages, and many more different whatever's make up this great country of ours. We all live in the same country, but with the existence of all these many differences how can we treat everyone similarly and fairly in our education system? The conservatives, like Richard Rodriguez, advocate assimilation into the English speaking society, even if it means that a significant part of a person's heritage must be given up. On the other hand, multiculturalists, like Ferguson and Howard-Hamilton, suggest that these differences be left alone and schools adjust to their needs. I believe the answer to this problem lies somewhere in between, a point at which someone can assimilate into the English speaking society while preserving their roots. In his piece Speaking a Public Language, Richard Rodriguez described his childhood as difficult, and often scary, when he was unable to speak English. His responses to questions were often mumbled as he was resisting his teacher's duty to teach him English, a duty to teach him a public language. His resistance persisted, making his education and more burdensome and delaying his learning of society's language. His evasion eventually led his learning of English homebound. Nuns, only in his and his siblings" best interests, suggested that his parents speak only to them in English. A game at home and reinforcement at school eventually turned Ricardo into Richard, a person ready to answer a question and able to be understood by all. He had been accepted by the public. However his increasing performance resulted in separation at home. His family no longer was as close knit as they once were. The gap between the generations became evident as time went one; the children had an increasingly difficult time communicating with their parents in English. Richard also become uncomfortable addressing and calling the attention of his parents.
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Many different people, many different ethnicities, many different languages, and many more different whatever's make up this great country of ours. We all live in the same country, but with the existence of all these many differences how can we treat everyone similarly and fairly in our education system? The conservatives, like Richard Rodriguez, advocate assimilation into the English speaking society, even if it means that a significant part of a person's heritage must be given up. On the other hand, multiculturalists, like Ferguson and Howard-Hamilton, suggest that these differences be left alone and schools adjust to their needs. I believe the answer to this problem lies somewhere in between, a point at which someone can assimilate into the English speaking society while preserving their roots. In his piece Speaking a Public Language, Richard Rodriguez described his childhood as difficult, and often scary, when he was unable to speak English. His responses to questions were often mumbled as he was resisting his teacher's duty to teach him English, a duty to teach him a public language. His resistance persisted, making his education and more burdensome and delaying his learning of society's language. His evasion eventually led his learning of English homebound. Nuns, only in his and his siblings" best interests, suggested that his parents speak only to them in English. A game at home and reinforcement at school eventually turned Ricardo into Richard, a person ready to answer a question and able to be understood by all. He had been accepted by the public. However his increasing performance resulted in separation at home. His family no longer was as close knit as they once were. The gap between the generations became evident as time went one; the children had an increasingly difficult time communicating with their parents in English. Richard also become uncomfortable addressing and calling the attention of his parents.
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Success Story: A Video Game for the Blind Dylan Viale's fifth-grade science project gave him a chance to share something he enjoys with his grandmother, who is blind. Designing his first video game ever, Dylan created Quacky's Quest, a maze game you don't have to see to play!As a fifth grader at Hidden Valley Elementary, Dylan had the option of doing a book report or a science project. Having explored both adhesives and ant repellents in science projects during the third and fourth grade, he again opted for a hands-on science exploration. This year, however, he pursued a topic that has both personal and social significance. Dylan wanted to see if he could design a video game that someone who is blind or has vision problems can play and enjoy. "I chose this project because I enjoy playing video games, and even though my grandmother has given me video games as birthday and Christmas presents, she has never been able to play the games since she cannot see them," explains Dylan. "I wanted to see if it [is] possible for a blind person to play video games." Dylan's interest is both empathetic and inventive, and his project required him to put himself into the position of a blind gamer to better understand the issue. A typical video game involves both sight and sound, but it is possible to play many games even with the sound off. If you can see the game, you can still play. Dylan's project flips this around and asks whether or not being able to "see" a game is a required component in designing a game. "My science project was to see if I could design a video game for the blind using sound to replace sight," explains Dylan. By stepping back and questioning what actually "makes" a game, and what relationship sight and sound have to game play, Dylan immersed himself in game design issues, ones he hadn't necessarily considered when he was simply playing games for his own entertainment. You can mute the volume and still play, but what happens if you close your eyes and just listen? Designing His First Video Game Dylan hypothesized that if sound is used correctly within a game, then it is possible to create a game that a blind player can successfully play—and enjoy. "Because the video games that I play have sound in them, I thought that if I just put the sounds in the right places, a blind person would be able to move around." Building on that premise, Dylan took his first steps in video game development and design. Dylan had not done any game programming before, but with his the goal of creating a sound-based video game in mind, he began researching his options for development. Based on resources at Science Buddies that suggest GameMaker as a creation tool for student video game projects, Dylan downloaded and installed GameMaker, worked through the tutorials, and began designing Quacky's Quest, a maze-oriented game that built upon his love of real-world hay mazes. The 'Sound' of a Video Game Developing a first video game can be challenging enough, but when your first game is one you hope will be playable both with and without being able to see the screen, the project takes on added complexity. Dylan, however, was up to the challenge. "I learned how much time and how many steps it takes to design a video game," he explains, "like creating sprites and making rooms and objects in a game." As Dylan quickly discovered, "programming a game is a lot of work, and every piece in the game requires a command, even an empty room." In Quacky's Quest, "the goal is for the player to guide Quacky (the character in the game) through three different mazes to find the golden egg in the final room. Quacky follows a trail of diamonds and tries to avoid spiders and dynamite which happens when you go the wrong way," explains Dylan. From the description, you can imagine what the game looks like. But Dylan was determined to make a maze someone can navigate based on sound alone. It's harder than it sounds! "Even one second of silence caused confusion," says Dylan. During early testing, he realized that it is easy to overlook places where sound cues are needed. "When I tested the game with my grandmother, [we] found that it had a serious problem," recalls Dylan. "Once she collected the diamonds in the game, there was no more sound. If she got confused in the maze and started getting lost, she [had] no way of knowing where she was going." "I was surprised how much work it was to design the game," says Kelly Viale, Dylan's mother. "It was very involved (at least for a 10 year old). I was also surprised that when he came across a challenge in designing the game, he didn't want to quit." Dylan went through several rounds of troubleshooting and tweaking to eliminate areas of confusion and to strengthen the sound cues in Quacky's Quest. To address some of the challenges that arose, he had to really think outside the box. For example, adding additional game elements behind Quacky as he moved forward in the maze helped solve a problem Dylan had observed when his grandmother tested an early version. "I had to program the game to drop boulders behind Quacky as he progressed through each maze, so that when she went backwards, it would make the negative sound of hitting a boulder or a wall." A Winning Project The project was harder than Dylan expected, but, in the end, he succeeded in developing a sound-guided game. His project won first place at his school science fair, and he went on to exhibit at the district fair. Quacky's Quest also earned Dylan the admiration of his classmates and teachers—and may have piqued curiosity about game design among other students. From Kelly's perspective, Dylan's project shows that when a gaming project is tied to the scientific or engineering process, the experience can have great value. Dylan's teacher, Mrs. Sullivan, was also supportive of Dylan's project. Though she encouraged the technical and engineering side of the project, she also pushed for him to follow the scientific method and test the game with blindfolded players so that he could gather data about the game. During this process, Dylan discovered that blindfolded players were actually slower at the game than his blind grandmother, who is used to taking cues from sound. "Sighted people were so used to using their eyes to play a game that it took them much longer to focus on the sounds," says Dylan. "Dylan's project has created quite the interest at school," says Kelly, noting that more than a third of his classmates asked for a copy of their own to play at home. "I think that it is wonderful that this type of project teaches the kids how things work and that they have the ability to design a game," says Kelly. For Dylan, the ultimate reward was personal. "The best part of the project was watching my grandmother actually play a video game," says Dylan. "I hope that one day video games will be available to all blind people." You Might Also Enjoy These Related Posts: - Elementary School Student Finds Science Fair Success - Teacher Uses Hashtag Bellwork System to Introduce STEM Careers - Middle School Microbes Spark Career Interest - Polymers Project Gets a Slime Update - School Launches STEM Fair with Science Projects Done at School - Challenges Don’t Stop this School from Making STEM Hands-on - Free Resources Support Teacher's Innovative STEM Academy - Student Science Project Success Story: Planaria Regeneration Explore Our Science Videos Walking Water Experiment Why Won't it Mix? Discover the Brazil Nut Effect Slow Motion Craters - STEM Activity
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Success Story: A Video Game for the Blind Dylan Viale's fifth-grade science project gave him a chance to share something he enjoys with his grandmother, who is blind. Designing his first video game ever, Dylan created Quacky's Quest, a maze game you don't have to see to play!As a fifth grader at Hidden Valley Elementary, Dylan had the option of doing a book report or a science project. Having explored both adhesives and ant repellents in science projects during the third and fourth grade, he again opted for a hands-on science exploration. This year, however, he pursued a topic that has both personal and social significance. Dylan wanted to see if he could design a video game that someone who is blind or has vision problems can play and enjoy. "I chose this project because I enjoy playing video games, and even though my grandmother has given me video games as birthday and Christmas presents, she has never been able to play the games since she cannot see them," explains Dylan. "I wanted to see if it [is] possible for a blind person to play video games." Dylan's interest is both empathetic and inventive, and his project required him to put himself into the position of a blind gamer to better understand the issue. A typical video game involves both sight and sound, but it is possible to play many games even with the sound off. If you can see the game, you can still play. Dylan's project flips this around and asks whether or not being able to "see" a game is a required component in designing a game. "My science project was to see if I could design a video game for the blind using sound to replace sight," explains Dylan. By stepping back and questioning what actually "makes" a game, and what relationship sight and sound have to game play, Dylan immersed himself in game design issues, ones he hadn't necessarily considered when he was simply playing games for his own entertainment. You can mute the volume and still play, but what happens if you close your eyes and just listen? Designing His First Video Game Dylan hypothesized that if sound is used correctly within a game, then it is possible to create a game that a blind player can successfully play—and enjoy. "Because the video games that I play have sound in them, I thought that if I just put the sounds in the right places, a blind person would be able to move around." Building on that premise, Dylan took his first steps in video game development and design. Dylan had not done any game programming before, but with his the goal of creating a sound-based video game in mind, he began researching his options for development. Based on resources at Science Buddies that suggest GameMaker as a creation tool for student video game projects, Dylan downloaded and installed GameMaker, worked through the tutorials, and began designing Quacky's Quest, a maze-oriented game that built upon his love of real-world hay mazes. The 'Sound' of a Video Game Developing a first video game can be challenging enough, but when your first game is one you hope will be playable both with and without being able to see the screen, the project takes on added complexity. Dylan, however, was up to the challenge. "I learned how much time and how many steps it takes to design a video game," he explains, "like creating sprites and making rooms and objects in a game." As Dylan quickly discovered, "programming a game is a lot of work, and every piece in the game requires a command, even an empty room." In Quacky's Quest, "the goal is for the player to guide Quacky (the character in the game) through three different mazes to find the golden egg in the final room. Quacky follows a trail of diamonds and tries to avoid spiders and dynamite which happens when you go the wrong way," explains Dylan. From the description, you can imagine what the game looks like. But Dylan was determined to make a maze someone can navigate based on sound alone. It's harder than it sounds! "Even one second of silence caused confusion," says Dylan. During early testing, he realized that it is easy to overlook places where sound cues are needed. "When I tested the game with my grandmother, [we] found that it had a serious problem," recalls Dylan. "Once she collected the diamonds in the game, there was no more sound. If she got confused in the maze and started getting lost, she [had] no way of knowing where she was going." "I was surprised how much work it was to design the game," says Kelly Viale, Dylan's mother. "It was very involved (at least for a 10 year old). I was also surprised that when he came across a challenge in designing the game, he didn't want to quit." Dylan went through several rounds of troubleshooting and tweaking to eliminate areas of confusion and to strengthen the sound cues in Quacky's Quest. To address some of the challenges that arose, he had to really think outside the box. For example, adding additional game elements behind Quacky as he moved forward in the maze helped solve a problem Dylan had observed when his grandmother tested an early version. "I had to program the game to drop boulders behind Quacky as he progressed through each maze, so that when she went backwards, it would make the negative sound of hitting a boulder or a wall." A Winning Project The project was harder than Dylan expected, but, in the end, he succeeded in developing a sound-guided game. His project won first place at his school science fair, and he went on to exhibit at the district fair. Quacky's Quest also earned Dylan the admiration of his classmates and teachers—and may have piqued curiosity about game design among other students. From Kelly's perspective, Dylan's project shows that when a gaming project is tied to the scientific or engineering process, the experience can have great value. Dylan's teacher, Mrs. Sullivan, was also supportive of Dylan's project. Though she encouraged the technical and engineering side of the project, she also pushed for him to follow the scientific method and test the game with blindfolded players so that he could gather data about the game. During this process, Dylan discovered that blindfolded players were actually slower at the game than his blind grandmother, who is used to taking cues from sound. "Sighted people were so used to using their eyes to play a game that it took them much longer to focus on the sounds," says Dylan. "Dylan's project has created quite the interest at school," says Kelly, noting that more than a third of his classmates asked for a copy of their own to play at home. "I think that it is wonderful that this type of project teaches the kids how things work and that they have the ability to design a game," says Kelly. For Dylan, the ultimate reward was personal. "The best part of the project was watching my grandmother actually play a video game," says Dylan. "I hope that one day video games will be available to all blind people." You Might Also Enjoy These Related Posts: - Elementary School Student Finds Science Fair Success - Teacher Uses Hashtag Bellwork System to Introduce STEM Careers - Middle School Microbes Spark Career Interest - Polymers Project Gets a Slime Update - School Launches STEM Fair with Science Projects Done at School - Challenges Don’t Stop this School from Making STEM Hands-on - Free Resources Support Teacher's Innovative STEM Academy - Student Science Project Success Story: Planaria Regeneration Explore Our Science Videos Walking Water Experiment Why Won't it Mix? Discover the Brazil Nut Effect Slow Motion Craters - STEM Activity
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Here’s a short history of Lesotho and how it came to be a country. Over 190 million years ago there were dinosaurs living in Lesotho. They may have died out long ago, but you can still see their footprints in a few parts of the country. Many years later, but still 100,000 years ago, early man first lived in Lesotho (although it wasn’t called Lesotho then). The people were hunter gatherers and used stone tools. They didn’t farm the land at that time. By 10,000 years ago, people had started using bows and arrows to hunt with. The San bushmen arrived about 2,000 years ago. They left a lot of paintings on rocks around the country that show us how they lived. By 1820, nearly 200 years ago, Lesotho was still not one country, but a place where different tribes moved around, grazing their cattle. In 1824, a tribal chief called Moshoeshoe (pronounced Moshwayshway) persuaded other tribes to join him, to defend the land against lots of different invaders from what is now South Africa. He became the first king of Lesotho. The tribes spoke many different languages, so it was decided to have one language to unite the new country. Sesotho was this language. Moshoeshoe (in the picture to the left) and his tribes climbed to the top of a mountain called Thaba Bosiu to have a better place to see their enemies. (Thaba Bosiu means ‘mountain of the night’ – so called because it was believed that the mountain grew at night time.) Against all odds, the tribes managed to fight off the invaders and as the mountain became the safest place to be, more tribes came to join the new nation. However, in the 1860s the threat from the Boer armies became too strong for the small nation to hold off, so Moshoeshoe asked for protection from the British. In 1868 Lesotho became a British protectorate (under British rule by request); then in the 1880s it became a British colony. This meant that the British government ran the country; they didn’t have their own government. Lesotho was then known as Basutoland, until the country gained independence from Britain in 1966.
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Here’s a short history of Lesotho and how it came to be a country. Over 190 million years ago there were dinosaurs living in Lesotho. They may have died out long ago, but you can still see their footprints in a few parts of the country. Many years later, but still 100,000 years ago, early man first lived in Lesotho (although it wasn’t called Lesotho then). The people were hunter gatherers and used stone tools. They didn’t farm the land at that time. By 10,000 years ago, people had started using bows and arrows to hunt with. The San bushmen arrived about 2,000 years ago. They left a lot of paintings on rocks around the country that show us how they lived. By 1820, nearly 200 years ago, Lesotho was still not one country, but a place where different tribes moved around, grazing their cattle. In 1824, a tribal chief called Moshoeshoe (pronounced Moshwayshway) persuaded other tribes to join him, to defend the land against lots of different invaders from what is now South Africa. He became the first king of Lesotho. The tribes spoke many different languages, so it was decided to have one language to unite the new country. Sesotho was this language. Moshoeshoe (in the picture to the left) and his tribes climbed to the top of a mountain called Thaba Bosiu to have a better place to see their enemies. (Thaba Bosiu means ‘mountain of the night’ – so called because it was believed that the mountain grew at night time.) Against all odds, the tribes managed to fight off the invaders and as the mountain became the safest place to be, more tribes came to join the new nation. However, in the 1860s the threat from the Boer armies became too strong for the small nation to hold off, so Moshoeshoe asked for protection from the British. In 1868 Lesotho became a British protectorate (under British rule by request); then in the 1880s it became a British colony. This meant that the British government ran the country; they didn’t have their own government. Lesotho was then known as Basutoland, until the country gained independence from Britain in 1966.
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|Born||20 November 1752| |Died||24 August 1770 17) (aged| |Pen name||Thomas Rowley, Decimus| Thomas Chatterton (20 November 1752 – 24 August 1770) was an English poet whose precocious talents ended in suicide at age 17. He was an influence on Romantic artists of the period such as Shelley, Keats, Wordsworth and Coleridge. Romanticism was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature—all components of modernity. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, the social sciences, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing liberalism, radicalism, conservatism and nationalism. Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets, who is regarded by some as among the finest lyric and philosophical poets in the English language, and one of the most influential. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not see fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death. Shelley was a key member of a close circle of visionary poets and writers that included Lord Byron, John Keats, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock and his own second wife, Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, despite his works having been in publication for only four years before his death from tuberculosis at the age of 25. Although fatherless and raised in poverty, he was an exceptionally studious child, publishing mature work by the age of 11. He was able to pass off his work as that of an imaginary 15th-century poet called Thomas Rowley, chiefly because few people at the time were familiar with medieval poetry, though he was denounced by Horace Walpole. Literary forgery is writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work, which is either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or is a purported memoir or other presumably nonfictional writing deceptively presented as true when, in fact, it presents untrue or imaginary information. Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford, also known as Horace Walpole, was an English writer, art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. At 17, he sought outlets for his political writings in London, having impressed the Lord Mayor, William Beckford, and the radical leader John Wilkes, but his earnings were not enough to keep him, and he poisoned himself in despair. His unusual life and death attracted much interest among the romantic poets, and Alfred de Vigny wrote a play about him that is still performed today. The oil painting The Death of Chatterton by Pre-Raphaelite artist Henry Wallis has enjoyed lasting fame. William Beckford was a well-known political figure in 18th-century London, who twice held the office of Lord Mayor of London. His vast wealth came largely from his plantations in Jamaica and the large numbers of slaves working on these plantations. He was, and is, often referred to as "Alderman Beckford" to distinguish him from his son William Thomas Beckford, the author and art collector. John Wilkes was a British radical, journalist and politician. He was first elected a Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of his voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives. In 1768, angry protests of his supporters were suppressed in the St George's Fields Massacre. In 1771, he was instrumental in obliging the government to concede the right of printers to publish verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates. In 1776, he introduced the first bill for parliamentary reform in the British Parliament. Alfred Victor, Comte de Vigny was a French poet and early leader of French Romanticism. He also produced novels, plays, and translations of Shakespeare. Chatterton was born in Bristol where the office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe had long been held by the Chatterton family. The poet's father, also named Thomas Chatterton, was a musician, a poet, a numismatist, and a dabbler in the occult. He had been a sub-chanter at Bristol Cathedral and master of the Pyle Street free school, near Redcliffe church. Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 463,400. The wider district has the 10th-largest population in England. The urban area population of 724,000 is the 8th-largest in the UK. The city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. South Wales lies across the Severn estuary. A sexton is an officer of a church, congregation, or synagogue charged with the maintenance of its buildings and/or the surrounding graveyard. In smaller places of worship, this office is often combined with that of verger. In larger buildings, such as cathedrals, a team of sextons may be employed. St Mary Redcliffe is an Anglican parish church located in the Redcliffe district of Bristol, England. The church is a short walk from Bristol Temple Meads station. The church building was constructed from the 12th to the 15th centuries, and it has been a place of Christian worship for over 900 years. The church is renowned for the beauty of its Gothic architecture and is classed as a Grade I listed building by Historic England. It was famously described by Queen Elizabeth I as "the fairest, goodliest, and most famous parish church in England." After Chatterton's birth (15 weeks after his father's death on 7 August 1752),his mother established a girls' school and took in sewing and ornamental needlework. Chatterton was admitted to Edward Colston's Charity, a Bristol charity school, in which the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and the catechism. Edward Colston was a Bristol-born English merchant, philanthropist, slave trader, and Member of Parliament. He supported and endowed schools, almshouses, hospitals and churches in Bristol, London and elsewhere, and his name is commemorated in several Bristol landmarks, streets, three schools and the Colston bun. Many of his charitable foundations still survive. A significant part of his wealth was acquired through the trade and exploitation of slaves. Charity schools, sometimes called blue coat schools, or simply the Blue School, were significant in the history of education in England. They were built and maintained in various parishes by the voluntary contributions of the inhabitants to teach poor children to read and write, and for other necessary parts of education. They were usually maintained by religious organisations, which provided clothing and education to students freely or at little charge. In most charity schools, children were put out to trades, services, etc., by the same charitable foundation. Some schools were more ambitious than this and sent a few pupils on to university, as depicted in the illustration. A catechism is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals – often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised – a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. According to Norman DeWitt, the early Christians appropriated this practice from the Epicureans, a school whose founder Epicurus had instructed to keep summaries of the teachings for easy learning. The term catechumen refers to the designated recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism. Traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who had been baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith (Creed) and General Intercessions. Chatterton, however, was always fascinated with his uncle the sexton and the church of St Mary Redcliffe. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic dignitaries on its altar tombs became familiar to him. Then he found a fresh interest in oaken chests in the muniment room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parchment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, lay forgotten. Chatterton learned his first letters from the illuminated capitals of an old musical folio, and he learned to read out of a black-letter Bible. His sister said he did not like reading out of small books. Wayward from his earliest years, and uninterested in the games of other children, he was thought to be educationally backward. His sister related that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl that was to be his, he replied, "Paint me an angel, with wings, and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world." A Muniment or Muniment of Title is a legal term for a document, title deed or other evidence, that indicates ownership of an asset. The word is derived from the Latin noun munimentum, meaning a "fortification, bulwark, defence or protection". Thus "muniments of title" means the written evidence which a land owner can use to defend title to his estate. The nave is the central part of a church, stretching from the main entrance or rear wall, to the transepts, or in a church without transepts, to the chancel. When a church contains side aisles, as in a basilica-type building, the strict definition of the term "nave" is restricted to the central aisle. In a broader, more colloquial sense, the nave includes all areas available for the lay worshippers, including the side-aisles and transepts. Either way, the nave is distinct from the area reserved for the choir and clergy. The Wars of the Roses were a series of English civil wars for control of the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster, associated with the Red Rose of Lancaster, and the House of York, whose symbol was the White Rose of York. Eventually, the wars eliminated the male lines of both families. The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, but there was related fighting before and after this period between the parties. The power struggle ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years' War, unfolding the structural problems of bastard feudalism, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of King Henry VI which revived interest in the House of York's claim to the throne by Richard of York. Historians disagree on which of these factors to identify as the main reason for the wars. From his earliest years, he was liable to fits of abstraction, sitting for hours in what seemed like a trance, or crying for no reason. His lonely circumstances helped foster his natural reserve, and to create the love of mystery which exercised such an influence on the development of his poetry. When Chatterton was age 6, his mother began to recognise his capacity; at age 8, he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day long if undisturbed; by the age of 11, he had become a contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal . His confirmation inspired him to write some religious poems published in that paper. In 1763, a cross which had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of three centuries was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit of veneration was strong in Chatterton, and he sent to the local journal on 7 January 1764 a satire on the parish vandal. He also liked to lock himself in a little attic which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books, cherished parchments, loot purloined from the muniment room of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of his literary mysteries, the dialogue of "Elinoure and Juga," was written before he was 12, and he showed it to Thomas Phillips, the usher at the boarding school Colston's Hospital where he was a pupil, pretending it was the work of a 15th-century poet. Chatterton remained a boarder at Colston's Hospital for more than six years, and it was only his uncle who encouraged the pupils to write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but Chatterton told no one about his own more daring literary adventures. His little pocket-money was spent on borrowing books from a circulating library; and he ingratiated himself with book collectors, in order to obtain access to John Weever, William Dugdale and Arthur Collins, as well as to Thomas Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser and other books.At some point he came across Elizabeth Cooper's anthology of verse, which is said to have been a major source for his inventions. Chatterton's "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum , and it seems his knowledge even of Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly spent at his mother's house, and much of them in the favourite retreat of his attic study there. He lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own, in the reign of Edward IV, during the mid-15th century, when the great Bristol merchant William II Canynges (d.1474), five times mayor of Bristol, patron and rebuilder of St Mary Redcliffe "still ruled in Bristol's civic chair." Canynges was familiar to him from his recumbent effigy in Redcliffe church, and is represented by Chatterton as an enlightened patron of art and literature. Chatterton soon conceived the romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th century, and adopted for himself the pseudonym Thomas Rowley for poetry and history. According to psychoanalyst Louise J. Kaplan, his being fatherless played a great role in his imposturous creation of Rowley.The development of his masculine identity was held back by the fact that he was raised by two women: his mother Sarah and his sister Mary. Therefore, "to reconstitute the lost father in fantasy," he unconsciously created "two interweaving family romances [fantasies], each with its own scenario." The first of these was the romance of Rowley for whom he created a fatherlike, wealthy patron, William Canynge, while the second was as Kaplan named it his romance of "Jack and the Beanstalk." He imagined he would become a famous poet who by his talents would be able to rescue his mother from poverty. To bring his hopes to life, Chatterton started to look for a patron. At first, he was trying to do so in Bristol where he became acquainted with William Barrett, George Catcott and Henry Burgum. He assisted them by providing Rowley transcripts for their work. The antiquary William Barrett relied exclusively on these fake transcripts when writing his History and Antiquities of Bristol (1789) which became an enormous failure.But since his Bristol patrons were not willing to pay him enough, he turned to the wealthier Horace Walpole. In 1769, Chatterton sent specimens of Rowley's poetry and "The Ryse of Peyncteynge yn Englade" to Walpole who offered to print them "if they have never been printed." Later, however, finding that Chatterton was only 16 and that the alleged Rowley pieces might have been forgeries, he scornfully sent him away. Badly hurt by Walpole's snub, Chatterton wrote very little for a summer. Then, after the end of the summer, he turned his attention to periodical literature and politics, and exchanged Farley's Bristol Journal for the Town and Country Magazine and other London periodicals. Assuming the vein of the pseudonymous letter writer Junius, then in the full blaze of his triumph, he turned his pen against the Duke of Grafton, the Earl of Bute and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, the Princess of Wales. He had just dispatched one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal when he sat down on Easter Eve, 17 April 1770, and penned his "Last Will and Testament," a satirical compound of jest and earnest, in which he intimated his intention of ending his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests, such as his "humility" to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his "religion" to Dean Barton, and his "modesty" along with his "prosody and grammar" to Mr Burgum, he leaves "to Bristol all his spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley."In more genuine earnestness, he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was possibly prepared in order to frighten his master into letting him go. If so, it had the desired effect. John Lambert, the attorney to whom he was apprenticed, cancelled his indentures; his friends and acquaintances having donated money, Chatterton went to London. Chatterton already was known to the readers of the Middlesex Journal as a rival of Junius under the nom de plume of Decimus. He also had been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and Country Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine, another political miscellany supportive of John Wilkes and liberty. His contributions were accepted, but the editors paid little or nothing for them. He wrote hopefully to his mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts for them. Wilkes had noted his trenchant style "and expressed a desire to know the author";and Lord Mayor William Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his, and greeted him "as politely as a citizen could." He was abstemious and extraordinarily diligent. He could assume the style of Junius or Tobias Smollett, reproduce the satiric bitterness of Charles Churchill, parody James Macpherson's Ossian , or write in the manner of Alexander Pope or with the polished grace of Thomas Gray and William Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1770, after nine weeks in London, he moved from Shoreditch, where he had lodged with a relative, to an attic in Brook Street, Holborn (now beneath Alfred Waterhouse's Holborn Bars building). He was still short of money; and now state prosecutions of the press rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch, he had shared a room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of the old priest Rowley his "Excelente Balade of Charitie." This poem, disguised in archaic language, he sent to the editor of the Town and Country Magazine, where it was rejected. Mr Cross, a neighbouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. "She knew," as she afterwards said, "that he had not eaten anything for two or three days."But he assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and less than eightpence each for his songs; much which had been accepted was held in reserve and still unpaid for. According to his foster-mother, he had wished to study medicine with Barrett, and in his desperation he wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. While walking along St Pancras Churchyard, Chatterton much absorbed in thought, took no notice of an open grave, newly dug in his path, and subsequently tumbled into it. His walking companion, upon observing this event, helped Chatterton and told him in a jocular manner that he was happy in assisting at the resurrection of genius. Chatterton replied, "My dear friend, I have been at war with the grave for some time now." Chatterton would commit suicide three days later.On 24 August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains were at hand. He was 17 years and nine months old. A few days later, one Dr Thomas Fry came to London with the intention of giving financial support to the young boy "whether discoverer or author merely."A fragment, probably one of the last pieces written by the impostor-poet, was put together by Dr Fry from the shreds of paper that covered the floor of Thomas Chatterton's Brook Street attic on the morning of 25 August 1770. The would-have-been patron of the poet had an eye for literary forgeries, and purchased the scraps which the poet's landlady, Mrs Angel, swept into a box, cherishing the hope of discovering a suicide note among the pieces. This fragment, possibly one of the remnants of Chatterton's very last literary efforts, was identified by Dr Fry to be a modified ending of the poet's tragical interlude Aella. The fragment is now in the possession of Bristol Public Library and Art Gallery. Awake! Awake! O Birtha, swotie mayde! Thie Aella deadde, botte thou ynne wayne wouldst dye, Sythence he thee for renomme hath betrayde, Bie hys owne sworde forslagen doth he lye; Yblente he was to see thie boolie eyne, Yet nowe o Birtha, praie, for Welkynnes, lynge! How redde thie lippes, how dolce thie deft cryne, .......................................scalle bee thie Kynge! ...........................................omme the kiste The final Alexandrine is completely missing, together with Chatterton's notes. However, according to Dr Fry, the character who utters the final lines must have been Birtha,whose last word might have been something like "kisste." The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to the Shoe Lane Workhouse in the parish of St Andrew, Holborn, later the site of Farringdon Market. There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was recovered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has been erected to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed from his "Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen. "To the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior Power. To that Power only is he now answerable." It was after Chatterton's death that the controversy over his work began. Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt, a Chaucerian scholar who believed them genuine medieval works. However, the appendix to the following year's edition recognises that they were probably Chatterton's own work. Thomas Warton, in his History of English Poetry (1778) included Rowley among 15th-century poets, but apparently did not believe in the antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems appeared, with a "Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, Dean of Exeter. The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed in Andrew Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a detailed account by George Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573–619). This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton's Works by Robert Southey and Joseph Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet's sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in the 18th century alone accounts for the temporary success of Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton was solely responsible for the Rowley poems; the language and style were analysed in confirmation of this view by W. W. Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the "Aldine Edition of the British Poets." The Chatterton manuscripts originally in the possession of William Barrett of Bristol were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800. Others are preserved in the Bristol library. Chatterton's genius and his death are commemorated by Percy Bysshe Shelley in Adonais (though its main emphasis is the commemoration of Keats), by William Wordsworth in "Resolution and Independence", by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in "Monody on the Death of Chatterton", by Dante Gabriel Rossetti in "Five English Poets", and in John Keats' sonnet "To Chatterton". Keats also inscribed Endymion "to the memory of Thomas Chatterton". Two of Alfred de Vigny's works, Stello and the drama Chatterton, give fictionalized accounts of the poet; in the former, there is a scene in which William Beckford's harsh criticism of Chatterton's work drives the poet to suicide. The three-act play Chatterton was first performed at the Théâtre-Français, Paris on February 12, 1835. Herbert Croft, in his Love and Madness, interpolated a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and friends (pp. 125–244, letter li.). The most famous image of Chatterton in the 19th century was The Death of Chatterton (1856) by Henry Wallis, now in Tate Britain, London. Two smaller versions, sketches or replicas, are held by the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the Yale Center for British Art. The figure of the poet was modeled by the young George Meredith. Two of Chatterton's poems were set to music as glees by the English composer John Wall Callcott. These include separate settings of distinct verses within the Song to Aelle. His best known poem, O synge untoe mie roundelaie was set to a five-part madrigal by Samuel Wesley. Chatterton has attracted operatic treatment a number of times throughout history, notably Ruggiero Leoncavallo's largely unsuccessful two-act Chatterton; the German composer Matthias Pintscher's modernistic Thomas Chatterton; and Australian composer Matthew Dewey's lyrical yet dramatically intricate one-man mythography entitled The Death of Thomas Chatterton. There is a collection of "Chattertoniana" in the British Library, consisting of works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles dealing with the Rowley controversy and other subjects, with manuscript notes by Joseph Haslewood, and several autograph letters. E. H. W. Meyerstein, who worked for many years in the manuscript room of the British Museum wrote a definitive work—"A Life of Thomas Chatterton"—in 1930. Peter Ackroyd's 1987 novel Chatterton was a literary re-telling of the poet's story, giving emphasis to the philosophical and spiritual implications of forgery. In Ackroyd's version, Chatterton's death was accidental. In 1886, architect Herbert Horne and Oscar Wilde unsuccessfully attempted to have a plaque erected at Colston's School, Bristol. Wilde, who lectured on Chatterton at this time, suggested the inscription: "To the Memory of Thomas Chatterton, One of England's Greatest Poets, and Sometime pupil at this school." In 1928, a plaque in memory of Chatterton was mounted on 39, Brooke Street, Holborn, bearing the inscription below.The plaque subsequently has been transferred to a modern office building on the same site. In a House on this Site 24 August 1770. Within Bromley Common, there is a road called Chatterton Road; this is the main thoroughfare in Chatterton Village, based around the public house, The Chatterton Arms. Both road and pub are named after the poet. French singer Serge Gainsbourg entitled one of his songs "Chatterton," stating: The song was covered (in Portuguese) by Seu Jorge live and recorded in the album Ana & Jorge: Ao Vivo . Thomas Gray was an English poet, letter-writer, classical scholar, and professor at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He is widely known for his Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, published in 1751. Thomas Warton was an English literary historian, critic, and poet. From 1785 to 1790 he was the Poet Laureate of England. He is sometimes called Thomas Warton the younger to distinguish him from his father Thomas Warton the elder. His most famous poem remains The Pleasures of Melancholy, a representative work of the Graveyard poets. Thomas Tyrwhitt was an English classical scholar and critic. William II Canynges was an English merchant and shipper from Bristol, one of the wealthiest private citizens of his day and an occasional royal financier. He served as Mayor of Bristol five times and as MP for Bristol thrice. He was a generous patron of the arts in Bristol, particularly concerning the church of St Mary Redcliffe in Bristol, "The crown of Bristol architecture". Following the death of his wife Joan in 1467, he renounced civic and commercial life and was ordained a priest in 1468, in which capacity he remained until his death six years later. His tomb effigy in St Mary's later inspired the boy poet Thomas Chatterton to write the romantic poem "The Storie of William Canynge". This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1769. This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1777. Edmond Malone was an Irish Shakespearean scholar and editor of the works of William Shakespeare. Jacob Bryant (1715–1804) was an English scholar and mythographer, who has been described as "the outstanding figure among the mythagogues who flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries." Edward Harry William Meyerstein was an English writer and scholar. He wrote poetry and short stories, and a Life of Thomas Chatterton. Joseph Cottle (1770–1853) was an English publisher and author. Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature. Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature. The Reverend and Learned Thomas Crofts FRS FSA was a British bibliophile, Anglican priest, Fellow of the Royal Society and European traveller. The Reverend Alexander Catcott (1725–1779) was an English geologist and theologian born in Bristol, who became the vicar of Temple Church, Bristol and the author of numerous works on science and theology. "Monody on the Death of Chatterton" was composed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1790 and was rewritten throughout his lifetime. The poem deals with the idea of Thomas Chatterton, a poet who committed suicide, as representing the poetic struggle. Henry Jones (1721–1770), born in Ireland, was a poet and dramatist active in London. Robert Glynn, afterwards Clobery was an English physician, known as a generous eccentric. Thomas Canynges was Lord Mayor of London in 1456-57. Arthur Basil Cottle was a British grammarian, historian and archaeologist. He lived most of his life in Bristol. |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thomas Chatterton| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thomas Chatterton .|
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|Born||20 November 1752| |Died||24 August 1770 17) (aged| |Pen name||Thomas Rowley, Decimus| Thomas Chatterton (20 November 1752 – 24 August 1770) was an English poet whose precocious talents ended in suicide at age 17. He was an influence on Romantic artists of the period such as Shelley, Keats, Wordsworth and Coleridge. Romanticism was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature—all components of modernity. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, the social sciences, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing liberalism, radicalism, conservatism and nationalism. Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets, who is regarded by some as among the finest lyric and philosophical poets in the English language, and one of the most influential. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not see fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death. Shelley was a key member of a close circle of visionary poets and writers that included Lord Byron, John Keats, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock and his own second wife, Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, despite his works having been in publication for only four years before his death from tuberculosis at the age of 25. Although fatherless and raised in poverty, he was an exceptionally studious child, publishing mature work by the age of 11. He was able to pass off his work as that of an imaginary 15th-century poet called Thomas Rowley, chiefly because few people at the time were familiar with medieval poetry, though he was denounced by Horace Walpole. Literary forgery is writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work, which is either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or is a purported memoir or other presumably nonfictional writing deceptively presented as true when, in fact, it presents untrue or imaginary information. Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford, also known as Horace Walpole, was an English writer, art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. At 17, he sought outlets for his political writings in London, having impressed the Lord Mayor, William Beckford, and the radical leader John Wilkes, but his earnings were not enough to keep him, and he poisoned himself in despair. His unusual life and death attracted much interest among the romantic poets, and Alfred de Vigny wrote a play about him that is still performed today. The oil painting The Death of Chatterton by Pre-Raphaelite artist Henry Wallis has enjoyed lasting fame. William Beckford was a well-known political figure in 18th-century London, who twice held the office of Lord Mayor of London. His vast wealth came largely from his plantations in Jamaica and the large numbers of slaves working on these plantations. He was, and is, often referred to as "Alderman Beckford" to distinguish him from his son William Thomas Beckford, the author and art collector. John Wilkes was a British radical, journalist and politician. He was first elected a Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of his voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives. In 1768, angry protests of his supporters were suppressed in the St George's Fields Massacre. In 1771, he was instrumental in obliging the government to concede the right of printers to publish verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates. In 1776, he introduced the first bill for parliamentary reform in the British Parliament. Alfred Victor, Comte de Vigny was a French poet and early leader of French Romanticism. He also produced novels, plays, and translations of Shakespeare. Chatterton was born in Bristol where the office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe had long been held by the Chatterton family. The poet's father, also named Thomas Chatterton, was a musician, a poet, a numismatist, and a dabbler in the occult. He had been a sub-chanter at Bristol Cathedral and master of the Pyle Street free school, near Redcliffe church. Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 463,400. The wider district has the 10th-largest population in England. The urban area population of 724,000 is the 8th-largest in the UK. The city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. South Wales lies across the Severn estuary. A sexton is an officer of a church, congregation, or synagogue charged with the maintenance of its buildings and/or the surrounding graveyard. In smaller places of worship, this office is often combined with that of verger. In larger buildings, such as cathedrals, a team of sextons may be employed. St Mary Redcliffe is an Anglican parish church located in the Redcliffe district of Bristol, England. The church is a short walk from Bristol Temple Meads station. The church building was constructed from the 12th to the 15th centuries, and it has been a place of Christian worship for over 900 years. The church is renowned for the beauty of its Gothic architecture and is classed as a Grade I listed building by Historic England. It was famously described by Queen Elizabeth I as "the fairest, goodliest, and most famous parish church in England." After Chatterton's birth (15 weeks after his father's death on 7 August 1752),his mother established a girls' school and took in sewing and ornamental needlework. Chatterton was admitted to Edward Colston's Charity, a Bristol charity school, in which the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and the catechism. Edward Colston was a Bristol-born English merchant, philanthropist, slave trader, and Member of Parliament. He supported and endowed schools, almshouses, hospitals and churches in Bristol, London and elsewhere, and his name is commemorated in several Bristol landmarks, streets, three schools and the Colston bun. Many of his charitable foundations still survive. A significant part of his wealth was acquired through the trade and exploitation of slaves. Charity schools, sometimes called blue coat schools, or simply the Blue School, were significant in the history of education in England. They were built and maintained in various parishes by the voluntary contributions of the inhabitants to teach poor children to read and write, and for other necessary parts of education. They were usually maintained by religious organisations, which provided clothing and education to students freely or at little charge. In most charity schools, children were put out to trades, services, etc., by the same charitable foundation. Some schools were more ambitious than this and sent a few pupils on to university, as depicted in the illustration. A catechism is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals – often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised – a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. According to Norman DeWitt, the early Christians appropriated this practice from the Epicureans, a school whose founder Epicurus had instructed to keep summaries of the teachings for easy learning. The term catechumen refers to the designated recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism. Traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who had been baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith (Creed) and General Intercessions. Chatterton, however, was always fascinated with his uncle the sexton and the church of St Mary Redcliffe. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic dignitaries on its altar tombs became familiar to him. Then he found a fresh interest in oaken chests in the muniment room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parchment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, lay forgotten. Chatterton learned his first letters from the illuminated capitals of an old musical folio, and he learned to read out of a black-letter Bible. His sister said he did not like reading out of small books. Wayward from his earliest years, and uninterested in the games of other children, he was thought to be educationally backward. His sister related that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl that was to be his, he replied, "Paint me an angel, with wings, and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world." A Muniment or Muniment of Title is a legal term for a document, title deed or other evidence, that indicates ownership of an asset. The word is derived from the Latin noun munimentum, meaning a "fortification, bulwark, defence or protection". Thus "muniments of title" means the written evidence which a land owner can use to defend title to his estate. The nave is the central part of a church, stretching from the main entrance or rear wall, to the transepts, or in a church without transepts, to the chancel. When a church contains side aisles, as in a basilica-type building, the strict definition of the term "nave" is restricted to the central aisle. In a broader, more colloquial sense, the nave includes all areas available for the lay worshippers, including the side-aisles and transepts. Either way, the nave is distinct from the area reserved for the choir and clergy. The Wars of the Roses were a series of English civil wars for control of the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster, associated with the Red Rose of Lancaster, and the House of York, whose symbol was the White Rose of York. Eventually, the wars eliminated the male lines of both families. The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, but there was related fighting before and after this period between the parties. The power struggle ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years' War, unfolding the structural problems of bastard feudalism, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of King Henry VI which revived interest in the House of York's claim to the throne by Richard of York. Historians disagree on which of these factors to identify as the main reason for the wars. From his earliest years, he was liable to fits of abstraction, sitting for hours in what seemed like a trance, or crying for no reason. His lonely circumstances helped foster his natural reserve, and to create the love of mystery which exercised such an influence on the development of his poetry. When Chatterton was age 6, his mother began to recognise his capacity; at age 8, he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day long if undisturbed; by the age of 11, he had become a contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal . His confirmation inspired him to write some religious poems published in that paper. In 1763, a cross which had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of three centuries was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit of veneration was strong in Chatterton, and he sent to the local journal on 7 January 1764 a satire on the parish vandal. He also liked to lock himself in a little attic which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books, cherished parchments, loot purloined from the muniment room of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of his literary mysteries, the dialogue of "Elinoure and Juga," was written before he was 12, and he showed it to Thomas Phillips, the usher at the boarding school Colston's Hospital where he was a pupil, pretending it was the work of a 15th-century poet. Chatterton remained a boarder at Colston's Hospital for more than six years, and it was only his uncle who encouraged the pupils to write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but Chatterton told no one about his own more daring literary adventures. His little pocket-money was spent on borrowing books from a circulating library; and he ingratiated himself with book collectors, in order to obtain access to John Weever, William Dugdale and Arthur Collins, as well as to Thomas Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser and other books.At some point he came across Elizabeth Cooper's anthology of verse, which is said to have been a major source for his inventions. Chatterton's "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum , and it seems his knowledge even of Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly spent at his mother's house, and much of them in the favourite retreat of his attic study there. He lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own, in the reign of Edward IV, during the mid-15th century, when the great Bristol merchant William II Canynges (d.1474), five times mayor of Bristol, patron and rebuilder of St Mary Redcliffe "still ruled in Bristol's civic chair." Canynges was familiar to him from his recumbent effigy in Redcliffe church, and is represented by Chatterton as an enlightened patron of art and literature. Chatterton soon conceived the romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th century, and adopted for himself the pseudonym Thomas Rowley for poetry and history. According to psychoanalyst Louise J. Kaplan, his being fatherless played a great role in his imposturous creation of Rowley.The development of his masculine identity was held back by the fact that he was raised by two women: his mother Sarah and his sister Mary. Therefore, "to reconstitute the lost father in fantasy," he unconsciously created "two interweaving family romances [fantasies], each with its own scenario." The first of these was the romance of Rowley for whom he created a fatherlike, wealthy patron, William Canynge, while the second was as Kaplan named it his romance of "Jack and the Beanstalk." He imagined he would become a famous poet who by his talents would be able to rescue his mother from poverty. To bring his hopes to life, Chatterton started to look for a patron. At first, he was trying to do so in Bristol where he became acquainted with William Barrett, George Catcott and Henry Burgum. He assisted them by providing Rowley transcripts for their work. The antiquary William Barrett relied exclusively on these fake transcripts when writing his History and Antiquities of Bristol (1789) which became an enormous failure.But since his Bristol patrons were not willing to pay him enough, he turned to the wealthier Horace Walpole. In 1769, Chatterton sent specimens of Rowley's poetry and "The Ryse of Peyncteynge yn Englade" to Walpole who offered to print them "if they have never been printed." Later, however, finding that Chatterton was only 16 and that the alleged Rowley pieces might have been forgeries, he scornfully sent him away. Badly hurt by Walpole's snub, Chatterton wrote very little for a summer. Then, after the end of the summer, he turned his attention to periodical literature and politics, and exchanged Farley's Bristol Journal for the Town and Country Magazine and other London periodicals. Assuming the vein of the pseudonymous letter writer Junius, then in the full blaze of his triumph, he turned his pen against the Duke of Grafton, the Earl of Bute and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, the Princess of Wales. He had just dispatched one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal when he sat down on Easter Eve, 17 April 1770, and penned his "Last Will and Testament," a satirical compound of jest and earnest, in which he intimated his intention of ending his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests, such as his "humility" to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his "religion" to Dean Barton, and his "modesty" along with his "prosody and grammar" to Mr Burgum, he leaves "to Bristol all his spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley."In more genuine earnestness, he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was possibly prepared in order to frighten his master into letting him go. If so, it had the desired effect. John Lambert, the attorney to whom he was apprenticed, cancelled his indentures; his friends and acquaintances having donated money, Chatterton went to London. Chatterton already was known to the readers of the Middlesex Journal as a rival of Junius under the nom de plume of Decimus. He also had been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and Country Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine, another political miscellany supportive of John Wilkes and liberty. His contributions were accepted, but the editors paid little or nothing for them. He wrote hopefully to his mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts for them. Wilkes had noted his trenchant style "and expressed a desire to know the author";and Lord Mayor William Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his, and greeted him "as politely as a citizen could." He was abstemious and extraordinarily diligent. He could assume the style of Junius or Tobias Smollett, reproduce the satiric bitterness of Charles Churchill, parody James Macpherson's Ossian , or write in the manner of Alexander Pope or with the polished grace of Thomas Gray and William Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1770, after nine weeks in London, he moved from Shoreditch, where he had lodged with a relative, to an attic in Brook Street, Holborn (now beneath Alfred Waterhouse's Holborn Bars building). He was still short of money; and now state prosecutions of the press rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch, he had shared a room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of the old priest Rowley his "Excelente Balade of Charitie." This poem, disguised in archaic language, he sent to the editor of the Town and Country Magazine, where it was rejected. Mr Cross, a neighbouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. "She knew," as she afterwards said, "that he had not eaten anything for two or three days."But he assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and less than eightpence each for his songs; much which had been accepted was held in reserve and still unpaid for. According to his foster-mother, he had wished to study medicine with Barrett, and in his desperation he wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. While walking along St Pancras Churchyard, Chatterton much absorbed in thought, took no notice of an open grave, newly dug in his path, and subsequently tumbled into it. His walking companion, upon observing this event, helped Chatterton and told him in a jocular manner that he was happy in assisting at the resurrection of genius. Chatterton replied, "My dear friend, I have been at war with the grave for some time now." Chatterton would commit suicide three days later.On 24 August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains were at hand. He was 17 years and nine months old. A few days later, one Dr Thomas Fry came to London with the intention of giving financial support to the young boy "whether discoverer or author merely."A fragment, probably one of the last pieces written by the impostor-poet, was put together by Dr Fry from the shreds of paper that covered the floor of Thomas Chatterton's Brook Street attic on the morning of 25 August 1770. The would-have-been patron of the poet had an eye for literary forgeries, and purchased the scraps which the poet's landlady, Mrs Angel, swept into a box, cherishing the hope of discovering a suicide note among the pieces. This fragment, possibly one of the remnants of Chatterton's very last literary efforts, was identified by Dr Fry to be a modified ending of the poet's tragical interlude Aella. The fragment is now in the possession of Bristol Public Library and Art Gallery. Awake! Awake! O Birtha, swotie mayde! Thie Aella deadde, botte thou ynne wayne wouldst dye, Sythence he thee for renomme hath betrayde, Bie hys owne sworde forslagen doth he lye; Yblente he was to see thie boolie eyne, Yet nowe o Birtha, praie, for Welkynnes, lynge! How redde thie lippes, how dolce thie deft cryne, .......................................scalle bee thie Kynge! ...........................................omme the kiste The final Alexandrine is completely missing, together with Chatterton's notes. However, according to Dr Fry, the character who utters the final lines must have been Birtha,whose last word might have been something like "kisste." The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to the Shoe Lane Workhouse in the parish of St Andrew, Holborn, later the site of Farringdon Market. There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was recovered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has been erected to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed from his "Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen. "To the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior Power. To that Power only is he now answerable." It was after Chatterton's death that the controversy over his work began. Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt, a Chaucerian scholar who believed them genuine medieval works. However, the appendix to the following year's edition recognises that they were probably Chatterton's own work. Thomas Warton, in his History of English Poetry (1778) included Rowley among 15th-century poets, but apparently did not believe in the antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems appeared, with a "Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, Dean of Exeter. The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed in Andrew Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a detailed account by George Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573–619). This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton's Works by Robert Southey and Joseph Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet's sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in the 18th century alone accounts for the temporary success of Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton was solely responsible for the Rowley poems; the language and style were analysed in confirmation of this view by W. W. Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the "Aldine Edition of the British Poets." The Chatterton manuscripts originally in the possession of William Barrett of Bristol were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800. Others are preserved in the Bristol library. Chatterton's genius and his death are commemorated by Percy Bysshe Shelley in Adonais (though its main emphasis is the commemoration of Keats), by William Wordsworth in "Resolution and Independence", by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in "Monody on the Death of Chatterton", by Dante Gabriel Rossetti in "Five English Poets", and in John Keats' sonnet "To Chatterton". Keats also inscribed Endymion "to the memory of Thomas Chatterton". Two of Alfred de Vigny's works, Stello and the drama Chatterton, give fictionalized accounts of the poet; in the former, there is a scene in which William Beckford's harsh criticism of Chatterton's work drives the poet to suicide. The three-act play Chatterton was first performed at the Théâtre-Français, Paris on February 12, 1835. Herbert Croft, in his Love and Madness, interpolated a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and friends (pp. 125–244, letter li.). The most famous image of Chatterton in the 19th century was The Death of Chatterton (1856) by Henry Wallis, now in Tate Britain, London. Two smaller versions, sketches or replicas, are held by the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the Yale Center for British Art. The figure of the poet was modeled by the young George Meredith. Two of Chatterton's poems were set to music as glees by the English composer John Wall Callcott. These include separate settings of distinct verses within the Song to Aelle. His best known poem, O synge untoe mie roundelaie was set to a five-part madrigal by Samuel Wesley. Chatterton has attracted operatic treatment a number of times throughout history, notably Ruggiero Leoncavallo's largely unsuccessful two-act Chatterton; the German composer Matthias Pintscher's modernistic Thomas Chatterton; and Australian composer Matthew Dewey's lyrical yet dramatically intricate one-man mythography entitled The Death of Thomas Chatterton. There is a collection of "Chattertoniana" in the British Library, consisting of works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles dealing with the Rowley controversy and other subjects, with manuscript notes by Joseph Haslewood, and several autograph letters. E. H. W. Meyerstein, who worked for many years in the manuscript room of the British Museum wrote a definitive work—"A Life of Thomas Chatterton"—in 1930. Peter Ackroyd's 1987 novel Chatterton was a literary re-telling of the poet's story, giving emphasis to the philosophical and spiritual implications of forgery. In Ackroyd's version, Chatterton's death was accidental. In 1886, architect Herbert Horne and Oscar Wilde unsuccessfully attempted to have a plaque erected at Colston's School, Bristol. Wilde, who lectured on Chatterton at this time, suggested the inscription: "To the Memory of Thomas Chatterton, One of England's Greatest Poets, and Sometime pupil at this school." In 1928, a plaque in memory of Chatterton was mounted on 39, Brooke Street, Holborn, bearing the inscription below.The plaque subsequently has been transferred to a modern office building on the same site. In a House on this Site 24 August 1770. Within Bromley Common, there is a road called Chatterton Road; this is the main thoroughfare in Chatterton Village, based around the public house, The Chatterton Arms. Both road and pub are named after the poet. French singer Serge Gainsbourg entitled one of his songs "Chatterton," stating: The song was covered (in Portuguese) by Seu Jorge live and recorded in the album Ana & Jorge: Ao Vivo . Thomas Gray was an English poet, letter-writer, classical scholar, and professor at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He is widely known for his Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, published in 1751. Thomas Warton was an English literary historian, critic, and poet. From 1785 to 1790 he was the Poet Laureate of England. He is sometimes called Thomas Warton the younger to distinguish him from his father Thomas Warton the elder. His most famous poem remains The Pleasures of Melancholy, a representative work of the Graveyard poets. Thomas Tyrwhitt was an English classical scholar and critic. William II Canynges was an English merchant and shipper from Bristol, one of the wealthiest private citizens of his day and an occasional royal financier. He served as Mayor of Bristol five times and as MP for Bristol thrice. He was a generous patron of the arts in Bristol, particularly concerning the church of St Mary Redcliffe in Bristol, "The crown of Bristol architecture". Following the death of his wife Joan in 1467, he renounced civic and commercial life and was ordained a priest in 1468, in which capacity he remained until his death six years later. His tomb effigy in St Mary's later inspired the boy poet Thomas Chatterton to write the romantic poem "The Storie of William Canynge". This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1769. This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1777. Edmond Malone was an Irish Shakespearean scholar and editor of the works of William Shakespeare. Jacob Bryant (1715–1804) was an English scholar and mythographer, who has been described as "the outstanding figure among the mythagogues who flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries." Edward Harry William Meyerstein was an English writer and scholar. He wrote poetry and short stories, and a Life of Thomas Chatterton. Joseph Cottle (1770–1853) was an English publisher and author. Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature. Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature. The Reverend and Learned Thomas Crofts FRS FSA was a British bibliophile, Anglican priest, Fellow of the Royal Society and European traveller. The Reverend Alexander Catcott (1725–1779) was an English geologist and theologian born in Bristol, who became the vicar of Temple Church, Bristol and the author of numerous works on science and theology. "Monody on the Death of Chatterton" was composed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1790 and was rewritten throughout his lifetime. The poem deals with the idea of Thomas Chatterton, a poet who committed suicide, as representing the poetic struggle. Henry Jones (1721–1770), born in Ireland, was a poet and dramatist active in London. Robert Glynn, afterwards Clobery was an English physician, known as a generous eccentric. Thomas Canynges was Lord Mayor of London in 1456-57. Arthur Basil Cottle was a British grammarian, historian and archaeologist. He lived most of his life in Bristol. |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thomas Chatterton| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thomas Chatterton .|
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The battle that followed took place between six British ships with over sixty cannons that had a longer range and nine American ships with fifty four guns that had a shorter range. Perry needed the wind to his back in order to stand a chance in the ensuing battle. After a small battle with Mother Nature, Perry was able to get the wind at his back and the British battle line was finally revealed. The first shot was fired at 11:45am and lasted until 3pm. It was a long battle and at one point Perry faced the idea that he may have to surrender due to the damage caused to his fleet of ships. He decided not to give and took one last plan of action against the British. The British had also suffered terribly and this last attack left the fleet in even worse shape and just after 3pm the last four of the fleets vessels surrendered one at a time and the entire remainder of the British fleet was captured.
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The battle that followed took place between six British ships with over sixty cannons that had a longer range and nine American ships with fifty four guns that had a shorter range. Perry needed the wind to his back in order to stand a chance in the ensuing battle. After a small battle with Mother Nature, Perry was able to get the wind at his back and the British battle line was finally revealed. The first shot was fired at 11:45am and lasted until 3pm. It was a long battle and at one point Perry faced the idea that he may have to surrender due to the damage caused to his fleet of ships. He decided not to give and took one last plan of action against the British. The British had also suffered terribly and this last attack left the fleet in even worse shape and just after 3pm the last four of the fleets vessels surrendered one at a time and the entire remainder of the British fleet was captured.
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Cecil John Rhodes (5 July 1853 – 26 March 1902) was a British businessman, mining magnate and politician in southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia), which the company named after him in 1895. South Africa’s Rhodes University is also named after him. Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his estate. He also put much effort towards his vision of a Cape to Cairo Railway through British territory.The son of a vicar, Rhodes grew up in Bishop’s Stortford, Hertfordshire, and was a sickly child. He was sent to South Africa by his family when he was 17 years old in the hope that the climate might improve his health. He entered the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871, when he was 18, and over the next two decades gained near-complete domination of the world diamond market. His De Beers diamond company, formed in 1888, retains its prominence into the 21st century. Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament at the age of 27 in 1880, and a decade later became Prime Minister. After overseeing the formation of Rhodesia during the early 1890s, he was forced to resign as Prime Minister in 1896 after the disastrous Jameson Raid, an unauthorised attack on Paul Kruger’s South African Republic (or Transvaal). One of Rhodes’s primary motivations in politics and business was his professed belief that the Anglo-Saxon race was, to quote his will, “the first race in the world”. Under the reasoning that “the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race”, he advocated vigorous settler colonialism and ultimately a reformation of the British Empire so that each component would be self-governing and represented in a single parliament in London. Ambitions such as these, juxtaposed with his policies regarding indigenous Africans in the Cape Colony—describing the country’s native black population as largely “in a state of barbarism”, he advocated their governance as a “subject race”, and was at the centre of actions to marginalise them politically—have led recent critics to characterise him as a white supremacist and “an architect of apartheid”.Historian Richard A. McFarlane has described Rhodes “as integral a participant in southern African and British imperial history as George Washington or Abraham Lincoln are in their respective eras in United States history.” After Rhodes’s death in 1902, at the age of 48, he was buried in the Matopos Hills in what is now Zimbabwe.
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Cecil John Rhodes (5 July 1853 – 26 March 1902) was a British businessman, mining magnate and politician in southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia), which the company named after him in 1895. South Africa’s Rhodes University is also named after him. Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his estate. He also put much effort towards his vision of a Cape to Cairo Railway through British territory.The son of a vicar, Rhodes grew up in Bishop’s Stortford, Hertfordshire, and was a sickly child. He was sent to South Africa by his family when he was 17 years old in the hope that the climate might improve his health. He entered the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871, when he was 18, and over the next two decades gained near-complete domination of the world diamond market. His De Beers diamond company, formed in 1888, retains its prominence into the 21st century. Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament at the age of 27 in 1880, and a decade later became Prime Minister. After overseeing the formation of Rhodesia during the early 1890s, he was forced to resign as Prime Minister in 1896 after the disastrous Jameson Raid, an unauthorised attack on Paul Kruger’s South African Republic (or Transvaal). One of Rhodes’s primary motivations in politics and business was his professed belief that the Anglo-Saxon race was, to quote his will, “the first race in the world”. Under the reasoning that “the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race”, he advocated vigorous settler colonialism and ultimately a reformation of the British Empire so that each component would be self-governing and represented in a single parliament in London. Ambitions such as these, juxtaposed with his policies regarding indigenous Africans in the Cape Colony—describing the country’s native black population as largely “in a state of barbarism”, he advocated their governance as a “subject race”, and was at the centre of actions to marginalise them politically—have led recent critics to characterise him as a white supremacist and “an architect of apartheid”.Historian Richard A. McFarlane has described Rhodes “as integral a participant in southern African and British imperial history as George Washington or Abraham Lincoln are in their respective eras in United States history.” After Rhodes’s death in 1902, at the age of 48, he was buried in the Matopos Hills in what is now Zimbabwe.
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Spain, in particular the area known as Andalucia was unique in the territories conquered by the Romans in that from their first arrival they physically occupied the land. Soldiers, as they were paid off, elected to remain in Hispania rather than go back to Rome, particularly during the 1st Century BC when the political situation in Italy was anything but stable. It is during this period that references to the Roman province of Baetica first appear. Baetica roughly covers the area now known as Andalucia. The other two provinces were Lusitania, corresponding to Portugal and Extremadura and Hispania Tarraconensis that covered the rest of modern Spain. This period saw a large increase in Romanised development of existing settlements like Gadir (Cadiz) and the establishment of coloniae which conformed to a Roman model of what constituted a town. The model was based on the city of Rome. The number of coloniae established in Baetica is a matter of considerable academic dispute but, coloniae or not, the ‘model’ was implemented at Corduba (Cordoba), Hispalis (Seville), Astigi (Ecija), Itucci (Martos), Ucubi (Espejo), Urso (Osuna), Hasta Regia (Asta), Italica (Santeponce), Iliturgi (Mengibar) and Asido (Medina Sidonia). Roman strategy in Baetica had been partly dictated by the presence of the rich mines in the Sierra Morena area. Prior to their occupation of Spain, Rome had been buying copper, gold and silver from Phoenician and Carthaginian traders who in turn were trading with the Tartessians in whose territory the mines were. Rome could be looked upon as a black hole as far as wealth was concerned. Its population, or at least the prosperous ones, were reputed to be extravagant, flamboyant and idle, spending their days in pleasurable, depraved and expensive pursuits, each trying to out do the others and spending huge amounts of money in the process. This depravity, particularly during the later part of the Roman period, is often cited as a major cause of Rome’s demise. That may be correct but what undoubtedly happened is that Rome bled its territories white through punitive taxes that in turn caused unrest amongst the native population. The mines would have been considered a great asset. The manner in which they were exploited is an education in the contrasting sides of Roman nature and the mines of the Rio Tinto area is a perfect example. When the Romans started mining, during the 1st century AD, the deep quarry seen in the image above was a hill. When the Romans arrived the mines were already old having already been exploited for about 2,000 years but even so only a small amount of the available ore had been removed. The original miners had found colourful ores outcropping on the surface, typically in the Rio Tinto area, green malachite, and blue azurite, both oxidised ores of copper. They had used primitive bone tools and fire to extract the ore until further extraction was impossible. Normally this left a scar. Infrequently a small shaft was made rarely more than a few metres deep and very rarely there would be evidence of small side galleries off the shaft. In the Sierra Morena there are hundreds, possibly thousands of these primitive workings. Even digging such a shallow mine was dangerous but at least the miner had the option of stopping when he judged it too hazardous. The Romans changed all that. Within a few years they had over 50 working mines within 100 kilometres to the west and north of the Rio Tinto mine itself working with typical Roman efficiency. Firstly the Romans had slaves, mainly natives who had made the mistake of supporting the wrong side, and their attitude to them would, today, be considered abominable. Slaves had no rights whatsoever. A slave owner could punish or kill his slaves with no fear of retribution, he could work them to death and that is exactly what they did at Rio Tinto. Slaves were born and lived their entire lives underground, never seeing daylight. Not that they were likely to live that long, cave ins and, as the shafts were dug deeper, sudden flooding, were regular occurrences. Technology was employed to make extraction of the ore easier and more efficient, not to safeguard the workers. In the 19th Century, at the Rio Tinto mine a series of water wheels was found in man made galleries that were used in Roman times to take water from tens of metres below the surface, up nine levels to an adit that drained the water out onto the hillside. Slaves turned the wheels. Incredibly an Archimedes screw was also used to raise water from the depths. The Archaeological Museum at Huelva displays the original wheel found at Rio Tinto in its foyer. It was only much later in the occupation period that the Romans realised that the supply of slaves was declining to dangerous levels. They immediately, almost overnight, reversed their policy of inhumanity and slaves suddenly found that they had shorter working hours, were provided with decent food and living accommodation and could enjoy holidays. It has been estimated that when the mines closed as the Romans departed, the slaves actually enjoyed better conditions than 20th Century coal miners in the UK, Arthur Scargill would have been impressed. Nick has lived and worked in Andalucia for over 20 years. He and his partner, Julie Evans, have travelled extensively and dug deep into the history and culture, producing authoritative articles on all aspects of the region. Nick has written four books about Andalucia and writes articles for other websites and blogs. Please add together 5 + 10 = To receive our free newsletter Please prove you are humanadd together 9 + 7 = Like us on Mobile +34 634 344 163 (Nick) Mobile +34 647 379 245 (Julie) © Visit-Andalucia 2019
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Spain, in particular the area known as Andalucia was unique in the territories conquered by the Romans in that from their first arrival they physically occupied the land. Soldiers, as they were paid off, elected to remain in Hispania rather than go back to Rome, particularly during the 1st Century BC when the political situation in Italy was anything but stable. It is during this period that references to the Roman province of Baetica first appear. Baetica roughly covers the area now known as Andalucia. The other two provinces were Lusitania, corresponding to Portugal and Extremadura and Hispania Tarraconensis that covered the rest of modern Spain. This period saw a large increase in Romanised development of existing settlements like Gadir (Cadiz) and the establishment of coloniae which conformed to a Roman model of what constituted a town. The model was based on the city of Rome. The number of coloniae established in Baetica is a matter of considerable academic dispute but, coloniae or not, the ‘model’ was implemented at Corduba (Cordoba), Hispalis (Seville), Astigi (Ecija), Itucci (Martos), Ucubi (Espejo), Urso (Osuna), Hasta Regia (Asta), Italica (Santeponce), Iliturgi (Mengibar) and Asido (Medina Sidonia). Roman strategy in Baetica had been partly dictated by the presence of the rich mines in the Sierra Morena area. Prior to their occupation of Spain, Rome had been buying copper, gold and silver from Phoenician and Carthaginian traders who in turn were trading with the Tartessians in whose territory the mines were. Rome could be looked upon as a black hole as far as wealth was concerned. Its population, or at least the prosperous ones, were reputed to be extravagant, flamboyant and idle, spending their days in pleasurable, depraved and expensive pursuits, each trying to out do the others and spending huge amounts of money in the process. This depravity, particularly during the later part of the Roman period, is often cited as a major cause of Rome’s demise. That may be correct but what undoubtedly happened is that Rome bled its territories white through punitive taxes that in turn caused unrest amongst the native population. The mines would have been considered a great asset. The manner in which they were exploited is an education in the contrasting sides of Roman nature and the mines of the Rio Tinto area is a perfect example. When the Romans started mining, during the 1st century AD, the deep quarry seen in the image above was a hill. When the Romans arrived the mines were already old having already been exploited for about 2,000 years but even so only a small amount of the available ore had been removed. The original miners had found colourful ores outcropping on the surface, typically in the Rio Tinto area, green malachite, and blue azurite, both oxidised ores of copper. They had used primitive bone tools and fire to extract the ore until further extraction was impossible. Normally this left a scar. Infrequently a small shaft was made rarely more than a few metres deep and very rarely there would be evidence of small side galleries off the shaft. In the Sierra Morena there are hundreds, possibly thousands of these primitive workings. Even digging such a shallow mine was dangerous but at least the miner had the option of stopping when he judged it too hazardous. The Romans changed all that. Within a few years they had over 50 working mines within 100 kilometres to the west and north of the Rio Tinto mine itself working with typical Roman efficiency. Firstly the Romans had slaves, mainly natives who had made the mistake of supporting the wrong side, and their attitude to them would, today, be considered abominable. Slaves had no rights whatsoever. A slave owner could punish or kill his slaves with no fear of retribution, he could work them to death and that is exactly what they did at Rio Tinto. Slaves were born and lived their entire lives underground, never seeing daylight. Not that they were likely to live that long, cave ins and, as the shafts were dug deeper, sudden flooding, were regular occurrences. Technology was employed to make extraction of the ore easier and more efficient, not to safeguard the workers. In the 19th Century, at the Rio Tinto mine a series of water wheels was found in man made galleries that were used in Roman times to take water from tens of metres below the surface, up nine levels to an adit that drained the water out onto the hillside. Slaves turned the wheels. Incredibly an Archimedes screw was also used to raise water from the depths. The Archaeological Museum at Huelva displays the original wheel found at Rio Tinto in its foyer. It was only much later in the occupation period that the Romans realised that the supply of slaves was declining to dangerous levels. They immediately, almost overnight, reversed their policy of inhumanity and slaves suddenly found that they had shorter working hours, were provided with decent food and living accommodation and could enjoy holidays. It has been estimated that when the mines closed as the Romans departed, the slaves actually enjoyed better conditions than 20th Century coal miners in the UK, Arthur Scargill would have been impressed. Nick has lived and worked in Andalucia for over 20 years. He and his partner, Julie Evans, have travelled extensively and dug deep into the history and culture, producing authoritative articles on all aspects of the region. Nick has written four books about Andalucia and writes articles for other websites and blogs. Please add together 5 + 10 = To receive our free newsletter Please prove you are humanadd together 9 + 7 = Like us on Mobile +34 634 344 163 (Nick) Mobile +34 647 379 245 (Julie) © Visit-Andalucia 2019
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Thomas Savery ( // ; c. 1650 – 1715) was an English inventor and engineer, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England. He invented the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump which is often referred to as an "engine". Savery's "engine" was a revolutionary method of pumping water, which solved the problem of mine drainage and made widespread public water supply practicable. Savery became a military engineer, rising to the rank of Captain by 1702, and spent his free time performing experiments in mechanics. In 1696 he took out a patent for a machine for polishing glass or marble and another for "rowing of ships with greater ease and expedition than hitherto been done by any other" which involved paddle-wheels driven by a capstan and which was dismissed by the Admiralty following a negative report by the Surveyor of the Navy, Edmund Dummer. Savery also worked for the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, contracting the supply of medicines to the Navy Stock Company, which was connected with the Society of Apothecaries. His duties on their behalf took him to Dartmouth, which is probably how he came into contact with Thomas Newcomen. On 2 July 1698 Savery patented an early steam engine, "A new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for draining mines, serving towns with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefit of water nor constant winds."[ sic ] He demonstrated it to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699. The patent had no illustrations or even description, but in 1702 Savery described the machine in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire, in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines. Savery's engine had no piston, and no moving parts except from the taps. It was operated by first raising steam in the boiler; the steam was then admitted to one of the first working vessels, allowing it to blow out through a downpipe into the water that was to be raised. When the system was hot and therefore full of steam the tap between the boiler and the working vessel was shut, and if necessary the outside of the vessel was cooled. This made the steam inside it condense, creating a partial vacuum, and atmospheric pressure pushed water up the downpipe until the vessel was full. At this point the tap below the vessel was closed, and the tap between it and the up-pipe opened, and more steam was admitted from the boiler. As the steam pressure built up, it forced the water from the vessel up the up-pipe to the top of the mine. However, his engine had four serious problems. First, every time water was admitted to the working vessel much of the heat was wasted in warming up the water that was being pumped. Secondly, the second stage of the process required high-pressure steam to force the water up, and the engine's soldered joints were barely capable of withstanding high pressure steam and needed frequent repair. Thirdly, although this engine used positive steam pressure to push water up out of the engine (with no theoretical limit to the height to which water could be lifted by a single high-pressure engine) practical and safety considerations meant that in practice, to clear water from a deep mine would have needed a series of moderate-pressure engines all the way from the bottom level to the surface. Fourthly, water was pushed up into the engine only by atmospheric pressure (working against a condensed-steam 'vacuum'), so the engine had to be no more than about 30 feet (9.1 m) above the water level – requiring it to be installed, operated, and maintained far down in the dark mines all over. Savery's original patent of July 1698 gave 14 years' protection; the next year, 1699, an Act of Parliament was passed which extended his protection for a further 21 years. This Act became known as the "Fire Engine Act". Savery's patent covered all engines that raised water by fire, and it thus played an important role in shaping the early development of steam machinery in the British Isles. The architect James Smith of Whitehill acquired the rights to use Savery's engine in Scotland. In 1699, he entered into an agreement with the inventor, and in 1701 he secured a patent from the Parliament of Scotland, modelled on Savery's grant in England, and designed to run for the same period of time. Smith described the machine as "an engine or invention for raising of water and occasioning motion of mill-work by the force of fire",[ sic ] and he claimed to have modified it to pump from a depth of 14 fathoms, or 84 feet. In England, Savery's patent meant that Thomas Newcomen was forced to go into partnership with him. By 1712, arrangements had been between the two men to develop Newcomen's more advanced design of steam engine, which was marketed under Savery's patent, adding water tanks and pump rods so that deeper water mines could be accessed with steam power.Newcomen's engine worked purely by atmospheric pressure, thereby avoiding the dangers of high-pressure steam, and used the piston concept invented in 1690 by the Frenchman Denis Papin to produce the first steam engine capable of raising water from deep mines. When Denis Papin was back to London in 1707, he was asked by Newton, new President of The Royal Society after Robert Boyle, Papin's friend, to work with Savery, who worked for 5 years with Papin, but never gave any credit nor revenue to the French scientist. After his death in 1715 Savery's patent and Act of Parliament became vested in a company, The Proprietors of the Invention for Raising Water by Fire.This company issued licences to others for the building and operation of Newcomen engines, charging as much as £420 per year patent royalties for the construction of steam engines. In one case a colliery paid the Proprietors £200 per year and half their net profits "in return for their services in keeping the engine going". The Fire Engine Act did not expire until 1733, four years after the death of Newcomen. A newspaper in March 1702 announced that Savery's engines were ready for use and might be seen on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons at his workhouse in Salisbury Court, London, over against the Old Playhouse. One of his engines was set up at York Buildings in London. According to later descriptions this produced steam 'eight or ten times stronger than common air' (i.e. 8–10 atmospheres), but blew open the joints of the machine, forcing him to solder the joints with spelter. Another was built to control the water supply at Hampton Court, while another at Campden House in Kensington operated for 18 years. A few Savery engines were tried in mines, an unsuccessful attempt being made to use one to clear water from a pool called Broad Waters in Wednesbury (then in Staffordshire) and nearby coal mines. This had been covered by a sudden eruption of water some years before. However the engine could not be 'brought to answer'. The quantity of steam raised was so great as 'rent the whole machine to pieces'. The engine was laid aside, and the scheme for raising water was dropped as impracticable.This may have been in about 1705. Another engine was proposed in 1706 by George Sparrow at Newbold near Chesterfield, where a landowner was having difficulty in obtaining the consent of his neighbours for a sough to drain his coal. Nothing came of this, perhaps due to the explosion of the Broad Waters engine.It is also possible that an engine was tried at Wheal Vor, a copper mine in Cornwall. The Savery engine was much lower in capital cost than the Newcomen engine, with a 2 to 4 horsepower Savery engine costing from 150-200 GBP.It was also available in small sizes, down to one horsepower. Newcomen engines and early high pressure steam engines were larger and much more expensive. The larger size was due to the fact that piston steam engines became very inefficient in small sizes, at least until around 1900 when 2 horsepower piston engines were available. Savery type engines continued to be produced well into the late 18th century. Several later pumping systems may be based on Savery's pump. For example, the twin-chamber pulsometer steam pump was a successful development of it. |Wikisource has the text of the 1885–1900 Dictionary of National Biography's article about Thomas Savery .| |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thomas Savery| James Watt was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world. A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force is transformed, by a connecting rod and flywheel, into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is generally applied only to reciprocating engines as just described, not to the steam turbine. Thomas Newcomen was an English inventor who created the atmospheric engine, the first practical fuel-burning engine in 1712. He was an ironmonger by trade and a Baptist lay preacher by calling. He was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England, to a merchant family and baptised at St. Saviour's Church on 28 February 1664. In those days flooding in coal and tin mines was a major problem, and Newcomen was soon engaged in trying to improve ways to pump out the water from such mines. His ironmonger's business specialised in designing, manufacturing and selling tools for the mining industry. The atmospheric engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, and is often referred to simply as a Newcomen engine. The engine was operated by condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum which allowed the atmospheric pressure to push the piston into the cylinder. It was the first practical device to harness steam to produce mechanical work. Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump water out of mines. Hundreds were constructed through the 18th century. The Watt steam engine, alternatively known as the Boulton and Watt steam engine, was an early steam engine and was one of the driving forces of the industrial revolution. James Watt developed the design sporadically from 1763 to 1775 with support from Matthew Boulton. Watt's design saved so much more fuel compared with earlier designs that they were licensed based on the amount of fuel they would save. Watt never ceased developing the steam engine, introducing double-acting designs and various systems for taking off rotary power. Watt's design became synonymous with steam engines, and it was many years before significantly new designs began to replace the basic Watt design. Steam power developed slowly over a period of several hundred years, progressing through expensive and fairly limited devices in the early 17th century, to useful pumps for mining in 1700, and then to Watt's improved steam engine designs in the late 18th century. It is these later designs, introduced just when the need for practical power was growing due to the Industrial Revolution, that truly made steam power commonplace. Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the first engines had been used to pump water from deep workings. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but by using a steam engine a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. Water power varied with the seasons and was not always available. A beam engine is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine directly driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall. The efficiency of the engines was improved by engineers including James Watt, who added a separate condenser; Jonathan Hornblower and Arthur Woolf, who compounded the cylinders; and William McNaught, who devised a method of compounding an existing engine. Beam engines were first used to pump water out of mines or into canals, but could be used to pump water to supplement the flow for a waterwheel powering a mill. This Timeline of heat engine technology describes how heat engines have been known since antiquity but have been made into increasingly useful devices since the 17th century as a better understanding of the processes involved was gained. They continue to be developed today. A Cornish engine is a type of steam engine developed in Cornwall, England, mainly for pumping water from a mine. It is a form of beam engine that uses steam at a higher pressure than the earlier engines designed by James Watt. The engines were also used for powering man engines to assist the underground miners' journeys to and from their working levels, for winching materials into and out of the mine, and for powering on-site ore stamping machinery. The steam digester is a high-pressure cooker invented by French physicist Denis Papin in 1679. It is a device for extracting fats from bones in a high-pressure steam environment, which also renders them brittle enough to be easily ground into bone meal. It is the forerunner of the autoclave and the domestic pressure cooker. The first recorded rudimentary steam engine was the aeolipile described by Heron of Alexandria in 1st-century Roman Egypt. Several steam-powered devices were later experimented with or proposed, such as Taqi al-Din's steam jack, a steam turbine in 16th-century Ottoman Egypt, and Thomas Savery's steam pump in 17th-century England. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine became the first commercially successful engine using the principle of the piston and cylinder, which was the fundamental type of steam engine used until the early 20th century. The steam engine was used to pump water out of coal mines. The Whitbread Engine preserved in the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia, built in 1785, is one of the first rotative steam engines ever built, and is the oldest surviving. A rotative engine is a type of beam engine where the reciprocating motion of the beam is converted to rotary motion, producing a continuous power source suitable for driving machinery. Shudehill Mill or Simpson's Mill was a very early cotton mill in Manchester city centre, England. It was built in 1782 by for Richard Arkwright and his partners and destroyed by fire in 1854. It was rebuilt and finally destroyed during the Manchester Blitz in 1940. One of Arkwright's larger mills, it was built three years before his patent lapsed. The mill had a 30 feet diameter water wheel and a Newcomen atmospheric engine was installed. Doubts remain as to why the engine was installed, whether it was a failed attempt to power a mill directly by steam or was modified to assist the wheel. It is possible that this engine, constructed by Hunt, could have been one of the 13 engines installed in Manchester mills by Joshua Wrigley. Water from the upper storage pond turned the water wheel to drive the mill. The steam engine recycled water from the lower storage pond to the upper storage pond. Three more Boulton and Watt engines were installed to power the increasing number of spindles. Old Bess is an early beam engine built by the partnership of Boulton and Watt. The engine was constructed in 1777 and worked until 1848. A water-returning engine was an early form of stationary steam engine, developed at the start of the Industrial Revolution in the middle of the 18th century. The first beam engines did not generate power by rotating a shaft but were developed as water pumps, mostly for draining mines. By coupling this pump with a water wheel, they could be used to drive machinery. A cataract was a speed governing device used for early single-acting beam engines, particularly atmospheric engines and Cornish engines. Resolution was an early beam engine, installed between 1781–1782 at Coalbrookdale as a water-returning engine to power the blast furnaces and ironworks there. It was one of the last water-returning engines to be constructed, before the rotative beam engine made this type of engine obsolete. The Newcomen Memorial Engine is a preserved beam engine in Dartmouth, Devon. It was preserved as a memorial to Thomas Newcomen, inventor of the beam engine, who was born in Dartmouth. Mine dewatering is the action of removing groundwater from a mine.
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Thomas Savery ( // ; c. 1650 – 1715) was an English inventor and engineer, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England. He invented the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump which is often referred to as an "engine". Savery's "engine" was a revolutionary method of pumping water, which solved the problem of mine drainage and made widespread public water supply practicable. Savery became a military engineer, rising to the rank of Captain by 1702, and spent his free time performing experiments in mechanics. In 1696 he took out a patent for a machine for polishing glass or marble and another for "rowing of ships with greater ease and expedition than hitherto been done by any other" which involved paddle-wheels driven by a capstan and which was dismissed by the Admiralty following a negative report by the Surveyor of the Navy, Edmund Dummer. Savery also worked for the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, contracting the supply of medicines to the Navy Stock Company, which was connected with the Society of Apothecaries. His duties on their behalf took him to Dartmouth, which is probably how he came into contact with Thomas Newcomen. On 2 July 1698 Savery patented an early steam engine, "A new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for draining mines, serving towns with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefit of water nor constant winds."[ sic ] He demonstrated it to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699. The patent had no illustrations or even description, but in 1702 Savery described the machine in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire, in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines. Savery's engine had no piston, and no moving parts except from the taps. It was operated by first raising steam in the boiler; the steam was then admitted to one of the first working vessels, allowing it to blow out through a downpipe into the water that was to be raised. When the system was hot and therefore full of steam the tap between the boiler and the working vessel was shut, and if necessary the outside of the vessel was cooled. This made the steam inside it condense, creating a partial vacuum, and atmospheric pressure pushed water up the downpipe until the vessel was full. At this point the tap below the vessel was closed, and the tap between it and the up-pipe opened, and more steam was admitted from the boiler. As the steam pressure built up, it forced the water from the vessel up the up-pipe to the top of the mine. However, his engine had four serious problems. First, every time water was admitted to the working vessel much of the heat was wasted in warming up the water that was being pumped. Secondly, the second stage of the process required high-pressure steam to force the water up, and the engine's soldered joints were barely capable of withstanding high pressure steam and needed frequent repair. Thirdly, although this engine used positive steam pressure to push water up out of the engine (with no theoretical limit to the height to which water could be lifted by a single high-pressure engine) practical and safety considerations meant that in practice, to clear water from a deep mine would have needed a series of moderate-pressure engines all the way from the bottom level to the surface. Fourthly, water was pushed up into the engine only by atmospheric pressure (working against a condensed-steam 'vacuum'), so the engine had to be no more than about 30 feet (9.1 m) above the water level – requiring it to be installed, operated, and maintained far down in the dark mines all over. Savery's original patent of July 1698 gave 14 years' protection; the next year, 1699, an Act of Parliament was passed which extended his protection for a further 21 years. This Act became known as the "Fire Engine Act". Savery's patent covered all engines that raised water by fire, and it thus played an important role in shaping the early development of steam machinery in the British Isles. The architect James Smith of Whitehill acquired the rights to use Savery's engine in Scotland. In 1699, he entered into an agreement with the inventor, and in 1701 he secured a patent from the Parliament of Scotland, modelled on Savery's grant in England, and designed to run for the same period of time. Smith described the machine as "an engine or invention for raising of water and occasioning motion of mill-work by the force of fire",[ sic ] and he claimed to have modified it to pump from a depth of 14 fathoms, or 84 feet. In England, Savery's patent meant that Thomas Newcomen was forced to go into partnership with him. By 1712, arrangements had been between the two men to develop Newcomen's more advanced design of steam engine, which was marketed under Savery's patent, adding water tanks and pump rods so that deeper water mines could be accessed with steam power.Newcomen's engine worked purely by atmospheric pressure, thereby avoiding the dangers of high-pressure steam, and used the piston concept invented in 1690 by the Frenchman Denis Papin to produce the first steam engine capable of raising water from deep mines. When Denis Papin was back to London in 1707, he was asked by Newton, new President of The Royal Society after Robert Boyle, Papin's friend, to work with Savery, who worked for 5 years with Papin, but never gave any credit nor revenue to the French scientist. After his death in 1715 Savery's patent and Act of Parliament became vested in a company, The Proprietors of the Invention for Raising Water by Fire.This company issued licences to others for the building and operation of Newcomen engines, charging as much as £420 per year patent royalties for the construction of steam engines. In one case a colliery paid the Proprietors £200 per year and half their net profits "in return for their services in keeping the engine going". The Fire Engine Act did not expire until 1733, four years after the death of Newcomen. A newspaper in March 1702 announced that Savery's engines were ready for use and might be seen on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons at his workhouse in Salisbury Court, London, over against the Old Playhouse. One of his engines was set up at York Buildings in London. According to later descriptions this produced steam 'eight or ten times stronger than common air' (i.e. 8–10 atmospheres), but blew open the joints of the machine, forcing him to solder the joints with spelter. Another was built to control the water supply at Hampton Court, while another at Campden House in Kensington operated for 18 years. A few Savery engines were tried in mines, an unsuccessful attempt being made to use one to clear water from a pool called Broad Waters in Wednesbury (then in Staffordshire) and nearby coal mines. This had been covered by a sudden eruption of water some years before. However the engine could not be 'brought to answer'. The quantity of steam raised was so great as 'rent the whole machine to pieces'. The engine was laid aside, and the scheme for raising water was dropped as impracticable.This may have been in about 1705. Another engine was proposed in 1706 by George Sparrow at Newbold near Chesterfield, where a landowner was having difficulty in obtaining the consent of his neighbours for a sough to drain his coal. Nothing came of this, perhaps due to the explosion of the Broad Waters engine.It is also possible that an engine was tried at Wheal Vor, a copper mine in Cornwall. The Savery engine was much lower in capital cost than the Newcomen engine, with a 2 to 4 horsepower Savery engine costing from 150-200 GBP.It was also available in small sizes, down to one horsepower. Newcomen engines and early high pressure steam engines were larger and much more expensive. The larger size was due to the fact that piston steam engines became very inefficient in small sizes, at least until around 1900 when 2 horsepower piston engines were available. Savery type engines continued to be produced well into the late 18th century. Several later pumping systems may be based on Savery's pump. For example, the twin-chamber pulsometer steam pump was a successful development of it. |Wikisource has the text of the 1885–1900 Dictionary of National Biography's article about Thomas Savery .| |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thomas Savery| James Watt was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world. A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force is transformed, by a connecting rod and flywheel, into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is generally applied only to reciprocating engines as just described, not to the steam turbine. Thomas Newcomen was an English inventor who created the atmospheric engine, the first practical fuel-burning engine in 1712. He was an ironmonger by trade and a Baptist lay preacher by calling. He was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England, to a merchant family and baptised at St. Saviour's Church on 28 February 1664. In those days flooding in coal and tin mines was a major problem, and Newcomen was soon engaged in trying to improve ways to pump out the water from such mines. His ironmonger's business specialised in designing, manufacturing and selling tools for the mining industry. The atmospheric engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, and is often referred to simply as a Newcomen engine. The engine was operated by condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum which allowed the atmospheric pressure to push the piston into the cylinder. It was the first practical device to harness steam to produce mechanical work. Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump water out of mines. Hundreds were constructed through the 18th century. The Watt steam engine, alternatively known as the Boulton and Watt steam engine, was an early steam engine and was one of the driving forces of the industrial revolution. James Watt developed the design sporadically from 1763 to 1775 with support from Matthew Boulton. Watt's design saved so much more fuel compared with earlier designs that they were licensed based on the amount of fuel they would save. Watt never ceased developing the steam engine, introducing double-acting designs and various systems for taking off rotary power. Watt's design became synonymous with steam engines, and it was many years before significantly new designs began to replace the basic Watt design. Steam power developed slowly over a period of several hundred years, progressing through expensive and fairly limited devices in the early 17th century, to useful pumps for mining in 1700, and then to Watt's improved steam engine designs in the late 18th century. It is these later designs, introduced just when the need for practical power was growing due to the Industrial Revolution, that truly made steam power commonplace. Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the first engines had been used to pump water from deep workings. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but by using a steam engine a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. Water power varied with the seasons and was not always available. A beam engine is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine directly driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall. The efficiency of the engines was improved by engineers including James Watt, who added a separate condenser; Jonathan Hornblower and Arthur Woolf, who compounded the cylinders; and William McNaught, who devised a method of compounding an existing engine. Beam engines were first used to pump water out of mines or into canals, but could be used to pump water to supplement the flow for a waterwheel powering a mill. This Timeline of heat engine technology describes how heat engines have been known since antiquity but have been made into increasingly useful devices since the 17th century as a better understanding of the processes involved was gained. They continue to be developed today. A Cornish engine is a type of steam engine developed in Cornwall, England, mainly for pumping water from a mine. It is a form of beam engine that uses steam at a higher pressure than the earlier engines designed by James Watt. The engines were also used for powering man engines to assist the underground miners' journeys to and from their working levels, for winching materials into and out of the mine, and for powering on-site ore stamping machinery. The steam digester is a high-pressure cooker invented by French physicist Denis Papin in 1679. It is a device for extracting fats from bones in a high-pressure steam environment, which also renders them brittle enough to be easily ground into bone meal. It is the forerunner of the autoclave and the domestic pressure cooker. The first recorded rudimentary steam engine was the aeolipile described by Heron of Alexandria in 1st-century Roman Egypt. Several steam-powered devices were later experimented with or proposed, such as Taqi al-Din's steam jack, a steam turbine in 16th-century Ottoman Egypt, and Thomas Savery's steam pump in 17th-century England. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine became the first commercially successful engine using the principle of the piston and cylinder, which was the fundamental type of steam engine used until the early 20th century. The steam engine was used to pump water out of coal mines. The Whitbread Engine preserved in the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia, built in 1785, is one of the first rotative steam engines ever built, and is the oldest surviving. A rotative engine is a type of beam engine where the reciprocating motion of the beam is converted to rotary motion, producing a continuous power source suitable for driving machinery. Shudehill Mill or Simpson's Mill was a very early cotton mill in Manchester city centre, England. It was built in 1782 by for Richard Arkwright and his partners and destroyed by fire in 1854. It was rebuilt and finally destroyed during the Manchester Blitz in 1940. One of Arkwright's larger mills, it was built three years before his patent lapsed. The mill had a 30 feet diameter water wheel and a Newcomen atmospheric engine was installed. Doubts remain as to why the engine was installed, whether it was a failed attempt to power a mill directly by steam or was modified to assist the wheel. It is possible that this engine, constructed by Hunt, could have been one of the 13 engines installed in Manchester mills by Joshua Wrigley. Water from the upper storage pond turned the water wheel to drive the mill. The steam engine recycled water from the lower storage pond to the upper storage pond. Three more Boulton and Watt engines were installed to power the increasing number of spindles. Old Bess is an early beam engine built by the partnership of Boulton and Watt. The engine was constructed in 1777 and worked until 1848. A water-returning engine was an early form of stationary steam engine, developed at the start of the Industrial Revolution in the middle of the 18th century. The first beam engines did not generate power by rotating a shaft but were developed as water pumps, mostly for draining mines. By coupling this pump with a water wheel, they could be used to drive machinery. A cataract was a speed governing device used for early single-acting beam engines, particularly atmospheric engines and Cornish engines. Resolution was an early beam engine, installed between 1781–1782 at Coalbrookdale as a water-returning engine to power the blast furnaces and ironworks there. It was one of the last water-returning engines to be constructed, before the rotative beam engine made this type of engine obsolete. The Newcomen Memorial Engine is a preserved beam engine in Dartmouth, Devon. It was preserved as a memorial to Thomas Newcomen, inventor of the beam engine, who was born in Dartmouth. Mine dewatering is the action of removing groundwater from a mine.
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This famous nineteenth century painting by W. F. Yeames, shows a Royalist family who have been captured by the enemy. The boy is being questioned about the whereabouts of his father by a panel of Parliamentarians. Although the picture was not painted until the nineteenth century it is a fairly valuable Secondary source about the Civil War. Boy in Blue We can tell from the boy’s clothes that he is a Royalist. The title of the painting is ‘And when did you last see your father?’ – so we can guess that he is being questioned as to the whereabouts of his father. Possibly his father is commander of a Royalist army and the Parliamentarians are hoping to gain knowledge of their whereabouts. The girl is dressed in Royalist clothing so we can assume that she is the boy’s sister. She is crying, probably because she is afraid of what the soldiers might do to her family. Two Women in the Background We can tell by their clothes that they are Royalists. The lady at the back is hiding behind the other and seems to be more afraid. The lady in the front does not seem so afraid and is looking directly at the interrogators. The lady hiding could be an older sister and the tall lady in the front their mother. Another possible interpretation is that the lady dressed in green is the children’s mother while the one dressed in black is a maidservant. The maidservant could have informed the Parliamentarians that the family is hiding something. We know that this man is a sergeant because he is carrying a halberd and they were always carried by sergeants from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. He is the man who has arrested the family and has brought them before the Parliamentarians for questioning. However, he does not seem too happy with his task. The arm around the girl seems to be comforting rather than arresting and he is not looking directly at the scene in front of him. We can guess that maybe he has a family of his own and feels that questioning of children in this way is wrong. Man on the Bench This man is a cavalry officer. We know this because of the long riding boots that he is wearing. He is watching the interrogation of the boy with interest. This is an important piece of evidence in this picture because it tells us the identity of the man holding it. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, a sergeant always carried a halberd, therefore we know that the man in the picture is the sergeant who has arrested the family. This man is a clerk. He is writing down everything that is said. His presence also makes the scene more official as the interrogation is clearly being carried out as if it were a court case. Man in the Corner This man is almost hidden by the shadows in the room. However, he is looking directly at the boy and seems assured that the family is guilty. He holds in his arms a number of books, probably literature that had been forbidden by the Puritans. He seems to be happy that it is he that holds the evidence of the Royalist nature of the family and he is enjoying seeing the distress of the family. This is the man who is questioning the boy. However, he does not seem as intimidating as the other Parliamentarians in the room. He is leaning forward with his chin resting on his hands and from his expression seems almost sympathetic towards the boy. Possibly he is tired of having to carry out such tasks and believes that the war against the King should be won on the battlefield and not through the interrogation of women and children. Man in Black Dressed in black with white collar and sitting bolt upright on the bench, this man is a typical Puritan figure. He stares at the boy with a stern expression on his face. He seems glad that another Royalist family has been discovered and probably believes that they deserve harsh punishment. Man at the Edge of the Picture This man, like the one in the centre of the picture, is sprawled on the bench. He is wearing a heavy looking brown coat of the type worn by cavalrymen. He appears to be present as an onlooker rather than a member of the interrogation team. Possibly he is hoping for some information that will help his own cavalry to be victorious over the Royalists. This leather cowboy-type of hat was worn by cavalry men during the Civil War. It looks as though it would not give much protection to the wearer, but many men wore a metal skull cap under their hats so that their heads were protected. An Alternative Interpretation John Adair, in his authoritative book ‘By The Sword Divided’, states that the two children were those belonging to one Bulstrode Whitelocke of Fawley Court near Henley. Whitelocke was a lawyer of some note and it is not clear which side he supported but it is clear that his house was ransacked by the Royalists in the first instance and then sometime later by Parliament forces. The picture was painted in Victorian times and the scene being portrayed was played out very early in the conflict before any major battles had been fought and it was still fairly difficult to distinguish between the two sides. It seems that Whitelocke was absent when the Royalists arrived and an assistant of the household removed the two children to his own house and that is where they were ‘interviewed’ by Sir Thomas Byron, a Cavalier of some rank. It is he who is depicted sitting at the table resting his chin on his hands. Although the painting portrays a somewhat threatening scene, the eye witness, Whitelocke’s assistant, Cooke, stated that no harm befell the children and certainly no harm came to Whitelocke during the course of the war. This post is part of our larger historical resource on the English Civil War. For a comprehensive overview of the English Civil War, click here. Cite This Article"When Did You Last See Your Father?" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/when-did-you-last-see-your-father> More Citation Information.
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This famous nineteenth century painting by W. F. Yeames, shows a Royalist family who have been captured by the enemy. The boy is being questioned about the whereabouts of his father by a panel of Parliamentarians. Although the picture was not painted until the nineteenth century it is a fairly valuable Secondary source about the Civil War. Boy in Blue We can tell from the boy’s clothes that he is a Royalist. The title of the painting is ‘And when did you last see your father?’ – so we can guess that he is being questioned as to the whereabouts of his father. Possibly his father is commander of a Royalist army and the Parliamentarians are hoping to gain knowledge of their whereabouts. The girl is dressed in Royalist clothing so we can assume that she is the boy’s sister. She is crying, probably because she is afraid of what the soldiers might do to her family. Two Women in the Background We can tell by their clothes that they are Royalists. The lady at the back is hiding behind the other and seems to be more afraid. The lady in the front does not seem so afraid and is looking directly at the interrogators. The lady hiding could be an older sister and the tall lady in the front their mother. Another possible interpretation is that the lady dressed in green is the children’s mother while the one dressed in black is a maidservant. The maidservant could have informed the Parliamentarians that the family is hiding something. We know that this man is a sergeant because he is carrying a halberd and they were always carried by sergeants from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. He is the man who has arrested the family and has brought them before the Parliamentarians for questioning. However, he does not seem too happy with his task. The arm around the girl seems to be comforting rather than arresting and he is not looking directly at the scene in front of him. We can guess that maybe he has a family of his own and feels that questioning of children in this way is wrong. Man on the Bench This man is a cavalry officer. We know this because of the long riding boots that he is wearing. He is watching the interrogation of the boy with interest. This is an important piece of evidence in this picture because it tells us the identity of the man holding it. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, a sergeant always carried a halberd, therefore we know that the man in the picture is the sergeant who has arrested the family. This man is a clerk. He is writing down everything that is said. His presence also makes the scene more official as the interrogation is clearly being carried out as if it were a court case. Man in the Corner This man is almost hidden by the shadows in the room. However, he is looking directly at the boy and seems assured that the family is guilty. He holds in his arms a number of books, probably literature that had been forbidden by the Puritans. He seems to be happy that it is he that holds the evidence of the Royalist nature of the family and he is enjoying seeing the distress of the family. This is the man who is questioning the boy. However, he does not seem as intimidating as the other Parliamentarians in the room. He is leaning forward with his chin resting on his hands and from his expression seems almost sympathetic towards the boy. Possibly he is tired of having to carry out such tasks and believes that the war against the King should be won on the battlefield and not through the interrogation of women and children. Man in Black Dressed in black with white collar and sitting bolt upright on the bench, this man is a typical Puritan figure. He stares at the boy with a stern expression on his face. He seems glad that another Royalist family has been discovered and probably believes that they deserve harsh punishment. Man at the Edge of the Picture This man, like the one in the centre of the picture, is sprawled on the bench. He is wearing a heavy looking brown coat of the type worn by cavalrymen. He appears to be present as an onlooker rather than a member of the interrogation team. Possibly he is hoping for some information that will help his own cavalry to be victorious over the Royalists. This leather cowboy-type of hat was worn by cavalry men during the Civil War. It looks as though it would not give much protection to the wearer, but many men wore a metal skull cap under their hats so that their heads were protected. An Alternative Interpretation John Adair, in his authoritative book ‘By The Sword Divided’, states that the two children were those belonging to one Bulstrode Whitelocke of Fawley Court near Henley. Whitelocke was a lawyer of some note and it is not clear which side he supported but it is clear that his house was ransacked by the Royalists in the first instance and then sometime later by Parliament forces. The picture was painted in Victorian times and the scene being portrayed was played out very early in the conflict before any major battles had been fought and it was still fairly difficult to distinguish between the two sides. It seems that Whitelocke was absent when the Royalists arrived and an assistant of the household removed the two children to his own house and that is where they were ‘interviewed’ by Sir Thomas Byron, a Cavalier of some rank. It is he who is depicted sitting at the table resting his chin on his hands. Although the painting portrays a somewhat threatening scene, the eye witness, Whitelocke’s assistant, Cooke, stated that no harm befell the children and certainly no harm came to Whitelocke during the course of the war. This post is part of our larger historical resource on the English Civil War. For a comprehensive overview of the English Civil War, click here. Cite This Article"When Did You Last See Your Father?" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/when-did-you-last-see-your-father> More Citation Information.
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William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer’s plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare’s mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the aughter of a local farmer, she was related to a family of considerable wealth and social standing. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare’s were well respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was a exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon which ran through the town allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare’s’ poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare’s son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare’s other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare’s career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city’s repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their udience. Scholars know that Shakespeare belonged to one of the most popular acting companies in London called The Lord Chamberlain’s Men. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group from 1594 for the rest of his career. By 1594, at least six of Shakespeare’s plays had been produced. During Shakespeare’s life, there were two monarchs who ruled England. They were Henry the eighth and Elizabeth the first. Both were impressed with Shakespeare which made his name known. There is evidence that he was a member of a traveling theater group, and a schoolmaster. In 1594, he became an actor and playwright for Lord Chamberlain’s Men. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theater. He also was a part owner of the Blackfriars Theater as of 1609. Shakespeare retired to Stratford in 1613 where he wrote many of his excellent plays. There are many reasons as to why William Shakespeare is so famous. He is generally considered to be both the greatest dramatist the world has ever known as well as the finest poet who has written in the English language. Many reasons can be given for Shakespeare’s enormous appeal. His fame basically is from his great understanding of human nature. He was able to find universal human qualities and ut them in a dramatic situation creating characters that are timeless. Yet he had the ability to create characters that are highly individual human beings. Their struggles in life are universal. Sometimes they are successful and sometimes their lives are full of pain, suffering, and failure. In addition to his understanding and realistic view of human nature, Shakespeare had a vast knowledge of a variety of subjects. These subjects include music, law, Bible, stage, art, politics, history, hunting, and sports. Shakespeare had a tremendous influence on culture and literature throughout the world. He contributed reatly to the development of the English language. Many words and phrases from Shakespeare’s plays and poems have become part of our speech. Shakespeare’s plays and poems have become a required part of education in the United States. Therefore, his ideas on subjects such as romantic love, heroism, comedy, and tragedy have helped shape the attitudes of millions of people. His portrayal of historical figures and events have influenced our thinking more than what has been written in history books. The world has admired and respected many great writers, but only Shakespeare has generated such enormous continuing interest. My source states explanations rather than opinions on why Shakespeare’s contributions to literature are so vast. My source devoted thirty pages to William Shakespeare. Shakespeare’s plays are usually divided into three major categories. These are comedy, tragedy, and history. Three plays which are in the category of comedy are “The Comedy of Errors”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, and “The Two Gentlemen of Verone”. Three plays which are in the category of tragedy are “Romeo and Juliet”, “Titus Andronicus”, and “Julius Caesar”. In the category of history, three plays are “Henry V”, “Richard II”, and “Richard III”.
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William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer’s plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare’s mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the aughter of a local farmer, she was related to a family of considerable wealth and social standing. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare’s were well respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was a exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon which ran through the town allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare’s’ poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare’s son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare’s other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare’s career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city’s repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their udience. Scholars know that Shakespeare belonged to one of the most popular acting companies in London called The Lord Chamberlain’s Men. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group from 1594 for the rest of his career. By 1594, at least six of Shakespeare’s plays had been produced. During Shakespeare’s life, there were two monarchs who ruled England. They were Henry the eighth and Elizabeth the first. Both were impressed with Shakespeare which made his name known. There is evidence that he was a member of a traveling theater group, and a schoolmaster. In 1594, he became an actor and playwright for Lord Chamberlain’s Men. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theater. He also was a part owner of the Blackfriars Theater as of 1609. Shakespeare retired to Stratford in 1613 where he wrote many of his excellent plays. There are many reasons as to why William Shakespeare is so famous. He is generally considered to be both the greatest dramatist the world has ever known as well as the finest poet who has written in the English language. Many reasons can be given for Shakespeare’s enormous appeal. His fame basically is from his great understanding of human nature. He was able to find universal human qualities and ut them in a dramatic situation creating characters that are timeless. Yet he had the ability to create characters that are highly individual human beings. Their struggles in life are universal. Sometimes they are successful and sometimes their lives are full of pain, suffering, and failure. In addition to his understanding and realistic view of human nature, Shakespeare had a vast knowledge of a variety of subjects. These subjects include music, law, Bible, stage, art, politics, history, hunting, and sports. Shakespeare had a tremendous influence on culture and literature throughout the world. He contributed reatly to the development of the English language. Many words and phrases from Shakespeare’s plays and poems have become part of our speech. Shakespeare’s plays and poems have become a required part of education in the United States. Therefore, his ideas on subjects such as romantic love, heroism, comedy, and tragedy have helped shape the attitudes of millions of people. His portrayal of historical figures and events have influenced our thinking more than what has been written in history books. The world has admired and respected many great writers, but only Shakespeare has generated such enormous continuing interest. My source states explanations rather than opinions on why Shakespeare’s contributions to literature are so vast. My source devoted thirty pages to William Shakespeare. Shakespeare’s plays are usually divided into three major categories. These are comedy, tragedy, and history. Three plays which are in the category of comedy are “The Comedy of Errors”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, and “The Two Gentlemen of Verone”. Three plays which are in the category of tragedy are “Romeo and Juliet”, “Titus Andronicus”, and “Julius Caesar”. In the category of history, three plays are “Henry V”, “Richard II”, and “Richard III”.
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American Civil War was not just the war of ideology According to fundamentalist historians the American Civil War was not just the war of ideology: freedom versus slavery.The more significant reason was the power struggle initiated between free states and slave states due to the economic and political implications of slavery.Why common people chose to join the forces to fight this war, can be understood more clearly if this rationale is kept in mind. A northerner might have been more concerned about the independence of the south than slavery itself. While the southerner might have felt that secession would prevent the north from empowering the southern culture. This power struggle caused adversity and pain for millions of people, which is almost impossible to determine. As a direct consequence of the war, more than 350,000 Union soldiers were killed, while The Confederacy lost more than 250,000. The lives of civil war soldiers were specially hard and arduous because they were mostly under-prepared and under-equipped. When they first joined the army, they were housed in spacious barracks, but once they received their marching orders they were condemned the tent. In camp, the soldiers had to live in “dog tents” made from two pieces of canvas buttoned together. A majority of confederate soldiers weren’t issued any tents, so most of them had to contend with tents captured from the Union soldiers. In the winter, several soldiers would live in wooden huts made from logs and mud with a roof made from canvas or sawn boards (Gettysburg). Reveille was sounded to begin the day at 5 AM, followed by an assembly for morning roll call and breakfast call. Sick call was sounded soon after breakfast, followed by assemblies for guard duty, drill, or to begin the march. Drummers were also important on the march to keep soldiers in step during parades and to call them to attention. In battle, drums were sometimes used to signal maneuvers and give signals for the ranks to load and fire their weapons. Soldiers drilled as squads and in company formations, each man getting accustomed to orders and formations such as marching in column and in a “company front”, how to face properly, dress the line, and interact with his fellow soldiers. After an hour of drill on that level, the company moved onto regimental level drills and parades. The Union private’s salary was $13 per month until June ’64, after which he got $16. The Confederate private was paid at the pre-war rate of $11 per month until June ’64, when the pay raised $7 per month. Soldiers were supposed to be paid every two months in the field, but they were lucky if they got their pay at four-month intervals (in the Union Army) and sometimes they even went six to eight months without being paid. Payment in the Confederate Army was even slower and less regular (Boatner). The types of food that were provided to the soldiers were limited because as they did not have any way of preserving the food. Meats were salted or smoked while other items such as fruits and vegetables were dried or canned. Daily rations for Union soldiers included 12 oz of pork or bacon or 1 lb. 4 oz of fresh or salt beef; 1 lb. 6 oz of soft bread or flour, 1 lb. of hard bread, or 1 lb. 4 oz of cornmeal. Per every 100 rations there was issued 1 peck of beans or peas; 10 lb. of rice or hominy; 10 lb. of green coffee, 8 lb. of roasted and ground coffee, or 1 lb. 8 oz of tea; 15 lb. of sugar; 1 lb. 4 oz of candles, 4 lb. of soap; 1 qt of molasses. In addition to or as substitutes for other items, dried vegetables, fruit, pickles, or pickled cabbage might be issued (Boatner). Confederate rations were smaller in quantity but essentially the same. It was up to the soldiers to find ways of cooking their own food. The most common diet of both armies was hard bread, or “hardtack.” This was the easiest for the soldiers to carry when on the march. The hardtack cracker became an item of humor to the soldiers of both sides because it was such an outrage. With rations sometimes being issued at an irregular rate, the soldier had to turn to foraging. Turkeys, geese, chickens, ham, bread and anything edible was taken (Vasile). Some men turned into obsessive foragers, spending most of the day reinforcing their possessions in any way possible. Most of these were never to be found on the field of battle. The soldiers were not provided with summer fatigues as were during later wars. The basic uniform material was wool. The average Union soldier had to carry about fifty pounds of gear and clothing which included: a musket, bayonet, cartridge box (40 rounds), belt, cap, pouch, haversack, canteen, knapsack, blanket, shelter half, winter greatcoat, tin cup and plate, and leggings. This cost the Federal Government about forty-two dollars per man in 1861 (Vasile). The soldiers would get rid some of the more unnecessary items, but would later regret throwing away the items like the greatcoat come winter. Most of the free time was spent writing letters home at every opportunity. It was the only method of communication with family. Some even sent home money to support their families. Mail day caused huge celebration in the camp and distress when it was delayed. Union soldiers could so to the sutler’s store to barter for toiletries, canned fruit, etc at inflated prices. Confederates did not have the luxury of sutlers, which disappeared soon after the war began. Instead they depended on the generosity of folks at home or farmers and businessmen near the camps (Gettysburg). Many of the men attended church services on a regular basis and some even carried small testaments with the rest of their baggage. Discipline in the military was very strict. Petty offenses such as shirking camp duty or not keeping equipment in good order were usually treated with extra duties such as digging latrines, chopping wood, or standing extra hours on guard duty. “Bucking and gagging” was also common punishment- the soldier’s limbs were bound and he was gagged so he could not speak. In the artillery, the guilty person might be tied to the spare wheel on the back of a caisson. Desertion, spying, treachery, murder, or threats on an officer’s life were the most serious offenses to which the perpetrator was condemned to military prison or shot by a firing squad. Crimes committed against civilians were also punishable by the army and felons were executed by hanging before a formation of soldiers. The boredom of camp life, the drill, the sickness and loneliness all became secondary and seemed to be forgotten on the day of the battle. Although fighting consumed a small portion of the soldier’s actual time in the service, the thought of it was never far from his mind. They were all afraid. But they were not only afraid of being killed or wounded. They also had a dread of losing their nerve in combat and running from the battlefield. This would bring shame upon themselves and their regiments (Vasile). The lack of medical knowledge, failure to provide ample antiseptics to wounds and the horrible effects of modern weapons forced doctors to favor amputation in most cases. Unsanitary conditions existed virtually in every soldier’s camp during the war. Unsuitable or inadequate clothing, unhealthy food and contaminated water contributed to diseases. The adoption of an ambulance corps and field hospital system also helped the wounded in their time of need. Until it was established, there was no way for the wounded to be evacuated to the rear and receive proper medical care (Vasile). The end of the war in 1865 brought a welcome peace, especially for the men who served as soldiers. Armies were disbanded and regiments mustered out of service. Former soldiers returned to the farms and stores they had left so long ago
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American Civil War was not just the war of ideology According to fundamentalist historians the American Civil War was not just the war of ideology: freedom versus slavery.The more significant reason was the power struggle initiated between free states and slave states due to the economic and political implications of slavery.Why common people chose to join the forces to fight this war, can be understood more clearly if this rationale is kept in mind. A northerner might have been more concerned about the independence of the south than slavery itself. While the southerner might have felt that secession would prevent the north from empowering the southern culture. This power struggle caused adversity and pain for millions of people, which is almost impossible to determine. As a direct consequence of the war, more than 350,000 Union soldiers were killed, while The Confederacy lost more than 250,000. The lives of civil war soldiers were specially hard and arduous because they were mostly under-prepared and under-equipped. When they first joined the army, they were housed in spacious barracks, but once they received their marching orders they were condemned the tent. In camp, the soldiers had to live in “dog tents” made from two pieces of canvas buttoned together. A majority of confederate soldiers weren’t issued any tents, so most of them had to contend with tents captured from the Union soldiers. In the winter, several soldiers would live in wooden huts made from logs and mud with a roof made from canvas or sawn boards (Gettysburg). Reveille was sounded to begin the day at 5 AM, followed by an assembly for morning roll call and breakfast call. Sick call was sounded soon after breakfast, followed by assemblies for guard duty, drill, or to begin the march. Drummers were also important on the march to keep soldiers in step during parades and to call them to attention. In battle, drums were sometimes used to signal maneuvers and give signals for the ranks to load and fire their weapons. Soldiers drilled as squads and in company formations, each man getting accustomed to orders and formations such as marching in column and in a “company front”, how to face properly, dress the line, and interact with his fellow soldiers. After an hour of drill on that level, the company moved onto regimental level drills and parades. The Union private’s salary was $13 per month until June ’64, after which he got $16. The Confederate private was paid at the pre-war rate of $11 per month until June ’64, when the pay raised $7 per month. Soldiers were supposed to be paid every two months in the field, but they were lucky if they got their pay at four-month intervals (in the Union Army) and sometimes they even went six to eight months without being paid. Payment in the Confederate Army was even slower and less regular (Boatner). The types of food that were provided to the soldiers were limited because as they did not have any way of preserving the food. Meats were salted or smoked while other items such as fruits and vegetables were dried or canned. Daily rations for Union soldiers included 12 oz of pork or bacon or 1 lb. 4 oz of fresh or salt beef; 1 lb. 6 oz of soft bread or flour, 1 lb. of hard bread, or 1 lb. 4 oz of cornmeal. Per every 100 rations there was issued 1 peck of beans or peas; 10 lb. of rice or hominy; 10 lb. of green coffee, 8 lb. of roasted and ground coffee, or 1 lb. 8 oz of tea; 15 lb. of sugar; 1 lb. 4 oz of candles, 4 lb. of soap; 1 qt of molasses. In addition to or as substitutes for other items, dried vegetables, fruit, pickles, or pickled cabbage might be issued (Boatner). Confederate rations were smaller in quantity but essentially the same. It was up to the soldiers to find ways of cooking their own food. The most common diet of both armies was hard bread, or “hardtack.” This was the easiest for the soldiers to carry when on the march. The hardtack cracker became an item of humor to the soldiers of both sides because it was such an outrage. With rations sometimes being issued at an irregular rate, the soldier had to turn to foraging. Turkeys, geese, chickens, ham, bread and anything edible was taken (Vasile). Some men turned into obsessive foragers, spending most of the day reinforcing their possessions in any way possible. Most of these were never to be found on the field of battle. The soldiers were not provided with summer fatigues as were during later wars. The basic uniform material was wool. The average Union soldier had to carry about fifty pounds of gear and clothing which included: a musket, bayonet, cartridge box (40 rounds), belt, cap, pouch, haversack, canteen, knapsack, blanket, shelter half, winter greatcoat, tin cup and plate, and leggings. This cost the Federal Government about forty-two dollars per man in 1861 (Vasile). The soldiers would get rid some of the more unnecessary items, but would later regret throwing away the items like the greatcoat come winter. Most of the free time was spent writing letters home at every opportunity. It was the only method of communication with family. Some even sent home money to support their families. Mail day caused huge celebration in the camp and distress when it was delayed. Union soldiers could so to the sutler’s store to barter for toiletries, canned fruit, etc at inflated prices. Confederates did not have the luxury of sutlers, which disappeared soon after the war began. Instead they depended on the generosity of folks at home or farmers and businessmen near the camps (Gettysburg). Many of the men attended church services on a regular basis and some even carried small testaments with the rest of their baggage. Discipline in the military was very strict. Petty offenses such as shirking camp duty or not keeping equipment in good order were usually treated with extra duties such as digging latrines, chopping wood, or standing extra hours on guard duty. “Bucking and gagging” was also common punishment- the soldier’s limbs were bound and he was gagged so he could not speak. In the artillery, the guilty person might be tied to the spare wheel on the back of a caisson. Desertion, spying, treachery, murder, or threats on an officer’s life were the most serious offenses to which the perpetrator was condemned to military prison or shot by a firing squad. Crimes committed against civilians were also punishable by the army and felons were executed by hanging before a formation of soldiers. The boredom of camp life, the drill, the sickness and loneliness all became secondary and seemed to be forgotten on the day of the battle. Although fighting consumed a small portion of the soldier’s actual time in the service, the thought of it was never far from his mind. They were all afraid. But they were not only afraid of being killed or wounded. They also had a dread of losing their nerve in combat and running from the battlefield. This would bring shame upon themselves and their regiments (Vasile). The lack of medical knowledge, failure to provide ample antiseptics to wounds and the horrible effects of modern weapons forced doctors to favor amputation in most cases. Unsanitary conditions existed virtually in every soldier’s camp during the war. Unsuitable or inadequate clothing, unhealthy food and contaminated water contributed to diseases. The adoption of an ambulance corps and field hospital system also helped the wounded in their time of need. Until it was established, there was no way for the wounded to be evacuated to the rear and receive proper medical care (Vasile). The end of the war in 1865 brought a welcome peace, especially for the men who served as soldiers. Armies were disbanded and regiments mustered out of service. Former soldiers returned to the farms and stores they had left so long ago
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Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe has many important lessons and perspectives that are relevant to a senior in high school. It discusses many serious concepts such as racism and religion. Many high schoolers today aren’t aware enough of the serious issues that our society faces. Things Fall Apart is able to put key issues in the forefront. One of the biggest problems in our world today is racism. Things Fall Apart is able to shed light on the problem to get high schoolers thinking about it. Many people believe that racism isn’t still a real problem but it is still an ongoing battle. Things Fall Apart is able to show the perspective of people who are directly affected by racism and its repercussions.Okonkwo and his village are mistreated by white colonists and missionaries who have no right to even step foot on the village’s grounds. “The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers, and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart.” (176). The whites are unnecessarily invading villages for no reason other than pure racism. The missionaries attempt to convert entire villages to Christianity even though they already have an established religion without any problems.The whites deceived the villages and made them do exactly what they wanted to. They took away their culture, religion, and way of living. Umofia and the other villages were taken over without a just reason. The villages faced many issues inside and outside their village. Another key issue that high schoolers could learn from is the use of gender roles and stereotypes throughout the book. The men in the villages don’t look at women as equal to men. Okonkwo believes that females are weak and can’t fight or be as strong as males. Okonkwo avoided seeming weak at all costs “Okonkwo never showed any emotion openly, unless it be the emotion of anger. To show affection was a sign of weakness; the only thing worth demonstrating was strength.” (28). Okonkwo wished his daughter, Ezinma, had been born a boy. Even though Okonkwo thought highly of his daughter, he still wasn’t satisfied with her purely because of her gender and the stereotypes the villages associated with females. “No matter how prosperous a man was, if he was unable to rule his women and his children (and especially his women) he was not really a man… Nwoye knew that it was right to be masculine and to be violent, but somehow he still preferred the stories that his mother used to tell, and which she no doubt still told to her younger children.” (53). There are many serious concepts and issues that a senior in high school could learn from. Things Fall Apart is an important novel that allows high schoolers think about issues that are bigger than themselves. The novel is thought invoking and creates a possible conversation on serious issues such as racism, religion, and gender stereotypes. Things Fall Apart is a very relevant piece of literature to a senior.
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Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe has many important lessons and perspectives that are relevant to a senior in high school. It discusses many serious concepts such as racism and religion. Many high schoolers today aren’t aware enough of the serious issues that our society faces. Things Fall Apart is able to put key issues in the forefront. One of the biggest problems in our world today is racism. Things Fall Apart is able to shed light on the problem to get high schoolers thinking about it. Many people believe that racism isn’t still a real problem but it is still an ongoing battle. Things Fall Apart is able to show the perspective of people who are directly affected by racism and its repercussions.Okonkwo and his village are mistreated by white colonists and missionaries who have no right to even step foot on the village’s grounds. “The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers, and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart.” (176). The whites are unnecessarily invading villages for no reason other than pure racism. The missionaries attempt to convert entire villages to Christianity even though they already have an established religion without any problems.The whites deceived the villages and made them do exactly what they wanted to. They took away their culture, religion, and way of living. Umofia and the other villages were taken over without a just reason. The villages faced many issues inside and outside their village. Another key issue that high schoolers could learn from is the use of gender roles and stereotypes throughout the book. The men in the villages don’t look at women as equal to men. Okonkwo believes that females are weak and can’t fight or be as strong as males. Okonkwo avoided seeming weak at all costs “Okonkwo never showed any emotion openly, unless it be the emotion of anger. To show affection was a sign of weakness; the only thing worth demonstrating was strength.” (28). Okonkwo wished his daughter, Ezinma, had been born a boy. Even though Okonkwo thought highly of his daughter, he still wasn’t satisfied with her purely because of her gender and the stereotypes the villages associated with females. “No matter how prosperous a man was, if he was unable to rule his women and his children (and especially his women) he was not really a man… Nwoye knew that it was right to be masculine and to be violent, but somehow he still preferred the stories that his mother used to tell, and which she no doubt still told to her younger children.” (53). There are many serious concepts and issues that a senior in high school could learn from. Things Fall Apart is an important novel that allows high schoolers think about issues that are bigger than themselves. The novel is thought invoking and creates a possible conversation on serious issues such as racism, religion, and gender stereotypes. Things Fall Apart is a very relevant piece of literature to a senior.
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My son has autism and his speech is very limited. He is undergoing speech and language therapy at school and home. How can we as a family help to promote his speech? Here are some things you can do as a family. Eat together and let everyone at the table speak without interrupting them. Speak in clear, short sentences. Your son will learn from you. Don’t force him to repeat words until he gets it right or correct his speech. Instead say the correct words for him to hear but don’t expect him to repeat the words correctly right away. Try and ask your son open-ended questions and not questions that need ‘yes’ and ‘no’ as answers. While doing activities with your son, give him a simple commentary of what you are doing, like “We are colouring a train”. Give him time to respond and above all, don’t give up. Be patient and consistent.
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My son has autism and his speech is very limited. He is undergoing speech and language therapy at school and home. How can we as a family help to promote his speech? Here are some things you can do as a family. Eat together and let everyone at the table speak without interrupting them. Speak in clear, short sentences. Your son will learn from you. Don’t force him to repeat words until he gets it right or correct his speech. Instead say the correct words for him to hear but don’t expect him to repeat the words correctly right away. Try and ask your son open-ended questions and not questions that need ‘yes’ and ‘no’ as answers. While doing activities with your son, give him a simple commentary of what you are doing, like “We are colouring a train”. Give him time to respond and above all, don’t give up. Be patient and consistent.
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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Dull Knife, (born c. 1810, Rosebud River, Montana Territory [U.S.]—died 1883, Tongue River Indian Reservation, Montana Territory), chief of the northern Cheyenne who led his people on a desperate trek from confinement in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) to their home in Montana. He was known to his people as Morning Star. Five months after Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, the cavalry, on a punitive expedition, attacked Dull Knife’s camp on the Red Fork of Powder River (Nov. 25–26, 1876). Most of his tribe escaped, but their shelters, clothing, blankets, and stores of food were destroyed. By the time that Dull Knife surrendered to the Army, many of his people had succumbed to starvation or exposure. In 1877 the U.S. Army sent him and his tribe to a reservation of southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory. The land was unprofitable, there was little food, and the climate was unhealthy; within two months of their arrival in Oklahoma, two-thirds of the tribe were sick and many died. Dull Knife and other exiled northern Cheyenne leaders pleaded for a reservation for their people in their former territory, but to no avail. Fearing that his tribe would die out, Dull Knife, along with Little Wolf, a war chief of the northern Cheyenne, determined to go home, despite Army opposition. On Sept. 9, 1878, he and Little Wolf led what was left of their people from the reservation. Their combined band consisted of 89 warriors and 246 women and children. They traveled more than 400 miles, managing to defeat or elude the various Army detachments sent to bring them back (more than 10,000 soldiers were employed for this task). In October the Cheyenne crossed the South Platte River of Nebraska, and the followers of Little Wolf and Dull Knife separated. (Little Wolf’s band headed northwest, surrendered to the Army on March 25, 1879, and was allowed to remain in Montana.) Dull Knife and his people headed for the Red Cloud Agency, not knowing it had been discontinued. On Oct. 23, 1878, he and his people surrendered peaceably to the Army and were imprisoned in nearby Fort Robinson (Nebraska). When they refused to return to Oklahoma, an attempt was made (from Jan. 5, 1879) to starve them into submission, and the Indians were deprived of heat, food, and water. They broke out of prison on January 9, and, in their dash for freedom, 64 were killed and 78 were eventually recaptured (most of them wounded). Six people, including Dull Knife and surviving members of his family, escaped and made it to the relative safety of the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. By this time, public opinion was on the side of the Indians, forcing the Bureau of Indian Affairs to abandon its plans to relocate them, and a reservation was established for the northern Cheyenne on the Tongue and Rosebud rivers, where Dull Knife and his people (fewer than 80 remaining) were finally allowed to settle, rejoining Little Wolf’s band. The flight of the Cheyenne was described by Mari Sandoz in her work Cheyenne Autumn (1953). Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Plains IndianPlains Indian, member of any of the Native American peoples inhabiting the Great Plains of the United States and Canada. This culture area comprises a vast grassland between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and from present-day provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada through… American IndianAmerican Indian, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere. Eskimos (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleuts are often excluded from this category, because their closest genetic and cultural relations were and are with other Arctic peoples rather than with the groups to their… MontanaMontana, constituent state of the United States of America. Only three states—Alaska, Texas, and California—have an area larger than Montana’s, and only two states—Alaska and Wyoming—have a lower population density. Montana borders the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and…
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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Dull Knife, (born c. 1810, Rosebud River, Montana Territory [U.S.]—died 1883, Tongue River Indian Reservation, Montana Territory), chief of the northern Cheyenne who led his people on a desperate trek from confinement in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) to their home in Montana. He was known to his people as Morning Star. Five months after Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, the cavalry, on a punitive expedition, attacked Dull Knife’s camp on the Red Fork of Powder River (Nov. 25–26, 1876). Most of his tribe escaped, but their shelters, clothing, blankets, and stores of food were destroyed. By the time that Dull Knife surrendered to the Army, many of his people had succumbed to starvation or exposure. In 1877 the U.S. Army sent him and his tribe to a reservation of southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory. The land was unprofitable, there was little food, and the climate was unhealthy; within two months of their arrival in Oklahoma, two-thirds of the tribe were sick and many died. Dull Knife and other exiled northern Cheyenne leaders pleaded for a reservation for their people in their former territory, but to no avail. Fearing that his tribe would die out, Dull Knife, along with Little Wolf, a war chief of the northern Cheyenne, determined to go home, despite Army opposition. On Sept. 9, 1878, he and Little Wolf led what was left of their people from the reservation. Their combined band consisted of 89 warriors and 246 women and children. They traveled more than 400 miles, managing to defeat or elude the various Army detachments sent to bring them back (more than 10,000 soldiers were employed for this task). In October the Cheyenne crossed the South Platte River of Nebraska, and the followers of Little Wolf and Dull Knife separated. (Little Wolf’s band headed northwest, surrendered to the Army on March 25, 1879, and was allowed to remain in Montana.) Dull Knife and his people headed for the Red Cloud Agency, not knowing it had been discontinued. On Oct. 23, 1878, he and his people surrendered peaceably to the Army and were imprisoned in nearby Fort Robinson (Nebraska). When they refused to return to Oklahoma, an attempt was made (from Jan. 5, 1879) to starve them into submission, and the Indians were deprived of heat, food, and water. They broke out of prison on January 9, and, in their dash for freedom, 64 were killed and 78 were eventually recaptured (most of them wounded). Six people, including Dull Knife and surviving members of his family, escaped and made it to the relative safety of the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. By this time, public opinion was on the side of the Indians, forcing the Bureau of Indian Affairs to abandon its plans to relocate them, and a reservation was established for the northern Cheyenne on the Tongue and Rosebud rivers, where Dull Knife and his people (fewer than 80 remaining) were finally allowed to settle, rejoining Little Wolf’s band. The flight of the Cheyenne was described by Mari Sandoz in her work Cheyenne Autumn (1953). Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Plains IndianPlains Indian, member of any of the Native American peoples inhabiting the Great Plains of the United States and Canada. This culture area comprises a vast grassland between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and from present-day provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada through… American IndianAmerican Indian, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere. Eskimos (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleuts are often excluded from this category, because their closest genetic and cultural relations were and are with other Arctic peoples rather than with the groups to their… MontanaMontana, constituent state of the United States of America. Only three states—Alaska, Texas, and California—have an area larger than Montana’s, and only two states—Alaska and Wyoming—have a lower population density. Montana borders the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and…
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Little is known for certain of Cyril’s early life. He was born c. 376, in the small town of Didouseya, Egypt, modern-day El-Mahalla El-Kubra. A few years after his birth, his maternal uncle Theophilus rose to the powerful position of Patriarch of Alexandria. His mother remained close to her brother and under his guidance, Cyril was well educated. His writings show his knowledge of Christian writers of his day, including Eusebius, Origen, Didymus the Blind, and writers of the Church of Alexandria. He received the formal Christian education standard for his day: he studied grammar from age twelve to fourteen (390–392), rhetoric and humanities from fifteen to twenty (393–397) and finally theology and biblical studies (398–402). Recognized as a great teacher of the Church, Cyril began his career as archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt, with impulsive, often violent, actions. He pillaged and closed the churches of the Novatian heretics—who required those who denied the faith to be re-baptized—participated in the deposing of Saint John Chrysostom, and confiscated Jewish property, expelling the Jews from Alexandria in retaliation for their attacks on Christians. Cyril’s importance for theology and Church history lies in his championing the cause of orthodoxy against the heresy of Nestorius, who taught that in Christ there were two persons, one human and one divine. The controversy centered around the two natures in Christ. Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, would not agree to the title “Theotokos” or “God-bearer” for Mary. He preferred “Christ-bearer,” saying there are two distinct persons in Christ—divine and human—joined only by a moral union. According to Nestorius, Mary was not the mother of God but only of the man Christ, whose humanity was only a temple of God. Nestorianism implied that the humanity of Christ was a mere disguise.Read More »
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Little is known for certain of Cyril’s early life. He was born c. 376, in the small town of Didouseya, Egypt, modern-day El-Mahalla El-Kubra. A few years after his birth, his maternal uncle Theophilus rose to the powerful position of Patriarch of Alexandria. His mother remained close to her brother and under his guidance, Cyril was well educated. His writings show his knowledge of Christian writers of his day, including Eusebius, Origen, Didymus the Blind, and writers of the Church of Alexandria. He received the formal Christian education standard for his day: he studied grammar from age twelve to fourteen (390–392), rhetoric and humanities from fifteen to twenty (393–397) and finally theology and biblical studies (398–402). Recognized as a great teacher of the Church, Cyril began his career as archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt, with impulsive, often violent, actions. He pillaged and closed the churches of the Novatian heretics—who required those who denied the faith to be re-baptized—participated in the deposing of Saint John Chrysostom, and confiscated Jewish property, expelling the Jews from Alexandria in retaliation for their attacks on Christians. Cyril’s importance for theology and Church history lies in his championing the cause of orthodoxy against the heresy of Nestorius, who taught that in Christ there were two persons, one human and one divine. The controversy centered around the two natures in Christ. Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, would not agree to the title “Theotokos” or “God-bearer” for Mary. He preferred “Christ-bearer,” saying there are two distinct persons in Christ—divine and human—joined only by a moral union. According to Nestorius, Mary was not the mother of God but only of the man Christ, whose humanity was only a temple of God. Nestorianism implied that the humanity of Christ was a mere disguise.Read More »
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Jackie Robinson. Cameron Thueson. Madison High School. 1687 WordsJan 4, 20177 Pages Madison High School Jackie Robinson Introduction Only a few people in American history can say they 've completely changed their respective area of expertise. Jackie Robinson is one of those people. Jackie Robinson not only changed the sport of baseball, but the whole sports world as he braved racism, discrimination and segregation to break the racial and cultural barriers in the sports world. Jackie Robinson’s childhood had a direct impact on his professional career and also prepared him to face the challenges of racism. Shortly after Robinson was born in January 1919, his father, Jerry Robinson, left the family and was an absent figure in Jackie’s life. This left Jackie with…show more content… This, however, did not stop Robinson, he continued his athletic success and enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles. At U.C.L.A. Robinson became the first person in school history to letter in four sports in the same year. Robinson’s notoriety was beginning to grow, with more publicity came more hatred and Robinson knew he wouldn’t be able to stay at U.C.L.A.. Although Robinson wanted to wait and graduate from U.C.L.A., he was forced to leave the University, due to financial troubles. He pursued a career in professional football, and moved to Honolulu, Hawaii to sign with the semi-professional Honolulu Bears. Unfortunately, Robinson’s career with the Bears was cut short, due to the United States entering World War II. Life in the Military Shortly after the United States joined World War II, Robinson was drafted into the US Army in 1942. Jackie was drafted to a segregated cavalry unit in Kansas. While in the military Robinson continued to face extreme racism and injustice. While serving in the military, Robinson applied to Officer Candidate School and was denied. Shortly after being denied, Jackie applied again to get into the school, and again was denied. After several applications and some major pushing from the other colored soldiers, the school finally looked past the fact that Robinson was “black” and he was accepted. Robinson then became a Second Lieutenant in the United States Military.
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Jackie Robinson. Cameron Thueson. Madison High School. 1687 WordsJan 4, 20177 Pages Madison High School Jackie Robinson Introduction Only a few people in American history can say they 've completely changed their respective area of expertise. Jackie Robinson is one of those people. Jackie Robinson not only changed the sport of baseball, but the whole sports world as he braved racism, discrimination and segregation to break the racial and cultural barriers in the sports world. Jackie Robinson’s childhood had a direct impact on his professional career and also prepared him to face the challenges of racism. Shortly after Robinson was born in January 1919, his father, Jerry Robinson, left the family and was an absent figure in Jackie’s life. This left Jackie with…show more content… This, however, did not stop Robinson, he continued his athletic success and enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles. At U.C.L.A. Robinson became the first person in school history to letter in four sports in the same year. Robinson’s notoriety was beginning to grow, with more publicity came more hatred and Robinson knew he wouldn’t be able to stay at U.C.L.A.. Although Robinson wanted to wait and graduate from U.C.L.A., he was forced to leave the University, due to financial troubles. He pursued a career in professional football, and moved to Honolulu, Hawaii to sign with the semi-professional Honolulu Bears. Unfortunately, Robinson’s career with the Bears was cut short, due to the United States entering World War II. Life in the Military Shortly after the United States joined World War II, Robinson was drafted into the US Army in 1942. Jackie was drafted to a segregated cavalry unit in Kansas. While in the military Robinson continued to face extreme racism and injustice. While serving in the military, Robinson applied to Officer Candidate School and was denied. Shortly after being denied, Jackie applied again to get into the school, and again was denied. After several applications and some major pushing from the other colored soldiers, the school finally looked past the fact that Robinson was “black” and he was accepted. Robinson then became a Second Lieutenant in the United States Military.
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A Look at Athena $9.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now From the Paper:"In Greek mythology, Athena was well known as the goddess of wisdom, warfare, and crafts (agriculture, navigation, spinning, weaving, and needlework). She became Zeus's most beloved offspring and one of the most dominant of the twelve Olympian gods. Even though Athena had been praised in several cities, the Athenians acknowledged her to be their distinguished guardian and named their city after her. She gave Athens the gift of the olive tree, providing oil, food, and wood. Countless rulers requested her wisdom in both military and government affairs. As a war goddess, her main focus was on strategy rather than bloodshed; she was also an active participant in the Trojan War (Ancient Greece). Athena was a virgin goddess just like Artemis, the goddess of hunting. Romance and marriage did not give prominence to Athena's mythology. In Greek mythology Athena was, in essence, the prime example of the modern "career woman". Athena helped several heroes and took pleasure in their courage in battle. "The Birth of Athena: Athena is the daughter of Zeus (the ruler of the Gods) and Metis (the Goddess of Crafty Thought and Wisdom). It had been prophesized that if Metis had a son, he would be more powerful than the father. This meant that if Metis had a son from Zeus, then that son could overthrow Zeus. Frightened of this prospect, Zeus tricked Metis into transforming into a fly after he lay with her. As soon as she became a fly, he swallowed her. However, Metis was already pregnant and was making a helmet and an amour for the child within the fetus. Soon Zeus was plagued with killer headaches and he ran to Hephaestus and begged him to open his head. Hephaestus did as he was told, and out emerged Athena, full grown and ready for battle. (Ancient Greece)" Cite this Research Paper: A Look at Athena (2014, July 23) Retrieved January 24, 2020, from https://www.academon.com/research-paper/a-look-at-athena-153951/ "A Look at Athena" 23 July 2014. Web. 24 January. 2020. <https://www.academon.com/research-paper/a-look-at-athena-153951/>
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A Look at Athena $9.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now From the Paper:"In Greek mythology, Athena was well known as the goddess of wisdom, warfare, and crafts (agriculture, navigation, spinning, weaving, and needlework). She became Zeus's most beloved offspring and one of the most dominant of the twelve Olympian gods. Even though Athena had been praised in several cities, the Athenians acknowledged her to be their distinguished guardian and named their city after her. She gave Athens the gift of the olive tree, providing oil, food, and wood. Countless rulers requested her wisdom in both military and government affairs. As a war goddess, her main focus was on strategy rather than bloodshed; she was also an active participant in the Trojan War (Ancient Greece). Athena was a virgin goddess just like Artemis, the goddess of hunting. Romance and marriage did not give prominence to Athena's mythology. In Greek mythology Athena was, in essence, the prime example of the modern "career woman". Athena helped several heroes and took pleasure in their courage in battle. "The Birth of Athena: Athena is the daughter of Zeus (the ruler of the Gods) and Metis (the Goddess of Crafty Thought and Wisdom). It had been prophesized that if Metis had a son, he would be more powerful than the father. This meant that if Metis had a son from Zeus, then that son could overthrow Zeus. Frightened of this prospect, Zeus tricked Metis into transforming into a fly after he lay with her. As soon as she became a fly, he swallowed her. However, Metis was already pregnant and was making a helmet and an amour for the child within the fetus. Soon Zeus was plagued with killer headaches and he ran to Hephaestus and begged him to open his head. Hephaestus did as he was told, and out emerged Athena, full grown and ready for battle. (Ancient Greece)" Cite this Research Paper: A Look at Athena (2014, July 23) Retrieved January 24, 2020, from https://www.academon.com/research-paper/a-look-at-athena-153951/ "A Look at Athena" 23 July 2014. Web. 24 January. 2020. <https://www.academon.com/research-paper/a-look-at-athena-153951/>
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Worksheet: Missing Numbers in Subtraction Equations In this worksheet, we will practice finding any missing number in a subtraction equation when subtracting within 10. A young girl has 5 books in her library, and she read 2 of them. How many books does she still have to read? - A7 books - B5 books - C3 books - D2 books Goblins were attacking a castle. After 6 goblins were defeated, there were 3 left. How many goblins were there at the start? Find the missing number. How many blocks do you have to take away so that the number of blocks on each side is equal? Complete the following: William had $6. He drank coffee for . Now he has $1. How much did the coffee cost? Find the number that makes the equation correct. Mason drew this model to check that 9 is the missing number in the equation. When he took away 3 from 9, he was left with 6. Find the missing number in this equation. Draw a model to check your answer.
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Worksheet: Missing Numbers in Subtraction Equations In this worksheet, we will practice finding any missing number in a subtraction equation when subtracting within 10. A young girl has 5 books in her library, and she read 2 of them. How many books does she still have to read? - A7 books - B5 books - C3 books - D2 books Goblins were attacking a castle. After 6 goblins were defeated, there were 3 left. How many goblins were there at the start? Find the missing number. How many blocks do you have to take away so that the number of blocks on each side is equal? Complete the following: William had $6. He drank coffee for . Now he has $1. How much did the coffee cost? Find the number that makes the equation correct. Mason drew this model to check that 9 is the missing number in the equation. When he took away 3 from 9, he was left with 6. Find the missing number in this equation. Draw a model to check your answer.
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Collect information about the response of common people after gaining independence, with the help of various reference books as well as internet. India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345 million. Lakhs of people who lived from generations at a place had to vacate it due to violence on the basis of religion. Hindus living from a long time had to leave their homes in Pakistan and vice versa. Response 1: We had to leave our home where our grandfathers had built years ago. During the partition, there was chaos all around. Several of our neighbours were killed, and innumerable women raped and abducted. We were uprooted from our local residences and were forced to begin picking up their life from scratch. Response 2: We lost all their immovable property and most of their movable assets, separated from many of their relatives and friends as well. We used to live in a secular society where everyone respected each other’s faith and were a believer in brotherhood. But suddenly things turned stranged, and the same people turned foes and were after our lives forcing us to move from where we belonged.
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Collect information about the response of common people after gaining independence, with the help of various reference books as well as internet. India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345 million. Lakhs of people who lived from generations at a place had to vacate it due to violence on the basis of religion. Hindus living from a long time had to leave their homes in Pakistan and vice versa. Response 1: We had to leave our home where our grandfathers had built years ago. During the partition, there was chaos all around. Several of our neighbours were killed, and innumerable women raped and abducted. We were uprooted from our local residences and were forced to begin picking up their life from scratch. Response 2: We lost all their immovable property and most of their movable assets, separated from many of their relatives and friends as well. We used to live in a secular society where everyone respected each other’s faith and were a believer in brotherhood. But suddenly things turned stranged, and the same people turned foes and were after our lives forcing us to move from where we belonged.
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Democritus was a renowned Ancient Greek philosopher who is respected by many modern scientists and scholars for formulating the most accurate early atomic theory of the universe. One of the best known pre-Socratic philosophers, he was influenced by Leucippus of Miletus and had proposed revolutionary ideas which were in conflict with those by Socratic philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. What distinguished him from his contemporaries is the fact that he had visited many distant countries during his early life and shared ideas with scholars around the world, which might explain his rationalism, humanism, and love of freedom. Much of his work has been lost or available only as fragments, because of which the exact expanse of his knowledge might never be known. For the same reason, it is often difficult to distinguish his work from that of his mentor Leucippus, whose mere existence has been denied by Epicurus, the philosophical heir of Democritus. However, the philosophies and doctrines he covered can be tracked via numerous citations of his works by many later scholars, which point to the fact that he wrote over seventy books on natural philosophy. Based on the precision of many of his philosophical ideas, many consider him the 'father of modern science'. - Democritus was born in the 80th Olympiad (460–457 BC), even though some scholars believe that he was born in about 470 BC. There is confusion about his birthplace as well; while he is believed to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, some consider him a Milesian.It is generally assumed that his father was from a wealthy noble family and had received Xerxes on his march through Abdera during the Second Persian War.Some sources maintain that the Persian monarch had left several gifts for the Abderites, including a number of Magi, who are said to have taught him astronomy and theology.Following the death of his father, he decided to spend his fortune in the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, and embarked on a journey to distant countries. He visited Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, and parts of Asia, and had reportedly travelled as far as India.According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, he stayed in Egypt for about five years upon his visit. In his writings, he himself mentioned and praised Egyptian mathematicians for their profound knowledge.Considering the fact that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe, it is assumed that he also spent some time in those places. Furthermore, he is said to have met with the Chaldean magi, one of whom, Ostanes, had reportedly taught him.Even after returning to Greece, he continued to travel throughout the country in order to be better acquainted with its cultures. During this time he spent a lot of his fortune to acquire the writings of great Greek philosophers, studying which he further expanded his knowledge of natural philosophy.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Interest in Natural Philosophy - Democritus eventually returned to his homeland, Abdera, after his wealth expired, following which his brother Damosis took him in. In order to avoid the law of Abdera which punished those who wasted their inheritance by depriving them of the rites of burial, he started giving public lectures to earn the favor of the people.With his profound knowledge of various natural phenomena, he was able to successfully predict events like weather change, which made him famous among the local citizens. While he was highly esteemed by the common people, he avoided involving himself in public affairs and led a very simple and modest life dedicated to his studies.8He had a great sense of humor, for which he became known as ‘The Laughing Philosopher’. He earned the nickname ‘The Mocker’ from his fellow citizens for his ability to laugh at human follies.Atomist Doctrine - It is popularly believed that he took forward his predecessor Leucippus’ idea of atomism that everything is composed of various invisible, imperishable and indivisible elements called atoms. However, as the historical authenticity of Leucippus is uncertain, many credit Democritus as the originator of the theory.The atomists were more interested in the material and mechanistic cause of an event, asking what resulted in the occurrence of the event. In doing so, they stood in stark contrast to other renowned Greek philosophers like Aristotle or Plato who sought to explain the purpose of an event.According to him, the atom is an inert solid which interacts with other atoms mechanically, via material links connected with single atoms as attachments. Along with his disciple Epicurus, he further elaborated on the shape and size of atoms, stating that different materials had differently shaped atoms, and maintained that atoms are perpetually in motion.When compared to the other prevalent theories of the time, the atomist theory comes remarkably close in similarity with modern concepts of science, even though more akin to the modern concept of ‘molecules’ than ‘atoms’. However, rather than being based on empirical proof, it originated from the observation that because everything eventually decays and is sometimes recreated, there must be some invisible building blocks of materials that never decay.A major part of the atomistic hypothesis is that there must be considerable amount of empty space between atoms, termed ‘the void’, which makes the perpetual motion of the atoms possible. The void is also necessary to explain the existence of liquid and gas, which can flow and change shape, and the fact that metals can be forged into any shape without losing property.Continue Reading BelowHis conception of the early universe was that atoms existed in a state of chaos before colliding with each other to form larger bodies like we can see around us. He perceived that there are many worlds that are constantly growing or decaying, and could be destroyed in a collision between two such worlds.Work in Other Disciplines - Democritus is also credited with establishing the study of aesthetics because of his theoretical writings on poetry and fine arts prior to scholars like Aristotle made it mainstream. According to Thrasyllus, at least six of his works were about aesthetics as a discipline, but many of those remain only as fragments, due to which much of his thoughts on the topic is unknown.Many early scholars have referred to his works in mathematics, including 'On Numbers', 'On Geometrics', 'On Tangencies', and 'On Irrationals', which points to the fact that he was a pioneer in mathematics and geometry. He is noted for observing that a cone or pyramid has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base and height.He eventually developed a vast knowledge of herbs, plants, and minerals by experimenting on natural bodies, and recorded his findings in a number of books. Some of his works that have been cited by other scholars include 'On the Nature of Man', 'On Flesh', 'On the Senses', 'Causes concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits', and 'Causes concerned with Animals'.He described early humans to be akin to animals, lacking in language and any notion of a community. According to him, after they were forced to form groups to ward off predators, they developed language and learned about various things through trial and error.Perception of Knowledge, Ethics and Politics - Based on the fact that perception through the senses is subjective, Democritus distinguished two kinds of knowledge of truth: ‘legitimate’ and ‘bastard’. According to him, the perception of knowledge through the senses is insufficient, and therefore ‘bastard’, while the kind of knowledge acquired through intellect is ‘legitimate’ knowledge.Concerning his views on ethics and politics, it is known that he supported the ancient Greek idea of democracy, stating that the powerful should help the poor and treat them with compassion. However, it is important to note that his idea of equality was not inclusive of women or slaves, even though he professed that liberty is preferable to slavery.While he did not criticize the intent to make money, he was against hoarding of money for one’s progeny, and despised those who earned money in a disrespectable way. He was against violence, but saw war or execution of a criminal or enemy as necessary.Continue Reading BelowAccording to him, goodness required practice and discipline, and was not necessarily an innate human nature. He believed that one should be content with what he has, and that envy will bring the society down as the society can only progress as a whole.Major Works - Despite the fact that much of Democritus' work only survive through citation by later scholars, it is well known that he had gained an extensive knowledge about the natural order of things. He is respected by many twentieth century scholars as well for his groundbreaking ideas which were free from most of the shortcomings that contemporary Greek philosophy was prone to.His most notable work is on his theory of atomism which established small invisible and indivisible atoms as the building blocks for all the elements in nature. Many scholars like British Historian Bertrand Russell praised his ideas for being remarkably close to that of modern science.Apart from his notion of atoms, his idea of cosmology has also been praised by later scholars for its precision. Karl R. Popper admired his rationalistic philosophy on the evolution of humans as social animals, which asserted that languages, customs and laws are man-made institutions.Personal Life & Legacy - Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the age of 90, in around 370 BC.Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the age of 90, in around 370 BC.While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.Trivia - Among the stories circulated about him, one mentions that he blinded himself with burning glass in order to avoid distractions in his pursuits and to master his intellectual faculties. While some agree that he might have limited eyesight in old age, the story is generally discredited on account of his ability to write books, conduct experiments and dissect animals throughout his life. How To CiteArticle Title- Democritus BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/democritus-4731.phpLast Updated- August 14, 2017 People Also Viewed
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Democritus was a renowned Ancient Greek philosopher who is respected by many modern scientists and scholars for formulating the most accurate early atomic theory of the universe. One of the best known pre-Socratic philosophers, he was influenced by Leucippus of Miletus and had proposed revolutionary ideas which were in conflict with those by Socratic philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. What distinguished him from his contemporaries is the fact that he had visited many distant countries during his early life and shared ideas with scholars around the world, which might explain his rationalism, humanism, and love of freedom. Much of his work has been lost or available only as fragments, because of which the exact expanse of his knowledge might never be known. For the same reason, it is often difficult to distinguish his work from that of his mentor Leucippus, whose mere existence has been denied by Epicurus, the philosophical heir of Democritus. However, the philosophies and doctrines he covered can be tracked via numerous citations of his works by many later scholars, which point to the fact that he wrote over seventy books on natural philosophy. Based on the precision of many of his philosophical ideas, many consider him the 'father of modern science'. - Democritus was born in the 80th Olympiad (460–457 BC), even though some scholars believe that he was born in about 470 BC. There is confusion about his birthplace as well; while he is believed to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, some consider him a Milesian.It is generally assumed that his father was from a wealthy noble family and had received Xerxes on his march through Abdera during the Second Persian War.Some sources maintain that the Persian monarch had left several gifts for the Abderites, including a number of Magi, who are said to have taught him astronomy and theology.Following the death of his father, he decided to spend his fortune in the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, and embarked on a journey to distant countries. He visited Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, and parts of Asia, and had reportedly travelled as far as India.According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, he stayed in Egypt for about five years upon his visit. In his writings, he himself mentioned and praised Egyptian mathematicians for their profound knowledge.Considering the fact that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe, it is assumed that he also spent some time in those places. Furthermore, he is said to have met with the Chaldean magi, one of whom, Ostanes, had reportedly taught him.Even after returning to Greece, he continued to travel throughout the country in order to be better acquainted with its cultures. During this time he spent a lot of his fortune to acquire the writings of great Greek philosophers, studying which he further expanded his knowledge of natural philosophy.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Interest in Natural Philosophy - Democritus eventually returned to his homeland, Abdera, after his wealth expired, following which his brother Damosis took him in. In order to avoid the law of Abdera which punished those who wasted their inheritance by depriving them of the rites of burial, he started giving public lectures to earn the favor of the people.With his profound knowledge of various natural phenomena, he was able to successfully predict events like weather change, which made him famous among the local citizens. While he was highly esteemed by the common people, he avoided involving himself in public affairs and led a very simple and modest life dedicated to his studies.8He had a great sense of humor, for which he became known as ‘The Laughing Philosopher’. He earned the nickname ‘The Mocker’ from his fellow citizens for his ability to laugh at human follies.Atomist Doctrine - It is popularly believed that he took forward his predecessor Leucippus’ idea of atomism that everything is composed of various invisible, imperishable and indivisible elements called atoms. However, as the historical authenticity of Leucippus is uncertain, many credit Democritus as the originator of the theory.The atomists were more interested in the material and mechanistic cause of an event, asking what resulted in the occurrence of the event. In doing so, they stood in stark contrast to other renowned Greek philosophers like Aristotle or Plato who sought to explain the purpose of an event.According to him, the atom is an inert solid which interacts with other atoms mechanically, via material links connected with single atoms as attachments. Along with his disciple Epicurus, he further elaborated on the shape and size of atoms, stating that different materials had differently shaped atoms, and maintained that atoms are perpetually in motion.When compared to the other prevalent theories of the time, the atomist theory comes remarkably close in similarity with modern concepts of science, even though more akin to the modern concept of ‘molecules’ than ‘atoms’. However, rather than being based on empirical proof, it originated from the observation that because everything eventually decays and is sometimes recreated, there must be some invisible building blocks of materials that never decay.A major part of the atomistic hypothesis is that there must be considerable amount of empty space between atoms, termed ‘the void’, which makes the perpetual motion of the atoms possible. The void is also necessary to explain the existence of liquid and gas, which can flow and change shape, and the fact that metals can be forged into any shape without losing property.Continue Reading BelowHis conception of the early universe was that atoms existed in a state of chaos before colliding with each other to form larger bodies like we can see around us. He perceived that there are many worlds that are constantly growing or decaying, and could be destroyed in a collision between two such worlds.Work in Other Disciplines - Democritus is also credited with establishing the study of aesthetics because of his theoretical writings on poetry and fine arts prior to scholars like Aristotle made it mainstream. According to Thrasyllus, at least six of his works were about aesthetics as a discipline, but many of those remain only as fragments, due to which much of his thoughts on the topic is unknown.Many early scholars have referred to his works in mathematics, including 'On Numbers', 'On Geometrics', 'On Tangencies', and 'On Irrationals', which points to the fact that he was a pioneer in mathematics and geometry. He is noted for observing that a cone or pyramid has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base and height.He eventually developed a vast knowledge of herbs, plants, and minerals by experimenting on natural bodies, and recorded his findings in a number of books. Some of his works that have been cited by other scholars include 'On the Nature of Man', 'On Flesh', 'On the Senses', 'Causes concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits', and 'Causes concerned with Animals'.He described early humans to be akin to animals, lacking in language and any notion of a community. According to him, after they were forced to form groups to ward off predators, they developed language and learned about various things through trial and error.Perception of Knowledge, Ethics and Politics - Based on the fact that perception through the senses is subjective, Democritus distinguished two kinds of knowledge of truth: ‘legitimate’ and ‘bastard’. According to him, the perception of knowledge through the senses is insufficient, and therefore ‘bastard’, while the kind of knowledge acquired through intellect is ‘legitimate’ knowledge.Concerning his views on ethics and politics, it is known that he supported the ancient Greek idea of democracy, stating that the powerful should help the poor and treat them with compassion. However, it is important to note that his idea of equality was not inclusive of women or slaves, even though he professed that liberty is preferable to slavery.While he did not criticize the intent to make money, he was against hoarding of money for one’s progeny, and despised those who earned money in a disrespectable way. He was against violence, but saw war or execution of a criminal or enemy as necessary.Continue Reading BelowAccording to him, goodness required practice and discipline, and was not necessarily an innate human nature. He believed that one should be content with what he has, and that envy will bring the society down as the society can only progress as a whole.Major Works - Despite the fact that much of Democritus' work only survive through citation by later scholars, it is well known that he had gained an extensive knowledge about the natural order of things. He is respected by many twentieth century scholars as well for his groundbreaking ideas which were free from most of the shortcomings that contemporary Greek philosophy was prone to.His most notable work is on his theory of atomism which established small invisible and indivisible atoms as the building blocks for all the elements in nature. Many scholars like British Historian Bertrand Russell praised his ideas for being remarkably close to that of modern science.Apart from his notion of atoms, his idea of cosmology has also been praised by later scholars for its precision. Karl R. Popper admired his rationalistic philosophy on the evolution of humans as social animals, which asserted that languages, customs and laws are man-made institutions.Personal Life & Legacy - Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the age of 90, in around 370 BC.Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the age of 90, in around 370 BC.While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.Trivia - Among the stories circulated about him, one mentions that he blinded himself with burning glass in order to avoid distractions in his pursuits and to master his intellectual faculties. While some agree that he might have limited eyesight in old age, the story is generally discredited on account of his ability to write books, conduct experiments and dissect animals throughout his life. How To CiteArticle Title- Democritus BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/democritus-4731.phpLast Updated- August 14, 2017 People Also Viewed
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Little St. Hugh of Lincoln Stories of blood libel are not unfortunately unknown in Britain and like central Europe we have our antisemitic stories such as those surrounding William of Norwich, Simon of Trent, Robert of Bury, Harold of Gloucester and Little St. Hugh of Lincoln. In Lincoln in the year 1255, an 8 year old boy by the name of Hugh went missing. For several months there was no trace of Hugh. Eventually, the poor boy’s mutilated body was found in a well belonging to a prominent Jew named Copin (or Jopin) who lived at the foot of Steep Hill. The Christian population of Lincoln was outraged and rumours began to circulate that the Jewish community had subjected the boy to a mock trial before torturing him and killing him, collecting his blood for use in their Passover rituals. Copin and 90 other Jews were arrested. Copin confessed to the charges under torture and was hanged, drawn and quartered. Eighteen of the others were hanged for refusing to throw themselves on the verdict of a Christian jury. The Jewish community was expelled from Lincoln, though the remaining 72 prisoners were pardoned and set free after the intervention of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, who held the sole right to tax the Jews in England and saw a possible threat to his source of his income. The anti-Semitic rumours spread throughout England, however, and led to the Edict of Expulsion in1290 which banished Jews from England. After the discovery of Hugh’s body, it was associated with many miracles and led to the boy being canonised as a Saint. Lincoln Cathedral contained a major shrine dedicated to the boy, the ruins of which still remain. Close to the shrine is a plaque bearing the inscription: Trumped up stories of “ritual murders” of Christian boys by Jewish communities were common throughout Europe during the Middle Ages and even much later. These fictions cost many innocent Jews their lives. Lincoln had its own legend and the alleged victim was buried in the Cathedral in the year 1255. Such stories do not redound to the credit of Christendom, and so we pray: Lord, forgive what we have been, amend what we are and direct what we shall be. Although the Jews were banished from England in 1290 many place names in Lincoln still bear witness to the presence of the medieval community. Examples include “Jew’s Court” and “Aaron the Jew’s House”. Author: P A McHugh
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Little St. Hugh of Lincoln Stories of blood libel are not unfortunately unknown in Britain and like central Europe we have our antisemitic stories such as those surrounding William of Norwich, Simon of Trent, Robert of Bury, Harold of Gloucester and Little St. Hugh of Lincoln. In Lincoln in the year 1255, an 8 year old boy by the name of Hugh went missing. For several months there was no trace of Hugh. Eventually, the poor boy’s mutilated body was found in a well belonging to a prominent Jew named Copin (or Jopin) who lived at the foot of Steep Hill. The Christian population of Lincoln was outraged and rumours began to circulate that the Jewish community had subjected the boy to a mock trial before torturing him and killing him, collecting his blood for use in their Passover rituals. Copin and 90 other Jews were arrested. Copin confessed to the charges under torture and was hanged, drawn and quartered. Eighteen of the others were hanged for refusing to throw themselves on the verdict of a Christian jury. The Jewish community was expelled from Lincoln, though the remaining 72 prisoners were pardoned and set free after the intervention of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, who held the sole right to tax the Jews in England and saw a possible threat to his source of his income. The anti-Semitic rumours spread throughout England, however, and led to the Edict of Expulsion in1290 which banished Jews from England. After the discovery of Hugh’s body, it was associated with many miracles and led to the boy being canonised as a Saint. Lincoln Cathedral contained a major shrine dedicated to the boy, the ruins of which still remain. Close to the shrine is a plaque bearing the inscription: Trumped up stories of “ritual murders” of Christian boys by Jewish communities were common throughout Europe during the Middle Ages and even much later. These fictions cost many innocent Jews their lives. Lincoln had its own legend and the alleged victim was buried in the Cathedral in the year 1255. Such stories do not redound to the credit of Christendom, and so we pray: Lord, forgive what we have been, amend what we are and direct what we shall be. Although the Jews were banished from England in 1290 many place names in Lincoln still bear witness to the presence of the medieval community. Examples include “Jew’s Court” and “Aaron the Jew’s House”. Author: P A McHugh
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When we think of our countryside we always think of cows in fields. Cows have been part and parcel of our lives since we were children but they go back much further than that. They occupy a unique role in our history and have been domesticated since at least the early Neolithic age. Early Neolithic populations who domesticated cattle as well as goats and sheep, they believe, would probably have processed milk into cheese, yogurt and butter prior to consuming it. This shows the intrinsic and special part cows have played in providing food for our survival throughout history. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, wild cattle or aurochs were significant enough for Palaeolithic hunters to draw them in cave paintings in places such as those at Lascaux. I think when people realise the important part cows have played in our history and lives today its only right they get a Cow Appreciation Day. We might not get them a card or make them a cup of tea (they would supply the milk) but there are always other ways we can show our appreciation. Cows can’t talk and tell us themselves what they want but when we made our film recently of springtime cow turn out you could see the pure joy on their faces as they jumped and galloped around the field. They were happy to be outside on pasture and then content as they stretched out and relaxed. This is why one of our main standards for the Pasture Promise label is that cows graze for a minimum 180 days and nights per year. We believe that to call milk free range it should come from cows that spend at least half their lives outdoors. When you see pictures like this of a happy, relaxed cow deep in sleep you can see the important part being on pasture means to cows. If cows could speak they would say Thank Mooo for your appreciation by making the Pasture Promise and continuing support of the people and businesses who are bringing Pasture Promise free range milk to the wider communities. Please show your support and use #180days and #cowappreciationday.
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When we think of our countryside we always think of cows in fields. Cows have been part and parcel of our lives since we were children but they go back much further than that. They occupy a unique role in our history and have been domesticated since at least the early Neolithic age. Early Neolithic populations who domesticated cattle as well as goats and sheep, they believe, would probably have processed milk into cheese, yogurt and butter prior to consuming it. This shows the intrinsic and special part cows have played in providing food for our survival throughout history. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, wild cattle or aurochs were significant enough for Palaeolithic hunters to draw them in cave paintings in places such as those at Lascaux. I think when people realise the important part cows have played in our history and lives today its only right they get a Cow Appreciation Day. We might not get them a card or make them a cup of tea (they would supply the milk) but there are always other ways we can show our appreciation. Cows can’t talk and tell us themselves what they want but when we made our film recently of springtime cow turn out you could see the pure joy on their faces as they jumped and galloped around the field. They were happy to be outside on pasture and then content as they stretched out and relaxed. This is why one of our main standards for the Pasture Promise label is that cows graze for a minimum 180 days and nights per year. We believe that to call milk free range it should come from cows that spend at least half their lives outdoors. When you see pictures like this of a happy, relaxed cow deep in sleep you can see the important part being on pasture means to cows. If cows could speak they would say Thank Mooo for your appreciation by making the Pasture Promise and continuing support of the people and businesses who are bringing Pasture Promise free range milk to the wider communities. Please show your support and use #180days and #cowappreciationday.
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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! The Turkish republic Mustafa Kemal then embarked upon the reform of his country, his goal being to bring it into the 20th century. His instrument was the Republican People’s Party, formed on August 9, 1923, to replace the defense-of-rights associations. His program was embodied in the party’s “Six Arrows”: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism (state-owned and state-operated industrialization aimed at making Turkey self-sufficient as a 20th-century industrialized state), secularism, and revolution. The guiding principle was the existence of a permanent state of revolution, meaning continuing change in the state and society. The caliphate was abolished on March 3, 1924 (since the early 16th century, the Ottoman sultans had laid claim to the title of caliph of the Muslims); the religious schools were dismantled at the same time. Abolition of the religious courts followed on April 8. In 1925, wearing the fez was prohibited—thereafter Turks wore Western-style headdress. Mustafa Kemal went on a speaking tour of Anatolia during which he wore a European-style hat, setting an example for the Turkish people. In Istanbul and elsewhere there was a run on materials for making hats. In the same year, the religious brotherhoods, strongholds of conservatism, were outlawed. The emancipation of women was encouraged by Mustafa Kemal’s marriage in 1923 to a Western-educated woman, Latife Hanım (they were divorced in 1925), and was set in motion by a number of laws. In December 1934, women were given the vote for parliamentary members and were made eligible to hold parliamentary seats. Almost overnight the whole system of Islamic law was discarded. From February to June 1926 the Swiss civil code, the Italian penal code, and the German commercial code were adopted wholesale. As a result, women’s emancipation was strengthened by the abolition of polygamy, marriage was made a civil contract, and divorce was recognized as a civil action. A reform of truly revolutionary proportions was the replacement of the Arabic script—in which the Ottoman Turkish language had been written for centuries—by the Latin alphabet. This took place officially in November 1928, setting Turkey on the path to achieving one of the highest literacy rates in the Middle East. Once again Mustafa Kemal went into the countryside, and with chalk and a blackboard he demonstrated the new alphabet to the Turkish people and explained how the letters should be pronounced. Education benefited from this reform, as the youth of Turkey, cut off from the past with its emphasis on religion, were encouraged to take advantage of new educational opportunities that gave access to the Western scientific and humanistic traditions. Another important step was the adoption of surnames or family names, which was decreed by the GNA in 1934. The assembly gave Mustafa Kemal the name Atatürk (“Father of the Turks”). After having settled Turkey firmly within its national borders and set it on the path of modernization, Atatürk sought to develop his country’s foreign policy in similar fashion. First and foremost, he decided that Turkey would not pursue any irredentist claims except for the eventual incorporation of the Alexandretta region, which he felt was included within the boundaries set by the National Pact. He settled matters with Great Britain in a treaty signed on June 5, 1926. It called for Turkey to renounce its claims to Mosul in return for a 10 percent interest in the oil produced there. Atatürk also sought reconciliation with Greece; this was achieved through a treaty of friendship signed on December 30, 1930. Minority populations were exchanged on both sides, borders were set, and military problems such as naval equality in the eastern Mediterranean were ironed out. This ambitious program of forced modernization was not accomplished without strain and bloodshed. In February 1925 the Kurds of southwestern Anatolia raised the banner of revolt in the name of Islam. It took two months to put the revolt down; its leader Şeyh Said was then hanged. In June 1926 a plot by several disgruntled politicians to assassinate Atatürk was discovered, and the 13 ringleaders were tried and hanged. There were other trials and executions, but under Atatürk the country was steadfastly steered toward becoming a modern state with a minimum of repression. There was a high degree of consensus among the ruling elite about the goals of the society. As many of those goals were achieved, however, many Turks wished to see a more democratic regime. Atatürk even experimented in 1930 with the creation of an opposition party led by his longtime associate Ali Fethi, but its immediate and overwhelming success caused Atatürk to squash it. In his later years Atatürk grew more remote from the Turkish people. He had the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul, formerly a main residence of the sultans, refurbished and spent more time there. Always a heavy drinker who ate little, he began to decline in health. His illness, cirrhosis of the liver, was not diagnosed until too late. He bore the pain of the last few months of his life with great character and dignity, and on November 10, 1938, he died at 9:05 am in Dolmabahçe. His state funeral was an occasion for enormous outpourings of grief from the Turkish people. His body was transported through Istanbul and from there to Ankara, where it awaited a suitable final resting place. This was constructed years later: a mausoleum in Ankara contains Atatürk’s sarcophagus and a museum devoted to his memory. Atatürk is omnipresent in Turkey. His portrait is in every home and place of business and on the postage and bank notes. His words are chiseled on important buildings. Statues of him abound. Turkish politicians, regardless of party affiliation, claim to be the inheritors of Atatürk’s mantle, but none has matched his breadth of vision, dedication, and selflessness.Norman Itzkowitz Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Turkey: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23Although the legal Ottoman government in Istanbul under the 36th and last Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI (Vahideddin; ruled 1918–22), had decided that resistance to Allied demands was impossible, pockets of resistance remained in Anatolia—the rump of… 20th-century international relations: The reorganization of the Middle EastMustafa Kemal, the Turkish war hero, rallied his army in the interior and rebelled against the foreign influence in Anatolia and Constantinople. Unwilling to dispatch British armies, Lloyd George encouraged the Greeks to enforce the treaty instead. Indeed, Venizélos harboured a dream, the education: Colonialism and its consequencesMustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey, who was determined to create a modern state, initiated a dramatic program of social and cultural change in which education played an important role. He closed the religious schools, promoted coeducation, prepared new curricula, emphasized vocational and technical education, launched a…
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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! The Turkish republic Mustafa Kemal then embarked upon the reform of his country, his goal being to bring it into the 20th century. His instrument was the Republican People’s Party, formed on August 9, 1923, to replace the defense-of-rights associations. His program was embodied in the party’s “Six Arrows”: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism (state-owned and state-operated industrialization aimed at making Turkey self-sufficient as a 20th-century industrialized state), secularism, and revolution. The guiding principle was the existence of a permanent state of revolution, meaning continuing change in the state and society. The caliphate was abolished on March 3, 1924 (since the early 16th century, the Ottoman sultans had laid claim to the title of caliph of the Muslims); the religious schools were dismantled at the same time. Abolition of the religious courts followed on April 8. In 1925, wearing the fez was prohibited—thereafter Turks wore Western-style headdress. Mustafa Kemal went on a speaking tour of Anatolia during which he wore a European-style hat, setting an example for the Turkish people. In Istanbul and elsewhere there was a run on materials for making hats. In the same year, the religious brotherhoods, strongholds of conservatism, were outlawed. The emancipation of women was encouraged by Mustafa Kemal’s marriage in 1923 to a Western-educated woman, Latife Hanım (they were divorced in 1925), and was set in motion by a number of laws. In December 1934, women were given the vote for parliamentary members and were made eligible to hold parliamentary seats. Almost overnight the whole system of Islamic law was discarded. From February to June 1926 the Swiss civil code, the Italian penal code, and the German commercial code were adopted wholesale. As a result, women’s emancipation was strengthened by the abolition of polygamy, marriage was made a civil contract, and divorce was recognized as a civil action. A reform of truly revolutionary proportions was the replacement of the Arabic script—in which the Ottoman Turkish language had been written for centuries—by the Latin alphabet. This took place officially in November 1928, setting Turkey on the path to achieving one of the highest literacy rates in the Middle East. Once again Mustafa Kemal went into the countryside, and with chalk and a blackboard he demonstrated the new alphabet to the Turkish people and explained how the letters should be pronounced. Education benefited from this reform, as the youth of Turkey, cut off from the past with its emphasis on religion, were encouraged to take advantage of new educational opportunities that gave access to the Western scientific and humanistic traditions. Another important step was the adoption of surnames or family names, which was decreed by the GNA in 1934. The assembly gave Mustafa Kemal the name Atatürk (“Father of the Turks”). After having settled Turkey firmly within its national borders and set it on the path of modernization, Atatürk sought to develop his country’s foreign policy in similar fashion. First and foremost, he decided that Turkey would not pursue any irredentist claims except for the eventual incorporation of the Alexandretta region, which he felt was included within the boundaries set by the National Pact. He settled matters with Great Britain in a treaty signed on June 5, 1926. It called for Turkey to renounce its claims to Mosul in return for a 10 percent interest in the oil produced there. Atatürk also sought reconciliation with Greece; this was achieved through a treaty of friendship signed on December 30, 1930. Minority populations were exchanged on both sides, borders were set, and military problems such as naval equality in the eastern Mediterranean were ironed out. This ambitious program of forced modernization was not accomplished without strain and bloodshed. In February 1925 the Kurds of southwestern Anatolia raised the banner of revolt in the name of Islam. It took two months to put the revolt down; its leader Şeyh Said was then hanged. In June 1926 a plot by several disgruntled politicians to assassinate Atatürk was discovered, and the 13 ringleaders were tried and hanged. There were other trials and executions, but under Atatürk the country was steadfastly steered toward becoming a modern state with a minimum of repression. There was a high degree of consensus among the ruling elite about the goals of the society. As many of those goals were achieved, however, many Turks wished to see a more democratic regime. Atatürk even experimented in 1930 with the creation of an opposition party led by his longtime associate Ali Fethi, but its immediate and overwhelming success caused Atatürk to squash it. In his later years Atatürk grew more remote from the Turkish people. He had the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul, formerly a main residence of the sultans, refurbished and spent more time there. Always a heavy drinker who ate little, he began to decline in health. His illness, cirrhosis of the liver, was not diagnosed until too late. He bore the pain of the last few months of his life with great character and dignity, and on November 10, 1938, he died at 9:05 am in Dolmabahçe. His state funeral was an occasion for enormous outpourings of grief from the Turkish people. His body was transported through Istanbul and from there to Ankara, where it awaited a suitable final resting place. This was constructed years later: a mausoleum in Ankara contains Atatürk’s sarcophagus and a museum devoted to his memory. Atatürk is omnipresent in Turkey. His portrait is in every home and place of business and on the postage and bank notes. His words are chiseled on important buildings. Statues of him abound. Turkish politicians, regardless of party affiliation, claim to be the inheritors of Atatürk’s mantle, but none has matched his breadth of vision, dedication, and selflessness.Norman Itzkowitz Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Turkey: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23Although the legal Ottoman government in Istanbul under the 36th and last Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI (Vahideddin; ruled 1918–22), had decided that resistance to Allied demands was impossible, pockets of resistance remained in Anatolia—the rump of… 20th-century international relations: The reorganization of the Middle EastMustafa Kemal, the Turkish war hero, rallied his army in the interior and rebelled against the foreign influence in Anatolia and Constantinople. Unwilling to dispatch British armies, Lloyd George encouraged the Greeks to enforce the treaty instead. Indeed, Venizélos harboured a dream, the education: Colonialism and its consequencesMustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey, who was determined to create a modern state, initiated a dramatic program of social and cultural change in which education played an important role. He closed the religious schools, promoted coeducation, prepared new curricula, emphasized vocational and technical education, launched a…
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A group of Peruvian scientists led by renowned archaeologist Walter Alva discovered in the valley of the Zana River, about 800 kilometers from Lima (the modern capital of Peru), a temple that was once used to perform water worship rituals in ancient Peru. It is noted that the ancient religious building with a length of about 40 meters is equipped with a 15-meter staircase. In the center of the megalithic temple there is a platform with an altar, which was just intended for holding water-related fertility rituals. There are characteristic openings in the altar similar to those found in other water churches of that period. This became the basis for the conclusion that the temple was used to perform rituals dedicated to water at the time when it was considered divine. Researchers also found the remains of large stone blocks, allowing to determine the structure of the temple. In addition, archaeologists have discovered on the site of the temple and tombs, which date back to the period from 1500 BC to 292 AD. Inside these graves, the total number of which was 21, were objects made of ceramics and metal of different periods, including a much later Inca period. According to experts, many of these graves were reused. It is noted that the temple was discovered in October, but the publication of official information about this discovery was postponed. Such measures have been taken to ensure that the news does not attract the attention of treasure hunters.
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A group of Peruvian scientists led by renowned archaeologist Walter Alva discovered in the valley of the Zana River, about 800 kilometers from Lima (the modern capital of Peru), a temple that was once used to perform water worship rituals in ancient Peru. It is noted that the ancient religious building with a length of about 40 meters is equipped with a 15-meter staircase. In the center of the megalithic temple there is a platform with an altar, which was just intended for holding water-related fertility rituals. There are characteristic openings in the altar similar to those found in other water churches of that period. This became the basis for the conclusion that the temple was used to perform rituals dedicated to water at the time when it was considered divine. Researchers also found the remains of large stone blocks, allowing to determine the structure of the temple. In addition, archaeologists have discovered on the site of the temple and tombs, which date back to the period from 1500 BC to 292 AD. Inside these graves, the total number of which was 21, were objects made of ceramics and metal of different periods, including a much later Inca period. According to experts, many of these graves were reused. It is noted that the temple was discovered in October, but the publication of official information about this discovery was postponed. Such measures have been taken to ensure that the news does not attract the attention of treasure hunters.
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Born as Ilse Kohler to a factory foreman in Dresden on 22 September 1906, Ilse Koch was a devil woman, who used to make lampshades from the skin of the prisoners of the infamous Buchenwald concentration camp and was rightly nicknamed ‘The Bitch of Buchenwald’ for her barbarism and sadism. However, she was a polite, unassuming and a happy kid in her childhood and at the age of 15 she entered an accounting school and began working as a bookkeeping clerk. During the early days of 1930s, when Germany was struggling hard to rebuild itself after WW I, the Nazi Party and Hitler’s ideology attracted much young German blood, since it seemed to offer the right solutions to the extreme difficult situation of the country after losing the Great War. With his captivating oratory, Adolf Hitler mesmerized the young German blood, as he vowed publicly time and again to annul the much criticized, deeply unpopular and insulting Treaty of Versailles, the treaty which demilitarized part of the country and forced the country to pay the massive, unreasonable and unaffordable compensation, while it was trying hard to recover from the calamities of the war. Hitler’s adamant and uncompromising approach appealed to many Germans who were struggling for identity and making ends meet. It was therefore, quite normal for the young people of the country, like Ilsa Koch and many of her friends, to join the Nazi Party. As Koch was well aware about the extremely penurious condition of Germany, probably she felt that perhaps the Nazi Party would be able to restore and even revive the doomed economy of the country. Nevertheless, her involvement in the party induced her to be introduced with Karl Otto Koch, whom she married in 1935. The Buchenwald concentration camp, one of the first and the largest of the camps in the Nazi regime, was opened near Weimar in Germany shortly after Dachau, at the beginning of July 1937 and Karl Otto Koch was posted as the first commandant of the camp, designed to hold 8,000 prisoners. The gruesome main gate of the camp was inscribed with ‘Jedem da Seine’, which means ‘to each his own’, but it was actually intended as a message to the prisoners, ‘everyone gets what he deserves’. However, for the SS, it meant, the ‘master race’ has the right to humiliate and destroy the others. Ilse Koch, being the wife of the commandant, immediately took the opportunity to become involved with the daily activities of the camp and over the next few years became infamous as the witch of Buchenwald for her cruelty and brutality. Within February 1940, she used the money plundered from the prisoners and engaged them to construct a $62,500 indoor sports arena near the canteen of the camp, where she could ride her horses. However, she often used to ride outside her riding arena and taunted the prisoners till they take a glance at her, at which point she would whip them brutally to bleed. Much later, during her trial for war crimes, the survivors of the camp recalled that she always seemed to be extremely excited about sending children to the gas chamber. Much later, during the Nuremberg Trials, it was revealed that she had a good collection of lampshades, book covers, and gloves, which were said to be made from human skin. It was also recalled by the witnesses that she often took her horse rides throughout the campus of the camp to spot prisoners with distinctive tattoos. The spotted prisoners were stripped of their skin before being incinerated, and Koch allegedly kept those skins as show pieces in her home in the camp area with the Commandant. Those artifacts were recovered after the liberation of the camp and served as key evidence during her trial. Ilse Koch was arrested, along with her husband Commandant Karl Otto Koch, at Buchenwald on 24 August 1943, on charges of misappropriation of money and murder of the prisoners of the camp .It was also alleged that Commandant Koch had ordered the execution of the orderly, a doctor, who had diagnosed and treated him for syphilis. The man was killed, so that the secret of his suffering from a sexually transmitted disease would never be revealed. However, it was an open secret that, at Buchenwald, Frau Koch had shared her bed with several lovers. Commandant Koch was sentenced to death just a week before the liberation of Buchenwald and was executed by firing squad on 5 April 1945 However, Frau Koch was acquitted, mostly due to lack of evidence. In fact, the investigators could not prove that the lampshades and other such items found under her possession were actually made of human skin, while Ilse Koch always insisted those were made of goatskin. Following the camp’s liberation in 1945, as word began to travel about Frau Koch’s sadistic involvement, immense public pressure was created at the court to bring her to trial again. Finally, she was brought before the General Military Government Court for the Trial of War Criminals in 1947. On the stand, she announced that she was eight months pregnant. It was a real shock, since before the trial she had had no contact with any men except the American interrogators, many of whom were Jewish. However, she was charged with multiple crimes, which include participating in a criminal plan for aiding, abetting and participating in the murders at Buchenwald and despite her pregnancy, she was sentenced to life in prison. Before their arrest, Ilse Koch gave birth to one son with Commandant Koch and her second child, whose father was unknown, was born while she was imprisoned. Both of her children were sent to foster homes. After two years of her conviction, General Lucius D Clay, the interim military governor of the American Zone in Germany, reduced her sentence to four years and remarked that, the reduction of her sentence was granted, as there was no convincing evidence that Koch had selected inmates for extermination in order to secure tattooed skins or that she possessed any articles made of human skin. However, she was rearrested shortly thereafter due to public fury. During her second trial in 1950, Ilse Koch was not in good shape and had to be removed from the court, as she collapsed repeatedly. This time, four of the witnesses testified that they had seen Koch to select prisoners specifically for their tattoos or that they had seen or been involved in the manufacturing of the human-skin lampshades. However, this time again, the charge was eventually dropped due to lack of concrete evidence. Ultimately, on 15 January1951, despite the absence of Koch, the Court delivered its verdict. She was convicted of charges of incitement to murder, incitement to attempted murder, incitement to the crime of committing grievous bodily harm and was again sentenced to life imprisonment with permanent forfeiture of any civil rights. After that, Koch petitioned for appeals several times, but was always dismissed. She even protested to the International Human Rights Commission, which was also rejected. While in prison, her son Uwe, whom she conceived during her imprisonment at Dachau, discovered that she was his mother. He used to visit her in prison often over the next several years at Aichach, the prison where she was serving her life sentence. Ilse Koch committed suicide in prison on the 1st day of September 1967 and on the next day, Uwe arrived to visit her and was shocked to find her dead. She was buried in an unknown, unmarked and untended grave at the cemetery of the prison.
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Born as Ilse Kohler to a factory foreman in Dresden on 22 September 1906, Ilse Koch was a devil woman, who used to make lampshades from the skin of the prisoners of the infamous Buchenwald concentration camp and was rightly nicknamed ‘The Bitch of Buchenwald’ for her barbarism and sadism. However, she was a polite, unassuming and a happy kid in her childhood and at the age of 15 she entered an accounting school and began working as a bookkeeping clerk. During the early days of 1930s, when Germany was struggling hard to rebuild itself after WW I, the Nazi Party and Hitler’s ideology attracted much young German blood, since it seemed to offer the right solutions to the extreme difficult situation of the country after losing the Great War. With his captivating oratory, Adolf Hitler mesmerized the young German blood, as he vowed publicly time and again to annul the much criticized, deeply unpopular and insulting Treaty of Versailles, the treaty which demilitarized part of the country and forced the country to pay the massive, unreasonable and unaffordable compensation, while it was trying hard to recover from the calamities of the war. Hitler’s adamant and uncompromising approach appealed to many Germans who were struggling for identity and making ends meet. It was therefore, quite normal for the young people of the country, like Ilsa Koch and many of her friends, to join the Nazi Party. As Koch was well aware about the extremely penurious condition of Germany, probably she felt that perhaps the Nazi Party would be able to restore and even revive the doomed economy of the country. Nevertheless, her involvement in the party induced her to be introduced with Karl Otto Koch, whom she married in 1935. The Buchenwald concentration camp, one of the first and the largest of the camps in the Nazi regime, was opened near Weimar in Germany shortly after Dachau, at the beginning of July 1937 and Karl Otto Koch was posted as the first commandant of the camp, designed to hold 8,000 prisoners. The gruesome main gate of the camp was inscribed with ‘Jedem da Seine’, which means ‘to each his own’, but it was actually intended as a message to the prisoners, ‘everyone gets what he deserves’. However, for the SS, it meant, the ‘master race’ has the right to humiliate and destroy the others. Ilse Koch, being the wife of the commandant, immediately took the opportunity to become involved with the daily activities of the camp and over the next few years became infamous as the witch of Buchenwald for her cruelty and brutality. Within February 1940, she used the money plundered from the prisoners and engaged them to construct a $62,500 indoor sports arena near the canteen of the camp, where she could ride her horses. However, she often used to ride outside her riding arena and taunted the prisoners till they take a glance at her, at which point she would whip them brutally to bleed. Much later, during her trial for war crimes, the survivors of the camp recalled that she always seemed to be extremely excited about sending children to the gas chamber. Much later, during the Nuremberg Trials, it was revealed that she had a good collection of lampshades, book covers, and gloves, which were said to be made from human skin. It was also recalled by the witnesses that she often took her horse rides throughout the campus of the camp to spot prisoners with distinctive tattoos. The spotted prisoners were stripped of their skin before being incinerated, and Koch allegedly kept those skins as show pieces in her home in the camp area with the Commandant. Those artifacts were recovered after the liberation of the camp and served as key evidence during her trial. Ilse Koch was arrested, along with her husband Commandant Karl Otto Koch, at Buchenwald on 24 August 1943, on charges of misappropriation of money and murder of the prisoners of the camp .It was also alleged that Commandant Koch had ordered the execution of the orderly, a doctor, who had diagnosed and treated him for syphilis. The man was killed, so that the secret of his suffering from a sexually transmitted disease would never be revealed. However, it was an open secret that, at Buchenwald, Frau Koch had shared her bed with several lovers. Commandant Koch was sentenced to death just a week before the liberation of Buchenwald and was executed by firing squad on 5 April 1945 However, Frau Koch was acquitted, mostly due to lack of evidence. In fact, the investigators could not prove that the lampshades and other such items found under her possession were actually made of human skin, while Ilse Koch always insisted those were made of goatskin. Following the camp’s liberation in 1945, as word began to travel about Frau Koch’s sadistic involvement, immense public pressure was created at the court to bring her to trial again. Finally, she was brought before the General Military Government Court for the Trial of War Criminals in 1947. On the stand, she announced that she was eight months pregnant. It was a real shock, since before the trial she had had no contact with any men except the American interrogators, many of whom were Jewish. However, she was charged with multiple crimes, which include participating in a criminal plan for aiding, abetting and participating in the murders at Buchenwald and despite her pregnancy, she was sentenced to life in prison. Before their arrest, Ilse Koch gave birth to one son with Commandant Koch and her second child, whose father was unknown, was born while she was imprisoned. Both of her children were sent to foster homes. After two years of her conviction, General Lucius D Clay, the interim military governor of the American Zone in Germany, reduced her sentence to four years and remarked that, the reduction of her sentence was granted, as there was no convincing evidence that Koch had selected inmates for extermination in order to secure tattooed skins or that she possessed any articles made of human skin. However, she was rearrested shortly thereafter due to public fury. During her second trial in 1950, Ilse Koch was not in good shape and had to be removed from the court, as she collapsed repeatedly. This time, four of the witnesses testified that they had seen Koch to select prisoners specifically for their tattoos or that they had seen or been involved in the manufacturing of the human-skin lampshades. However, this time again, the charge was eventually dropped due to lack of concrete evidence. Ultimately, on 15 January1951, despite the absence of Koch, the Court delivered its verdict. She was convicted of charges of incitement to murder, incitement to attempted murder, incitement to the crime of committing grievous bodily harm and was again sentenced to life imprisonment with permanent forfeiture of any civil rights. After that, Koch petitioned for appeals several times, but was always dismissed. She even protested to the International Human Rights Commission, which was also rejected. While in prison, her son Uwe, whom she conceived during her imprisonment at Dachau, discovered that she was his mother. He used to visit her in prison often over the next several years at Aichach, the prison where she was serving her life sentence. Ilse Koch committed suicide in prison on the 1st day of September 1967 and on the next day, Uwe arrived to visit her and was shocked to find her dead. She was buried in an unknown, unmarked and untended grave at the cemetery of the prison.
1,594
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This Sunday is Remembrance Sunday in the UK, when ceremonies at the Cenotaph in London and war memorials around the country mourn those who died in the two World Wars and later conflicts. Here, The Open University’s Annika Mombauer discusses the origins of these ceremonies in World War 1. The article is taken from her free online course “Trauma and Memory,” which started on Monday. Outside of wartime, mourning would usually take place at burial sites and focus on the body of the deceased, but during the war this was frequently impossible. The bodies of many soldiers who died at the front could not be identified due to the horrific injuries they had sustained. During periods of intense fighting, it was not always possible for bodies to be gathered up and given a proper burial, and those soldiers who could be identified were usually buried in makeshift graves near where they had fallen. Many were never found. Bereaved relatives and loved ones on the home front were therefore often deprived of a body or a grave at which they could mourn, and where graves existed, they were often too far away to visit. This hindered closure, and often intensified personal trauma. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier As a result, new funerary customs and mourning practices developed. Some bereaved families would adopt other bodies as a focus of their mourning, following the funeral cortèges of soldiers unknown to them. This notion that one dead soldier could symbolise all those who had died gave rise to the Tombs of the Unknown Soldier in London and Paris, both of which were established in 1920. In London, the body of an unidentified soldier, who had initially been buried on the Western Front, was entombed at Westminster Abbey. In Paris, the same was done at the Arc de Triomphe. The Cenotaph – or “empty tomb” In London, a cenotaph – which literally means “empty tomb” – was also established in 1919. This was initially a temporary structure, but due to its popularity, a permanent tomb was built and unveiled in 1920. Symbolically significant sites such as these, along with countless war memorials across the belligerent countries, proved popular focal points for mourning and continue to serve as commemorative sites to this day.
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This Sunday is Remembrance Sunday in the UK, when ceremonies at the Cenotaph in London and war memorials around the country mourn those who died in the two World Wars and later conflicts. Here, The Open University’s Annika Mombauer discusses the origins of these ceremonies in World War 1. The article is taken from her free online course “Trauma and Memory,” which started on Monday. Outside of wartime, mourning would usually take place at burial sites and focus on the body of the deceased, but during the war this was frequently impossible. The bodies of many soldiers who died at the front could not be identified due to the horrific injuries they had sustained. During periods of intense fighting, it was not always possible for bodies to be gathered up and given a proper burial, and those soldiers who could be identified were usually buried in makeshift graves near where they had fallen. Many were never found. Bereaved relatives and loved ones on the home front were therefore often deprived of a body or a grave at which they could mourn, and where graves existed, they were often too far away to visit. This hindered closure, and often intensified personal trauma. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier As a result, new funerary customs and mourning practices developed. Some bereaved families would adopt other bodies as a focus of their mourning, following the funeral cortèges of soldiers unknown to them. This notion that one dead soldier could symbolise all those who had died gave rise to the Tombs of the Unknown Soldier in London and Paris, both of which were established in 1920. In London, the body of an unidentified soldier, who had initially been buried on the Western Front, was entombed at Westminster Abbey. In Paris, the same was done at the Arc de Triomphe. The Cenotaph – or “empty tomb” In London, a cenotaph – which literally means “empty tomb” – was also established in 1919. This was initially a temporary structure, but due to its popularity, a permanent tomb was built and unveiled in 1920. Symbolically significant sites such as these, along with countless war memorials across the belligerent countries, proved popular focal points for mourning and continue to serve as commemorative sites to this day.
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View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Like What You See? This storyboard was created with You have been promoted to Zheng. Zheng He was one of China's greatest sailors and admirals, but not many people know of his legacy. Why is that? I want you to lead the voyage! Zheng He's real name was actually Ma He, and when he was little, his village was raided, and he was shipped to the capital to work for the emperor. He befriended one of the princes, and when the prince got power, he gave the title "Zheng" to Zheng He. The king wanted to voyage around the world to show China's power, and he chose Zheng He to lead it. Zheng He traveled all across south east Asia and east Africa, trading with locals, and spreading the message of China's power. However, when Zheng He died, and the other emperor died as well, all records and ships of Zheng He were burned. His legacy was ruined for centuries. Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard
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View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Like What You See? This storyboard was created with You have been promoted to Zheng. Zheng He was one of China's greatest sailors and admirals, but not many people know of his legacy. Why is that? I want you to lead the voyage! Zheng He's real name was actually Ma He, and when he was little, his village was raided, and he was shipped to the capital to work for the emperor. He befriended one of the princes, and when the prince got power, he gave the title "Zheng" to Zheng He. The king wanted to voyage around the world to show China's power, and he chose Zheng He to lead it. Zheng He traveled all across south east Asia and east Africa, trading with locals, and spreading the message of China's power. However, when Zheng He died, and the other emperor died as well, all records and ships of Zheng He were burned. His legacy was ruined for centuries. Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard
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5. Early Life Wilhelm II was directly related to Queen Victoria, as were his first cousins, the respective monarchs of Great Britain and Russia, and Victoria sent her personal physicians to ensure his successful delivery to her daughter in Berlin, Princess Victoria, in 1859. On his paternal side, Wilhelm II was the son of Prince Frederick III, who was known to his family and friends as Fritz, and would become King of Prussia and then Emperor of a united German Empire. Like many aspects of his life to come, his birth went terribly wrong nonetheless, leaving him with a withered and paralyzed left arm. This arm caused the future monarch a continued feeling of humiliation all of his days, which may have accounted for his unstable personality, histrionic outbreaks, and a desire to achieve military greatness. The latter took no concrete form, save for a personal collection of over 600 military uniforms, many of which he designed himself. 4. Rise to Power Under his grandfather, Kaiser Wilhelm I, ruling alongside his brilliant “Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck, Germany became unified, and a system of alliances designed and managed by the Chancellor had maintained peace and good relations across Europe. This was necessary because the recently unified Germany in the middle of Europe bordering many nations was brilliantly situated for trade, though extremely vulnerable to attack on various fronts in the case of war. In 1888, the "Year of Three German Emperors", Wilhelm I died at the age of 90 in March, followed shortly thereafter by his son and Wilhelm II's father, Frederick III, who died of cancer in June. Having gained the throne himself that same year, the new Kaiser (or King) Wilhelm II was eager to prove himself competent and make an impression rather than be tutored in the art of managing foreign relations. Bismarck was fired, and his system of complex alliances, with their give-and-take features encouraging moderation, were deliberately broken. Kaiser Wilhelm II failed to renew a treaty of friendship with Russia, which drove the Czar to seek alliances with the traditional opponents of German expansionism, Great Britain and France, with momentous consequences. As Kaiser, Wilhelm II built a huge and expensive Navy to challenge Great Britain’s maritime dominance. Instead of the brilliant diplomacy of Bismarck, which kept lines of communication open with even the most bitter of the nation's opponents, Germany now had France on one side seeking to regain territory it had lost in a war with Prussia in 1871. Meanwhile, Russia, feeling betrayed, sought and found a means to threaten Germany on two sides by forming an alliance with France. Germany responded with the Schlieffen Plan, which called for the rapid elimination of the weaker opponent Russia before facing France. This invasion ultimately put World War I into full military swing. During World War I, the Army leadership was taking more prominent positions in society that in the end pushed aside the Kaiser's authority. As a consequence of William II’s clumsy handling of diplomacy, a system of alliances was formed to oppose the German quest for “a place in the sun”, which was their Empire. Germany had on its side Austria-Hungary, the remnant of the once powerful Hapsburg Empire, itself possessing a weak army and sullen, rebellious peoples seeking national liberation. William II had no great sensitivity in this area of political relationship, himself being deeply anti-Semitic, thoughtlessly offensive in insulting the British people as a race (even ding so in an interview while on a good-will visit to Britain), and calling the Chinese “cross-eyed” after the Boxer Rebellion. The policy of seeking Germany's “place in the sun” in this manner led to ruin, and for Willhelm II the loss of his throne as Germany was defeated in World War I. 1. Death and Legacy With Germany's defeat, Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate on November 9th, 1918. His abdication was actually announced before he had consented to it. He escaped to the Netherlands, bought a manor house there, and suffered deep depression after the death of his wife and suicide of his son two years later. His initial admiration for Adolf Hitler was not reciprocated, and he was never allowed to return to Germany. He died in exile in a manor house named Huis Doorn in Doorn, a small town in the Netherlands, in 1941 at the age of 82. As the Netherlands was then being occupied by Nazi German invaders, he was given an unheralded military funeral there by German military personnel that had been born in the homeland he had governed for three decades as emperor. Who Was Wilhelm II? Wilhelm II was the last German emperor before the dissolution of the German Monarchy following World War I. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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5. Early Life Wilhelm II was directly related to Queen Victoria, as were his first cousins, the respective monarchs of Great Britain and Russia, and Victoria sent her personal physicians to ensure his successful delivery to her daughter in Berlin, Princess Victoria, in 1859. On his paternal side, Wilhelm II was the son of Prince Frederick III, who was known to his family and friends as Fritz, and would become King of Prussia and then Emperor of a united German Empire. Like many aspects of his life to come, his birth went terribly wrong nonetheless, leaving him with a withered and paralyzed left arm. This arm caused the future monarch a continued feeling of humiliation all of his days, which may have accounted for his unstable personality, histrionic outbreaks, and a desire to achieve military greatness. The latter took no concrete form, save for a personal collection of over 600 military uniforms, many of which he designed himself. 4. Rise to Power Under his grandfather, Kaiser Wilhelm I, ruling alongside his brilliant “Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck, Germany became unified, and a system of alliances designed and managed by the Chancellor had maintained peace and good relations across Europe. This was necessary because the recently unified Germany in the middle of Europe bordering many nations was brilliantly situated for trade, though extremely vulnerable to attack on various fronts in the case of war. In 1888, the "Year of Three German Emperors", Wilhelm I died at the age of 90 in March, followed shortly thereafter by his son and Wilhelm II's father, Frederick III, who died of cancer in June. Having gained the throne himself that same year, the new Kaiser (or King) Wilhelm II was eager to prove himself competent and make an impression rather than be tutored in the art of managing foreign relations. Bismarck was fired, and his system of complex alliances, with their give-and-take features encouraging moderation, were deliberately broken. Kaiser Wilhelm II failed to renew a treaty of friendship with Russia, which drove the Czar to seek alliances with the traditional opponents of German expansionism, Great Britain and France, with momentous consequences. As Kaiser, Wilhelm II built a huge and expensive Navy to challenge Great Britain’s maritime dominance. Instead of the brilliant diplomacy of Bismarck, which kept lines of communication open with even the most bitter of the nation's opponents, Germany now had France on one side seeking to regain territory it had lost in a war with Prussia in 1871. Meanwhile, Russia, feeling betrayed, sought and found a means to threaten Germany on two sides by forming an alliance with France. Germany responded with the Schlieffen Plan, which called for the rapid elimination of the weaker opponent Russia before facing France. This invasion ultimately put World War I into full military swing. During World War I, the Army leadership was taking more prominent positions in society that in the end pushed aside the Kaiser's authority. As a consequence of William II’s clumsy handling of diplomacy, a system of alliances was formed to oppose the German quest for “a place in the sun”, which was their Empire. Germany had on its side Austria-Hungary, the remnant of the once powerful Hapsburg Empire, itself possessing a weak army and sullen, rebellious peoples seeking national liberation. William II had no great sensitivity in this area of political relationship, himself being deeply anti-Semitic, thoughtlessly offensive in insulting the British people as a race (even ding so in an interview while on a good-will visit to Britain), and calling the Chinese “cross-eyed” after the Boxer Rebellion. The policy of seeking Germany's “place in the sun” in this manner led to ruin, and for Willhelm II the loss of his throne as Germany was defeated in World War I. 1. Death and Legacy With Germany's defeat, Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate on November 9th, 1918. His abdication was actually announced before he had consented to it. He escaped to the Netherlands, bought a manor house there, and suffered deep depression after the death of his wife and suicide of his son two years later. His initial admiration for Adolf Hitler was not reciprocated, and he was never allowed to return to Germany. He died in exile in a manor house named Huis Doorn in Doorn, a small town in the Netherlands, in 1941 at the age of 82. As the Netherlands was then being occupied by Nazi German invaders, he was given an unheralded military funeral there by German military personnel that had been born in the homeland he had governed for three decades as emperor. Who Was Wilhelm II? Wilhelm II was the last German emperor before the dissolution of the German Monarchy following World War I. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
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Died when: 83 years 169 days Star Sign: Gemini Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks (June 7, 1917 – December 3, 2000) was an American poet, author, and teacher. Her work often dealt with the personal celebrations and struggles of ordinary people in her community. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry on May 1, 1950, for Annie Allen, making her the first African American to receive the Pulitzer. Throughout her prolific writing career, Brooks received many more honors. She was appointed Poet Laureate of Illinois in 1968, a position she held until her death, and what is now the Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress for the 1985–86 term. In 1976, she became the first African-American woman inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Brooks grew up in Chicago, where she lived the rest of her life. She began submitting poems to various publications as a teenager. After graduating high school during the Great Depression, she took a two-year junior college program, worked as a typist, married, and had children. Continuing to write and submit her work, she finally found substantial outlets for her poetry. This recognition of her work also led her to lecturing and teaching aspiring writers. Being the winner of multiple awards for her writing, several schools and institutions have been named in her honor.
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Died when: 83 years 169 days Star Sign: Gemini Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks (June 7, 1917 – December 3, 2000) was an American poet, author, and teacher. Her work often dealt with the personal celebrations and struggles of ordinary people in her community. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry on May 1, 1950, for Annie Allen, making her the first African American to receive the Pulitzer. Throughout her prolific writing career, Brooks received many more honors. She was appointed Poet Laureate of Illinois in 1968, a position she held until her death, and what is now the Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress for the 1985–86 term. In 1976, she became the first African-American woman inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Brooks grew up in Chicago, where she lived the rest of her life. She began submitting poems to various publications as a teenager. After graduating high school during the Great Depression, she took a two-year junior college program, worked as a typist, married, and had children. Continuing to write and submit her work, she finally found substantial outlets for her poetry. This recognition of her work also led her to lecturing and teaching aspiring writers. Being the winner of multiple awards for her writing, several schools and institutions have been named in her honor.
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By John French The Bishop's Wars 1639 & 1640 Eleven Years' Tyranny The years 1629-40 were the so called 'Eleven Years' Tyranny', when Charles used his Prerogative Powers to govern the country largely without the aid of Parliament. Various grievances on both sides led to Charles dissolving Parliament. He instead used a small council of advisors including William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury) and Thomas Wentworth. This was known as the Conciliar System. Laud wanted to impose uniformity within the Church and persuaded Charles to make it compulsory for Scotland to use the English Prayer Book of 1635. Various Scots signed a National Covenant objecting to its usage, and put an army in the field to reinforce their objections. When the Scots army marched south, there was no standing English army with which to oppose them. Charles was only able to field various local militia units as he was unable to raise an army without the aid of Parliament. The militia were unable to put up much opposition and the First Bishops' War ended with the Treaty of Berwick. Upon the advice of Wentworth, the King decided to recall Parliament under its new leader John Pym, in the hope that he would be granted the money with which to raise troops. Parliament's various grievances were again aired, however, and it was dissolved after only three weeks (being consequently known as the 'Short Parliament'). The King once more put a patched-together army into the field, including troops raised in Ireland, but, as before, the Scots proved too strong and managed to fight their way down as far as Northallerton on the River Tees. At the insistence of the gentry the King called another Parliament in 1640 ('The Long Parliament'), during the life of which there were two important sessions. The first, in the autumn and winter of 1640- 41, saw the persecution of the King's advisors Laud and Wentworth (who were both imprisoned) and the systematic destruction of the Conciliar System. The King is obliged to henceforth recall Parliament every three years, and each Parliament can only be dissolved with its own consent. The second session was less radical, but many members felt that they needed to maintain pressure on the King in case he should retaliate. It is worth noting that at this stage there were still many Members of Parliament who were moderates. Parliament drew up a 'Grand Remonstrance' in 1641, which was a listing of all the good things they felt they had done and all the King's failings. It was then that the King went with some musketeers to arrest Pym and four other radical members. Having been alerted, Pym and the others had already left, and this blunder led to the King leaving London. Parliament insisted that a struggle could be averted if three things were placed under their control, demanding that they should oversee the education of the King's children, should choose the King's advisors, and be given complete control of the armed forces. The last point was probably the biggest bone of contention and led to the King raising his standard at Nottingham in August 1642, marking the outbreak of the Civil War. The English militia or 'Trained Bands' wore a similar style of uniform to that used during the Civil War period. Uniforms for the militia of some areas were as follows: Northampton, blue coats; Warwickshire, blue coats (possibly); East Yorkshire (Beverley), grey coats; and North Yorkshire (Ainsty and York), buff coats, red breeches with silver lace, black caps with feathers. Other regiments included those of Sir William Saville, which wore red coats; and the Earl of Essex, probably orange-tawny (they wore this colour by 1642, and his standard of 1639 was the same colour). Cavalry usually supplied their own clothing and equipment so would vary according to wealth of the individual. Thomas Wentworth also raised troops in Ireland on Charles' behalf in an attempt to beat the Scots. Ten regiments of foot and two of horse were proposed. Details of the ensigns for these units are given in the books mentioned below. Scots from the Lowlands wore civilian clothing rather than uniforms, including a jacket, breeches, and a flat Kilmarnock bonnet. Border infantry would be similar in dress, although they would also have a plaid, similar to a blanket roll. Muskets and pikes were used as in the English armies. Their cavalry, however, were mainly heavy lancers, often additionally armed with two or more pistols. Highlanders also wore their own clothing, consisting of plaids, stockings, and bonnets. There was no 'clan tartan' system at this time. They were armed with sword and targe (shield), and some also had one or more pistols. There were no musket-armed Highlanders; they relied instead on archers for their missile arm. Details of flags are not as prolific as for the English Civil War. There are two books by Prince & Peachey listed at the end of the ECW section which offer some help and are recommended, as is the Stephen Ede-Borrett book on ensigns which is also listed there. The English Civil Wars 1642-51 Foundry produce a whole host of figures from which to build Royalist and Parliamentarian armies. Popular terminology gives them the sobriquet 'Roundheads and Cavaliers'. Both of these terms were originally of a derogatory nature, having been given to them by their opponents. 'Roundhead' came from the way that some Puritans cut their hair, while the reproachful term 'Cavalier' given to the Royalists epitomised their off-hand treatment of the civilian population. The name 'Cavaliers' has now acquired an almost romantic definition, embodying daring and gentlemanly conduct. Both terms, however, are actually misnomers, as some Parliamentary supporters were just as foppishly dressed as any Royalist - so much so that it was frequently difficult to tell which side a soldier was fighting on. Clothing colours were of equally little value in identifying an individual's loyalties. Red, blue, green, yellow, and white coats were all used by regiments on both sides at first, and it was only with the advent of the New Model Army that Parliament's forces started to adopt red as a uniform coat colour, thereby establishing the traditional colour of British military jackets for the next 200 years. There were more similarities than differences between the armies. Each side had noblemen raising, equipping and frequently leading regiments. Although there were some professional officers who had fought on the Continent, most were amateurs. Both sides had infantry which were almost entirely lacking in any kind of military experience, made up of soldiers who were not usually politically motivated but simply followed their landlords into battle, fighting for whichever side he supported. It is worth bearing in mind that when the fighting first erupted, the Parliamentarians had no intention of removing the King. They were looking for a way to curb his authority, or, as they viewed it, his misuse of power. It was only when it was realised that Charles was not to be trusted and that he was looking further afield for aid and support, that they decided he would need to be replaced. Initial Stages of the Civil War The causes of the English Civil War are touched upon briefly in the section on the Bishops' Wars, and are covered in detail in most general history texts. Like many other conflicts in history, there were also religious overtones to the conflict, especially where Scotland and Ireland were concerned. The King and Parliament began to raise forces from a variety of sources. 'Trained Bands' were used, troops were introduced from Scotland and Ireland, and some professional soldiers from the Continent were employed. In addition new regiments were raised, and frequently equipped, by various noblemen, including Members of Parliament. These amateur soldiers often commanded the regiments they had paid for, so military competence varied greatly. Neither side was really ready for war, but many advantages lay with Parliament. They held London, certain sea ports such as Hull and Plymouth, and garrison towns such as Bristol and Gloucester. The Navy also went over to Parliament en masse.. Parliament was at first averse to open conflict, and the Earl of Essex, commanding its army, feared for his life in the event of a reversal. Once the fighting started, many battles proved to be little more than skirmishes, often localised on a county level. Consequently the war took a long time to resolve. A Brief Outline of Events There were, in fact, three Civil Wars between 1642 and 1651. The first occurred in 1642-46, the second between March and August 1648, and the third from 3 June 1650 to September 1651. 1642: The King raised his standard at Nottingham in August 1642 and the rival armies manoeuvred around the Midlands before finally coming to blows at Edgehill on 23 October. There was no decisive outcome to this battle and the King made his way towards Oxford, which he was to make his new capital. Indeed, Charles did not return to London again until taken there as a prisoner. There was also an engagement at Turnham Green, where the Royalists were thwarted in their intended advance upon London. 1643: Localised armies evolved as support for both sides became more regionalised. Early in the year the Royalists gained control of much of the West Country, the exceptions being some of the major towns and cities. One such city was Gloucester, which was besieged by the King's main army during August. Parliamentarian forces under the Earl of Essex were able to raise the siege the following month. The King tried to intercept Essex as the Parliamentarian army returned to London, resulting in the indecisive Battle of Newbury. In the north, Royalist attempts to march southwards to London were foiled by a combination of well-organised armies fielded by the Parliamentarian Eastern Association and by the continued resistance of the seaport of Hull. 1643-44 saw five main Parliamentarian armies in the field, under the Earl of Essex (around 10,000 men), the Earl of Manchester (14- 21,000 men), Lord Fairfax, Sir William Waller, and the Earl of Denbigh. 1644: A Scots army came to the aid of Parliament and strengthened the forces besieging York. The King sent his cousin Rupert northwards from Oxford in an attempt to relieve the city. The Earl of Essex attempted to take control of Cornwall but ended up being caught between the Royalist forces already in the West Country, and an army led by the King to his rear. Essex's infantry surrendered at Lostwithiel, his 2,000 cavalry having escaped. Rupert managed to relieve York, but the following day (2 July) he was heavily defeated at Marston Moor by the combined armies of Parliament and the Scots. From this point on the North of England was lost to the King. After Marston Moor the Parliamentarians marched south and joined with the forces of William Waller and a newly raised army under Essex. Their combined forces then engaged the King at the Second Battle of Newbury, but once more the action was indecisive, and the King was able to retire to Oxford. 1645-46: The Parliamentarian armies of Essex, Waller and the Earl of Manchester were combined to form the New Model Army (NMA), under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax. Waller's army had been badly knocked about and provided only around 600 infantry. Despite three armies having been combined, there were still insufficient infantry available. More were consequently impressed in London and the South-East, but there was still a shortfall of 4,000 men when the army took the field. The cavalry arm was easier to raise, being a more popular service, and several regiments were taken piecemeal into the NMA. Oliver Cromwell was made deputy commander. In April 1645 a 'Self-Denying Ordinance' was passed by Parliament which meant that men could no longer both sit in Parliament and command troops. There were just two exceptions to this - Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. This ordnance helped pave the way for a more professional approach to raising and commanding an army. The NMA nevertheless remained just one of several Parliamentarian armies in the field at the same time, the others being: - The Scots army under Leslie (around 20,000 men). - Major-General Poyntz,* commanding an army from Nottinghamshire and six northern counties (10,000 men). - Major-General Massey,* commanding troops raised in Wiltshire and four western counties (10,000 men). - Major-General Browne,* commanding local levies in the Midlands. - 5,000 horse and foot in the eastern counties. - Two small bodies of troops in SouthWales and the North. These armies gradually disappeared or were absorbed into the NMA, although the commanders marked with an asterisk retained their independence for a while. The Battle of Naseby saw the destruction of the King's Army, although it was to be almost another year before the final pockets of Royalist resistance were dealt with. Realising the futility of his cause, Charles finally decided to surrender to the Scots, thinking he would get a better deal from them. However, they turned him over to Parliament in exchange for arrears of pay. The Second Civil War, 1648 Whilst imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles managed to come to an agreement with the Scots. In return for an army of 30,000 men, the King would enforce the Presbyterian religion in Scotland for a minimum of three years. Various Royalist uprisings took place in anticipation of the Scots' advance. They were, however, crushed before the Scots had crossed the border to join them. The Scots army was then cut in two and heavily defeated at the Battle of Preston (28 August). The King was now looked upon by many as someone who could not be trusted. The NMA wanted to put him on trial for his life, but moderate elements within Parliament were unlikely to have agreed to this. Consequently when Parliament was reconvened the moderates were not allowed to take their seats. Colonel Pride was in charge of this operation, which therefore became known as 'Pride's Purge'. Only those sympathetic towards the army were allowed to take their seats, this down-sized Parliament becoming known as the 'Rump'. It was the 'Rump' which brought the King to trial, and he was executed on 30 January 1649. The House of Lords was abolished, and there was a period of constitutional shambles as Cromwell tried to organise the Government. 1650: Cromwell conducted a terror campaign in Ireland, with two massacres at Tredah (Drogheda) and Wexford. As a result other places surrendered quickly. The Third Civil War, 1650-51 The executed king's son, Charles II, landed in Scotland and raised an army, but was defeated at Dunbar, in south-east Scotland, on 3 September 1650. Another army raised in support of the Royalist cause marched as far south as Worcester before it, too, was defeated exactly a year later (3 September 1651). Charles II escaped to France and did not return until the Restoration in 1660. When an officer raised a regiment it was usually named after him. He would usually pay for the men's jackets or coats himself, the colour being left to his personal choice. It was therefore not unusual to have men from opposing armies dressed very similarly. For this reason field signs were frequently adopted, consisting of things like pieces of paper or beanstalks worn on their hats. Another distinguishing sign sometimes adopted was the use of coloured scarves or sashes, tied either around the waist or across one shoulder. The Royalists generally adopted red, whilst Parliamentarian supporters would usually wear tawny-orange. It does not take much imagination to see why confusions occurred, nor to see how men were able to make good their escape from danger by simply removing the appropriate field sign. Such coats as were initially supplied were worn over ordinary civilian clothes, but as they were replaced in the course of a campaign there was even less uniformity. It was only as the New Model Army began to take shape that other items of uniform clothing and equipment began to appear. Flags were not of much help either in terms of regimental distinction. Both sides used similar formats for their infantry flags, both in terms of colours and the devices used to distinguish companies. The captain of each company usually had his own flag , which was similar to those of his regiment's other companies except in he number of 'devices' painted or sewn upon the field. The devices could be circles, trefoils, and other geometric designs, or might have some connection to the arms or heraldic badges of the man who had raised and equipped the regiment. It is generally thought that flag and coat colour of a regiment tended to be the same, but often this was not the case. There are even examples of different-coloured flags within the same regiment. The Peachey & Prince book listed below give worthwhile notes on this subject. (As units were so similar in dress, why not have alternative command figures - one with Royalist and one with Parliamentarian flags?) Regiments at this time still tended to have a block of pikemen with two 'wings' of shot, one on either side of the pikes. The ratio of pike to shot would depend upon the resources available within a given area. Parliament often controlled the larger towns and cities, and therefore the arsenals, so tended to have more muskets available. In some cases a regiment would have two muskets for each pike. In Royalist regiments the numbers of musketeers and pikemen were more likely to be of equal proportions. 'Commanded musketeers' were men selected to take up positions within cavalry units to give them some degree of firepower. Pikemen were armed with a pike which was around 16 ft (5 m) in length. It was quite unwieldy and many men hacked off the bottom 3-4 ft to make it easier to handle. (It is said that a soldier could distinguish an inexperienced unit by its wavering pikes, which resulted from the extra length and weight of their weapons.) The King's Army suffered from a reckless issuing of commissions. Instead of systematically filling the existing regiments as ranks thinned, the losses were replaced by raising new regiments. In 1643- 44 no fewer than 49 colonels of foot and 40 of horse were commissioned to raise new regiments. They were frequently grossly undermanned and were little more than company or troop strength. In September 1644, the Earl of Cleveland's Brigade of Foot, in Cornwall consisted of six regiments but totalled only 800 men. At Naseby, Thomas Howard's Brigade of Horse had some 880 men, although it contained seven regiments. Howard's own regiment was only 80 strong. For those who like painting flags, this provides an ideal excuse to add several to even a small wargame unit. Civilians & 'Clubmen' Some men had no uniforms at all. They sometimes banded together in a particular area to resist marauders or foragers from the armies of either side. These 'Clubmen' fought in their own clothes, using improvised weapons such as pitchforks and clubs if no better armament was available. Items from the General Purpose range should prove very useful here. Artillery, Engineers and Sappers Artillery at this time was generally quite cumbersome, and once emplaced on the battlefield tended to remain there until after the action was over. Theoretically the 3-pdr Falcon could be manhandled into new positions, but it was not used to the same extent that the Swedes had used such guns during the Thirty Years War, when they were pulled into place alongside advancing infantry formations. Sieges and the use of earthworks were a common feature of many engagements. Civilian clothing was the norm. Petards were explosive devices rested against or nailed to doorways. Mortars were used in siege warfare rather than on the battlefield. Both mounted and dismounted dragoon figures available. Both sides used dragoons, which were really mounted infantrymen who used their frequently poor quality horses to get them to their positions. They could be used to line hedges, walls, and the like, often in an attempt to outflank enemy cavalry. They frequently had a uniform coat (e.g. red or black) and usually carried a guidon with rounded end, rather like an elongated 'D'. Mounted and dismounted cavalry figures are also available. Cavalry dress could be even more difficult to distinguish than that of the infantry. As the cavalry were usually men with more money, their clothing would tend to reflect this and would frequently have little resemblance to a uniform. Many men from both sides wore a 'buff' leather coat as some protection from sword cuts. At the start of the war some men (known as 'cuirassiers') wore almost full armour. Although its use was rapidly declining, breast and backplates were often retained, worn over the top of the buff coat. Some veterans of the Thirty Years War in Europe, officers in particular, retained items of weaponry, armour or clothing that would be considered out of fashion. For this reason some figures from the Thirty Years War range could well be included within your forces. The cavalry frequently used political slogans or caricatures on their flags, so it may have been slightly easier to distinguish friend from foe - always assuming that the onlooker could read or could understand the pictorial references, or could even see the flag, which was much smaller (around 2 ft square) than those carried by infantry units. As with the infantry, sashes or scarves were often worn. A troop of cavalry was nominally around 70 men. The sedan chair can be used to carry a general or an important visitor. This, like the other three groups, is suitable for either Parliamentarian or Royalist armies. Some of these items could also be used to complement the 'Cutthroats' range, especially for Spanish Colonial towns of the Caribbean and Central America. The use of Scots troops was not straightforward in terms of Royalist or Parliamentarian sympathies, but there is not the space for an explanation here. Stuart Reid's Scots Armies of the English Civil Wars gives good background information. The dress of the Scots is briefly covered above in the section on the Bishops' Wars. For history and campaign details: Wendham, P. The Great Close & Siege of York (Roundwood Press, 1970). Young, Peter, Marston Moor (Roundwood Press, 1970). One of the best books on this campaign, reprinted in paperback in recent years. Young, Peter. Edgehill 1642 (Roundwood Press, 1967). There are many other books available, some of which give quite localised campaign information for relevant sieges and actions. Uniforms and organisation: Osprey Elite Series 25 and 27 Soldiers of the English Civil War 1: Infantry and 2: Cavalry. Osprey MAA Series 110 New ModelArmy 1645-60 and 331 Scots Armies of the English Civil War. Firth, C.H. Cromwell's Army (first published in 1902, but reprinted in paperback several times). A classic. There is plenty of text, but no illustrations. It is well worth scouring second-hand book shops to obtain a copy. Partizan Press have published a host of booklets upon specific armies, standards, and colours. Two of the most useful are on flags and colours: 1: English Foot by S. Peachey and L. Prince (1991); and 2: Scots Colours by S. Reid (1990). Both use original source material and dispel some of the myths surrounding this subject. Ensignes of the English Civil Wars by Stephen Ede-Borrett (Gosling Press, Pontefract, 1997) is another useful book for details of standards, many of which are illustrated in colour.
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By John French The Bishop's Wars 1639 & 1640 Eleven Years' Tyranny The years 1629-40 were the so called 'Eleven Years' Tyranny', when Charles used his Prerogative Powers to govern the country largely without the aid of Parliament. Various grievances on both sides led to Charles dissolving Parliament. He instead used a small council of advisors including William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury) and Thomas Wentworth. This was known as the Conciliar System. Laud wanted to impose uniformity within the Church and persuaded Charles to make it compulsory for Scotland to use the English Prayer Book of 1635. Various Scots signed a National Covenant objecting to its usage, and put an army in the field to reinforce their objections. When the Scots army marched south, there was no standing English army with which to oppose them. Charles was only able to field various local militia units as he was unable to raise an army without the aid of Parliament. The militia were unable to put up much opposition and the First Bishops' War ended with the Treaty of Berwick. Upon the advice of Wentworth, the King decided to recall Parliament under its new leader John Pym, in the hope that he would be granted the money with which to raise troops. Parliament's various grievances were again aired, however, and it was dissolved after only three weeks (being consequently known as the 'Short Parliament'). The King once more put a patched-together army into the field, including troops raised in Ireland, but, as before, the Scots proved too strong and managed to fight their way down as far as Northallerton on the River Tees. At the insistence of the gentry the King called another Parliament in 1640 ('The Long Parliament'), during the life of which there were two important sessions. The first, in the autumn and winter of 1640- 41, saw the persecution of the King's advisors Laud and Wentworth (who were both imprisoned) and the systematic destruction of the Conciliar System. The King is obliged to henceforth recall Parliament every three years, and each Parliament can only be dissolved with its own consent. The second session was less radical, but many members felt that they needed to maintain pressure on the King in case he should retaliate. It is worth noting that at this stage there were still many Members of Parliament who were moderates. Parliament drew up a 'Grand Remonstrance' in 1641, which was a listing of all the good things they felt they had done and all the King's failings. It was then that the King went with some musketeers to arrest Pym and four other radical members. Having been alerted, Pym and the others had already left, and this blunder led to the King leaving London. Parliament insisted that a struggle could be averted if three things were placed under their control, demanding that they should oversee the education of the King's children, should choose the King's advisors, and be given complete control of the armed forces. The last point was probably the biggest bone of contention and led to the King raising his standard at Nottingham in August 1642, marking the outbreak of the Civil War. The English militia or 'Trained Bands' wore a similar style of uniform to that used during the Civil War period. Uniforms for the militia of some areas were as follows: Northampton, blue coats; Warwickshire, blue coats (possibly); East Yorkshire (Beverley), grey coats; and North Yorkshire (Ainsty and York), buff coats, red breeches with silver lace, black caps with feathers. Other regiments included those of Sir William Saville, which wore red coats; and the Earl of Essex, probably orange-tawny (they wore this colour by 1642, and his standard of 1639 was the same colour). Cavalry usually supplied their own clothing and equipment so would vary according to wealth of the individual. Thomas Wentworth also raised troops in Ireland on Charles' behalf in an attempt to beat the Scots. Ten regiments of foot and two of horse were proposed. Details of the ensigns for these units are given in the books mentioned below. Scots from the Lowlands wore civilian clothing rather than uniforms, including a jacket, breeches, and a flat Kilmarnock bonnet. Border infantry would be similar in dress, although they would also have a plaid, similar to a blanket roll. Muskets and pikes were used as in the English armies. Their cavalry, however, were mainly heavy lancers, often additionally armed with two or more pistols. Highlanders also wore their own clothing, consisting of plaids, stockings, and bonnets. There was no 'clan tartan' system at this time. They were armed with sword and targe (shield), and some also had one or more pistols. There were no musket-armed Highlanders; they relied instead on archers for their missile arm. Details of flags are not as prolific as for the English Civil War. There are two books by Prince & Peachey listed at the end of the ECW section which offer some help and are recommended, as is the Stephen Ede-Borrett book on ensigns which is also listed there. The English Civil Wars 1642-51 Foundry produce a whole host of figures from which to build Royalist and Parliamentarian armies. Popular terminology gives them the sobriquet 'Roundheads and Cavaliers'. Both of these terms were originally of a derogatory nature, having been given to them by their opponents. 'Roundhead' came from the way that some Puritans cut their hair, while the reproachful term 'Cavalier' given to the Royalists epitomised their off-hand treatment of the civilian population. The name 'Cavaliers' has now acquired an almost romantic definition, embodying daring and gentlemanly conduct. Both terms, however, are actually misnomers, as some Parliamentary supporters were just as foppishly dressed as any Royalist - so much so that it was frequently difficult to tell which side a soldier was fighting on. Clothing colours were of equally little value in identifying an individual's loyalties. Red, blue, green, yellow, and white coats were all used by regiments on both sides at first, and it was only with the advent of the New Model Army that Parliament's forces started to adopt red as a uniform coat colour, thereby establishing the traditional colour of British military jackets for the next 200 years. There were more similarities than differences between the armies. Each side had noblemen raising, equipping and frequently leading regiments. Although there were some professional officers who had fought on the Continent, most were amateurs. Both sides had infantry which were almost entirely lacking in any kind of military experience, made up of soldiers who were not usually politically motivated but simply followed their landlords into battle, fighting for whichever side he supported. It is worth bearing in mind that when the fighting first erupted, the Parliamentarians had no intention of removing the King. They were looking for a way to curb his authority, or, as they viewed it, his misuse of power. It was only when it was realised that Charles was not to be trusted and that he was looking further afield for aid and support, that they decided he would need to be replaced. Initial Stages of the Civil War The causes of the English Civil War are touched upon briefly in the section on the Bishops' Wars, and are covered in detail in most general history texts. Like many other conflicts in history, there were also religious overtones to the conflict, especially where Scotland and Ireland were concerned. The King and Parliament began to raise forces from a variety of sources. 'Trained Bands' were used, troops were introduced from Scotland and Ireland, and some professional soldiers from the Continent were employed. In addition new regiments were raised, and frequently equipped, by various noblemen, including Members of Parliament. These amateur soldiers often commanded the regiments they had paid for, so military competence varied greatly. Neither side was really ready for war, but many advantages lay with Parliament. They held London, certain sea ports such as Hull and Plymouth, and garrison towns such as Bristol and Gloucester. The Navy also went over to Parliament en masse.. Parliament was at first averse to open conflict, and the Earl of Essex, commanding its army, feared for his life in the event of a reversal. Once the fighting started, many battles proved to be little more than skirmishes, often localised on a county level. Consequently the war took a long time to resolve. A Brief Outline of Events There were, in fact, three Civil Wars between 1642 and 1651. The first occurred in 1642-46, the second between March and August 1648, and the third from 3 June 1650 to September 1651. 1642: The King raised his standard at Nottingham in August 1642 and the rival armies manoeuvred around the Midlands before finally coming to blows at Edgehill on 23 October. There was no decisive outcome to this battle and the King made his way towards Oxford, which he was to make his new capital. Indeed, Charles did not return to London again until taken there as a prisoner. There was also an engagement at Turnham Green, where the Royalists were thwarted in their intended advance upon London. 1643: Localised armies evolved as support for both sides became more regionalised. Early in the year the Royalists gained control of much of the West Country, the exceptions being some of the major towns and cities. One such city was Gloucester, which was besieged by the King's main army during August. Parliamentarian forces under the Earl of Essex were able to raise the siege the following month. The King tried to intercept Essex as the Parliamentarian army returned to London, resulting in the indecisive Battle of Newbury. In the north, Royalist attempts to march southwards to London were foiled by a combination of well-organised armies fielded by the Parliamentarian Eastern Association and by the continued resistance of the seaport of Hull. 1643-44 saw five main Parliamentarian armies in the field, under the Earl of Essex (around 10,000 men), the Earl of Manchester (14- 21,000 men), Lord Fairfax, Sir William Waller, and the Earl of Denbigh. 1644: A Scots army came to the aid of Parliament and strengthened the forces besieging York. The King sent his cousin Rupert northwards from Oxford in an attempt to relieve the city. The Earl of Essex attempted to take control of Cornwall but ended up being caught between the Royalist forces already in the West Country, and an army led by the King to his rear. Essex's infantry surrendered at Lostwithiel, his 2,000 cavalry having escaped. Rupert managed to relieve York, but the following day (2 July) he was heavily defeated at Marston Moor by the combined armies of Parliament and the Scots. From this point on the North of England was lost to the King. After Marston Moor the Parliamentarians marched south and joined with the forces of William Waller and a newly raised army under Essex. Their combined forces then engaged the King at the Second Battle of Newbury, but once more the action was indecisive, and the King was able to retire to Oxford. 1645-46: The Parliamentarian armies of Essex, Waller and the Earl of Manchester were combined to form the New Model Army (NMA), under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax. Waller's army had been badly knocked about and provided only around 600 infantry. Despite three armies having been combined, there were still insufficient infantry available. More were consequently impressed in London and the South-East, but there was still a shortfall of 4,000 men when the army took the field. The cavalry arm was easier to raise, being a more popular service, and several regiments were taken piecemeal into the NMA. Oliver Cromwell was made deputy commander. In April 1645 a 'Self-Denying Ordinance' was passed by Parliament which meant that men could no longer both sit in Parliament and command troops. There were just two exceptions to this - Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. This ordnance helped pave the way for a more professional approach to raising and commanding an army. The NMA nevertheless remained just one of several Parliamentarian armies in the field at the same time, the others being: - The Scots army under Leslie (around 20,000 men). - Major-General Poyntz,* commanding an army from Nottinghamshire and six northern counties (10,000 men). - Major-General Massey,* commanding troops raised in Wiltshire and four western counties (10,000 men). - Major-General Browne,* commanding local levies in the Midlands. - 5,000 horse and foot in the eastern counties. - Two small bodies of troops in SouthWales and the North. These armies gradually disappeared or were absorbed into the NMA, although the commanders marked with an asterisk retained their independence for a while. The Battle of Naseby saw the destruction of the King's Army, although it was to be almost another year before the final pockets of Royalist resistance were dealt with. Realising the futility of his cause, Charles finally decided to surrender to the Scots, thinking he would get a better deal from them. However, they turned him over to Parliament in exchange for arrears of pay. The Second Civil War, 1648 Whilst imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles managed to come to an agreement with the Scots. In return for an army of 30,000 men, the King would enforce the Presbyterian religion in Scotland for a minimum of three years. Various Royalist uprisings took place in anticipation of the Scots' advance. They were, however, crushed before the Scots had crossed the border to join them. The Scots army was then cut in two and heavily defeated at the Battle of Preston (28 August). The King was now looked upon by many as someone who could not be trusted. The NMA wanted to put him on trial for his life, but moderate elements within Parliament were unlikely to have agreed to this. Consequently when Parliament was reconvened the moderates were not allowed to take their seats. Colonel Pride was in charge of this operation, which therefore became known as 'Pride's Purge'. Only those sympathetic towards the army were allowed to take their seats, this down-sized Parliament becoming known as the 'Rump'. It was the 'Rump' which brought the King to trial, and he was executed on 30 January 1649. The House of Lords was abolished, and there was a period of constitutional shambles as Cromwell tried to organise the Government. 1650: Cromwell conducted a terror campaign in Ireland, with two massacres at Tredah (Drogheda) and Wexford. As a result other places surrendered quickly. The Third Civil War, 1650-51 The executed king's son, Charles II, landed in Scotland and raised an army, but was defeated at Dunbar, in south-east Scotland, on 3 September 1650. Another army raised in support of the Royalist cause marched as far south as Worcester before it, too, was defeated exactly a year later (3 September 1651). Charles II escaped to France and did not return until the Restoration in 1660. When an officer raised a regiment it was usually named after him. He would usually pay for the men's jackets or coats himself, the colour being left to his personal choice. It was therefore not unusual to have men from opposing armies dressed very similarly. For this reason field signs were frequently adopted, consisting of things like pieces of paper or beanstalks worn on their hats. Another distinguishing sign sometimes adopted was the use of coloured scarves or sashes, tied either around the waist or across one shoulder. The Royalists generally adopted red, whilst Parliamentarian supporters would usually wear tawny-orange. It does not take much imagination to see why confusions occurred, nor to see how men were able to make good their escape from danger by simply removing the appropriate field sign. Such coats as were initially supplied were worn over ordinary civilian clothes, but as they were replaced in the course of a campaign there was even less uniformity. It was only as the New Model Army began to take shape that other items of uniform clothing and equipment began to appear. Flags were not of much help either in terms of regimental distinction. Both sides used similar formats for their infantry flags, both in terms of colours and the devices used to distinguish companies. The captain of each company usually had his own flag , which was similar to those of his regiment's other companies except in he number of 'devices' painted or sewn upon the field. The devices could be circles, trefoils, and other geometric designs, or might have some connection to the arms or heraldic badges of the man who had raised and equipped the regiment. It is generally thought that flag and coat colour of a regiment tended to be the same, but often this was not the case. There are even examples of different-coloured flags within the same regiment. The Peachey & Prince book listed below give worthwhile notes on this subject. (As units were so similar in dress, why not have alternative command figures - one with Royalist and one with Parliamentarian flags?) Regiments at this time still tended to have a block of pikemen with two 'wings' of shot, one on either side of the pikes. The ratio of pike to shot would depend upon the resources available within a given area. Parliament often controlled the larger towns and cities, and therefore the arsenals, so tended to have more muskets available. In some cases a regiment would have two muskets for each pike. In Royalist regiments the numbers of musketeers and pikemen were more likely to be of equal proportions. 'Commanded musketeers' were men selected to take up positions within cavalry units to give them some degree of firepower. Pikemen were armed with a pike which was around 16 ft (5 m) in length. It was quite unwieldy and many men hacked off the bottom 3-4 ft to make it easier to handle. (It is said that a soldier could distinguish an inexperienced unit by its wavering pikes, which resulted from the extra length and weight of their weapons.) The King's Army suffered from a reckless issuing of commissions. Instead of systematically filling the existing regiments as ranks thinned, the losses were replaced by raising new regiments. In 1643- 44 no fewer than 49 colonels of foot and 40 of horse were commissioned to raise new regiments. They were frequently grossly undermanned and were little more than company or troop strength. In September 1644, the Earl of Cleveland's Brigade of Foot, in Cornwall consisted of six regiments but totalled only 800 men. At Naseby, Thomas Howard's Brigade of Horse had some 880 men, although it contained seven regiments. Howard's own regiment was only 80 strong. For those who like painting flags, this provides an ideal excuse to add several to even a small wargame unit. Civilians & 'Clubmen' Some men had no uniforms at all. They sometimes banded together in a particular area to resist marauders or foragers from the armies of either side. These 'Clubmen' fought in their own clothes, using improvised weapons such as pitchforks and clubs if no better armament was available. Items from the General Purpose range should prove very useful here. Artillery, Engineers and Sappers Artillery at this time was generally quite cumbersome, and once emplaced on the battlefield tended to remain there until after the action was over. Theoretically the 3-pdr Falcon could be manhandled into new positions, but it was not used to the same extent that the Swedes had used such guns during the Thirty Years War, when they were pulled into place alongside advancing infantry formations. Sieges and the use of earthworks were a common feature of many engagements. Civilian clothing was the norm. Petards were explosive devices rested against or nailed to doorways. Mortars were used in siege warfare rather than on the battlefield. Both mounted and dismounted dragoon figures available. Both sides used dragoons, which were really mounted infantrymen who used their frequently poor quality horses to get them to their positions. They could be used to line hedges, walls, and the like, often in an attempt to outflank enemy cavalry. They frequently had a uniform coat (e.g. red or black) and usually carried a guidon with rounded end, rather like an elongated 'D'. Mounted and dismounted cavalry figures are also available. Cavalry dress could be even more difficult to distinguish than that of the infantry. As the cavalry were usually men with more money, their clothing would tend to reflect this and would frequently have little resemblance to a uniform. Many men from both sides wore a 'buff' leather coat as some protection from sword cuts. At the start of the war some men (known as 'cuirassiers') wore almost full armour. Although its use was rapidly declining, breast and backplates were often retained, worn over the top of the buff coat. Some veterans of the Thirty Years War in Europe, officers in particular, retained items of weaponry, armour or clothing that would be considered out of fashion. For this reason some figures from the Thirty Years War range could well be included within your forces. The cavalry frequently used political slogans or caricatures on their flags, so it may have been slightly easier to distinguish friend from foe - always assuming that the onlooker could read or could understand the pictorial references, or could even see the flag, which was much smaller (around 2 ft square) than those carried by infantry units. As with the infantry, sashes or scarves were often worn. A troop of cavalry was nominally around 70 men. The sedan chair can be used to carry a general or an important visitor. This, like the other three groups, is suitable for either Parliamentarian or Royalist armies. Some of these items could also be used to complement the 'Cutthroats' range, especially for Spanish Colonial towns of the Caribbean and Central America. The use of Scots troops was not straightforward in terms of Royalist or Parliamentarian sympathies, but there is not the space for an explanation here. Stuart Reid's Scots Armies of the English Civil Wars gives good background information. The dress of the Scots is briefly covered above in the section on the Bishops' Wars. For history and campaign details: Wendham, P. The Great Close & Siege of York (Roundwood Press, 1970). Young, Peter, Marston Moor (Roundwood Press, 1970). One of the best books on this campaign, reprinted in paperback in recent years. Young, Peter. Edgehill 1642 (Roundwood Press, 1967). There are many other books available, some of which give quite localised campaign information for relevant sieges and actions. Uniforms and organisation: Osprey Elite Series 25 and 27 Soldiers of the English Civil War 1: Infantry and 2: Cavalry. Osprey MAA Series 110 New ModelArmy 1645-60 and 331 Scots Armies of the English Civil War. Firth, C.H. Cromwell's Army (first published in 1902, but reprinted in paperback several times). A classic. There is plenty of text, but no illustrations. It is well worth scouring second-hand book shops to obtain a copy. Partizan Press have published a host of booklets upon specific armies, standards, and colours. Two of the most useful are on flags and colours: 1: English Foot by S. Peachey and L. Prince (1991); and 2: Scots Colours by S. Reid (1990). Both use original source material and dispel some of the myths surrounding this subject. Ensignes of the English Civil Wars by Stephen Ede-Borrett (Gosling Press, Pontefract, 1997) is another useful book for details of standards, many of which are illustrated in colour.
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On 4th March 1526, Mary Boleyn gave birth to a son she named Henry Carey. Mary Boleyn was a member of Henry VIII's court, was married to courtier William Carey and was also the older sister of Anne Boleyn, who would become Queen of England. I believe that Mary Boleyn was also the mistress of Henry VIII from around 1522 – 1525. Over the centuries, there has always been a great deal of debate as to who Henry Carey's father was. Henry Carey was conceived during 1525, the year, I believe, that Mary's relationship with Henry VIII was coming to an end. It may be possible that during the last few times the King slept with Mary she conceived. It has also been suggested that Henry would not have wished to share Mary with her husband, keeping her to himself during the entire period of their relationship. During his life there were also rumours that Henry Carey looked quite a lot like Henry VIII and that Henry VIII gave Mary's husband William Carey a series of grants and appointments around the time each child was born in an attempt to keep him happy. It has also been proposed that Queen Elizabeth was close Henry Carey; this must have been because they were in fact half-brother and sister rather than just cousins. Queen Elizabeth knighted Henry Carey and made him Baron Hunsdon; she also visited him on his death-bed offering him the Earldom of Wiltshire (once owned by his grandfather Thomas Boleyn). On the other hand, there are just as many reasons proposed as to why Henry VIII was not Henry Carey's father. It is just as plausible that during the time Mary was the King's mistress she may have also been sleeping with her husband. Henry VIII never acknowledged Henry as his son, where he had acknowledged Henry Fitzroy, a son he bore with his previous mistress Bessie Blount. It has also been proposed that Henry VIII may have had low fertility and thus there would be a low probability that Mary could become pregnant by the King. It has also been suggested that the grants given to William Carey could have simply been to keep him silent and happy about his wife sleeping with the King, as well as for his dedicated service to the King. Also the reason that Queen Elizabeth showed great favour to Henry Carey was simply because they were cousins. Whatever the truth regarding Henry Carey’s biological father, it was William Carey, Mary's husband, that acknowledged baby Henry as his son and heir. Henry Carey would grow up to become a prominent and impressive member at court. On the 21st May 1545 Henry obtained a licence to marry Anne Morgan daughter of Sir Thomas Morgan. The couple would go on to have twelve children together - nine sons and three daughters. During his early years Henry Carey became a diplomat, ambassador and a member of parliament. In 1546, during the reign of Henry VIII, Carey accompanied John Dudley, Viscount Lisle on an embassy mission to France. In the first year of Edward VI's reign Carey was MP for the borough of Buckingham and during the reign of Mary I he was a carver of the privy chamber. In 1557 Carey was held in the Fleet prison for debts of £507 which had occurred in 1551 but was soon released on bond on the 19th May. When Elizabeth I came to the throne, Henry was knighted and on 13th January 1559 he was created Baron Hunsdon and granted substantial lands in Kent, Hertfordshire and Essex which provided a yearly income of £4000, a huge sum at the time. On 31st October 1560 Henry was appointed as Master of the Queen's hawks and then on 18th Mary 1561 he was created a Knight of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry in England. In 1564 Carey was granted the distinct honour of leading a mission to France where he presented the Order of the Garter to the French King Charles IX, on behalf of Elizabeth I. He also witnessed the signing of the treaty of Troyes between England and France. On the 25th of August 1568 Carey was appointed Governor of Berwick, a position which saw him protecting the north of England from Scottish invaders and any possible rebellions. One such rebellion took place on the 20th January 1570. Henry Carey and a group of around 1500 soldiers faced English rebel, Leonard Dacre, who was part of an uprising in the North of England. Carey and his men, although outnumbered, stood strong and managed to scatter the rebel army which quickly fled north along with Dacre. In response to his victory Elizabeth I wrote to her cousin declaring that: ‘I doubt much, my Harry, whether that the victory was given me more joyed me or that you were by God appointed the instrument of my glory’. For the country's good the first suffices, but ‘for my heart's contentment the second more pleased me’. On 23 October 1571 Carey was appointed Warden of the East Marshes which afforded him even greater responsibilities in protecting the north of England. On the 16th of November 1577 Henry received the high distinction of being appointed as a member of the Privy Council. This provided him greater access not only to the Queen but to the administration of England's policies. Carey focused the remainder of his years upon his work in the Privy Council, although there were four occasions between 1578 and 1588 that he was recalled north to protect the Northern boarders and to negotiate with the Scots. In fact Henry Carey was so influential in Scottish matters that he was seen as the leading member on the Privy Council in Scottish matters and the Scottish King, James VI wrote personally to Carey on several occasions. During 1583, Elizabeth I re-appointed Henry as captain of the Gentlemen Pensioners and in July 1585 he was appointed as Lord Chamberlain of the household as well as continuing his privy councillor duties. In 1589 Carey was appointed as Chief Justice in Eyre South of Trent and on the 2nd of March 1592 he was appointed High Steward of Oxford for the remainder of his life. This appointment added to his other stewardships of Doncaster and Ipswich which had been granted to him in 1590. Henry was active in political life until his death on 23rd July 1596 at Somerset House. Just as his sister Catherine, Henry Carey was buried at Westminster Abbey, the expenses of this paid by his cousin Elizabeth I. It is rumoured that on his death-bed Elizabeth I offered Henry the Earldom of Wiltshire, a title held by his grandfather Thomas Boleyn. However Henry refused the title stating that if Elizabeth did not think him worthy of the title while he was alive he would not accept it now that he was dying. Henry Carey was a hardworking, dedicated servant and courtier of his cousin and Queen, Elizabeth I. He proved himself both on the battle field and in political matters. Upon his death Carey was succeeded by his son George Carey who became 2nd Baron Hunsdon. Sarah Bryson is the author of Mary Boleyn: In a Nutshell. She is a researcher, writer and educator who has a Bachelor of Early Childhood Education with Honours and currently works with children with disabilities. Sarah is passionate about Tudor history and has a deep interest in Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn, the reign of Henry VIII and the people of his court. Visiting England in 2009 furthered her passion and when she returned home she started a website, queentohistory.com, and Facebook page about Tudor history. Sarah lives in Australia, enjoys reading, writing, Tudor costume enactment and wishes to return to England one day. She is currently working on a biography of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. - Licence, Amy (2014) The Six Wives & Many Mistresses of Henry VIII, Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire. - Wallace T. MacCaffrey, ‘Carey, Henry, first Baron Hunsdon (1526–1596)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2014 http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4649, accessed 6 June 2015. - Weir, A (2011) Mary Boleyn: The Mistress of Kings, Ballantine Books, New York. - Wilkinson, J (2010) Mary Boleyn The True Story of Henry VIII’s Favourite Mistress, Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire.
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On 4th March 1526, Mary Boleyn gave birth to a son she named Henry Carey. Mary Boleyn was a member of Henry VIII's court, was married to courtier William Carey and was also the older sister of Anne Boleyn, who would become Queen of England. I believe that Mary Boleyn was also the mistress of Henry VIII from around 1522 – 1525. Over the centuries, there has always been a great deal of debate as to who Henry Carey's father was. Henry Carey was conceived during 1525, the year, I believe, that Mary's relationship with Henry VIII was coming to an end. It may be possible that during the last few times the King slept with Mary she conceived. It has also been suggested that Henry would not have wished to share Mary with her husband, keeping her to himself during the entire period of their relationship. During his life there were also rumours that Henry Carey looked quite a lot like Henry VIII and that Henry VIII gave Mary's husband William Carey a series of grants and appointments around the time each child was born in an attempt to keep him happy. It has also been proposed that Queen Elizabeth was close Henry Carey; this must have been because they were in fact half-brother and sister rather than just cousins. Queen Elizabeth knighted Henry Carey and made him Baron Hunsdon; she also visited him on his death-bed offering him the Earldom of Wiltshire (once owned by his grandfather Thomas Boleyn). On the other hand, there are just as many reasons proposed as to why Henry VIII was not Henry Carey's father. It is just as plausible that during the time Mary was the King's mistress she may have also been sleeping with her husband. Henry VIII never acknowledged Henry as his son, where he had acknowledged Henry Fitzroy, a son he bore with his previous mistress Bessie Blount. It has also been proposed that Henry VIII may have had low fertility and thus there would be a low probability that Mary could become pregnant by the King. It has also been suggested that the grants given to William Carey could have simply been to keep him silent and happy about his wife sleeping with the King, as well as for his dedicated service to the King. Also the reason that Queen Elizabeth showed great favour to Henry Carey was simply because they were cousins. Whatever the truth regarding Henry Carey’s biological father, it was William Carey, Mary's husband, that acknowledged baby Henry as his son and heir. Henry Carey would grow up to become a prominent and impressive member at court. On the 21st May 1545 Henry obtained a licence to marry Anne Morgan daughter of Sir Thomas Morgan. The couple would go on to have twelve children together - nine sons and three daughters. During his early years Henry Carey became a diplomat, ambassador and a member of parliament. In 1546, during the reign of Henry VIII, Carey accompanied John Dudley, Viscount Lisle on an embassy mission to France. In the first year of Edward VI's reign Carey was MP for the borough of Buckingham and during the reign of Mary I he was a carver of the privy chamber. In 1557 Carey was held in the Fleet prison for debts of £507 which had occurred in 1551 but was soon released on bond on the 19th May. When Elizabeth I came to the throne, Henry was knighted and on 13th January 1559 he was created Baron Hunsdon and granted substantial lands in Kent, Hertfordshire and Essex which provided a yearly income of £4000, a huge sum at the time. On 31st October 1560 Henry was appointed as Master of the Queen's hawks and then on 18th Mary 1561 he was created a Knight of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry in England. In 1564 Carey was granted the distinct honour of leading a mission to France where he presented the Order of the Garter to the French King Charles IX, on behalf of Elizabeth I. He also witnessed the signing of the treaty of Troyes between England and France. On the 25th of August 1568 Carey was appointed Governor of Berwick, a position which saw him protecting the north of England from Scottish invaders and any possible rebellions. One such rebellion took place on the 20th January 1570. Henry Carey and a group of around 1500 soldiers faced English rebel, Leonard Dacre, who was part of an uprising in the North of England. Carey and his men, although outnumbered, stood strong and managed to scatter the rebel army which quickly fled north along with Dacre. In response to his victory Elizabeth I wrote to her cousin declaring that: ‘I doubt much, my Harry, whether that the victory was given me more joyed me or that you were by God appointed the instrument of my glory’. For the country's good the first suffices, but ‘for my heart's contentment the second more pleased me’. On 23 October 1571 Carey was appointed Warden of the East Marshes which afforded him even greater responsibilities in protecting the north of England. On the 16th of November 1577 Henry received the high distinction of being appointed as a member of the Privy Council. This provided him greater access not only to the Queen but to the administration of England's policies. Carey focused the remainder of his years upon his work in the Privy Council, although there were four occasions between 1578 and 1588 that he was recalled north to protect the Northern boarders and to negotiate with the Scots. In fact Henry Carey was so influential in Scottish matters that he was seen as the leading member on the Privy Council in Scottish matters and the Scottish King, James VI wrote personally to Carey on several occasions. During 1583, Elizabeth I re-appointed Henry as captain of the Gentlemen Pensioners and in July 1585 he was appointed as Lord Chamberlain of the household as well as continuing his privy councillor duties. In 1589 Carey was appointed as Chief Justice in Eyre South of Trent and on the 2nd of March 1592 he was appointed High Steward of Oxford for the remainder of his life. This appointment added to his other stewardships of Doncaster and Ipswich which had been granted to him in 1590. Henry was active in political life until his death on 23rd July 1596 at Somerset House. Just as his sister Catherine, Henry Carey was buried at Westminster Abbey, the expenses of this paid by his cousin Elizabeth I. It is rumoured that on his death-bed Elizabeth I offered Henry the Earldom of Wiltshire, a title held by his grandfather Thomas Boleyn. However Henry refused the title stating that if Elizabeth did not think him worthy of the title while he was alive he would not accept it now that he was dying. Henry Carey was a hardworking, dedicated servant and courtier of his cousin and Queen, Elizabeth I. He proved himself both on the battle field and in political matters. Upon his death Carey was succeeded by his son George Carey who became 2nd Baron Hunsdon. Sarah Bryson is the author of Mary Boleyn: In a Nutshell. She is a researcher, writer and educator who has a Bachelor of Early Childhood Education with Honours and currently works with children with disabilities. Sarah is passionate about Tudor history and has a deep interest in Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn, the reign of Henry VIII and the people of his court. Visiting England in 2009 furthered her passion and when she returned home she started a website, queentohistory.com, and Facebook page about Tudor history. Sarah lives in Australia, enjoys reading, writing, Tudor costume enactment and wishes to return to England one day. She is currently working on a biography of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. - Licence, Amy (2014) The Six Wives & Many Mistresses of Henry VIII, Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire. - Wallace T. MacCaffrey, ‘Carey, Henry, first Baron Hunsdon (1526–1596)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2014 http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4649, accessed 6 June 2015. - Weir, A (2011) Mary Boleyn: The Mistress of Kings, Ballantine Books, New York. - Wilkinson, J (2010) Mary Boleyn The True Story of Henry VIII’s Favourite Mistress, Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire.
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Pierce v. Society of Sisters Education has always been one of the foremost social and legal issues in the United States. Free public education flourished in the United States long before it did in the rest of the world, and even locations with relatively low populations tended to have a one-room schoolhouse. However, not all American children attended public school. Private schools, and particularly parochial schools, have also played a major role in American education. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters, the Supreme Court looked at an Oregon law that would have allowed for what amounted to a ban on private education. Compulsory School Law and Exceptions Before the Compulsory Education Act was passed, Oregon already required children to attend school between the ages of 8 and 16. Both public and government approved private schools were allowed to educate children in compliance with the law, and children who lived too far from schools, were home schooled, had graduated the 8th grade, or were not “normal” (i.e. children with physical or mental disabilities) were exempt from its provisions. However, the majority of private schools in Oregon were Catholic. This was because of a long strain of anti-Catholic thought in 19th and early 20th century American public schools. Public schools at this time often used textbooks that directly denounced the Pope and Catholicism, leading parents to take their children to parochial schools instead. In 1922, Oregon voters passed the Compulsory Education Act, which eliminated the private school exception to the law and required all children to attend public schools. This law was advocated by the Ku Klux Klan and others, and was designed to discriminate against Catholic schools, which they claimed were teaching children to obey rulers in other nations at the expense of American nationalism. The Society of Sisters operated one of the Catholic schools affected by this new law, and sued in state court. After the state court agreed with the Society of Sisters that the law was problematic from a First and Fourteenth Amendment perspective, the Society of Sisters took the case to the Supreme Court for a final ruling. The state argued that having children exclusively in public schools made it substantially more easy for the state to monitor the quality of education provided to the children. They also argued that because the Society of Sisters was a corporate entity and not a citizen, it was not entitled to sue using the Fourteenth Amendment, which applied only to individuals. The court disagreed with this assessment, and ruled in favor of the Society of Sisters. According to the Supreme Court, the Fourteenth Amendment could indeed be applied to protect both individuals and corporations. They also ruled that children and parental liberties would be unconstitutionally compromised by the Oregon law, and that parental choice must be allowed to be what determines a child’s education. Effects of Pierce v. Society of Sisters This case is widely considered to have been a substantial broadening of the Fourteenth Amendment, with implications that go well beyond education. If a corporation’s due process rights have been violated, this decision allows that corporation to make a Fourteenth Amendment claim.
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Pierce v. Society of Sisters Education has always been one of the foremost social and legal issues in the United States. Free public education flourished in the United States long before it did in the rest of the world, and even locations with relatively low populations tended to have a one-room schoolhouse. However, not all American children attended public school. Private schools, and particularly parochial schools, have also played a major role in American education. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters, the Supreme Court looked at an Oregon law that would have allowed for what amounted to a ban on private education. Compulsory School Law and Exceptions Before the Compulsory Education Act was passed, Oregon already required children to attend school between the ages of 8 and 16. Both public and government approved private schools were allowed to educate children in compliance with the law, and children who lived too far from schools, were home schooled, had graduated the 8th grade, or were not “normal” (i.e. children with physical or mental disabilities) were exempt from its provisions. However, the majority of private schools in Oregon were Catholic. This was because of a long strain of anti-Catholic thought in 19th and early 20th century American public schools. Public schools at this time often used textbooks that directly denounced the Pope and Catholicism, leading parents to take their children to parochial schools instead. In 1922, Oregon voters passed the Compulsory Education Act, which eliminated the private school exception to the law and required all children to attend public schools. This law was advocated by the Ku Klux Klan and others, and was designed to discriminate against Catholic schools, which they claimed were teaching children to obey rulers in other nations at the expense of American nationalism. The Society of Sisters operated one of the Catholic schools affected by this new law, and sued in state court. After the state court agreed with the Society of Sisters that the law was problematic from a First and Fourteenth Amendment perspective, the Society of Sisters took the case to the Supreme Court for a final ruling. The state argued that having children exclusively in public schools made it substantially more easy for the state to monitor the quality of education provided to the children. They also argued that because the Society of Sisters was a corporate entity and not a citizen, it was not entitled to sue using the Fourteenth Amendment, which applied only to individuals. The court disagreed with this assessment, and ruled in favor of the Society of Sisters. According to the Supreme Court, the Fourteenth Amendment could indeed be applied to protect both individuals and corporations. They also ruled that children and parental liberties would be unconstitutionally compromised by the Oregon law, and that parental choice must be allowed to be what determines a child’s education. Effects of Pierce v. Society of Sisters This case is widely considered to have been a substantial broadening of the Fourteenth Amendment, with implications that go well beyond education. If a corporation’s due process rights have been violated, this decision allows that corporation to make a Fourteenth Amendment claim.
625
ENGLISH
1
On November 9, 1838, during the Second Seminole Indian War (1835-42), the U.S. Army established Fort Gatlin in Mosquito County. This fort was named for Army Assistant Surgeon John S. Gatlin (1806-1835), who was killed in the Dade Massacre in 1835. The site of the fort was chosen as a military outpost due to its strategic position overlooking three lakes. The Fort served the state militia during the war until the Army withdrew in 1849. A few soldiers and families remained in the area, growing citrus and raising cattle. In 1856, Fort Gatlin became the county seat of Orange County, created from Mosquito County in 1845. The community's name was later changed to Orlando, a name attributed to militiaman Orlando Reeves, who was reportedly killed in a skirmish during the Second Seminole War. It is believed that Reeves is buried near the site of Fort Gatlin. In 1941, during World War II, the United States Navy established the Underwater Sound Reference Laboratory near this site on Lake Gem Mary because of the great depth of the lake. The lab was closed in 1997. The Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, lasted from 1835-1842 and was between groups of Native Americans in Florida, known collectively as the Seminoles, and the United States. The Second Seminole War was essentially begun over a land dispute. The United States government wanted to move Seminole tribes to a reservation west of the Mississippi River. The Seminoles had already given up land in Florida’s panhandle and moved to reservations within Florida. Although relationships between the Seminoles and the US government were to an extent peaceful, there was continued tension concerning runaway slaves that had been freed by the Spanish government when they had control of the area. These former slaves lived near Native American communities. The two groups maintained different cultures but did form alliances. The US Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 under President Andrew Jackson. The April 1834 Treaty of Payne’s Landing gave the Seminoles three years to move west of the Mississippi. Many, even some US military officials felt that the Native Americans had been forced against their will to accept this agreement. The Second Seminole War essentially began with the “Dade Massacre”, the 1835 battle in which the US Army suffered a devastating defeat. In this battle, the Seminoles employed the surprise tactics of guerilla warfare to attack US Army troops on their way from Ft. Brooke (present-day Tampa) to resupply at Ft. King (present-day Ocala).
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On November 9, 1838, during the Second Seminole Indian War (1835-42), the U.S. Army established Fort Gatlin in Mosquito County. This fort was named for Army Assistant Surgeon John S. Gatlin (1806-1835), who was killed in the Dade Massacre in 1835. The site of the fort was chosen as a military outpost due to its strategic position overlooking three lakes. The Fort served the state militia during the war until the Army withdrew in 1849. A few soldiers and families remained in the area, growing citrus and raising cattle. In 1856, Fort Gatlin became the county seat of Orange County, created from Mosquito County in 1845. The community's name was later changed to Orlando, a name attributed to militiaman Orlando Reeves, who was reportedly killed in a skirmish during the Second Seminole War. It is believed that Reeves is buried near the site of Fort Gatlin. In 1941, during World War II, the United States Navy established the Underwater Sound Reference Laboratory near this site on Lake Gem Mary because of the great depth of the lake. The lab was closed in 1997. The Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, lasted from 1835-1842 and was between groups of Native Americans in Florida, known collectively as the Seminoles, and the United States. The Second Seminole War was essentially begun over a land dispute. The United States government wanted to move Seminole tribes to a reservation west of the Mississippi River. The Seminoles had already given up land in Florida’s panhandle and moved to reservations within Florida. Although relationships between the Seminoles and the US government were to an extent peaceful, there was continued tension concerning runaway slaves that had been freed by the Spanish government when they had control of the area. These former slaves lived near Native American communities. The two groups maintained different cultures but did form alliances. The US Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 under President Andrew Jackson. The April 1834 Treaty of Payne’s Landing gave the Seminoles three years to move west of the Mississippi. Many, even some US military officials felt that the Native Americans had been forced against their will to accept this agreement. The Second Seminole War essentially began with the “Dade Massacre”, the 1835 battle in which the US Army suffered a devastating defeat. In this battle, the Seminoles employed the surprise tactics of guerilla warfare to attack US Army troops on their way from Ft. Brooke (present-day Tampa) to resupply at Ft. King (present-day Ocala).
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In the late 1930s, the novelist and screenwriter Dalton Trumbo read an article about the Prince of Wales paying a visit to a hospital in Canada for veterans of the first World War and meeting a soldier who had lost all of his limbs and senses from an explosion. From that inspiration Trumbo wrote his most famous novel, Johnny Got His Gun, about a soldier who wakes up in a hospital to find his arms and legs amputated and that he is blind, deaf and mute. It was published in 1939 to great success and in 1971 was adapted into a film that has since become a classic. But the adaptations didn’t stop there: it was also turned into a play in 1981, and the version you are probably most familiar with was the inspiration for Metallica’s 1989 song “One,” with scenes from the 1971 movie appearing in the music video. These adaptations are examples of process of remediation at work. Each of the artists behind these adaptations had to make decisions about how to take the idea behind the source material to create his or her own vision for the work. By telling the same story through each of their respective art forms, these artists were able to present a new interpretation of the original story, each of which gives us a new lens through which to understand the soldier’s experience. Remediation is the process of taking a text, whether it is a newspaper article, a story, a film or even something like a business proposal or a report, and translating it into a new medium. Remediation is based on the idea of the famous media theorist Marshall McLuhan, who once said that “the medium is the message.” McLuhan meant that how we perceive information changes based the way in which that information is presented. Let’s think about this in terms that you might be more familiar with: many of you have probably had to write a paper for which you had to give an oral report that included a PowerPoint presentation and possibly a handout. Each of those elements, the report, the PowerPoint and the presentation, is a remediation of your original paper. You would not present information in the same way in a PowerPoint as you would on a handout or when you delivered the content verbally. Because of the changes you make from one medium to the next, your audience perceives the information differently based on how it is delivered. Audience is one of the most important elements of the remediation process, because the creator of the medium must take into consideration how her work will be understood and interpreted. Let’s go back to the example of Johnny Got His Gun. When it was published in 1939, Trumbo knew that Americans were hoping to avoid having to enter World War II and that people would respond well to a book portraying the horrors of war at its worst (incidentally, that sentiment backfired on him after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, after which his book went through a period of great unpopularity). The film adaptation was not made until 1971, when anti-war sentiments towards Vietnam were at their height and younger filmgoers were once again open to the message Trumbo (who also directed the film) had originally tried to convey. By the time the late 1980’s rolled around and Metallica recorded its version, much of the controversy around the book and the film had died down and so the group was able to write a song that spoke to the horror of being imprisoned inside your own body without the baggage of pro or anti-war sentiments. Regardless of what kind of remediation you are taking on, whether it’s artistic, academic or business-related, it is vital to understand how the remediation process works. By knowing how to interpret the most important ideas from the original text and by transferring them in such a way as to give new meaning to the interpretation without misrepresenting the original, you will be far more successful in conveying important ideas to your audience and in understanding how important the way you present your information is.
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In the late 1930s, the novelist and screenwriter Dalton Trumbo read an article about the Prince of Wales paying a visit to a hospital in Canada for veterans of the first World War and meeting a soldier who had lost all of his limbs and senses from an explosion. From that inspiration Trumbo wrote his most famous novel, Johnny Got His Gun, about a soldier who wakes up in a hospital to find his arms and legs amputated and that he is blind, deaf and mute. It was published in 1939 to great success and in 1971 was adapted into a film that has since become a classic. But the adaptations didn’t stop there: it was also turned into a play in 1981, and the version you are probably most familiar with was the inspiration for Metallica’s 1989 song “One,” with scenes from the 1971 movie appearing in the music video. These adaptations are examples of process of remediation at work. Each of the artists behind these adaptations had to make decisions about how to take the idea behind the source material to create his or her own vision for the work. By telling the same story through each of their respective art forms, these artists were able to present a new interpretation of the original story, each of which gives us a new lens through which to understand the soldier’s experience. Remediation is the process of taking a text, whether it is a newspaper article, a story, a film or even something like a business proposal or a report, and translating it into a new medium. Remediation is based on the idea of the famous media theorist Marshall McLuhan, who once said that “the medium is the message.” McLuhan meant that how we perceive information changes based the way in which that information is presented. Let’s think about this in terms that you might be more familiar with: many of you have probably had to write a paper for which you had to give an oral report that included a PowerPoint presentation and possibly a handout. Each of those elements, the report, the PowerPoint and the presentation, is a remediation of your original paper. You would not present information in the same way in a PowerPoint as you would on a handout or when you delivered the content verbally. Because of the changes you make from one medium to the next, your audience perceives the information differently based on how it is delivered. Audience is one of the most important elements of the remediation process, because the creator of the medium must take into consideration how her work will be understood and interpreted. Let’s go back to the example of Johnny Got His Gun. When it was published in 1939, Trumbo knew that Americans were hoping to avoid having to enter World War II and that people would respond well to a book portraying the horrors of war at its worst (incidentally, that sentiment backfired on him after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, after which his book went through a period of great unpopularity). The film adaptation was not made until 1971, when anti-war sentiments towards Vietnam were at their height and younger filmgoers were once again open to the message Trumbo (who also directed the film) had originally tried to convey. By the time the late 1980’s rolled around and Metallica recorded its version, much of the controversy around the book and the film had died down and so the group was able to write a song that spoke to the horror of being imprisoned inside your own body without the baggage of pro or anti-war sentiments. Regardless of what kind of remediation you are taking on, whether it’s artistic, academic or business-related, it is vital to understand how the remediation process works. By knowing how to interpret the most important ideas from the original text and by transferring them in such a way as to give new meaning to the interpretation without misrepresenting the original, you will be far more successful in conveying important ideas to your audience and in understanding how important the way you present your information is.
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Do your middle school math students have difficulty with their fraction, decimal, percent conversions? Mine often do, but I have a few ways to help them try to keep the concepts straight. Tools for Teaching Fraction, Decimal, Percent Conversions: We started our Percent Unit last week and began the unit with converting between fractions and percents and decimals. I had already made the fraction, decimal, percent number line (a free resource in me store) for them with the most common fractions, percents, and decimals, but I figured there was a need for a "foldable" to keep all of the "rules" for converting in one place. We have already worked on converting decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals, but somehow, as we add new concepts, the students forget how to do these things! It's funny - my team teachers and I never write percents on students' papers any more, but always write their grades as fractions, like 18/23. From the first week of school, we teach the students how to change these fractions into their percentages, and every time they get a graded paper back, they are to find their percentages. So, when we say "Figure out your grade," they can do it. BUT, in math class, if I ask them to change 18/23 to a percent, they just look at me. When I give them the hint, "Pretend it's your grade," they look at me, understanding dawning on their faces! Why do they need that cue? Hmmm.....always a question. Anyway, to keep the conversion rules all in one place, we made this "fold it up." The Fraction, Decimal, Percent tabs (triangles) each get cut in half, and have a different rule and example under each half. I'm so glad we made these last week, because our schedule has been screwy for the past few school days! Thursday and Friday we had early dismissal due to parent-teacher conferences, so all math classes didn't meet both days; and today, we had a two hour delay, so all classes were short. The "fold it up" was super-handy as we had to work pretty quickly today! And hopefully, they've used it to help them with their homework tonight... Other Posts You Might Like More Resources to teach Fraction, Decimal, Percent Concepts: Getting started with ratios! We pretested ratios, rates, and proportions last week, and I found mixed results in the item analysis. I was surprised to find that very few students were able to write a ratio (the pretest question was: there are 2 hamsters and 1 gerbil - write a ratio of gerbils to hamsters). It wasn't that they wrote the ratio as hamsters to gerbils rather than gerbils to hamsters....they either left it blank, or wrote something that did not resemble a ratio. So, I was glad that I had prepared a couple of Fold it Ups for them to use this week! I think this is the first time I've used this version of Fold it Up (with the triangles folded in) this year, and a few students commented that they like this version better than others (like the one I made for Wed...bummer), because this type won't rip as easily. This one is quick and easy to use - students just cut out the square that makes up the fold it up, and then they fold each triangular section into the center, so the words are showing. (I did have students who folded the words to the inside of the fold it up, so they couldn't see the words...watch for that:-). Then they just need to add the notes under the appropriate flaps, and they're done! You can click the image on the left, below, to go to TPT and download the fold it up (free). Do you have a favorite note-taking method for ratios and rates? I'd love to hear!
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Do your middle school math students have difficulty with their fraction, decimal, percent conversions? Mine often do, but I have a few ways to help them try to keep the concepts straight. Tools for Teaching Fraction, Decimal, Percent Conversions: We started our Percent Unit last week and began the unit with converting between fractions and percents and decimals. I had already made the fraction, decimal, percent number line (a free resource in me store) for them with the most common fractions, percents, and decimals, but I figured there was a need for a "foldable" to keep all of the "rules" for converting in one place. We have already worked on converting decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals, but somehow, as we add new concepts, the students forget how to do these things! It's funny - my team teachers and I never write percents on students' papers any more, but always write their grades as fractions, like 18/23. From the first week of school, we teach the students how to change these fractions into their percentages, and every time they get a graded paper back, they are to find their percentages. So, when we say "Figure out your grade," they can do it. BUT, in math class, if I ask them to change 18/23 to a percent, they just look at me. When I give them the hint, "Pretend it's your grade," they look at me, understanding dawning on their faces! Why do they need that cue? Hmmm.....always a question. Anyway, to keep the conversion rules all in one place, we made this "fold it up." The Fraction, Decimal, Percent tabs (triangles) each get cut in half, and have a different rule and example under each half. I'm so glad we made these last week, because our schedule has been screwy for the past few school days! Thursday and Friday we had early dismissal due to parent-teacher conferences, so all math classes didn't meet both days; and today, we had a two hour delay, so all classes were short. The "fold it up" was super-handy as we had to work pretty quickly today! And hopefully, they've used it to help them with their homework tonight... Other Posts You Might Like More Resources to teach Fraction, Decimal, Percent Concepts: Getting started with ratios! We pretested ratios, rates, and proportions last week, and I found mixed results in the item analysis. I was surprised to find that very few students were able to write a ratio (the pretest question was: there are 2 hamsters and 1 gerbil - write a ratio of gerbils to hamsters). It wasn't that they wrote the ratio as hamsters to gerbils rather than gerbils to hamsters....they either left it blank, or wrote something that did not resemble a ratio. So, I was glad that I had prepared a couple of Fold it Ups for them to use this week! I think this is the first time I've used this version of Fold it Up (with the triangles folded in) this year, and a few students commented that they like this version better than others (like the one I made for Wed...bummer), because this type won't rip as easily. This one is quick and easy to use - students just cut out the square that makes up the fold it up, and then they fold each triangular section into the center, so the words are showing. (I did have students who folded the words to the inside of the fold it up, so they couldn't see the words...watch for that:-). Then they just need to add the notes under the appropriate flaps, and they're done! You can click the image on the left, below, to go to TPT and download the fold it up (free). Do you have a favorite note-taking method for ratios and rates? I'd love to hear!
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Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1426 words) In the story Everyday use by Alice Walker, as narrated by an African American woman who is in the midst of making a decision as to whom she perceived deserving of a very important heirloom that signifies their family’s heritage. Her two daughters have no comparable qualities. Her oldest daughter Dee, who now preferred to be called “Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo” is an educated, confident and ambitious woman who now lives in the city. Her coming home was a surprised visit for Mama. Her real intention was to collect objects showing cultural significance. The churn and the quilts are the two particular objects she intends to possess. The churn was the first one she showed interest on. Then she picked up the quilts which were supposedly be given to Maggie on her wedding day. Dee feels that she deserves to be given the quilts because of her passion to collect important objects that symbolizes African Culture. She would use those items to display her heritage. Maggie her younger sister on the other hand, is more like her mother. She is a shy and awkward girl, a person of low self-esteem. Upon astute of Dee’s determination to acquire the quilt, she readily gave in. Instead of arguing she easily relinquished her right over the heirloom which was originally promised to her by mother. Expectedly, Maggie blurted that Dee can have the quilts because she can always whole- heartedly remember Grandma Dee and her whole family history even without the quilts to remind her. The words of her younger daughter taunted her to arrive in the decision to deny Dee of her desire for the quilts. “For Dee, the quilts and her ability to use them for decoration rather than for warmth represent her emancipation. ”1 Mama thought that Maggie as the rightful heir of the quilts, the very important object symbolizing their family traditions will be in good hands. Mama did not decide based on the appearance and personality of her two daughters. Instead she valued the fact that Maggie showed authentic concern and worth on the significant family artifact. Maggie values the quilt for their sentimental reasons and the purpose it serves. Dee values it because she sees it as a priceless object. The two sisters both gave importance to the quilts as part of their heritage but with different perspective. Maggie believes that heritage is about family traditions that is supposed to be cherished and passed on to generations, while Dee believes that heritage is about African Culture. III OVERVIEW OF “MULATTO” BY LANGSTON HUGHES The play Mulatto by Langston Hughes is a story about a racial-driven conflict arising in a family in South America. With an African mother Cora and a rich American father who owns a plantation Thomas Norwood, Robert and his other siblings; Sallie and William were unfortunately raised in a family where racism is an issue. Amongst his children, Robert is the one whom Thomas said brought many frustrations and embarrassment to his name. Their conflict started back when Robert was still small, he accidentally referred to his father “Papa” in front of the older man’s distinguished white guests. Robert got whipped but the pain it caused him was more on emotion rather than physical. Robert was Thomas’ favorite up until that time. resentment had grown on both sides. Thomas, despite his ability and willingness to provide them with everything that his children deserve was not a typical father one can be proud of. He was given high regards by his children, but it was not love but fear that drove his children to obey him. Even though Thomas thought that he has ________________________________________________________ 1 “Identity Confusion in Alice Walker’s Everyday Use” <http:’’www. grdsaver. com/classicnotes/titles/everydayuse/essay/html> everything under control he did not realized that behind his back some of his children are disobeying him. Sallie for instance is studying typewriting and aims to become a teacher contrary to what Thomas knew that she is learning cooking and sewing. Robert through his education learned that equality with whites can be achieved and it should start it in his own town in this plantation and with his father. His father has sent him to school but only to be sent back to plantation to do work in the hills of cottons. So Thomas is not doing his children a favor by sending them off to school because at the end of the day they are expected to be back in the plantation to do the dirty work. and as what Robert sees it as “become servant of the whites”. A stereotyped role of an African-America, a second class citizen. As the play continuous, Robert as foreseen by his father and some of his white friends was slowly destroying Thomas’ reputation in the white community. His brash behavior and aggressiveness in pointing out his view regarding racial discrimination is threatening. Robert believes that being African-American they should be treated fairly and with equality. That being black they are yet as good as the whites. The manner of their father’s treatment to be them should be corrected. He thought that Thomas should acknowledge them as their children regardless of the fact that they were born from an African mother. One confrontation between Robert and his father ended in a tragedy. Thomas’ children were never allowed to use the front door but Robert refuses to do such, he walked thru the front door and almost bump into his father. Thomas was shocked and pointed his cane towards Robert, grabs a pistol and pointed it to him. Later in the evening the father and the son had a heated argument about the latter’s undesirable behavior and disobedience on Thomas’ orders. The argument went on to the father pointing the pistol to his son, he was disarmed and was choked to death by his own blood. His mother upon seeing the situation frantically showed sign of insanity. Robert after being seized by a mob ran back to his room and ended his life with his own hands rather than be captured and killed by the mob. The story ended tragically. IV DISCUSSION Everyday use and Mulatto are two stories that tackled double consciousness among African-Americans. The two major characters of each story underwent different dilemmas. Dee was fortunate to have a family who accepts and recognize her being. Has the freedom to express her cultural background. Her desires and intents are eminently respectful of her heritage. She changed her name to more African sounded name to have a single consciousness of identity that she indeed is an African American. Through the collection of objects that will remind her of her cultural heritage and family traditions only shows that she was determined to strengthen her bridge to her ancestry and cultural background. Thus giving an impression that she was slowly loosing her sense of ancestral consciousness that is why she was struggling to support it with symbolic family and cultural artifacts. While Dee of Everyday use has already established her real identity as an African woman attempting to showcase her heritage by displaying important family artifacts that will symbolize race and ancestry, Robert on the other hand was struggling to be recognize as what he really is. He aims for equality and fairness by taking the matter in his own will. His being an African-American was being suppressed by his own father who fails to recognize him as his son. He wanted to have the privilege and opportunity to have a better life as the whites. African-American should not be treated as inferior. Unlike Dee who is educated and was given a chance to have a better life in the superior world of the white, is being able to show her heritage with pride. Robert is prohibited to work in the world where white dominates. His own American father wants him to plow the land and nurture the fields rather than go out there be part of the American culture.. While Dee struggles to detach herself from being Americanized by focusing on retaining her cultural heritage amidst her new environment different from her mother’s and sister’s, she wanted to give emphasis on her African heritage. Robert is just merely aiming to be recognized as what he really is and what he can do despite being different from the whites. His African-American heritage seemed to give him the difficulty to choose which ethnicity he should identify with. As much as he wanted to be treated like a white he wanted to act and be treated simply as a full a blooded American. Cite this page African-American Heritage. (2017, Jan 03). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/african-american-heritage-essay
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Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1426 words) In the story Everyday use by Alice Walker, as narrated by an African American woman who is in the midst of making a decision as to whom she perceived deserving of a very important heirloom that signifies their family’s heritage. Her two daughters have no comparable qualities. Her oldest daughter Dee, who now preferred to be called “Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo” is an educated, confident and ambitious woman who now lives in the city. Her coming home was a surprised visit for Mama. Her real intention was to collect objects showing cultural significance. The churn and the quilts are the two particular objects she intends to possess. The churn was the first one she showed interest on. Then she picked up the quilts which were supposedly be given to Maggie on her wedding day. Dee feels that she deserves to be given the quilts because of her passion to collect important objects that symbolizes African Culture. She would use those items to display her heritage. Maggie her younger sister on the other hand, is more like her mother. She is a shy and awkward girl, a person of low self-esteem. Upon astute of Dee’s determination to acquire the quilt, she readily gave in. Instead of arguing she easily relinquished her right over the heirloom which was originally promised to her by mother. Expectedly, Maggie blurted that Dee can have the quilts because she can always whole- heartedly remember Grandma Dee and her whole family history even without the quilts to remind her. The words of her younger daughter taunted her to arrive in the decision to deny Dee of her desire for the quilts. “For Dee, the quilts and her ability to use them for decoration rather than for warmth represent her emancipation. ”1 Mama thought that Maggie as the rightful heir of the quilts, the very important object symbolizing their family traditions will be in good hands. Mama did not decide based on the appearance and personality of her two daughters. Instead she valued the fact that Maggie showed authentic concern and worth on the significant family artifact. Maggie values the quilt for their sentimental reasons and the purpose it serves. Dee values it because she sees it as a priceless object. The two sisters both gave importance to the quilts as part of their heritage but with different perspective. Maggie believes that heritage is about family traditions that is supposed to be cherished and passed on to generations, while Dee believes that heritage is about African Culture. III OVERVIEW OF “MULATTO” BY LANGSTON HUGHES The play Mulatto by Langston Hughes is a story about a racial-driven conflict arising in a family in South America. With an African mother Cora and a rich American father who owns a plantation Thomas Norwood, Robert and his other siblings; Sallie and William were unfortunately raised in a family where racism is an issue. Amongst his children, Robert is the one whom Thomas said brought many frustrations and embarrassment to his name. Their conflict started back when Robert was still small, he accidentally referred to his father “Papa” in front of the older man’s distinguished white guests. Robert got whipped but the pain it caused him was more on emotion rather than physical. Robert was Thomas’ favorite up until that time. resentment had grown on both sides. Thomas, despite his ability and willingness to provide them with everything that his children deserve was not a typical father one can be proud of. He was given high regards by his children, but it was not love but fear that drove his children to obey him. Even though Thomas thought that he has ________________________________________________________ 1 “Identity Confusion in Alice Walker’s Everyday Use” <http:’’www. grdsaver. com/classicnotes/titles/everydayuse/essay/html> everything under control he did not realized that behind his back some of his children are disobeying him. Sallie for instance is studying typewriting and aims to become a teacher contrary to what Thomas knew that she is learning cooking and sewing. Robert through his education learned that equality with whites can be achieved and it should start it in his own town in this plantation and with his father. His father has sent him to school but only to be sent back to plantation to do work in the hills of cottons. So Thomas is not doing his children a favor by sending them off to school because at the end of the day they are expected to be back in the plantation to do the dirty work. and as what Robert sees it as “become servant of the whites”. A stereotyped role of an African-America, a second class citizen. As the play continuous, Robert as foreseen by his father and some of his white friends was slowly destroying Thomas’ reputation in the white community. His brash behavior and aggressiveness in pointing out his view regarding racial discrimination is threatening. Robert believes that being African-American they should be treated fairly and with equality. That being black they are yet as good as the whites. The manner of their father’s treatment to be them should be corrected. He thought that Thomas should acknowledge them as their children regardless of the fact that they were born from an African mother. One confrontation between Robert and his father ended in a tragedy. Thomas’ children were never allowed to use the front door but Robert refuses to do such, he walked thru the front door and almost bump into his father. Thomas was shocked and pointed his cane towards Robert, grabs a pistol and pointed it to him. Later in the evening the father and the son had a heated argument about the latter’s undesirable behavior and disobedience on Thomas’ orders. The argument went on to the father pointing the pistol to his son, he was disarmed and was choked to death by his own blood. His mother upon seeing the situation frantically showed sign of insanity. Robert after being seized by a mob ran back to his room and ended his life with his own hands rather than be captured and killed by the mob. The story ended tragically. IV DISCUSSION Everyday use and Mulatto are two stories that tackled double consciousness among African-Americans. The two major characters of each story underwent different dilemmas. Dee was fortunate to have a family who accepts and recognize her being. Has the freedom to express her cultural background. Her desires and intents are eminently respectful of her heritage. She changed her name to more African sounded name to have a single consciousness of identity that she indeed is an African American. Through the collection of objects that will remind her of her cultural heritage and family traditions only shows that she was determined to strengthen her bridge to her ancestry and cultural background. Thus giving an impression that she was slowly loosing her sense of ancestral consciousness that is why she was struggling to support it with symbolic family and cultural artifacts. While Dee of Everyday use has already established her real identity as an African woman attempting to showcase her heritage by displaying important family artifacts that will symbolize race and ancestry, Robert on the other hand was struggling to be recognize as what he really is. He aims for equality and fairness by taking the matter in his own will. His being an African-American was being suppressed by his own father who fails to recognize him as his son. He wanted to have the privilege and opportunity to have a better life as the whites. African-American should not be treated as inferior. Unlike Dee who is educated and was given a chance to have a better life in the superior world of the white, is being able to show her heritage with pride. Robert is prohibited to work in the world where white dominates. His own American father wants him to plow the land and nurture the fields rather than go out there be part of the American culture.. While Dee struggles to detach herself from being Americanized by focusing on retaining her cultural heritage amidst her new environment different from her mother’s and sister’s, she wanted to give emphasis on her African heritage. Robert is just merely aiming to be recognized as what he really is and what he can do despite being different from the whites. His African-American heritage seemed to give him the difficulty to choose which ethnicity he should identify with. As much as he wanted to be treated like a white he wanted to act and be treated simply as a full a blooded American. Cite this page African-American Heritage. (2017, Jan 03). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/african-american-heritage-essay
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Having obtained 300 pounds in funding from the New York Assembly to build a fort at Oswego, Governor Burnet asked the commissioners to recommend a location. Based on the meeting between the Six Nations and Governor Burnet in September 1724, the commissioners knew that the governor wanted the fort at Oswego rather than at the Six Nations’ preferred location at the end of Oneida Lake. On February 4th, they wrote the governor and told him what he wanted to hear. The most convenient place was the west side of the Onondaga River (now called the Oswego River) where it flowed into Lake Ontario, still known as Cataraqui Lake at this period. The commissioners recommended that Captain Evert Bancker, already stationed in Seneca Country for the winter, pick the exact location. The fort was to be 60 feet square with two blockhouses, a shingled room, and a chimney. They agreed to keep the matter private but they told the governor that it was already no secret in Albany. They proposed to tell Captain Bancker that the building was intended to keep the traders’ goods dry, but added that Bancker would need some presents to give any Iroquois leaders who might oppose the work. Bancker also proposed to regulate trade at Oswego and make sure that the Indians were not cheated by mixing rum with water. The Six Nations had complained of being cheated in this way the previous year and proposed that the traders stop bringing rum to their country, but the English would not consider that possibility. The commissioners also assured the governor that they would tell Captain Collins to redeliver rum to the Indians after they complained that it had been stolen at Schenectady. Captain Collins is probably Edward Collins, rather than his father John Collins, who was a lieutenant by this time. In Library and Archives Canada’s digital copy of the original minutes, the best copy of the entry for February 1727 starts here.
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Having obtained 300 pounds in funding from the New York Assembly to build a fort at Oswego, Governor Burnet asked the commissioners to recommend a location. Based on the meeting between the Six Nations and Governor Burnet in September 1724, the commissioners knew that the governor wanted the fort at Oswego rather than at the Six Nations’ preferred location at the end of Oneida Lake. On February 4th, they wrote the governor and told him what he wanted to hear. The most convenient place was the west side of the Onondaga River (now called the Oswego River) where it flowed into Lake Ontario, still known as Cataraqui Lake at this period. The commissioners recommended that Captain Evert Bancker, already stationed in Seneca Country for the winter, pick the exact location. The fort was to be 60 feet square with two blockhouses, a shingled room, and a chimney. They agreed to keep the matter private but they told the governor that it was already no secret in Albany. They proposed to tell Captain Bancker that the building was intended to keep the traders’ goods dry, but added that Bancker would need some presents to give any Iroquois leaders who might oppose the work. Bancker also proposed to regulate trade at Oswego and make sure that the Indians were not cheated by mixing rum with water. The Six Nations had complained of being cheated in this way the previous year and proposed that the traders stop bringing rum to their country, but the English would not consider that possibility. The commissioners also assured the governor that they would tell Captain Collins to redeliver rum to the Indians after they complained that it had been stolen at Schenectady. Captain Collins is probably Edward Collins, rather than his father John Collins, who was a lieutenant by this time. In Library and Archives Canada’s digital copy of the original minutes, the best copy of the entry for February 1727 starts here.
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The ancient Egyptians had a complex religious system that combined aspects of personal/family deities, city gods, and a very small number of national deities. The best way to understand it is: every city had its local deity and that deity was the principal god for that local population. There was also the only true national god and that was the king. Again worship varied. There was individual prayer. There were community celebrations. There was worship and rituals within temples. Since the general populous could not go into the temples, there was no public worship in the temples. The major public worship ceremonies would be those where the god was carried out of the temple in a shrine and paraded around town for people to see and returned to the temple. Within temples an ordained/purified priesthood carried out the daily, monthly and seasonal rituals. Also, many of the deities in ancient Egypt were related to natural phenomenon and worship may have been developed as a respect for that (such asrepresentation of the Nile floods, appearance of certain stars, beginning of growing season, etc.). Christianity has recognized Sunday as the day of worship. Islam has Friday. Jews honor the Sabbath. Since the ancient Egyptians used a lunar calendar, all of their festival days are tied into lunar calendar dates. They also used a civil calendar and special national festivals were associated with the New Year time This varies immensely by god. Some of the more common rituals include waking, feeding, bathing, clothing, singing to, and putting the god to bed in the evening. These would have happened on a daily basis. Each temple would have had additional rituals during the month. Funerals seem to be times of transition for the deceased. They are passing from this life into the afterlife. The corpse and spirit are ritually brought to the tomb and a variety of rituals are performed to assist them in making the passage to the afterlife where they are reborn in the Egyptian version of paradise. The funerals include much weeping and wailing, but also include a festival meal and libations for the decease There afterlife was a place where they were reborn in the company of the gods. There afterlife was a place where they were reborn in the company of the gods. It mainly included all of what they held dear in this world and many others, especially cool breezes, good food, a nice place to live, etc. This is a most discussed question. We assume that everyone could make it to the afterlife, but the social position of the dead in the afterlife mirrored that of the resent world. If you were a commoner here, you will be a commoner there. They did fear death, but also recognized it was mainly an area that they have not experienced and thus that can be a very daunting thing. Yes, they did both regular and burnt offerings. It was normal that the produce of fields owned by temples was offered to the gods. It normally happened that the priests were then given a portion of that as their salaries once the god had consumed that part which he/she wanted. What was buried with the deceased was entirely based upon their social / economic standing. Wealthier people had more stuff, poorer had less. Wealthier people normally had better tombs, nicer coffins, etc. It truly was a reflection of their current wealth. Not in the sense that some beliefs from India have the spirit reborn into a different or better physical form in this world. Rather we need to remember that their rebirth was confined to the afterlife. Pyramids were restricted to those who could afford them such as kings and queens. We do see in the New Kingdom (1500 - 1100 BC) private individuals begin to place mini-pyramids on the tops of their personal tombs, but again those individuals were wealthy and could afford that extravagance. The gods were in charge of maintaining the world. Thus the king did his job of maintaining the country in good order and the gods rewarded him with a long reign (or so the theory goes). People worships the gods because the world belonged to them and if people disrupted the world, the gods could remove their protection over the people. It was definitely a system where the gods had the upper hand so to speak.
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The ancient Egyptians had a complex religious system that combined aspects of personal/family deities, city gods, and a very small number of national deities. The best way to understand it is: every city had its local deity and that deity was the principal god for that local population. There was also the only true national god and that was the king. Again worship varied. There was individual prayer. There were community celebrations. There was worship and rituals within temples. Since the general populous could not go into the temples, there was no public worship in the temples. The major public worship ceremonies would be those where the god was carried out of the temple in a shrine and paraded around town for people to see and returned to the temple. Within temples an ordained/purified priesthood carried out the daily, monthly and seasonal rituals. Also, many of the deities in ancient Egypt were related to natural phenomenon and worship may have been developed as a respect for that (such asrepresentation of the Nile floods, appearance of certain stars, beginning of growing season, etc.). Christianity has recognized Sunday as the day of worship. Islam has Friday. Jews honor the Sabbath. Since the ancient Egyptians used a lunar calendar, all of their festival days are tied into lunar calendar dates. They also used a civil calendar and special national festivals were associated with the New Year time This varies immensely by god. Some of the more common rituals include waking, feeding, bathing, clothing, singing to, and putting the god to bed in the evening. These would have happened on a daily basis. Each temple would have had additional rituals during the month. Funerals seem to be times of transition for the deceased. They are passing from this life into the afterlife. The corpse and spirit are ritually brought to the tomb and a variety of rituals are performed to assist them in making the passage to the afterlife where they are reborn in the Egyptian version of paradise. The funerals include much weeping and wailing, but also include a festival meal and libations for the decease There afterlife was a place where they were reborn in the company of the gods. There afterlife was a place where they were reborn in the company of the gods. It mainly included all of what they held dear in this world and many others, especially cool breezes, good food, a nice place to live, etc. This is a most discussed question. We assume that everyone could make it to the afterlife, but the social position of the dead in the afterlife mirrored that of the resent world. If you were a commoner here, you will be a commoner there. They did fear death, but also recognized it was mainly an area that they have not experienced and thus that can be a very daunting thing. Yes, they did both regular and burnt offerings. It was normal that the produce of fields owned by temples was offered to the gods. It normally happened that the priests were then given a portion of that as their salaries once the god had consumed that part which he/she wanted. What was buried with the deceased was entirely based upon their social / economic standing. Wealthier people had more stuff, poorer had less. Wealthier people normally had better tombs, nicer coffins, etc. It truly was a reflection of their current wealth. Not in the sense that some beliefs from India have the spirit reborn into a different or better physical form in this world. Rather we need to remember that their rebirth was confined to the afterlife. Pyramids were restricted to those who could afford them such as kings and queens. We do see in the New Kingdom (1500 - 1100 BC) private individuals begin to place mini-pyramids on the tops of their personal tombs, but again those individuals were wealthy and could afford that extravagance. The gods were in charge of maintaining the world. Thus the king did his job of maintaining the country in good order and the gods rewarded him with a long reign (or so the theory goes). People worships the gods because the world belonged to them and if people disrupted the world, the gods could remove their protection over the people. It was definitely a system where the gods had the upper hand so to speak.
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Unlike The Great war where Canada joined without hesitation for Britain, when France and Britain declared war on Germany Canada took time to review their options. King who wanted to fight in the war decided he would consult Parliament. Although King and the Minister of Justice from Quebec, Lapointe did not agree on conscription, they did agree that joining the war was needed. i) British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) was created to train pilots and flight personnel from the British Empire came to Canada to train with British instructors. Airfields were built on the Prairies for training. ii) C.D. Howe was an industrialist who was known as the “Minister of Everything”. He was given this name because he was put in charge of everything that had to do with the economy to become ready for war. He was able to make manufactures make things they have never made before to benefit the war. For example, car industries were producing tanks. If private companies did not produce what was being asked, Howe was able to create corporations with the governments approval. By the time it was WW2, Canadians wanted to help and fight for Britain but they did not want to feel forced to or even obligated. The French citizens still did not want to be forced into war but they felt like Canada could contribute help. During these times when the king and queen would visit Canada, the citizens looked excited to see them and went out of their ways to welcome them, meaning many people still wanted to fight for the royal family.
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Unlike The Great war where Canada joined without hesitation for Britain, when France and Britain declared war on Germany Canada took time to review their options. King who wanted to fight in the war decided he would consult Parliament. Although King and the Minister of Justice from Quebec, Lapointe did not agree on conscription, they did agree that joining the war was needed. i) British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) was created to train pilots and flight personnel from the British Empire came to Canada to train with British instructors. Airfields were built on the Prairies for training. ii) C.D. Howe was an industrialist who was known as the “Minister of Everything”. He was given this name because he was put in charge of everything that had to do with the economy to become ready for war. He was able to make manufactures make things they have never made before to benefit the war. For example, car industries were producing tanks. If private companies did not produce what was being asked, Howe was able to create corporations with the governments approval. By the time it was WW2, Canadians wanted to help and fight for Britain but they did not want to feel forced to or even obligated. The French citizens still did not want to be forced into war but they felt like Canada could contribute help. During these times when the king and queen would visit Canada, the citizens looked excited to see them and went out of their ways to welcome them, meaning many people still wanted to fight for the royal family.
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On December 26, 1609 or 1610 (sources are not conclusive), Count Gyorgy Thurzo makes an investigative visit to Csejthe Castle in Hungary on orders from King Matthias and discovers Countess Elizabeth Bathory directing a torture session of young girls. Bathory was already infamous in the area for her torture and murder of servants and peasants, but her title and high-ranking relatives had, until this point, made her untouchable. Her bloodthirsty activities have led many to cite her as one of the first vampires in history. Bathory was born in Transylvania in 1560 to a distinguished family that included kings, cardinals, knights, and judges. Though she counted many luminaries among her relatives, her family tree also featured some seriously disturbed kin. One of her uncles instructed her in Satanism, while her aunt taught her all about sadomasochism. At the age of 15, Bathory was married to Count Nadady, and the couple settled into Csejthe Castle. To please his wife, her husband reportedly built a torture chamber to her specifications. Bathory’s torture included jamming pins and needles under the fingernails of her servant girls, and tying them down, smearing them with honey, and leaving them to be attacked by bees and ants. Although the count participated in his wife’s cruelties, he may have also restrained her impulses; when he died in the early 1600s, she became much worse. With the help of her former nurse, Ilona Joo, and local witch Dorotta Szentes, Bathory began abducting peasant girls to torture and kill. She often bit chunks of flesh from her victims, and one unfortunate girl was even forced to cook and eat her own flesh. Bathory reportedly believed that human blood would keep her looking young and healthy. Since her family headed the local government, Bathory’s crimes were ignored until 1610. But King Matthias finally intervened because Bathory had begun finding victims among the daughters of local nobles. In January 1611, Bathory and her cohorts were put on trial for 80 counts of murder. All were convicted, but only Bathory escaped execution. Instead, she was confined to a room of the castle that only had slits for air and food. She survived for three years but was found dead in August 1614.
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On December 26, 1609 or 1610 (sources are not conclusive), Count Gyorgy Thurzo makes an investigative visit to Csejthe Castle in Hungary on orders from King Matthias and discovers Countess Elizabeth Bathory directing a torture session of young girls. Bathory was already infamous in the area for her torture and murder of servants and peasants, but her title and high-ranking relatives had, until this point, made her untouchable. Her bloodthirsty activities have led many to cite her as one of the first vampires in history. Bathory was born in Transylvania in 1560 to a distinguished family that included kings, cardinals, knights, and judges. Though she counted many luminaries among her relatives, her family tree also featured some seriously disturbed kin. One of her uncles instructed her in Satanism, while her aunt taught her all about sadomasochism. At the age of 15, Bathory was married to Count Nadady, and the couple settled into Csejthe Castle. To please his wife, her husband reportedly built a torture chamber to her specifications. Bathory’s torture included jamming pins and needles under the fingernails of her servant girls, and tying them down, smearing them with honey, and leaving them to be attacked by bees and ants. Although the count participated in his wife’s cruelties, he may have also restrained her impulses; when he died in the early 1600s, she became much worse. With the help of her former nurse, Ilona Joo, and local witch Dorotta Szentes, Bathory began abducting peasant girls to torture and kill. She often bit chunks of flesh from her victims, and one unfortunate girl was even forced to cook and eat her own flesh. Bathory reportedly believed that human blood would keep her looking young and healthy. Since her family headed the local government, Bathory’s crimes were ignored until 1610. But King Matthias finally intervened because Bathory had begun finding victims among the daughters of local nobles. In January 1611, Bathory and her cohorts were put on trial for 80 counts of murder. All were convicted, but only Bathory escaped execution. Instead, she was confined to a room of the castle that only had slits for air and food. She survived for three years but was found dead in August 1614.
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Posted On: Nov. 18, 2017 Our text states, “Emotional intelligence has three components: (1) the ability to effectively perceive, communicate, and manage negative emotions; (2) the ability to experience, communicate, and sustain positive emotions; and (3) the ability to retain perspective during difficult times and to recover following stressful events (Zautra, 2003).” Empathy in my own words means to understand and care about how someone is feeling. After eating dinner, my husband decided that he wanted to touch-up the house with paint. He walked around with a paint roller and started rolling the walls in different areas of the house. While he did this, I was cleaning up the nice mess that my family tends to leave me almost every day when I come home from work. In addition, I had to sort and start some loads of laundry. He was done with the touch-up before I was done. He came over to me to show me his hands and how he had one little blister. Instead of consoling him, I asked him if he wanted to see my hands. It was difficult for me to show him sympathy knowing that I do a lot more housework than he does. I should have said what a great job he did, rubbed his hands, and asked if he wanted a bandage. Instead, I asked him if he wanted to see my hands. Luckily he responded with a request for a few kisses, which I did grant. Sole, K. (2011). Making Connections: Understanding Interpersonal Communication. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. https://content.ashford.edu Sympathy and empathy are both important in communication. At times showing sympathy is good enough. This is especially true in case the other person is just an acquaintance or if we don’t know him so well or if we are not very close to her. it is better to show empathy when the other person is in pain. One can forego the pain one is going thorough and look at the other person’s views by putting herself in her shoes. This way, the other person would automatically realize the importance of empathy. There are very good chances that she would reciprocate the gesture.
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Posted On: Nov. 18, 2017 Our text states, “Emotional intelligence has three components: (1) the ability to effectively perceive, communicate, and manage negative emotions; (2) the ability to experience, communicate, and sustain positive emotions; and (3) the ability to retain perspective during difficult times and to recover following stressful events (Zautra, 2003).” Empathy in my own words means to understand and care about how someone is feeling. After eating dinner, my husband decided that he wanted to touch-up the house with paint. He walked around with a paint roller and started rolling the walls in different areas of the house. While he did this, I was cleaning up the nice mess that my family tends to leave me almost every day when I come home from work. In addition, I had to sort and start some loads of laundry. He was done with the touch-up before I was done. He came over to me to show me his hands and how he had one little blister. Instead of consoling him, I asked him if he wanted to see my hands. It was difficult for me to show him sympathy knowing that I do a lot more housework than he does. I should have said what a great job he did, rubbed his hands, and asked if he wanted a bandage. Instead, I asked him if he wanted to see my hands. Luckily he responded with a request for a few kisses, which I did grant. Sole, K. (2011). Making Connections: Understanding Interpersonal Communication. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. https://content.ashford.edu Sympathy and empathy are both important in communication. At times showing sympathy is good enough. This is especially true in case the other person is just an acquaintance or if we don’t know him so well or if we are not very close to her. it is better to show empathy when the other person is in pain. One can forego the pain one is going thorough and look at the other person’s views by putting herself in her shoes. This way, the other person would automatically realize the importance of empathy. There are very good chances that she would reciprocate the gesture.
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Lecture 19: Manuscripts and Codexes Course: Why We Trust Our Bible Lecture: Manuscripts and Codexes I. The Early Church and a Culture of Textuality So when we ask the question about how the canon developed in early Christianity and who received it and what books were being used. There are multiple ways to answer that question and the most common way is what I call patristic citations. In other words, in asking what books the church received, you simply look at what the church fathers were quoting. That is one way to do it. What you will discover is that most books of the canon will go that route. It looks at what the church fathers say or how they use a book. But there is a whole other area that you can explore that tells us a lot about the early canon that is often overlooked and that is the use of early Christian manuscripts. We can learn about what books Christians were reading and what books they preferred to use and which books they would have regarded as important by the manuscripts they leave behind. We know that Christians had a culture of textuality. What we mean by this is that Christians were a bookish religion. They used books in great numbers; they copied them, they read them, they taught from them. We have the remnants of those books still in the historical record. So when we ask what make Christianity unique, just like Judaism, Christianity used books in their religious activities. And they used those books in great numbers. So because Christianity had this culture, we can look at those manuscripts they left behind and we can learn a lot about the canon from these books. This opens up a whole universe to use that typically isn’t considered at all. There are lots of different ways to ascertain as to what the manuscripts tell us. The manuscripts or the fragments left behind tell us which books were popular in early Christianity. We can see how they are by simply counting them. If we can see how many manuscripts left behind of certain books, we know those books were copied more often and probably read more often and therefore more popular. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries with the earlier generations of Christians, we see the books that eventually made it into the New Testament. They were copied much more than books that we refer to as New Testament Apocrypha. So we have over sixty manuscripts from the 2nd and 3rd century of such New Testament books and we look at the comparable works of the New Testament Apocrypha in that same period of time, it is not even close. This tells us when you ask the question about which books Christians were reading, it looks a lot like it was those books that made it into the New Testament. We can see that the popularity of books can be ascertained by the sheer number of manuscripts that are remnant. The other thing that we can learn about the canon from Christians is the way in which they used a distinctive book format. When people think about ancient books, they typical think about scrolls. And in the ancient world of the 1st century when Christianity was born, what is interesting is that Christianity was born into a world that vastly preferred the scroll from other kinds of writing. They came from a Jewish heritage that preferred the scroll. The Greco-Roman world preferred the scroll for its literature and what we call literary documents. But yet, when Christians started to write by way of the codex, this was something very interesting. They didn’t use the scroll; in fact they use a distinctive book technology, what we call a codex. This is actually what we still use today; the codex was a typical leaf book where there was writing on both sides of the page and the pages are bound at the spine. Whereas the scroll, writing was only on one side of the page. Christians had this distinctive book technology which they adopted in a very early time period, probably by the turn of the 1st or 2nd century. In fact, it was so widespread that we can hardly find a New Testament book in early Christianity not written on a codex. There are hardly any. Every time we find a copy of a New Testament book even as far back as the 2nd century, it is always on a codex. This raises the question in regards to why Christians preferred the codex. There is a long-standing debate about this but the answer, generally speaking, is that the codex allowed Christians to group books together. It allowed Christians to link multiple books in a single volume in a way that would allow them to have a sort of beginning canon. Most people think that the codex was chosen because it could hold all four Gospels in a single volume. Others suggested that it was because of Paul’s letters which could be put into a single volume. Regardless of whether it was the Gospels or Paul’s letters or something else; but it seems that the emergence of the codex was associated with the emergence of the canon. You could almost say that the adoption of the codex is a symptom of the canonical process. It is an example of how Christians wanted to lump and connect together multiple books in a single volume. This was something that a codex could easily do. II. What about the Four Canonical Gospels with an Apocryphal Gospel. One of the things that were also interesting about the Codex, very quickly Christians began to put multiple Gospels in a single codex. We have codices that contain just one Gospel; for example P66, an example of a late 2nd-century codex that contains the Gospel of John. Then we have other Gospel codices that contain multiple Gospels, like P75 or P45 and we have many later multi-Gospel codices. So Christian began to take multiple Gospels and put them into the same volume. What is interesting here, when we see Christians do that, we never have an incident where there is a mix of canonical and Apocrypha Gospels. This is a stunning fact in early Christian manuscripts. For example, we never see codices that contain: Matthew, Mark and Thomas or Matthew, Luke and Peter or Matthew, John and Mary. But critical scholars are always telling us that in the early century that Christians read everything with no priority in reading any particular book; it was a literary free for all and that apocryphal books were just as popular as canonical books, etc. If that was true, you would expect to see jumbling of Gospels. They would be mixed up with canonical and apocryphal Gospels within the same codex and only later were they split up, but that is not what we find. As far back as we can go when Gospels were joined, it was always Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. So, it seems from a very early point Christians weren’t confused about what to read when it comes to the Gospels. It was fairly clear, when you were looking for the primary sources for Jesus: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were the first places to go. III. The Frequency of Public Reading One of the interesting things about the Christian use of the codex is not that they just used the codex which is interesting in its own right. But it is the particular Scribal features in the codices that Christians made. What we often see in Christian codices is that they have been written for public reading. Now, people may hear that and think that all people were written for public reading. No, they weren’t. In the Greco-Roman world, books were written in such a way that they were more like works of art than being designed for public reading. The lines were very tight, no spaces between letters, no reading aids or punctuation aids. It was more of a high piece of art in some way rather than be destined for practical reading. It doesn’t mean that the Greco-Roman world didn’t read those books. But certainly, they were more for display if you want to think of it that way rather than functionality. When we look at Christian codices, they were very different in that they were clearly written not to be put on display but they were written for a particular function, that is, for public reading. We see this by seeing a lot more space between lines thus helping the reader in the reading process. They had less letters per page, they spaced thing out to also help with reading. They also had more punctuation, more reader’s aids. There was reading marks, other kinds of pauses, spaces, middle points, all designed to help the reader to read. This tells us that these Gospels were designed to be read publicly. We also know that such a book would have a certain level of authority. If you read a book in church, it would be similar to reading a book in the synagogue. In would be indicative that it was a Scriptural book. In fact, Paul tells us that he wanted his letters to be read publically in the church. Putting all this information together, it tells us that when Christians were copying these books, even the format in which they were copied tells us that Christian valued them in a Scriptural way. They valued them as public reading documents. This tells us of the concept of a canon was actually very early. It was as far back as these manuscripts take us which were as far back as the 2nd century. It also tells us that it wasn’t a late idea but a very early one.
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Lecture 19: Manuscripts and Codexes Course: Why We Trust Our Bible Lecture: Manuscripts and Codexes I. The Early Church and a Culture of Textuality So when we ask the question about how the canon developed in early Christianity and who received it and what books were being used. There are multiple ways to answer that question and the most common way is what I call patristic citations. In other words, in asking what books the church received, you simply look at what the church fathers were quoting. That is one way to do it. What you will discover is that most books of the canon will go that route. It looks at what the church fathers say or how they use a book. But there is a whole other area that you can explore that tells us a lot about the early canon that is often overlooked and that is the use of early Christian manuscripts. We can learn about what books Christians were reading and what books they preferred to use and which books they would have regarded as important by the manuscripts they leave behind. We know that Christians had a culture of textuality. What we mean by this is that Christians were a bookish religion. They used books in great numbers; they copied them, they read them, they taught from them. We have the remnants of those books still in the historical record. So when we ask what make Christianity unique, just like Judaism, Christianity used books in their religious activities. And they used those books in great numbers. So because Christianity had this culture, we can look at those manuscripts they left behind and we can learn a lot about the canon from these books. This opens up a whole universe to use that typically isn’t considered at all. There are lots of different ways to ascertain as to what the manuscripts tell us. The manuscripts or the fragments left behind tell us which books were popular in early Christianity. We can see how they are by simply counting them. If we can see how many manuscripts left behind of certain books, we know those books were copied more often and probably read more often and therefore more popular. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries with the earlier generations of Christians, we see the books that eventually made it into the New Testament. They were copied much more than books that we refer to as New Testament Apocrypha. So we have over sixty manuscripts from the 2nd and 3rd century of such New Testament books and we look at the comparable works of the New Testament Apocrypha in that same period of time, it is not even close. This tells us when you ask the question about which books Christians were reading, it looks a lot like it was those books that made it into the New Testament. We can see that the popularity of books can be ascertained by the sheer number of manuscripts that are remnant. The other thing that we can learn about the canon from Christians is the way in which they used a distinctive book format. When people think about ancient books, they typical think about scrolls. And in the ancient world of the 1st century when Christianity was born, what is interesting is that Christianity was born into a world that vastly preferred the scroll from other kinds of writing. They came from a Jewish heritage that preferred the scroll. The Greco-Roman world preferred the scroll for its literature and what we call literary documents. But yet, when Christians started to write by way of the codex, this was something very interesting. They didn’t use the scroll; in fact they use a distinctive book technology, what we call a codex. This is actually what we still use today; the codex was a typical leaf book where there was writing on both sides of the page and the pages are bound at the spine. Whereas the scroll, writing was only on one side of the page. Christians had this distinctive book technology which they adopted in a very early time period, probably by the turn of the 1st or 2nd century. In fact, it was so widespread that we can hardly find a New Testament book in early Christianity not written on a codex. There are hardly any. Every time we find a copy of a New Testament book even as far back as the 2nd century, it is always on a codex. This raises the question in regards to why Christians preferred the codex. There is a long-standing debate about this but the answer, generally speaking, is that the codex allowed Christians to group books together. It allowed Christians to link multiple books in a single volume in a way that would allow them to have a sort of beginning canon. Most people think that the codex was chosen because it could hold all four Gospels in a single volume. Others suggested that it was because of Paul’s letters which could be put into a single volume. Regardless of whether it was the Gospels or Paul’s letters or something else; but it seems that the emergence of the codex was associated with the emergence of the canon. You could almost say that the adoption of the codex is a symptom of the canonical process. It is an example of how Christians wanted to lump and connect together multiple books in a single volume. This was something that a codex could easily do. II. What about the Four Canonical Gospels with an Apocryphal Gospel. One of the things that were also interesting about the Codex, very quickly Christians began to put multiple Gospels in a single codex. We have codices that contain just one Gospel; for example P66, an example of a late 2nd-century codex that contains the Gospel of John. Then we have other Gospel codices that contain multiple Gospels, like P75 or P45 and we have many later multi-Gospel codices. So Christian began to take multiple Gospels and put them into the same volume. What is interesting here, when we see Christians do that, we never have an incident where there is a mix of canonical and Apocrypha Gospels. This is a stunning fact in early Christian manuscripts. For example, we never see codices that contain: Matthew, Mark and Thomas or Matthew, Luke and Peter or Matthew, John and Mary. But critical scholars are always telling us that in the early century that Christians read everything with no priority in reading any particular book; it was a literary free for all and that apocryphal books were just as popular as canonical books, etc. If that was true, you would expect to see jumbling of Gospels. They would be mixed up with canonical and apocryphal Gospels within the same codex and only later were they split up, but that is not what we find. As far back as we can go when Gospels were joined, it was always Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. So, it seems from a very early point Christians weren’t confused about what to read when it comes to the Gospels. It was fairly clear, when you were looking for the primary sources for Jesus: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were the first places to go. III. The Frequency of Public Reading One of the interesting things about the Christian use of the codex is not that they just used the codex which is interesting in its own right. But it is the particular Scribal features in the codices that Christians made. What we often see in Christian codices is that they have been written for public reading. Now, people may hear that and think that all people were written for public reading. No, they weren’t. In the Greco-Roman world, books were written in such a way that they were more like works of art than being designed for public reading. The lines were very tight, no spaces between letters, no reading aids or punctuation aids. It was more of a high piece of art in some way rather than be destined for practical reading. It doesn’t mean that the Greco-Roman world didn’t read those books. But certainly, they were more for display if you want to think of it that way rather than functionality. When we look at Christian codices, they were very different in that they were clearly written not to be put on display but they were written for a particular function, that is, for public reading. We see this by seeing a lot more space between lines thus helping the reader in the reading process. They had less letters per page, they spaced thing out to also help with reading. They also had more punctuation, more reader’s aids. There was reading marks, other kinds of pauses, spaces, middle points, all designed to help the reader to read. This tells us that these Gospels were designed to be read publicly. We also know that such a book would have a certain level of authority. If you read a book in church, it would be similar to reading a book in the synagogue. In would be indicative that it was a Scriptural book. In fact, Paul tells us that he wanted his letters to be read publically in the church. Putting all this information together, it tells us that when Christians were copying these books, even the format in which they were copied tells us that Christian valued them in a Scriptural way. They valued them as public reading documents. This tells us of the concept of a canon was actually very early. It was as far back as these manuscripts take us which were as far back as the 2nd century. It also tells us that it wasn’t a late idea but a very early one.
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This half term we have been learning about the Romans! We explored the life of Julius Caesar and his attempts to invade Britain! In this session we used freeze frames to act out the different stages of the invasion! Can you work out what is happening in each photograph? This week in maths we have been delving into the world of measure! We began the topic by converting between meters and kilometres. Recently, we were set a challenge to design a range of enclosures for a safari park! We were asked to create as many pens as we could - all with the same perimeter! In science this half term, we have been learning about teeth and their functions! We investigated the roles of our teeth and then compared them to a variety of other living things. We noticed that often carnivores have longer and sharper canines as they are used to grip and tear meat from a bone! We also realised that herbivores have very large molars which cover a large surface area of their mouths. This is because their food is often fiberous and tough so they need strong teeth to grind it down. We were sent a letter from the Natural History Museum in London! We were challenged to identify what animal each of the skulls and teeth may have come from and predict what type of diet they may have had! It was so much fun!
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This half term we have been learning about the Romans! We explored the life of Julius Caesar and his attempts to invade Britain! In this session we used freeze frames to act out the different stages of the invasion! Can you work out what is happening in each photograph? This week in maths we have been delving into the world of measure! We began the topic by converting between meters and kilometres. Recently, we were set a challenge to design a range of enclosures for a safari park! We were asked to create as many pens as we could - all with the same perimeter! In science this half term, we have been learning about teeth and their functions! We investigated the roles of our teeth and then compared them to a variety of other living things. We noticed that often carnivores have longer and sharper canines as they are used to grip and tear meat from a bone! We also realised that herbivores have very large molars which cover a large surface area of their mouths. This is because their food is often fiberous and tough so they need strong teeth to grind it down. We were sent a letter from the Natural History Museum in London! We were challenged to identify what animal each of the skulls and teeth may have come from and predict what type of diet they may have had! It was so much fun!
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Philander Chase was born on December 14, 1775, at Cornish, New Hampshire. In 1795, Philander Chase graduated from Dartmouth College. He became a minister in the Episcopal Church in 1799. In subsequent years, Chase traveled throughout the American frontier, establishing numerous parishes. Chase first came to Ohio in 1817. He continued to expand the Episcopal Church's influence in the state. In 1818, the Episcopal Church united the various parishes in Ohio into a diocese, the first Episcopalian diocese west of the Appalachian Mountains. Chase served as the first bishop of the new diocese. Chase realized that the Episcopalians needed to establish a seminary in Ohio if the Church hoped to grow further. In 1823, the Bishop sailed for England, hoping to secure funding for his seminary from Episcopalians in Europe. He secured twenty thousand dollars for his venture as well as numerous books and religious articles for the school's library. Upon his return in 1824, Chase used the funds to purchase eight thousand acres of land in Knox County at Gambier. In 1829, the first building of what became known as Kenyon College was completed, making Chase's vision a reality. He served as the institution's first president. Chase found college administration tiring. He was an authoritarian and ruled his diocese and college with an iron fist. He angered many of Kenyon College's faculty members and students as well as many of his parishioners. Many Ohio residents had willingly left the more structured social system of the Eastern United States behind. The large amounts of available land resulted in a less deferential class system on the American frontier. Many Ohioans rejected Chase's governance due to his unwillingness to listen to others. In 1831, Chase resigned as as Kenyon's president and as bishop of his diocese. He continued to serve the Episcopal Church, becoming the bishop of the Illinois diocese in 1835. In 1843, Chase became the presiding bishop of the entire Episcopal Church. He remained in this position until his death on September 20, 1852.
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Philander Chase was born on December 14, 1775, at Cornish, New Hampshire. In 1795, Philander Chase graduated from Dartmouth College. He became a minister in the Episcopal Church in 1799. In subsequent years, Chase traveled throughout the American frontier, establishing numerous parishes. Chase first came to Ohio in 1817. He continued to expand the Episcopal Church's influence in the state. In 1818, the Episcopal Church united the various parishes in Ohio into a diocese, the first Episcopalian diocese west of the Appalachian Mountains. Chase served as the first bishop of the new diocese. Chase realized that the Episcopalians needed to establish a seminary in Ohio if the Church hoped to grow further. In 1823, the Bishop sailed for England, hoping to secure funding for his seminary from Episcopalians in Europe. He secured twenty thousand dollars for his venture as well as numerous books and religious articles for the school's library. Upon his return in 1824, Chase used the funds to purchase eight thousand acres of land in Knox County at Gambier. In 1829, the first building of what became known as Kenyon College was completed, making Chase's vision a reality. He served as the institution's first president. Chase found college administration tiring. He was an authoritarian and ruled his diocese and college with an iron fist. He angered many of Kenyon College's faculty members and students as well as many of his parishioners. Many Ohio residents had willingly left the more structured social system of the Eastern United States behind. The large amounts of available land resulted in a less deferential class system on the American frontier. Many Ohioans rejected Chase's governance due to his unwillingness to listen to others. In 1831, Chase resigned as as Kenyon's president and as bishop of his diocese. He continued to serve the Episcopal Church, becoming the bishop of the Illinois diocese in 1835. In 1843, Chase became the presiding bishop of the entire Episcopal Church. He remained in this position until his death on September 20, 1852.
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August Wilson was a gifted individual who sprouted from his talents to become a legacy of the playwright world. Although many would consider his childhood was a towering obstacle, he overcame that with his passion for the arts. By listening to what other people had to say about their lives, he used that knowledge to inspire him and write several well-known dramas, including Fences, one of his most famous works. He would later on influence the world that African Americans are capable of writing a piece that puts the audience and reader in awe. Wilson, along with his siblings, was born and raised in a small flat in Pittsburgh by his mother, Daisy Wilson. As he got older, he was repeatedly harassed by his peers at school due to his race. While he was in his second high school, he had decided alone to drop out due to an argument he had with one of his professors. Although he had not been getting the education desired by the common parent, he had continued to pursue his interests in writing. He continuously visited the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, and enlightened himself in the world of language, culture and music. By earning some money of his own, he was able to require a typewriter, and soon become infatuated with poetry and drama. In the 1960’s, he had joined the Centre Avenue Poets Theater Workshop, a group of other people interested in the world of art. He had co-founded the Black Horizon Theater with fellow member, Rob Penny, and decided to create pieces that would create awareness of the African American life and what they have gone through as an attempt of the “American Dream” to the white public audience. His works would soon expand to the attention of African American director, Lloyd Richards, the instructor that had led to Wilson’s debut in Broadway for his first six plays. The two men created their own presence on stage through their own material. There was controversy of using African American actors in their plays, but they still carried on with it to let it be known to the world of what their culture means to them. Together, they created a new proclamation on stage, symbolizing of what should be the equal rights of African Americans. During Wilson’s experience in broadway, he accomplished many dramas with his artistic talents, including The Piano Lesson, Seven Guitars, and quite a few more. He is also remembered by unique idea in writing a drama once every decade during the 1900s. Most of them are set in Plattsburgh, the city of his childhood that inspired his works. While he was still alive, he also received many awards for his works. These include the Tony Award for Best Play for Fences, a National Humanities Medal, and a number of New York Drama Critics’ Circle Awards. The Carnegie Library, the place in which he enhanced his reading and writing talent, also gave out it’s first and only honorary degree to him. Although Wilson received several awards for his achievements as a playwright, it is his legacy that set history for the perspective on African American culture. His plays were one of the triggers for establishing a symbol of what their aspects of life meant to the world. The works describe a life of frustration, poverty, racism and being restrained from your passions because of what the world expects from them. It is clear throughout his writings that the events occuring are the reflections of his experiences, troubles and anger being in a white dominated school district. However, he overcame those troubled times, and pursued his dreams of becoming a playwright, even after he had dropped out of high school. By not giving up, chasing after his passion, and becoming a symbol for African American rights, he gained the respect of over thousands of people through the voice of his works. Children of the same race began racing towards their dream with hope, in a world in which it was once categorized as “miraculous” if they succeeded in getting close to achievement at all. August Wilson therefore became a living legacy with his voice through his own art that he created for others.
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August Wilson was a gifted individual who sprouted from his talents to become a legacy of the playwright world. Although many would consider his childhood was a towering obstacle, he overcame that with his passion for the arts. By listening to what other people had to say about their lives, he used that knowledge to inspire him and write several well-known dramas, including Fences, one of his most famous works. He would later on influence the world that African Americans are capable of writing a piece that puts the audience and reader in awe. Wilson, along with his siblings, was born and raised in a small flat in Pittsburgh by his mother, Daisy Wilson. As he got older, he was repeatedly harassed by his peers at school due to his race. While he was in his second high school, he had decided alone to drop out due to an argument he had with one of his professors. Although he had not been getting the education desired by the common parent, he had continued to pursue his interests in writing. He continuously visited the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, and enlightened himself in the world of language, culture and music. By earning some money of his own, he was able to require a typewriter, and soon become infatuated with poetry and drama. In the 1960’s, he had joined the Centre Avenue Poets Theater Workshop, a group of other people interested in the world of art. He had co-founded the Black Horizon Theater with fellow member, Rob Penny, and decided to create pieces that would create awareness of the African American life and what they have gone through as an attempt of the “American Dream” to the white public audience. His works would soon expand to the attention of African American director, Lloyd Richards, the instructor that had led to Wilson’s debut in Broadway for his first six plays. The two men created their own presence on stage through their own material. There was controversy of using African American actors in their plays, but they still carried on with it to let it be known to the world of what their culture means to them. Together, they created a new proclamation on stage, symbolizing of what should be the equal rights of African Americans. During Wilson’s experience in broadway, he accomplished many dramas with his artistic talents, including The Piano Lesson, Seven Guitars, and quite a few more. He is also remembered by unique idea in writing a drama once every decade during the 1900s. Most of them are set in Plattsburgh, the city of his childhood that inspired his works. While he was still alive, he also received many awards for his works. These include the Tony Award for Best Play for Fences, a National Humanities Medal, and a number of New York Drama Critics’ Circle Awards. The Carnegie Library, the place in which he enhanced his reading and writing talent, also gave out it’s first and only honorary degree to him. Although Wilson received several awards for his achievements as a playwright, it is his legacy that set history for the perspective on African American culture. His plays were one of the triggers for establishing a symbol of what their aspects of life meant to the world. The works describe a life of frustration, poverty, racism and being restrained from your passions because of what the world expects from them. It is clear throughout his writings that the events occuring are the reflections of his experiences, troubles and anger being in a white dominated school district. However, he overcame those troubled times, and pursued his dreams of becoming a playwright, even after he had dropped out of high school. By not giving up, chasing after his passion, and becoming a symbol for African American rights, he gained the respect of over thousands of people through the voice of his works. Children of the same race began racing towards their dream with hope, in a world in which it was once categorized as “miraculous” if they succeeded in getting close to achievement at all. August Wilson therefore became a living legacy with his voice through his own art that he created for others.
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Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online ‘Women were respected during the period 1890-1918’ how far do you agree In some ways women were respected during the period 1890-1918 as supported by source A which states that men are ‘sometimes rivals for the same jobs women wanted to do’. This suggests that more women were becoming more able to start working outside the home and in at the same standard as men,, we know this is true because as the men were sent off to fight in the war there was a shortage of men therefore the government turned to women to solve the problem; meaning women were gaining respect. Source D further backs up that women were respected during this time period. The source shows a woman carrying a shell, working to produce weapons after the munitions crisis of 1915. The source also suggests that women were prioritising the war effort over campaigning for the vote, this is shown by the quotation; ‘what’s all this cackle about votes?’ I don’t know- or care, we are too busy now’ this would have caused the suffrage women to gain respect as even though they felt very strongly about their right for the vote they still put the country first; some argue that this is why the women were finally given the vote after the war as a reward for all of their efforts. Added to this source B further backs up that women were respected during this time period as one of the things the women were campaigning for were the laws for children shown by ‘ the laws on divorce, children and many other issues are all unfair to women’; this was respected by many in society as bringing up a child was a very important role during this period. However there are some limitations to the respect during this time period, for example source C, suggesting that any woman with a different opinion to men is unattractive, unladylike and crazed; this is shown by the women in the picture wearing ties and waving umbrellas in the air. And the quotation calling the sufferers ‘sly’. The quotation ‘the house that man built’ further shows disrespect as it suggests that woman should have no say in the house of parliament and the laws that are being passed. Secondly source E is a limitation to the quotation ‘ women were respected during the period 1890-1918’ as it tells of the terrible working conditions that the women were made to work long hours while breathing ‘poisonous varnish’ leaving them ‘unconscious’ we know this is true as the munissionets were nicknamed canaries due to all the dangerous chemicals turning their skin yellow, we also know that the conditions were not safe for people to be working in due to the huge explosion in Silvertown resulting in many deaths. We also know that the women were not respected during this period as the suffragettes were arrested and force fed on many occasions on top of this they were not given the vote until 1918 along with many other people in society. In conclusion I believe the women were not respected during this time period due to the terrible conditions they were working in and the way the women were being depicted in propaganda. I believe the women were only respected at this time when the country was in desperate need of help during the munitions crisis when there were not enough men left to fix the national crisis. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!
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Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online ‘Women were respected during the period 1890-1918’ how far do you agree In some ways women were respected during the period 1890-1918 as supported by source A which states that men are ‘sometimes rivals for the same jobs women wanted to do’. This suggests that more women were becoming more able to start working outside the home and in at the same standard as men,, we know this is true because as the men were sent off to fight in the war there was a shortage of men therefore the government turned to women to solve the problem; meaning women were gaining respect. Source D further backs up that women were respected during this time period. The source shows a woman carrying a shell, working to produce weapons after the munitions crisis of 1915. The source also suggests that women were prioritising the war effort over campaigning for the vote, this is shown by the quotation; ‘what’s all this cackle about votes?’ I don’t know- or care, we are too busy now’ this would have caused the suffrage women to gain respect as even though they felt very strongly about their right for the vote they still put the country first; some argue that this is why the women were finally given the vote after the war as a reward for all of their efforts. Added to this source B further backs up that women were respected during this time period as one of the things the women were campaigning for were the laws for children shown by ‘ the laws on divorce, children and many other issues are all unfair to women’; this was respected by many in society as bringing up a child was a very important role during this period. However there are some limitations to the respect during this time period, for example source C, suggesting that any woman with a different opinion to men is unattractive, unladylike and crazed; this is shown by the women in the picture wearing ties and waving umbrellas in the air. And the quotation calling the sufferers ‘sly’. The quotation ‘the house that man built’ further shows disrespect as it suggests that woman should have no say in the house of parliament and the laws that are being passed. Secondly source E is a limitation to the quotation ‘ women were respected during the period 1890-1918’ as it tells of the terrible working conditions that the women were made to work long hours while breathing ‘poisonous varnish’ leaving them ‘unconscious’ we know this is true as the munissionets were nicknamed canaries due to all the dangerous chemicals turning their skin yellow, we also know that the conditions were not safe for people to be working in due to the huge explosion in Silvertown resulting in many deaths. We also know that the women were not respected during this period as the suffragettes were arrested and force fed on many occasions on top of this they were not given the vote until 1918 along with many other people in society. In conclusion I believe the women were not respected during this time period due to the terrible conditions they were working in and the way the women were being depicted in propaganda. I believe the women were only respected at this time when the country was in desperate need of help during the munitions crisis when there were not enough men left to fix the national crisis. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!
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