text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
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The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima was part of a three-point plan the Americans had for winning the war in the Far East.
By 1944, America and her allies in the Pacific War had the ascendancy. In the west, the Japanese were being turned back in Burma and island hopping had isolated Japanese forces in the eastern sector. Combined with the attacks on Iwo Jima, was America’s desire to finally destroy Japan’s merchant fleet so that the Japanese mainland could not be supplied from the food-rich sectors of South East Asia which Japan still had control over. Linked to this, was the destruction of Japan’s remaining industrial base by the bombing of it by the American airforce.
Iwo Jima is a very small Pacific island – just over 4.5 miles long and 2.5 miles wide which lies at the foot of the Bonin chain of islands, south of the main Japanese island of Honshu.
Despite its size, Iwo Jima was considered to have great tactical importance. There were two airfields on the island – under Japan’s control; they could be used by Japanese fighter planes to attack American bombers on their flights to Japan. Under American control, the airfields could be used as emergency landing bases for damaged airplanes in the bombing raids. They could also be used for American fighter planes to escort the bombers, as they needed smaller runways for take-off.
Knowing that the island was of such importance, the Japanese were determined to keep control of it. There were about 22,000 soldiers under the command of Lieutenant-General Kuribayashi. These men had had the time to build strong defensive positions throughout the island but especially in the north. Kuribayashi knew that his options for launching attacks were extremely limited because of the small size of the island. In fact, his options to do anything other than defend ferociously were extremely limited.
America had vast reserves at their disposal. Iwo Jima was ‘softened up’ by bombing raids for more than two months before the actual amphibious assault. For three days prior to the attack, six American battleships had launched a continuous barrage on the island. Within the region, the Americans were led by Admiral Raymond Spruance – though the overall commander of the campaign was Admiral Chester Nimitz. The landing forces were under the command of Lieutenant-General Holland ‘Howling Mad’ Smith. The bulk of the amphibious attack was done by Marines.
The first day of the landings was February 19th, 1945. The Marines took heavy casualties, as the American bombings had not been effective. What it had done was to churn up the beaches and the immediate hinterland and had given the Japanese far more opportunities to find hiding-holes for snipers. It also meant that American movement inland was hindered as the area had been so heavily bombed. A few well placed Japanese snipers could hold up an American advance for hours.
However, the Americans had cut the island in two by the end of the first day – despite taking over 2,400 casualties. On Day 2, the Marines attacked Mount Suribachi. Here they found fanatical Japanese defence and Suribachi was taken on February 23rd after three days of fighting.
Iwo Jima proved a difficult and bloody target to take – frequently the Americans only advanced at several hundred metres per day. By March 11th, the Japanese were trapped in an area around Kitano Point, the island’s most northerly extremity. By March 16th, the island was declared secure and all resistance had ceased by March 26th.
The tiny island had taken America over one month to take. The Marines lost 6,891 men killed and 18,070 wounded. Out of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 212 were taken prisoners. What the battle did show the Americans was how far the Japanese would go to defend their country – a decision that was to influence the use of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasak i.
- The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima was part of a three-point plan the Americans had for… | <urn:uuid:0f3ed491-1849-4981-803b-9e1b8f96c3f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/the-battle-of-iwo-jima/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.988777 | 876 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 9 | The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima was part of a three-point plan the Americans had for winning the war in the Far East.
By 1944, America and her allies in the Pacific War had the ascendancy. In the west, the Japanese were being turned back in Burma and island hopping had isolated Japanese forces in the eastern sector. Combined with the attacks on Iwo Jima, was America’s desire to finally destroy Japan’s merchant fleet so that the Japanese mainland could not be supplied from the food-rich sectors of South East Asia which Japan still had control over. Linked to this, was the destruction of Japan’s remaining industrial base by the bombing of it by the American airforce.
Iwo Jima is a very small Pacific island – just over 4.5 miles long and 2.5 miles wide which lies at the foot of the Bonin chain of islands, south of the main Japanese island of Honshu.
Despite its size, Iwo Jima was considered to have great tactical importance. There were two airfields on the island – under Japan’s control; they could be used by Japanese fighter planes to attack American bombers on their flights to Japan. Under American control, the airfields could be used as emergency landing bases for damaged airplanes in the bombing raids. They could also be used for American fighter planes to escort the bombers, as they needed smaller runways for take-off.
Knowing that the island was of such importance, the Japanese were determined to keep control of it. There were about 22,000 soldiers under the command of Lieutenant-General Kuribayashi. These men had had the time to build strong defensive positions throughout the island but especially in the north. Kuribayashi knew that his options for launching attacks were extremely limited because of the small size of the island. In fact, his options to do anything other than defend ferociously were extremely limited.
America had vast reserves at their disposal. Iwo Jima was ‘softened up’ by bombing raids for more than two months before the actual amphibious assault. For three days prior to the attack, six American battleships had launched a continuous barrage on the island. Within the region, the Americans were led by Admiral Raymond Spruance – though the overall commander of the campaign was Admiral Chester Nimitz. The landing forces were under the command of Lieutenant-General Holland ‘Howling Mad’ Smith. The bulk of the amphibious attack was done by Marines.
The first day of the landings was February 19th, 1945. The Marines took heavy casualties, as the American bombings had not been effective. What it had done was to churn up the beaches and the immediate hinterland and had given the Japanese far more opportunities to find hiding-holes for snipers. It also meant that American movement inland was hindered as the area had been so heavily bombed. A few well placed Japanese snipers could hold up an American advance for hours.
However, the Americans had cut the island in two by the end of the first day – despite taking over 2,400 casualties. On Day 2, the Marines attacked Mount Suribachi. Here they found fanatical Japanese defence and Suribachi was taken on February 23rd after three days of fighting.
Iwo Jima proved a difficult and bloody target to take – frequently the Americans only advanced at several hundred metres per day. By March 11th, the Japanese were trapped in an area around Kitano Point, the island’s most northerly extremity. By March 16th, the island was declared secure and all resistance had ceased by March 26th.
The tiny island had taken America over one month to take. The Marines lost 6,891 men killed and 18,070 wounded. Out of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 212 were taken prisoners. What the battle did show the Americans was how far the Japanese would go to defend their country – a decision that was to influence the use of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasak i.
- The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima was part of a three-point plan the Americans had for… | 898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Google celebrated what would have been Helen Rodriguez Trias’ 89th birthday on Saturday with a Google Doodle. Of her vast amount of work fighting for the reproductive rights of women, Rodriguez Trias’ work against the forced sterilization of women is arguably her most important contribution during her lifetime.
Forced sterilization was a common practice in Puerto Rico, where Rodriguez Trias lived in her younger years and received her medical degree. It was here where she came across the realization that many women on the island were sterile due to a law passed on the island, which was supposed to address the unemployment concerns at the time, but instead was a masked attempt at population control.
During the Spanish—American War in 1898, the US invaded Puerto Rico, which led Spain to cede the island to the US, making it a territory. Once under US control, poverty on the island began to grow due to sugar, cigarette, and other manufacturers began monopolizing the farms in Puerto Rico. Law 116 took effect in 1937 in Puerto Rico to address the poverty issue, but focused on sterilization of women, which was pushed by individuals and US lawmakers. While in effect, the women of the island were also test subjects for birth control drugs including “the pill.” It was repealed in 1960, but a report in 1976 showed 37 percent of women of childbearing age had been sterilized.
It was in 1974 when Rodriguez Trias helped form the Committee to End Sterilization Abuse with the goal to stop forced sterilization in both the US and abroad. During the ‘70s, due to a growing number of Mexican immigrants, there were forced sterilization campaigns to sterilize the women. Some hospitals in certain US cities would sterilize women without proper consent. The committee fought for better guidelines in local hospitals in New York City such as requiring written consent and a waiting period. The guidelines then became used in hospitals across the US in 1978.
Rodriguez Trias’ work for women’s reproductive rights continued into the ‘80s and ‘90s. For her diligent work throughout her career, Trias was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal as an ‘’outstanding educator and dynamic leader in public health” in 2001.
Throughout her career, Rodriguez Trias spoke on the issues affecting both women and minorities in health and economic matters and gave some important quotes about those issues. | <urn:uuid:a51e3c0c-7489-46b2-aca9-da0a8c934a91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inverse.com/article/46786-how-helen-rodriguez-trias-fought-against-forced-sterilization | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.982724 | 488 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2507309317588806... | 9 | Google celebrated what would have been Helen Rodriguez Trias’ 89th birthday on Saturday with a Google Doodle. Of her vast amount of work fighting for the reproductive rights of women, Rodriguez Trias’ work against the forced sterilization of women is arguably her most important contribution during her lifetime.
Forced sterilization was a common practice in Puerto Rico, where Rodriguez Trias lived in her younger years and received her medical degree. It was here where she came across the realization that many women on the island were sterile due to a law passed on the island, which was supposed to address the unemployment concerns at the time, but instead was a masked attempt at population control.
During the Spanish—American War in 1898, the US invaded Puerto Rico, which led Spain to cede the island to the US, making it a territory. Once under US control, poverty on the island began to grow due to sugar, cigarette, and other manufacturers began monopolizing the farms in Puerto Rico. Law 116 took effect in 1937 in Puerto Rico to address the poverty issue, but focused on sterilization of women, which was pushed by individuals and US lawmakers. While in effect, the women of the island were also test subjects for birth control drugs including “the pill.” It was repealed in 1960, but a report in 1976 showed 37 percent of women of childbearing age had been sterilized.
It was in 1974 when Rodriguez Trias helped form the Committee to End Sterilization Abuse with the goal to stop forced sterilization in both the US and abroad. During the ‘70s, due to a growing number of Mexican immigrants, there were forced sterilization campaigns to sterilize the women. Some hospitals in certain US cities would sterilize women without proper consent. The committee fought for better guidelines in local hospitals in New York City such as requiring written consent and a waiting period. The guidelines then became used in hospitals across the US in 1978.
Rodriguez Trias’ work for women’s reproductive rights continued into the ‘80s and ‘90s. For her diligent work throughout her career, Trias was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal as an ‘’outstanding educator and dynamic leader in public health” in 2001.
Throughout her career, Rodriguez Trias spoke on the issues affecting both women and minorities in health and economic matters and gave some important quotes about those issues. | 508 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you have an ASD and think you may have a mental illness but are struggling to get the help you need then consider trying one of these top tips:
Autistic spectrum disorder is a term used to describe a set of symptoms and behaviors which can affect how those affected understand and react to the world around them. There are three different types of symptoms which can affect those with ASD:
It can be common for those with ASD to develop mental health problems due to the effects that their disorder can have on their life and problems it can cause when communicating with others. We will take a look at some of these in the next section.
Those suffering from OCD experience repetitive thoughts and behaviors which can be upsetting to them. It is more common in people with ASD as they tend to need routine and order which can develop into compulsions (behaviors which have to be done). People with OCD and/or ASD can become very agitated if someone tries to block them from carrying out these behaviors. It can be very difficult for doctors or psychiatrists to tell the difference between OCD and ASD, but if you think you may be suffering from OCD then you should visit your doctor to get further information on how to get help.
Anxiety disorders are very common in people with ASD and they have a higher rate of anxiety than the general population. The social difficulties faced by those with ASD can input to this as it can be extremely hard for them to describe their symptoms and therefore get the help that they need. The biological differences in the brain can also affect how those with ASD perceive threats and can make them perceive threats as much greater than they are.
The issues in communicating can cause those with ASD to get caught in a vicious cycle of not being able to effectively communicate their symptoms to get the help they need.
To combat this it is recommended that a relationship is built with a doctor or therapist to allow the patient to safely work through their anxiety.
It is common for people to have periods of feeling low or sad, but when it lasts for longer than a few weeks and causes issues with daily functioning then you may be experiencing depression. Anxiety and depression are often experienced at the same time which can cause people with withdraw and isolate themselves from others. For people with ASD, communicating their feelings can be extremely hard and it can take a long time for them to get the help they need. If you think you are suffering from depression then you should contact your GP to get some more information on how to get help. | <urn:uuid:1a428553-00d4-4401-b519-ceb966ac3bfa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://letitoutmentalhealth.com/autism-%26-mental-health | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.980663 | 502 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.338421791791915... | 10 | If you have an ASD and think you may have a mental illness but are struggling to get the help you need then consider trying one of these top tips:
Autistic spectrum disorder is a term used to describe a set of symptoms and behaviors which can affect how those affected understand and react to the world around them. There are three different types of symptoms which can affect those with ASD:
It can be common for those with ASD to develop mental health problems due to the effects that their disorder can have on their life and problems it can cause when communicating with others. We will take a look at some of these in the next section.
Those suffering from OCD experience repetitive thoughts and behaviors which can be upsetting to them. It is more common in people with ASD as they tend to need routine and order which can develop into compulsions (behaviors which have to be done). People with OCD and/or ASD can become very agitated if someone tries to block them from carrying out these behaviors. It can be very difficult for doctors or psychiatrists to tell the difference between OCD and ASD, but if you think you may be suffering from OCD then you should visit your doctor to get further information on how to get help.
Anxiety disorders are very common in people with ASD and they have a higher rate of anxiety than the general population. The social difficulties faced by those with ASD can input to this as it can be extremely hard for them to describe their symptoms and therefore get the help that they need. The biological differences in the brain can also affect how those with ASD perceive threats and can make them perceive threats as much greater than they are.
The issues in communicating can cause those with ASD to get caught in a vicious cycle of not being able to effectively communicate their symptoms to get the help they need.
To combat this it is recommended that a relationship is built with a doctor or therapist to allow the patient to safely work through their anxiety.
It is common for people to have periods of feeling low or sad, but when it lasts for longer than a few weeks and causes issues with daily functioning then you may be experiencing depression. Anxiety and depression are often experienced at the same time which can cause people with withdraw and isolate themselves from others. For people with ASD, communicating their feelings can be extremely hard and it can take a long time for them to get the help they need. If you think you are suffering from depression then you should contact your GP to get some more information on how to get help. | 495 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The flag of Austria has a very basic design of three equal horizontal bands of red and white. There are two red bands with a white band in-between. The red and white tri band has been used since early in the 13th century.
The flag of Austria was originally adopted in 1918. During the World Wars, Austria was occupied by Germany and lost sovereignty. It wasn’t until 1945 after being banned during World War II, that Austria regained sovereignty and readopted the flag on May 1.
The red and white colors in the flag are taken from a legend entailing Duke Leopold V. of Austria. According to the legend, the Duke fought in the Crusade for the Holy Land around 1191 at the Siege of Acre. He fought so valiantly that he did not even notice that his white shirt was totally covered in blood. However, when he removed his belt along with his scabbard, there was a strip of white, unsoiled material, inspiring him to create the red and white banner. A slightly different version of the legend states that he actually decided to hang his stained shirt(tunic) after he saw that they had lost their standard during the battle. In the 13th century, the last Babenberg Duke adopted red and white as his colors in order to express admiration and respect to his valiant predecessor.
If you’ve seen the movie, the Sound of Music, you have most likely seen the Austrian Flag, as it was hanging in the main hall. You will catch a glimpse of the flag several times during the song, So Long, Farewell, sung by the Von Trapp children, when they are singing farewell to their Father’s guests.
The flag of Austria is listed as the world’s 2nd oldest flag closely behind Denmark. | <urn:uuid:4507e0f3-25aa-4723-bd26-8bf782a849c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://starspangledflags.com/shop/austria-national-flag/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.986208 | 368 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0538718476891517... | 3 | The flag of Austria has a very basic design of three equal horizontal bands of red and white. There are two red bands with a white band in-between. The red and white tri band has been used since early in the 13th century.
The flag of Austria was originally adopted in 1918. During the World Wars, Austria was occupied by Germany and lost sovereignty. It wasn’t until 1945 after being banned during World War II, that Austria regained sovereignty and readopted the flag on May 1.
The red and white colors in the flag are taken from a legend entailing Duke Leopold V. of Austria. According to the legend, the Duke fought in the Crusade for the Holy Land around 1191 at the Siege of Acre. He fought so valiantly that he did not even notice that his white shirt was totally covered in blood. However, when he removed his belt along with his scabbard, there was a strip of white, unsoiled material, inspiring him to create the red and white banner. A slightly different version of the legend states that he actually decided to hang his stained shirt(tunic) after he saw that they had lost their standard during the battle. In the 13th century, the last Babenberg Duke adopted red and white as his colors in order to express admiration and respect to his valiant predecessor.
If you’ve seen the movie, the Sound of Music, you have most likely seen the Austrian Flag, as it was hanging in the main hall. You will catch a glimpse of the flag several times during the song, So Long, Farewell, sung by the Von Trapp children, when they are singing farewell to their Father’s guests.
The flag of Austria is listed as the world’s 2nd oldest flag closely behind Denmark. | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It does not have to have a large spread to harm some people. The human to human spread makes it more contagious than the individual will notice. Individuals can spread the disease to other individuals, even if there is no one around to see and pass on the disease. This means that anyone who has the disease is at risk for getting it. This also means people who get the disease can be at risk of passing it on to their own children. In the US, the most likely culprit to have contracting the disease is that your family or friends are infected: they are likely to infect you as well by sharing food, water or towels with someone who has the disease. When an infected person has the disease, the body will try to eliminate any other virus in its body that it might have. This is what causes the disease to leave the area and make its way to any person that passes on it. This can range from only a few days to an entire year. The longer the disease remains around an affected area the more likely you are to become infected as well…
Whooping cough is a disease that is spread by not coughing on and around people who are infected or have other respiratory ailments. It also spreads without coughing, as you cough when you sneeze. Coughing with someone who has the disease can create a sore throat, coughing cough, or worse. The cough can also spread to people at other parties. Coughing is usually worse. Although usually transmitted by coughing from an infected individual, it can also spread when someone coughs with someone who has the disease. This is why it’s important to stop coughing in person if you aren’t sick! The symptoms of whooping cough include: Shortness of breath - a cough or wheezing can make the air fill with mucus. The person also may be unable to wheeze, making it harder for their chest to expand. Long pants - they are likely to have long pants that expose a lot of skin, which may be infected. The cough usually lasts within a few minutes once infected, and can happen any time from 7 days later to 5 weeks prior to the person being affected.
Coughing causes some infections to go away with the help of antibiotics. If you are sneezing, coughing, or coughing while someone is infected, you may be infected and have an active infection. Often, people become infected after a person with the disease gets sick (bacteria and/or viruses get into your system), so this will be noticed quickly.
The majority of the time your coughs do not cause severe flu-like symptoms. Even if you cough frequently, it only lasts for a period of time. Although shortness of breath can irritate your eyes, throat and lungs if you are coughing, most people get a good night sleep before the cough starts. Symptoms start to appear after 7 days and last for a week. The cough usually goes away after 5.
There are several ways to reduce exposure to whooping cough. It usually spreads through water or towels, so stop wearing those if you have a cough, sneeze, or cough during the day. Additionally, make sure you stay inside if you are sneezing. To reduce the risk of spread, don’t talk, watch TV or any kind of conversation that will keep you near a coughing person in the house, since that is more likely to spread it. Keep your children home from school to make sure the cough does not make you sick to your child. And of course do not share anything in a school locker room. There will most likely be other sneezers in there, and it won’t be long before you are infected. A good rule of thumb is, if you do not have any cough, sneeze or cough while someone is breathing the cough and if they cough for a longer period of time than you, they are most likely infected. | <urn:uuid:dc9ea448-9b01-4147-87bc-9e1c8a3ae370> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irishtimesidealab.com/categories/health/page/10/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.980716 | 797 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.0131399780511... | 1 | It does not have to have a large spread to harm some people. The human to human spread makes it more contagious than the individual will notice. Individuals can spread the disease to other individuals, even if there is no one around to see and pass on the disease. This means that anyone who has the disease is at risk for getting it. This also means people who get the disease can be at risk of passing it on to their own children. In the US, the most likely culprit to have contracting the disease is that your family or friends are infected: they are likely to infect you as well by sharing food, water or towels with someone who has the disease. When an infected person has the disease, the body will try to eliminate any other virus in its body that it might have. This is what causes the disease to leave the area and make its way to any person that passes on it. This can range from only a few days to an entire year. The longer the disease remains around an affected area the more likely you are to become infected as well…
Whooping cough is a disease that is spread by not coughing on and around people who are infected or have other respiratory ailments. It also spreads without coughing, as you cough when you sneeze. Coughing with someone who has the disease can create a sore throat, coughing cough, or worse. The cough can also spread to people at other parties. Coughing is usually worse. Although usually transmitted by coughing from an infected individual, it can also spread when someone coughs with someone who has the disease. This is why it’s important to stop coughing in person if you aren’t sick! The symptoms of whooping cough include: Shortness of breath - a cough or wheezing can make the air fill with mucus. The person also may be unable to wheeze, making it harder for their chest to expand. Long pants - they are likely to have long pants that expose a lot of skin, which may be infected. The cough usually lasts within a few minutes once infected, and can happen any time from 7 days later to 5 weeks prior to the person being affected.
Coughing causes some infections to go away with the help of antibiotics. If you are sneezing, coughing, or coughing while someone is infected, you may be infected and have an active infection. Often, people become infected after a person with the disease gets sick (bacteria and/or viruses get into your system), so this will be noticed quickly.
The majority of the time your coughs do not cause severe flu-like symptoms. Even if you cough frequently, it only lasts for a period of time. Although shortness of breath can irritate your eyes, throat and lungs if you are coughing, most people get a good night sleep before the cough starts. Symptoms start to appear after 7 days and last for a week. The cough usually goes away after 5.
There are several ways to reduce exposure to whooping cough. It usually spreads through water or towels, so stop wearing those if you have a cough, sneeze, or cough during the day. Additionally, make sure you stay inside if you are sneezing. To reduce the risk of spread, don’t talk, watch TV or any kind of conversation that will keep you near a coughing person in the house, since that is more likely to spread it. Keep your children home from school to make sure the cough does not make you sick to your child. And of course do not share anything in a school locker room. There will most likely be other sneezers in there, and it won’t be long before you are infected. A good rule of thumb is, if you do not have any cough, sneeze or cough while someone is breathing the cough and if they cough for a longer period of time than you, they are most likely infected. | 796 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
After Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, violence in the American colonies escalated, especially in Boston, Massachusetts. Surprisingly, some of these disturbances were orchestrated by well-educated, upstanding, respectable adults who held a grudge against England. (It is interesting to note that just before the Revolutionary War started, about half the population of the colonies was quite young—under fifteen years of age. An entire generation of colonial youth, then, was raised in a culture of rebellion.)
People like Samuel Adams (1722–1803), who favored a break with England, used mob action to keep the spirit of independence stirring. Newspaper publishers objected to the Stamp Act requirement that decreased American profits on their papers, so they kept the people riled up, too—and not just by publishing fiery letters. It was the publisher of the Boston Gazette who provided the dummies dressed as stamp agents for burning by a mob gathered to protest the Stamp Act.
A massacre takes place in Boston
British soldiers had been sent to the Massachusetts colony in late September of 1768 to try and keep the peace, and their presence on the streets of Boston was a constant irritation to its citizens. "Soldiering was a low, nasty profession," noted Albert Marrin in The War for Independence: The Story of the American Revolution. The redcoats were an unsavory bunch of convicts, "dropouts, [and] no-goods…. Judges often gave prisoners a choice between the army or the noose."
Some soldiers harassed colonial women and children as they went about their daily business. On top of this, many colonists were—for a variety of reasons—having a hard time supporting themselves. Decent-paying jobs were in short supply, and because of a cutoff in trade with Great Britain, goods were scarce and higher prices were being charged for them. Yet, under the terms of the Quartering Act, the colonies were expected to provide food, housing, and supplies for British redcoat soldiers. The underpaid British soldiers often accepted odd jobs to supplement their incomes: they were viewed by unemployed colonists as unwelcome competition for work. It was only a matter of time before things got out of control.
On the afternoon of March 5, 1770, citizens and off-duty soldiers exchanged insults on the streets of Boston. Throughout the afternoon and early evening, mobs roamed the streets, taunting and provoking one another. Such incidents had occurred regularly throughout the nearly eighteen-month-long British military occupation of Boston. Finally, a series inflammatory remarks directed at a redcoat guarding the Customs House in Boston led to all-out violence. The soldier called for assistance, prompting British Captain Thomas Preston and several redcoat soldiers to race to his aid.
Verbal attacks gave way to a physical confrontation, in which colonists pelted the redcoats with stones, snowballs, chunks of ice, and clubs. After one of the redcoats was hit on the head, someone from the British side fired into the huge crowd of colonists that had gathered outside the building. Three people were killed outright; two were wounded and later died; six others were injured. According to one of the dying men, Samuel Adams had masterminded the bloody incident. But Adams claimed to be surprised and confused over the whole affair. It was probably Adams, though, who dubbed the incident the "Boston Massacre."
Differing views of the incident
Samuel Adams and his followers wasted no time in spreading the news far and wide: a "horrid Massacre" had taken place in Boston. Large numbers of American colonists were convinced that desperate Boston citizens had been forced to defend themselves against out-of-control British soldiers. (The troops were removed to a nearby island in the aftermath of the incident.) In fact, this version of the event was taught to generations of American schoolchildren. According to the British view, though, the soldiers had been driven to violence by the abusive and threatening actions of infuriated Boston citizens.
Captain Thomas Preston and eight of his men were arrested for the deaths that occurred that day in Boston. Preston offered a detailed account of the episode, beginning with "the arrival of his Majesty's troops in Boston [which] was extremely [hateful] to its inhabitants." He spoke of the "malicious temper of the people," an "alarming circumstance to the [soldiers]."
Captain Preston went on: "The insolence [insulting behavior] as well as utter hatred of the inhabitants to the troops increased daily." He then described the scene of utter chaos that occurred on the evening of March 5, with fire alarms ringing to call a colonial mob together. Finally, "one of the soldiers having received a severe blow with a stick, stepped a little on one side and instantly fired" without orders. A fight broke out, heavy clubs and snowballs were thrown, and "all our lives were in imminent danger." In the greater confusion, more shots were fired, several men fell, and the crowd ran away. "The whole of this melancholy [sad] affair was transacted [took place; occurred] in … 20 minutes."
Boston Massacre followed by a brief calm
A trial was held, but little evidence was produced that Preston had ordered his men to fire. In all the confusion, it was difficult to even figure out who had done the shooting. Preston and six others were finally let go; two others were found guilty, branded (burned) on the hand, and released.
Paul Revere (1735–1818), a respected silversmith, engraved an image of "The Bloody Massacre" as he imagined it happened (engravings could be used to make many printed copies), and copies were circulated all along the East Coast. As Marrin pointed out, Revere seems to have altered the truth to increase sympathy for the colonists. His drawing depicts "Captain Preston, his sword raised …, ordering the Redcoats to fire into the 'peaceful' crowd." The press continued to hammer home the point that liberty was being threatened. The publicity surrounding the episode contributed to growing anti-British feelings in the colonies.
Among cooler heads, however, there was a feeling that the violence had gotten out of hand. For a time, calm descended on the colonies, and matters returned to normal. Some trading resumed between England and the colonies (except for tea). England withdrew her troops from the western frontier (the troops were supposed to keep colonists out of Indian territory; see Chapter 4: The Roots of Rebellion [1763–1769]), and settlers began to move westward.
The mighty pen
While some people indulged in mob activities to show their distaste for British policies toward the colonies, others expressed their opinions through strongly worded writings. For ten years, from 1765 to 1775, Americans used their ideas about freedom and justice as forceful weapons in the struggle for their rights. With the exception of a few people like Samuel Adams, the majority of colonists were not pushing for independence during those ten years. Most colonists remained loyal to King George III (1738–1820; reigned 1760–1820). They did not wish to withdraw from the British Empire but only to reform it, to make it better. American patriots were engaged in a struggle to express their rights as English citizens under the British constitution.
The war of words began in 1764 with James Otis's (1725–1783) Rights of the British Colonists Asserted. (See Chapter 3: Literature and the Arts in the Revolutionary Era.) John Dickinson (1732–1808) followed in 1767–1768 with his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. Richard Bland offered An Enquiry into the Rights of the British Colonies. Samuel Adams contributed A Statement of the Rights of the Colonies in 1772. Two years later, Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) offered his Summary View of the Rights of British America, which set out two of the themes that would run through the revolutionary struggle: the importance of individual rights and the notion of popular sovereignty (pronounced SOV-ruhn-tee)—meaning that the right to govern lies within a society and does not belong to kings.
Jefferson also scolded King George for having sent "amongst us large numbers of armed forces, not made up of the people here, nor raised by the authority of our laws." He appealed to the king to open his heart and mind to "liberal and expanded thought" and added, "Let not the name of George the third be a blot in the page of history…. Only aim to do your duty, and mankind will give you credit where you fail. [Don't continue] sacrificing the rights of one part of the empire to the … desires of another: but deal out to all equal and impartial right."
In addition to individual writings, colonial legislatures bombarded the British government with petitions, in which they attempted to interpret their vision of American rights under the British constitution. Among those rights was the right to tax themselves.
The British government relented in 1770 and repealed all of the Townshend taxes (see Chapter 4: The Roots of Rebellion [1763–1769]), except the tax on tea (a very popular English beverage). Ironically, the repeal was passed on the very same day the Boston Massacre took place. It would be more than a month before Parliament heard about the violence in Boston and Americans heard that the tax on their tea had not been lifted.
King George is petitioned
In 1770 American statesman Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was serving as a colonial agent in England. He was living in London at the time, was well respected by the British, and had friends in Parliament. But even with his inside information, Franklin did not know that it was King George's idea to keep the tea tax in order to demonstrate British power over the Americans. When Americans found out that the tax on tea was to remain in effect, they concluded that King George must be getting bad advice from his ministers; otherwise, hearing their objections, he would have done away with the tax.
Colonial legislatures decided to change tactics, and they began to address their petitions directly to King George, thinking they would "educate" him about the evil actions of his advisers. Petition after petition was sent, with no reply from the king. His colonial subjects simply could not understand it. King George declared, "I shall always be ready … to listen to the Complaints of my Subjects," but added that the tone of the petitions was "disrespectful to me, injurious to Parliament, and [not in accord with] the Principles of the [British] Constitution." In 1773 the Massachusetts Spy newspaper urged an end to the petitioning, calling it "degrading." Hopes of reasoning with King George began to dwindle in America. The mood in the colonies grew gloomier.
British views on the American colonies
As far as the British were concerned, Parliament had the absolute right to supervise the British Empire and to tax its subjects as necessary, without question. The Mother Country protected her colonies and needed tax money to pay for that protection. The colonies had to recognize that they were dependent members of the empire, not her equals—it had always been that way, and there was no reason to change.
British politicians and newspapers had much to say on the subject of American colonists who seemed to have forgotten that their purpose was to make profits for England. Surely they could not be so foolish as to think that taxes collected from Englishmen should be used for the benefit of Americans. John C. Miller quoted the opinions of the English in his book Origins of the American Revolution: "I have always regarded the Colonies as the great farms of the public, and the Colonists as our tenants," said one. Many looked upon "the American colonists as little more than a Set of Slaves, at work for us, in distant Plantations." Another Englishman gave voice to an opinion shared by most of his countrymen: "We sent them to those Colonies to labour for us…. For what purpose were they[allowed] to go to that country, unless the profit of their labour should return to their masters here?"
While a few English statesmen spoke for Americans as defenders of English liberties, King George had his own agenda, and an outspoken, disobedient America was not a part of it.
Lord North and British Parliament
In his first ten years on the throne, King George III went through five prime ministers. The prime minister was the head of Parliament, and Parliament had the power to make and carry out laws. If George wanted to have a hand in the law-making process, he needed a prime minister he could work with—one who would listen to his ideas and incorporate them into laws that would be passed by a majority of members of Parliament.
In 1770 King George at last found a man he liked in Prime Minister Sir Frederick North (1732–1792), better known as Lord North. North would hold the post for twelve event-filled years that spanned most of the American Revolution. Together, Lord North and King George continued stubbornly along the political path that resulted in England's loss of the American colonies.
For North's first two years in office, the atmosphere in the colonies was fairly calm. A peace-loving man, North was pleased. Parliament busied itself with other matters and was almost silent on the question of the American colonies. Then came the Tea Act of 1773.
The Tea Act was North's solution to a business problem. The British East India Company, a large trading business, was in danger of failing. Eighteen million pounds of East India Company tea was going to waste in a London warehouse, mainly because Americans refused to import (and pay taxes on) British tea. Under the Tea Act, small taxes would be charged on East India tea, but the company would be able to send the tea directly to American tea agents. Even with the tax, the tea sold by East India would be cheaper than any other tea sold by American merchants (smuggled in from other countries). It was North's hope that Americans would go along with the tax because the price of the tea would remain so low.
A tea party is held in Boston
The tea was to be delivered to a select group of agents who would reap big profits from its sale; other colonial merchants would be left out in the cold. Americans saw through Lord North's trick. The small tax on the tea was still a tax "without representation" in Parliament—and a clear example of the English flexing their political muscle over the colonies. Just as irritating was the threat the tax posed to American businesses.
Despite American objections, the tea was taken from the London warehouses and sent on its way to the colonies.
The citizens of Charleston, South Carolina, left the tea to rot in warehouses. In New York and Philadelphia, officials refused to allow the tea to be unloaded from trading ships. But Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780), a staunch defender of British authority (and the father of two of the men who were supposed to sell the tea), insisted that the tea-bearing ships in Boston Harbor remain there until the taxes were paid. In response, Samuel Adams and other Boston rebel leaders organized the Boston Tea Party.
On the night of December 16, 1773, a group of Boston patriots disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians. (The Mohawks were fierce warriors who painted their faces black before engaging in battle.) Armed with small hatchets and clubs, they went down to Griffin's Wharf, quietly boarded three ships at anchor there, and over the course of three hours dumped 342 chests of tea—more than 90,000 pounds' worth— into Boston Harbor. The day after the Tea Party, Founding Father John Adams (1735–1826) wrote in his diary: "This is the most magnificent Movement of all. There is a dignity, a Majesty … in this last Effort of the Patriots that I greatly admire…. This Destruction of the Tea is so bold, so daring, sofirm, intrepid and inflexible, and it must have so important Consequences and so lasting, that I cannot but Consider it as an Epocha [period of significance] in History."
Reactions to the Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party marked a point of no return in relations between England and America. Clearly, defiance against England was in the air. But public opinion was divided over the dumping of the tea. Many people felt empowered and filled with pride after the tea party and were ready to forge ahead in the battle of wills with England. Others were troubled. Some Boston merchants, fearing a total disruption of business, offered to pay for the tea. Americans were forced to think hard about where they stood with respect to England's colonial policies.
Parliament was in no mood to make deals; the desire to punish the colonies was too strong. The British government considered the dumping of the tea to be a wicked and totally illegal action. British citizens were outraged, and public opinion was firmly set against America. Parliament regretted the 1766 repeal of the Stamp Act. Tired of the mob violence and disrespect in America, the Mother Country felt the need to show the colonies who was boss.
Lord North went before Parliament with several harsh proposals designed to punish the citizens of Boston. They included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and an extension of the Quartering Act of 1765. Called by Parliament the Restraining Acts or the Coercive Acts, Americans referred to them as the Intolerable Acts of 1774.
The Intolerable Acts
Under the Boston Port Act, Boston Harbor would be closed to all trading and shipping activities until the East India Company was paid for the dumped tea. Even fishing boats could not enter the harbor. If this act remained in effect long enough, reasoned North, Boston's citizens would be starved into paying for the tea.
Under the Massachusetts Government Act, General Thomas Gage (1721–1787), chief of British forces in the colonies and newly appointed governor of Massachusetts (he replaced Governor Hutchinson), would assume complete control of town meetings. From the earliest days of colonial history, citizens had jealously protected their right to make decisions for themselves at these meetings. To take away this right was, to them, an outrage. The Intolerable Acts would also place Massachusetts under military rule, meaning the colony would be controlled by the British army.
The Administration of Justice Act would protect British officials in the colonies. Those who were accused of committing major crimes while trying to carry out their duties would be tried in Great Britain, not the colonies. (Those duties included putting down riots and collecting taxes.)
In addition, the Quartering Act that had been passed in 1765 would be extended. The earlier act required colonists to provide housing and supplies to British troops in America for two years. In 1766 the act had been amended to permit the use of public buildings (such as inns) and unoccupied houses for British soldiers. On June 2, 1774, the act was extended to include occupied buildings in all colonies; this could include private homes.
Reactions to Intolerable Acts
Parliament believed that once the colonies saw how Boston was being punished, all Americans would fall meekly into line. Lord North concluded his remarks to Parliament: "We must control them or submit to them." One by one, the acts were passed by Parliament, and by June of 1774, King George III had approved them all.
On June 1, the day the Boston Port Act went into effect, the citizens of Boston fasted and prayed. Church bells rang mournfully from morning until night, and public buildings were draped in black, the sign of mourning.
Parliament thought that Boston was the source of all its problems in the colonies, and everything would turn out all right if the Massachusetts town could be forced to submit. But since the Stamp Act had been passed, colonists in favor of a break with England had been hard at work throughout all the colonies, stirring up a spirit of rebellion and building a network of supporters. Samuel Adams sent word of the Intolerable Acts to his network (called Committees of Correspondence), and they rallied in support of Boston. Food, supplies, and messages of sympathy poured into the town from supporters throughout the colonies, and a new spirit of colonial unity arose from Boston's sufferings.
There were strong reactions against the acts throughout the colonies. From Baltimore came word that all her trade with the Mother Country would be suspended. In Philadelphia, angry mobs burned dummies representing tax collectors. Virginia's legislature called for a day of prayer in support of Boston.
Meanwhile, King George sent British redcoat soldiers to occupy Boston. Their job was to keep the city's unruly citizens in line and make sure the Intolerable Acts were enforced. The acts would be repealed in 1778, but by then it would be too late. The colonies were too deeply committed to independence to avoid a revolution.
For More Information
Donoughue, Bernard. British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War, 1773–1775. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964.
Franklin, Benjamin. Poor Richard's Almanack, 1733-1758. In Benjamin Franklin Writings. New York: The Library of America, 1987, pp. 1181–1304.
Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. New York: HarperCollins, 1997, pp. 121–77.
Labaree, Benjamin W. The Boston Tea Party. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Additional links can be accessed through "Yahooligans! Around the World: Countries: United States: History: Colonial Life (1585-1783): American Revolutionary War." [Online] Available http://www.yahooligans.com/Around_the_World/… (accessed on April 16, 1999).
Adams, John. John Adams: A Biography in His Own Words. Edited by James Bishop Peabody. New York: Newsweek, 1973.
Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard B. Morris, eds. The Spirit of Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
Dolan, Edward F. The American Revolution: How We Fought the War of Independence. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1995.
Lloyd, Alan. The King Who Lost America: A Portrait of the Life and Times of George III. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971, pp. 190–91.
Marrin, Albert. The War for Independence: The Story of the American Revolution. New York: Atheneum, 1988.
Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959.
Schouler, James. Americans of 1776: Daily Life during the Revolutionary Period. Williamstown, MA: Corner House, 1984.
"American Revolution Timeline: Prelude to Revolution, 1763–1775." The History Place. [Online] Available http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/rev-prel.htm (accessed on December 17,1999).
"Boston Massacre" and "Boston Tea Party." DISCovering U.S. History. [Online] Available (password required) http://www.galenet.com (accessed on January 25, 1999).
"Captain Thomas Preston's Account of the Boston Massacre. (13 March 1770)." [Online] Available http://www.ukans.edu/carrie/docs/texts/preston.html (accessed on February 15, 1999).
A Participant Describes the Boston Tea Party
No one will ever know for sure who was actually present at the Boston Tea Party. Historians have spent years piecing together family stories and documents trying to determine who took part in it. Estimates of the number of participants range from 110 to more than 200.
Eyewitnesses claim the entire tea party was carried out in complete silence and that no one was hurt in the process. George R. T. Hewes, a thirty-one-year-old shoemaker, dictated his account of the event many years later. According to his version, the only violence came as a result of the tea-starved citizens of Boston trying to make off with their favorite beverage:
During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. …[T]hey would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O'Connor, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off; but, springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had, however, to run a gauntlet through the crowd [run through rows of armed guards] upon the wharf, each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke.
Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo by a tall, aged man who wore a large cocked hat and white wig…. He had sleightly[cleverly; craftily] slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him and, taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In consideration of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick.
Source: Hawkes, James, alleged author. A Retrospect of the Boston Tea-Party, with a Memoir of George R. T. Hewes, Survivor of the Little Band of Patriots Who Drowned the Tea in Boston Harbour in 1773. By a citizen of New-York…. New York: S. S. Bliss, printer, 1834. Quoted in The Spirit of Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants. Edited by Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
What was King George Thinking?
It has been said that George III was not very bright—biographers claim that he was eleven years old before he learned to read. But he was a hard worker with a strong sense of duty, a man of simple tastes who enjoyed farming and country sports. Though he sometimes referred to the colonies as his "farms," the subject of America was of little interest to him.
By the time George III had ascended the throne in 1760 (he was twenty-two at the time), English kings no longer held the kind of absolute power they once did. The aristocracy—the upper-class minority—had taken over a large part of the king's authority and brought British Parliament under its control. Parliament passed all laws, and if King George wanted to have any legislative power, he had to befriend members of Parliament who would further his goals. Unfortunately, George clashed with many of the men he chose for the post of prime minister.
Then, in 1770, George appointed Lord North prime minister of Great Britain. Lord North faithfully carried out King George's orders and, in the process, helped drive the American colonists into revolt.
George viewed his role as ruler of the American colonies as that of a stern father dealing with a lot of unruly children. For the first ten years of his reign, he tried to keep his "children" in the colonies contented; he even ordered his friends in Parliament to vote to repeal the Stamp Act.
But George grew impatient with anyone who disagreed with him on how to handle the swelling troubles in the American colonies. "I wish nothing but good," he asserted, "therefore everyone who does not agree with me is a traitor and a scoundrel." It was hard to argue with that kind of attitude. When news of the Boston Tea Party reached him, King George saw it as the first challenge to his personal rule, and he did not like it at all.
Up until the mid-to late 1760s, American colonists had few complaints about King George. They appreciated his youth and personality. But he clearly failed to respond to the needs and issues that were growing within the colonies. Americans began to feel that their liberties were being threatened by the British Empire. In response, the greatest minds in the colonies came together to voice the call for American rights.
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0.19565... | 1 | On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
On the Brink of War (1770–1774)
After Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, violence in the American colonies escalated, especially in Boston, Massachusetts. Surprisingly, some of these disturbances were orchestrated by well-educated, upstanding, respectable adults who held a grudge against England. (It is interesting to note that just before the Revolutionary War started, about half the population of the colonies was quite young—under fifteen years of age. An entire generation of colonial youth, then, was raised in a culture of rebellion.)
People like Samuel Adams (1722–1803), who favored a break with England, used mob action to keep the spirit of independence stirring. Newspaper publishers objected to the Stamp Act requirement that decreased American profits on their papers, so they kept the people riled up, too—and not just by publishing fiery letters. It was the publisher of the Boston Gazette who provided the dummies dressed as stamp agents for burning by a mob gathered to protest the Stamp Act.
A massacre takes place in Boston
British soldiers had been sent to the Massachusetts colony in late September of 1768 to try and keep the peace, and their presence on the streets of Boston was a constant irritation to its citizens. "Soldiering was a low, nasty profession," noted Albert Marrin in The War for Independence: The Story of the American Revolution. The redcoats were an unsavory bunch of convicts, "dropouts, [and] no-goods…. Judges often gave prisoners a choice between the army or the noose."
Some soldiers harassed colonial women and children as they went about their daily business. On top of this, many colonists were—for a variety of reasons—having a hard time supporting themselves. Decent-paying jobs were in short supply, and because of a cutoff in trade with Great Britain, goods were scarce and higher prices were being charged for them. Yet, under the terms of the Quartering Act, the colonies were expected to provide food, housing, and supplies for British redcoat soldiers. The underpaid British soldiers often accepted odd jobs to supplement their incomes: they were viewed by unemployed colonists as unwelcome competition for work. It was only a matter of time before things got out of control.
On the afternoon of March 5, 1770, citizens and off-duty soldiers exchanged insults on the streets of Boston. Throughout the afternoon and early evening, mobs roamed the streets, taunting and provoking one another. Such incidents had occurred regularly throughout the nearly eighteen-month-long British military occupation of Boston. Finally, a series inflammatory remarks directed at a redcoat guarding the Customs House in Boston led to all-out violence. The soldier called for assistance, prompting British Captain Thomas Preston and several redcoat soldiers to race to his aid.
Verbal attacks gave way to a physical confrontation, in which colonists pelted the redcoats with stones, snowballs, chunks of ice, and clubs. After one of the redcoats was hit on the head, someone from the British side fired into the huge crowd of colonists that had gathered outside the building. Three people were killed outright; two were wounded and later died; six others were injured. According to one of the dying men, Samuel Adams had masterminded the bloody incident. But Adams claimed to be surprised and confused over the whole affair. It was probably Adams, though, who dubbed the incident the "Boston Massacre."
Differing views of the incident
Samuel Adams and his followers wasted no time in spreading the news far and wide: a "horrid Massacre" had taken place in Boston. Large numbers of American colonists were convinced that desperate Boston citizens had been forced to defend themselves against out-of-control British soldiers. (The troops were removed to a nearby island in the aftermath of the incident.) In fact, this version of the event was taught to generations of American schoolchildren. According to the British view, though, the soldiers had been driven to violence by the abusive and threatening actions of infuriated Boston citizens.
Captain Thomas Preston and eight of his men were arrested for the deaths that occurred that day in Boston. Preston offered a detailed account of the episode, beginning with "the arrival of his Majesty's troops in Boston [which] was extremely [hateful] to its inhabitants." He spoke of the "malicious temper of the people," an "alarming circumstance to the [soldiers]."
Captain Preston went on: "The insolence [insulting behavior] as well as utter hatred of the inhabitants to the troops increased daily." He then described the scene of utter chaos that occurred on the evening of March 5, with fire alarms ringing to call a colonial mob together. Finally, "one of the soldiers having received a severe blow with a stick, stepped a little on one side and instantly fired" without orders. A fight broke out, heavy clubs and snowballs were thrown, and "all our lives were in imminent danger." In the greater confusion, more shots were fired, several men fell, and the crowd ran away. "The whole of this melancholy [sad] affair was transacted [took place; occurred] in … 20 minutes."
Boston Massacre followed by a brief calm
A trial was held, but little evidence was produced that Preston had ordered his men to fire. In all the confusion, it was difficult to even figure out who had done the shooting. Preston and six others were finally let go; two others were found guilty, branded (burned) on the hand, and released.
Paul Revere (1735–1818), a respected silversmith, engraved an image of "The Bloody Massacre" as he imagined it happened (engravings could be used to make many printed copies), and copies were circulated all along the East Coast. As Marrin pointed out, Revere seems to have altered the truth to increase sympathy for the colonists. His drawing depicts "Captain Preston, his sword raised …, ordering the Redcoats to fire into the 'peaceful' crowd." The press continued to hammer home the point that liberty was being threatened. The publicity surrounding the episode contributed to growing anti-British feelings in the colonies.
Among cooler heads, however, there was a feeling that the violence had gotten out of hand. For a time, calm descended on the colonies, and matters returned to normal. Some trading resumed between England and the colonies (except for tea). England withdrew her troops from the western frontier (the troops were supposed to keep colonists out of Indian territory; see Chapter 4: The Roots of Rebellion [1763–1769]), and settlers began to move westward.
The mighty pen
While some people indulged in mob activities to show their distaste for British policies toward the colonies, others expressed their opinions through strongly worded writings. For ten years, from 1765 to 1775, Americans used their ideas about freedom and justice as forceful weapons in the struggle for their rights. With the exception of a few people like Samuel Adams, the majority of colonists were not pushing for independence during those ten years. Most colonists remained loyal to King George III (1738–1820; reigned 1760–1820). They did not wish to withdraw from the British Empire but only to reform it, to make it better. American patriots were engaged in a struggle to express their rights as English citizens under the British constitution.
The war of words began in 1764 with James Otis's (1725–1783) Rights of the British Colonists Asserted. (See Chapter 3: Literature and the Arts in the Revolutionary Era.) John Dickinson (1732–1808) followed in 1767–1768 with his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. Richard Bland offered An Enquiry into the Rights of the British Colonies. Samuel Adams contributed A Statement of the Rights of the Colonies in 1772. Two years later, Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) offered his Summary View of the Rights of British America, which set out two of the themes that would run through the revolutionary struggle: the importance of individual rights and the notion of popular sovereignty (pronounced SOV-ruhn-tee)—meaning that the right to govern lies within a society and does not belong to kings.
Jefferson also scolded King George for having sent "amongst us large numbers of armed forces, not made up of the people here, nor raised by the authority of our laws." He appealed to the king to open his heart and mind to "liberal and expanded thought" and added, "Let not the name of George the third be a blot in the page of history…. Only aim to do your duty, and mankind will give you credit where you fail. [Don't continue] sacrificing the rights of one part of the empire to the … desires of another: but deal out to all equal and impartial right."
In addition to individual writings, colonial legislatures bombarded the British government with petitions, in which they attempted to interpret their vision of American rights under the British constitution. Among those rights was the right to tax themselves.
The British government relented in 1770 and repealed all of the Townshend taxes (see Chapter 4: The Roots of Rebellion [1763–1769]), except the tax on tea (a very popular English beverage). Ironically, the repeal was passed on the very same day the Boston Massacre took place. It would be more than a month before Parliament heard about the violence in Boston and Americans heard that the tax on their tea had not been lifted.
King George is petitioned
In 1770 American statesman Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was serving as a colonial agent in England. He was living in London at the time, was well respected by the British, and had friends in Parliament. But even with his inside information, Franklin did not know that it was King George's idea to keep the tea tax in order to demonstrate British power over the Americans. When Americans found out that the tax on tea was to remain in effect, they concluded that King George must be getting bad advice from his ministers; otherwise, hearing their objections, he would have done away with the tax.
Colonial legislatures decided to change tactics, and they began to address their petitions directly to King George, thinking they would "educate" him about the evil actions of his advisers. Petition after petition was sent, with no reply from the king. His colonial subjects simply could not understand it. King George declared, "I shall always be ready … to listen to the Complaints of my Subjects," but added that the tone of the petitions was "disrespectful to me, injurious to Parliament, and [not in accord with] the Principles of the [British] Constitution." In 1773 the Massachusetts Spy newspaper urged an end to the petitioning, calling it "degrading." Hopes of reasoning with King George began to dwindle in America. The mood in the colonies grew gloomier.
British views on the American colonies
As far as the British were concerned, Parliament had the absolute right to supervise the British Empire and to tax its subjects as necessary, without question. The Mother Country protected her colonies and needed tax money to pay for that protection. The colonies had to recognize that they were dependent members of the empire, not her equals—it had always been that way, and there was no reason to change.
British politicians and newspapers had much to say on the subject of American colonists who seemed to have forgotten that their purpose was to make profits for England. Surely they could not be so foolish as to think that taxes collected from Englishmen should be used for the benefit of Americans. John C. Miller quoted the opinions of the English in his book Origins of the American Revolution: "I have always regarded the Colonies as the great farms of the public, and the Colonists as our tenants," said one. Many looked upon "the American colonists as little more than a Set of Slaves, at work for us, in distant Plantations." Another Englishman gave voice to an opinion shared by most of his countrymen: "We sent them to those Colonies to labour for us…. For what purpose were they[allowed] to go to that country, unless the profit of their labour should return to their masters here?"
While a few English statesmen spoke for Americans as defenders of English liberties, King George had his own agenda, and an outspoken, disobedient America was not a part of it.
Lord North and British Parliament
In his first ten years on the throne, King George III went through five prime ministers. The prime minister was the head of Parliament, and Parliament had the power to make and carry out laws. If George wanted to have a hand in the law-making process, he needed a prime minister he could work with—one who would listen to his ideas and incorporate them into laws that would be passed by a majority of members of Parliament.
In 1770 King George at last found a man he liked in Prime Minister Sir Frederick North (1732–1792), better known as Lord North. North would hold the post for twelve event-filled years that spanned most of the American Revolution. Together, Lord North and King George continued stubbornly along the political path that resulted in England's loss of the American colonies.
For North's first two years in office, the atmosphere in the colonies was fairly calm. A peace-loving man, North was pleased. Parliament busied itself with other matters and was almost silent on the question of the American colonies. Then came the Tea Act of 1773.
The Tea Act was North's solution to a business problem. The British East India Company, a large trading business, was in danger of failing. Eighteen million pounds of East India Company tea was going to waste in a London warehouse, mainly because Americans refused to import (and pay taxes on) British tea. Under the Tea Act, small taxes would be charged on East India tea, but the company would be able to send the tea directly to American tea agents. Even with the tax, the tea sold by East India would be cheaper than any other tea sold by American merchants (smuggled in from other countries). It was North's hope that Americans would go along with the tax because the price of the tea would remain so low.
A tea party is held in Boston
The tea was to be delivered to a select group of agents who would reap big profits from its sale; other colonial merchants would be left out in the cold. Americans saw through Lord North's trick. The small tax on the tea was still a tax "without representation" in Parliament—and a clear example of the English flexing their political muscle over the colonies. Just as irritating was the threat the tax posed to American businesses.
Despite American objections, the tea was taken from the London warehouses and sent on its way to the colonies.
The citizens of Charleston, South Carolina, left the tea to rot in warehouses. In New York and Philadelphia, officials refused to allow the tea to be unloaded from trading ships. But Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780), a staunch defender of British authority (and the father of two of the men who were supposed to sell the tea), insisted that the tea-bearing ships in Boston Harbor remain there until the taxes were paid. In response, Samuel Adams and other Boston rebel leaders organized the Boston Tea Party.
On the night of December 16, 1773, a group of Boston patriots disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians. (The Mohawks were fierce warriors who painted their faces black before engaging in battle.) Armed with small hatchets and clubs, they went down to Griffin's Wharf, quietly boarded three ships at anchor there, and over the course of three hours dumped 342 chests of tea—more than 90,000 pounds' worth— into Boston Harbor. The day after the Tea Party, Founding Father John Adams (1735–1826) wrote in his diary: "This is the most magnificent Movement of all. There is a dignity, a Majesty … in this last Effort of the Patriots that I greatly admire…. This Destruction of the Tea is so bold, so daring, sofirm, intrepid and inflexible, and it must have so important Consequences and so lasting, that I cannot but Consider it as an Epocha [period of significance] in History."
Reactions to the Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party marked a point of no return in relations between England and America. Clearly, defiance against England was in the air. But public opinion was divided over the dumping of the tea. Many people felt empowered and filled with pride after the tea party and were ready to forge ahead in the battle of wills with England. Others were troubled. Some Boston merchants, fearing a total disruption of business, offered to pay for the tea. Americans were forced to think hard about where they stood with respect to England's colonial policies.
Parliament was in no mood to make deals; the desire to punish the colonies was too strong. The British government considered the dumping of the tea to be a wicked and totally illegal action. British citizens were outraged, and public opinion was firmly set against America. Parliament regretted the 1766 repeal of the Stamp Act. Tired of the mob violence and disrespect in America, the Mother Country felt the need to show the colonies who was boss.
Lord North went before Parliament with several harsh proposals designed to punish the citizens of Boston. They included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and an extension of the Quartering Act of 1765. Called by Parliament the Restraining Acts or the Coercive Acts, Americans referred to them as the Intolerable Acts of 1774.
The Intolerable Acts
Under the Boston Port Act, Boston Harbor would be closed to all trading and shipping activities until the East India Company was paid for the dumped tea. Even fishing boats could not enter the harbor. If this act remained in effect long enough, reasoned North, Boston's citizens would be starved into paying for the tea.
Under the Massachusetts Government Act, General Thomas Gage (1721–1787), chief of British forces in the colonies and newly appointed governor of Massachusetts (he replaced Governor Hutchinson), would assume complete control of town meetings. From the earliest days of colonial history, citizens had jealously protected their right to make decisions for themselves at these meetings. To take away this right was, to them, an outrage. The Intolerable Acts would also place Massachusetts under military rule, meaning the colony would be controlled by the British army.
The Administration of Justice Act would protect British officials in the colonies. Those who were accused of committing major crimes while trying to carry out their duties would be tried in Great Britain, not the colonies. (Those duties included putting down riots and collecting taxes.)
In addition, the Quartering Act that had been passed in 1765 would be extended. The earlier act required colonists to provide housing and supplies to British troops in America for two years. In 1766 the act had been amended to permit the use of public buildings (such as inns) and unoccupied houses for British soldiers. On June 2, 1774, the act was extended to include occupied buildings in all colonies; this could include private homes.
Reactions to Intolerable Acts
Parliament believed that once the colonies saw how Boston was being punished, all Americans would fall meekly into line. Lord North concluded his remarks to Parliament: "We must control them or submit to them." One by one, the acts were passed by Parliament, and by June of 1774, King George III had approved them all.
On June 1, the day the Boston Port Act went into effect, the citizens of Boston fasted and prayed. Church bells rang mournfully from morning until night, and public buildings were draped in black, the sign of mourning.
Parliament thought that Boston was the source of all its problems in the colonies, and everything would turn out all right if the Massachusetts town could be forced to submit. But since the Stamp Act had been passed, colonists in favor of a break with England had been hard at work throughout all the colonies, stirring up a spirit of rebellion and building a network of supporters. Samuel Adams sent word of the Intolerable Acts to his network (called Committees of Correspondence), and they rallied in support of Boston. Food, supplies, and messages of sympathy poured into the town from supporters throughout the colonies, and a new spirit of colonial unity arose from Boston's sufferings.
There were strong reactions against the acts throughout the colonies. From Baltimore came word that all her trade with the Mother Country would be suspended. In Philadelphia, angry mobs burned dummies representing tax collectors. Virginia's legislature called for a day of prayer in support of Boston.
Meanwhile, King George sent British redcoat soldiers to occupy Boston. Their job was to keep the city's unruly citizens in line and make sure the Intolerable Acts were enforced. The acts would be repealed in 1778, but by then it would be too late. The colonies were too deeply committed to independence to avoid a revolution.
For More Information
Donoughue, Bernard. British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War, 1773–1775. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964.
Franklin, Benjamin. Poor Richard's Almanack, 1733-1758. In Benjamin Franklin Writings. New York: The Library of America, 1987, pp. 1181–1304.
Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. New York: HarperCollins, 1997, pp. 121–77.
Labaree, Benjamin W. The Boston Tea Party. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Additional links can be accessed through "Yahooligans! Around the World: Countries: United States: History: Colonial Life (1585-1783): American Revolutionary War." [Online] Available http://www.yahooligans.com/Around_the_World/… (accessed on April 16, 1999).
Adams, John. John Adams: A Biography in His Own Words. Edited by James Bishop Peabody. New York: Newsweek, 1973.
Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard B. Morris, eds. The Spirit of Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
Dolan, Edward F. The American Revolution: How We Fought the War of Independence. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1995.
Lloyd, Alan. The King Who Lost America: A Portrait of the Life and Times of George III. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971, pp. 190–91.
Marrin, Albert. The War for Independence: The Story of the American Revolution. New York: Atheneum, 1988.
Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959.
Schouler, James. Americans of 1776: Daily Life during the Revolutionary Period. Williamstown, MA: Corner House, 1984.
"American Revolution Timeline: Prelude to Revolution, 1763–1775." The History Place. [Online] Available http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/rev-prel.htm (accessed on December 17,1999).
"Boston Massacre" and "Boston Tea Party." DISCovering U.S. History. [Online] Available (password required) http://www.galenet.com (accessed on January 25, 1999).
"Captain Thomas Preston's Account of the Boston Massacre. (13 March 1770)." [Online] Available http://www.ukans.edu/carrie/docs/texts/preston.html (accessed on February 15, 1999).
A Participant Describes the Boston Tea Party
No one will ever know for sure who was actually present at the Boston Tea Party. Historians have spent years piecing together family stories and documents trying to determine who took part in it. Estimates of the number of participants range from 110 to more than 200.
Eyewitnesses claim the entire tea party was carried out in complete silence and that no one was hurt in the process. George R. T. Hewes, a thirty-one-year-old shoemaker, dictated his account of the event many years later. According to his version, the only violence came as a result of the tea-starved citizens of Boston trying to make off with their favorite beverage:
During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. …[T]hey would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O'Connor, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off; but, springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had, however, to run a gauntlet through the crowd [run through rows of armed guards] upon the wharf, each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke.
Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo by a tall, aged man who wore a large cocked hat and white wig…. He had sleightly[cleverly; craftily] slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him and, taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In consideration of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick.
Source: Hawkes, James, alleged author. A Retrospect of the Boston Tea-Party, with a Memoir of George R. T. Hewes, Survivor of the Little Band of Patriots Who Drowned the Tea in Boston Harbour in 1773. By a citizen of New-York…. New York: S. S. Bliss, printer, 1834. Quoted in The Spirit of Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants. Edited by Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
What was King George Thinking?
It has been said that George III was not very bright—biographers claim that he was eleven years old before he learned to read. But he was a hard worker with a strong sense of duty, a man of simple tastes who enjoyed farming and country sports. Though he sometimes referred to the colonies as his "farms," the subject of America was of little interest to him.
By the time George III had ascended the throne in 1760 (he was twenty-two at the time), English kings no longer held the kind of absolute power they once did. The aristocracy—the upper-class minority—had taken over a large part of the king's authority and brought British Parliament under its control. Parliament passed all laws, and if King George wanted to have any legislative power, he had to befriend members of Parliament who would further his goals. Unfortunately, George clashed with many of the men he chose for the post of prime minister.
Then, in 1770, George appointed Lord North prime minister of Great Britain. Lord North faithfully carried out King George's orders and, in the process, helped drive the American colonists into revolt.
George viewed his role as ruler of the American colonies as that of a stern father dealing with a lot of unruly children. For the first ten years of his reign, he tried to keep his "children" in the colonies contented; he even ordered his friends in Parliament to vote to repeal the Stamp Act.
But George grew impatient with anyone who disagreed with him on how to handle the swelling troubles in the American colonies. "I wish nothing but good," he asserted, "therefore everyone who does not agree with me is a traitor and a scoundrel." It was hard to argue with that kind of attitude. When news of the Boston Tea Party reached him, King George saw it as the first challenge to his personal rule, and he did not like it at all.
Up until the mid-to late 1760s, American colonists had few complaints about King George. They appreciated his youth and personality. But he clearly failed to respond to the needs and issues that were growing within the colonies. Americans began to feel that their liberties were being threatened by the British Empire. In response, the greatest minds in the colonies came together to voice the call for American rights.
Those who came forth to lead the colonies to freedom were some of the most remarkable individuals in history: John Adams, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and countless others—people of sense, courage, education, far-sightedness, even genius. | 6,278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the forbidden city
What was the purpose of the forbidden city?
The ceremonial buildings are arranged in groups of three. The metre Yingxian Pagoda — the oldest surviving wooden Buddhist pagoda in China — remains one of the tallest timber structures in the world. The numbers nine and five are used often because they represent the majesty of the emperor. Construction lasted 14 years, and they used , skilled artisans and up to a million workers and slaves. The emperor himself slept in a building called the Palace of Heavenly Purity. Search History of the Forbidden city of Beijing Built in the 15th century, the Forbidden City of Beijing has a history spanning six centuries, including five as an imperial residence, the last century having undergone the lives of modern history. To raise the water level in the canal, they built a dam to divert the Wen River into it. Puyi and his family retained the use of the Inner Court, while the Outer Court was handed over to the Republican authorities. The old Grand Canal system that was built by the Yuan that linked the Yangtze River valley and Dadu had become largely unusable.
An ancient monument — once the tallest building in the city — it is now dwarfed by the industrial chimneys that surround it. Its scope is next to Tai He Dian Palace.
The bricks for paving the floors of major buildings were baked in Suzhou that is 1, km miles away and transported up the newly built canal.
Yellow was the exclusive color of the emperor and symbolized his ultimate power. Here are a few examples: The buildings all faced south which stood for holiness. Design and Construction — The Forbidden City, and its infrastructure, was a phenomenal feat in the 15th century.
And it is the highest construction of the Forbidden City, the total height of which is 36 meters. After moving into the imperial city, Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty spent fourteen years renovating the major buildings along the central axis.
Finally, these national treasures came back home after a series of journeys and wars, and the Palace Museum was re-opened to the public.
Forbidden city beijing
Here are historical details about the Forbidden City's original purpose and construction, major events in the Ming and Qing dynasties and the modern era, and how it is now the world's most popular museum. The most notable example is the opening of a "Starbuck" coffee in , which was forced to close in in order to limit the visual impact of local merchandising. They were were kept in storage until For example, according to a written record, one large monolith measured 9. It was in this building that the emperors held court during the Ming dynasty. However, about nine months after the Forbidden City was inaugurated, three of the main halls, including the throne room, were struck by lightning and burned down! The Forbidden City is enormous. Yongle was the 4th son of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, the 2nd of the Ming lineage. It too was enclosed by a wall. When he arrived in Beijing, he built a strong rampart around the city and launched the construction of his new palace, The Forbidden City. At the end of , the Palace Museum announced that 55, previously unlisted items were discovered in an inventory check carried out from to The most important were more repairs because as the complex is wooden, it was fairly subject to fires that broke out on a regular basis. Emperor Yongle reigned — was the third Emperor of the Ming.
The stones were dragged along the ice.
based on 24 review | <urn:uuid:879a2860-916e-4536-be57-6d8b05fa7dd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fomalogaxapoxizot.whatshanesaid.com/history-of-the-forbidden-city428591166rw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.980101 | 728 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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What was the purpose of the forbidden city?
The ceremonial buildings are arranged in groups of three. The metre Yingxian Pagoda — the oldest surviving wooden Buddhist pagoda in China — remains one of the tallest timber structures in the world. The numbers nine and five are used often because they represent the majesty of the emperor. Construction lasted 14 years, and they used , skilled artisans and up to a million workers and slaves. The emperor himself slept in a building called the Palace of Heavenly Purity. Search History of the Forbidden city of Beijing Built in the 15th century, the Forbidden City of Beijing has a history spanning six centuries, including five as an imperial residence, the last century having undergone the lives of modern history. To raise the water level in the canal, they built a dam to divert the Wen River into it. Puyi and his family retained the use of the Inner Court, while the Outer Court was handed over to the Republican authorities. The old Grand Canal system that was built by the Yuan that linked the Yangtze River valley and Dadu had become largely unusable.
An ancient monument — once the tallest building in the city — it is now dwarfed by the industrial chimneys that surround it. Its scope is next to Tai He Dian Palace.
The bricks for paving the floors of major buildings were baked in Suzhou that is 1, km miles away and transported up the newly built canal.
Yellow was the exclusive color of the emperor and symbolized his ultimate power. Here are a few examples: The buildings all faced south which stood for holiness. Design and Construction — The Forbidden City, and its infrastructure, was a phenomenal feat in the 15th century.
And it is the highest construction of the Forbidden City, the total height of which is 36 meters. After moving into the imperial city, Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty spent fourteen years renovating the major buildings along the central axis.
Finally, these national treasures came back home after a series of journeys and wars, and the Palace Museum was re-opened to the public.
Forbidden city beijing
Here are historical details about the Forbidden City's original purpose and construction, major events in the Ming and Qing dynasties and the modern era, and how it is now the world's most popular museum. The most notable example is the opening of a "Starbuck" coffee in , which was forced to close in in order to limit the visual impact of local merchandising. They were were kept in storage until For example, according to a written record, one large monolith measured 9. It was in this building that the emperors held court during the Ming dynasty. However, about nine months after the Forbidden City was inaugurated, three of the main halls, including the throne room, were struck by lightning and burned down! The Forbidden City is enormous. Yongle was the 4th son of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, the 2nd of the Ming lineage. It too was enclosed by a wall. When he arrived in Beijing, he built a strong rampart around the city and launched the construction of his new palace, The Forbidden City. At the end of , the Palace Museum announced that 55, previously unlisted items were discovered in an inventory check carried out from to The most important were more repairs because as the complex is wooden, it was fairly subject to fires that broke out on a regular basis. Emperor Yongle reigned — was the third Emperor of the Ming.
The stones were dragged along the ice.
based on 24 review | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Goats were a common sight on early European sailing ships. They were desirable because of their relatively small size. They are agile, friendly and capable of eating a much less desirable, and more available, diet than other sources of milk and meat.
When Coronado, DeSoto and other Spanish explorers came to America they brought goats as a meat source. Some of these goats either escaped or were released when alternate meat sources were discovered.
That would have placed the first goats in Oklahoma and Texas in the early 1540s. Pockets of wild goats, decended from these animals, developed for over 400 years before developing this livestock became profitable.
The trend for smaller, more agile goats was dominant in the wild. Small udders were essential. Large udders would be cut up by cactus, thorns, rocks and any number of other obstacles.
These feral goats became known as "Spanish" or "brush goat". Although not of a specific breed ancestry they have developed through natural selection. The term has also become used to describe any goat of unknown ancestry. Most are wild or at least semi-wild. Size varies greatly due to climate, terrain and available breeding stock. Body shape, ear shape, horns, hair and color are not consistant.
Traditionally, in the United States goats have not been considered as a meat source. Ethnic groups have increased in the last few years from areas where goats are a staple in their diet. These recent groups have had the money and influence to attract the owners of wild goats. These owners have begun to change their strategy regarding their goats. Management tactics have been implemented to increase the size and meat characteristics of their animals. New and larger breeding animals, such as the Boer goat, have been imported.
The fat content of the meat is considerably less than beef. America is in need of a healthy red meat source. Producers, consumers and investors are looking at the changes in the animals and the market. The meat goat is capable of becoming the fastest growing livestock animal in quite some time. | <urn:uuid:7d24c915-792b-4081-be27-4e55a60b8242> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://bib.ge/goat/open.php?id=962 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.984052 | 419 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.0451226867735... | 4 | Goats were a common sight on early European sailing ships. They were desirable because of their relatively small size. They are agile, friendly and capable of eating a much less desirable, and more available, diet than other sources of milk and meat.
When Coronado, DeSoto and other Spanish explorers came to America they brought goats as a meat source. Some of these goats either escaped or were released when alternate meat sources were discovered.
That would have placed the first goats in Oklahoma and Texas in the early 1540s. Pockets of wild goats, decended from these animals, developed for over 400 years before developing this livestock became profitable.
The trend for smaller, more agile goats was dominant in the wild. Small udders were essential. Large udders would be cut up by cactus, thorns, rocks and any number of other obstacles.
These feral goats became known as "Spanish" or "brush goat". Although not of a specific breed ancestry they have developed through natural selection. The term has also become used to describe any goat of unknown ancestry. Most are wild or at least semi-wild. Size varies greatly due to climate, terrain and available breeding stock. Body shape, ear shape, horns, hair and color are not consistant.
Traditionally, in the United States goats have not been considered as a meat source. Ethnic groups have increased in the last few years from areas where goats are a staple in their diet. These recent groups have had the money and influence to attract the owners of wild goats. These owners have begun to change their strategy regarding their goats. Management tactics have been implemented to increase the size and meat characteristics of their animals. New and larger breeding animals, such as the Boer goat, have been imported.
The fat content of the meat is considerably less than beef. America is in need of a healthy red meat source. Producers, consumers and investors are looking at the changes in the animals and the market. The meat goat is capable of becoming the fastest growing livestock animal in quite some time. | 419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated on
Does your child understand the significance of first and last names? Teaching kids this from an early age can prevent potential problems that they may face when they start school. Find out how to go about it.
You put in a lot of thought to come up with a unique name for your bundle of joy. But does your toddler actually understand his name, given the fact that you probably address him with a pet name? Even if you do spell out his name often, he’ll be alien to the concept of a first and last name unless you guide him.
Tips for Teaching Toddlers about First and Last Names
1. Tell Me Your Name
The first thing you need to do before teaching your little one his first and last name is to get him acquainted with them. Make sure you address him often by his real name. Introduce him to others using his name as it will help him understand that only close family members call him by pet names. Once in a while, ask him what his name is. If he finds it difficult to speak out his whole name, break it down for him.
2. Write and Show
Once your child begins to understand that his real name is different from his pet name, show him how his name is written. Use some coloured crayons and write it down in big letters on a piece of chart paper. Read it out loud. Don’t forget to point out the words as you read his name. You can also point at the names terming them as ‘first’, ‘middle’ and ‘last’ name.
3. What’s Your Name Again?
Ask your toddler to speak out his name loud and clear. Then ask him his names in random order, i.e. tell him to speak out his last name or his first name. This exercise will help him get acquainted with his name in a better way.
4. Show Me Your Name
After you’ve explained the concept of first and last name to your toddler for a few days, ask him to point them out on the chart paper. You can also call them out randomly and see if your toddler points them out correctly.
5. Flash the Name
Using flash cards is one of the best ways to teach the concept of first and last names to toddlers. Write down your child’s names on flash cards and ask him to arrange them in the correct sequence. You may have to point out the first, middle and last names a few times for him to get the hang of it. However, soon your little one will be able to arrange everything in the right sequence. You can also play a game with him and ask him to flash the relevant cards when you call out ‘first’, ‘last’ or ‘middle’.
Understanding the concept of first and last name will prove beneficial when your child starts school. It also gives him a sense of identity and helps him realise that he’s a different entity. | <urn:uuid:c79f6b05-6d88-4ca6-90da-0966a8a67146> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/teaching-your-toddler-the-concept-of-first-and-last-names/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.980117 | 621 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Does your child understand the significance of first and last names? Teaching kids this from an early age can prevent potential problems that they may face when they start school. Find out how to go about it.
You put in a lot of thought to come up with a unique name for your bundle of joy. But does your toddler actually understand his name, given the fact that you probably address him with a pet name? Even if you do spell out his name often, he’ll be alien to the concept of a first and last name unless you guide him.
Tips for Teaching Toddlers about First and Last Names
1. Tell Me Your Name
The first thing you need to do before teaching your little one his first and last name is to get him acquainted with them. Make sure you address him often by his real name. Introduce him to others using his name as it will help him understand that only close family members call him by pet names. Once in a while, ask him what his name is. If he finds it difficult to speak out his whole name, break it down for him.
2. Write and Show
Once your child begins to understand that his real name is different from his pet name, show him how his name is written. Use some coloured crayons and write it down in big letters on a piece of chart paper. Read it out loud. Don’t forget to point out the words as you read his name. You can also point at the names terming them as ‘first’, ‘middle’ and ‘last’ name.
3. What’s Your Name Again?
Ask your toddler to speak out his name loud and clear. Then ask him his names in random order, i.e. tell him to speak out his last name or his first name. This exercise will help him get acquainted with his name in a better way.
4. Show Me Your Name
After you’ve explained the concept of first and last name to your toddler for a few days, ask him to point them out on the chart paper. You can also call them out randomly and see if your toddler points them out correctly.
5. Flash the Name
Using flash cards is one of the best ways to teach the concept of first and last names to toddlers. Write down your child’s names on flash cards and ask him to arrange them in the correct sequence. You may have to point out the first, middle and last names a few times for him to get the hang of it. However, soon your little one will be able to arrange everything in the right sequence. You can also play a game with him and ask him to flash the relevant cards when you call out ‘first’, ‘last’ or ‘middle’.
Understanding the concept of first and last name will prove beneficial when your child starts school. It also gives him a sense of identity and helps him realise that he’s a different entity. | 586 | ENGLISH | 1 |
used with ‘someone’, ‘somewhere’, and ‘anything’
You use else after words such as someone, somewhere, or anything to refer to another person, place, or thing, without saying which one.
She had borrowed someone else's hat.
Let's go somewhere else.
I had nothing else to do.
used with wh-words
You can use else after most wh-words. For example, if you ask ‘What else did they do?’, you are asking what other things were done besides the things that have already been mentioned.
What else do I need to do?
Who else was there?
Why else would he be so angry?
Where else could they live in such comfort?
How else was I to explain what had happened?
Don't use ‘else’ after ‘which’.
Or else is a conjunction with a similar meaning to or. You use it to introduce the second of two possibilities.
She is either very brave or else she must be very stupid.
It's likely that someone gave her a lift, or else that she took a taxi.
You also use or else when you are saying that something bad will happen if someone does not do a particular thing.
We need to hurry or else we'll be late. | <urn:uuid:07eeb27f-454e-404f-8b45-b13410304d74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www2.wordreference.com/EnglishUsage/else | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.983895 | 281 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.043257407844... | 1 | used with ‘someone’, ‘somewhere’, and ‘anything’
You use else after words such as someone, somewhere, or anything to refer to another person, place, or thing, without saying which one.
She had borrowed someone else's hat.
Let's go somewhere else.
I had nothing else to do.
used with wh-words
You can use else after most wh-words. For example, if you ask ‘What else did they do?’, you are asking what other things were done besides the things that have already been mentioned.
What else do I need to do?
Who else was there?
Why else would he be so angry?
Where else could they live in such comfort?
How else was I to explain what had happened?
Don't use ‘else’ after ‘which’.
Or else is a conjunction with a similar meaning to or. You use it to introduce the second of two possibilities.
She is either very brave or else she must be very stupid.
It's likely that someone gave her a lift, or else that she took a taxi.
You also use or else when you are saying that something bad will happen if someone does not do a particular thing.
We need to hurry or else we'll be late. | 250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are a number of factors that influence how well we do in school, including the amount of time we study and our interest in a subject. Now, according to new findings in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, how quickly we expect to receive our grades may also influence how we perform.
Psychological scientists Keri L. Kettle and Gerald Häubl of the University of Alberta in Canada wanted to investigate how the timing of expected feedback impacts individuals’ performance. For this experiment, they recruited students enrolled in a class that required each student to give a 4-minute oral presentation. The presentations were rated by classmates on a scale from 0 (poor) to 10 (excellent) and the average of these ratings formed the presenter’s grade for that part of the course. Students received an email 1 day, 8 days, or 15 days before their presentation and were invited to participate in this research study. Students agreeing to volunteer in the study were informed when they would receive feedback on their presentation and were asked to predict their grades. Participating students were randomly assigned to a specific amount of anticipated feedback delay, which ranged from 0 (same day) to 17 days.
The results reveal a very interesting relationship between how soon the students expected to receive their grades and their performance: Students who were told they would receive feedback quickly on their performance earned higher grades than students who expected feedback at a later time. Furthermore, when students expected to receive their grades quickly, they predicted that their performance would be worse than students who were to receive feedback later. This pattern suggests that anticipating rapid feedback may improve performance because the threat of disappointment is more prominent. As the authors note, “People do best precisely when their predictions about their own performance are least optimistic.”
Although this experiment took place in a classroom, the authors conclude that these findings “have important practical implications for all individuals who are responsible for mentoring and for evaluating the performance of others.” | <urn:uuid:eb751ebf-eb2a-4b72-88ae-d9dafde241bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/motivation-by-anticipation-expecting-rapid-feedback-enhances-performance.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.981208 | 402 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.079058445990085... | 5 | There are a number of factors that influence how well we do in school, including the amount of time we study and our interest in a subject. Now, according to new findings in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, how quickly we expect to receive our grades may also influence how we perform.
Psychological scientists Keri L. Kettle and Gerald Häubl of the University of Alberta in Canada wanted to investigate how the timing of expected feedback impacts individuals’ performance. For this experiment, they recruited students enrolled in a class that required each student to give a 4-minute oral presentation. The presentations were rated by classmates on a scale from 0 (poor) to 10 (excellent) and the average of these ratings formed the presenter’s grade for that part of the course. Students received an email 1 day, 8 days, or 15 days before their presentation and were invited to participate in this research study. Students agreeing to volunteer in the study were informed when they would receive feedback on their presentation and were asked to predict their grades. Participating students were randomly assigned to a specific amount of anticipated feedback delay, which ranged from 0 (same day) to 17 days.
The results reveal a very interesting relationship between how soon the students expected to receive their grades and their performance: Students who were told they would receive feedback quickly on their performance earned higher grades than students who expected feedback at a later time. Furthermore, when students expected to receive their grades quickly, they predicted that their performance would be worse than students who were to receive feedback later. This pattern suggests that anticipating rapid feedback may improve performance because the threat of disappointment is more prominent. As the authors note, “People do best precisely when their predictions about their own performance are least optimistic.”
Although this experiment took place in a classroom, the authors conclude that these findings “have important practical implications for all individuals who are responsible for mentoring and for evaluating the performance of others.” | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A messdeck on board a ship is an area where naval personnel eat, live and socialize. Each mess had its own table where meals were eaten from wooden bowls. Men are likely to have been allocated their messes, but some sources suggest that they had some choice in the matter.
Men of higher rank would have had their own small cabins offering a certain level of privacy, but the lower ranking sailors would have slept in hammocks in shared cabins. One contemporary said hammocks were ‘no better than nasty holes, which breed sickness, and in a fight are very dangerous’ (Boteler’s Dialogues in Davies 2008, 154). The Captain would have been lucky enough to enjoy a private ‘quarter gallery’. Men provided their own mattress, pillow and blankets, or else bought them from the purser; these fitted into the hammock at night and could be rolled up in it and stowed away during the day. Space was very limited.
Sanitary Arrangements and Cleaning:
It was very important to keep decks clean due to the large amount of waste that was generated by the crew. Without scrubbing decks, waste would flow into the bilges of the boat causing a dreadful stink and spreading disease. Vinegar was sometimes used to help with cleaning.
Most sailors took very few personal possessions with them to sea. In fact, they had very few belongings at all, and they often built up considerable debts, which were often not covered by their wages. On land, they usually lived in rented accommodation in villages along the Thames. Officers had greater wealth and more possessions both on land and at sea.
Whilst off-duty, sailors would entertain themselves by swapping jokes and stories, gambling, smoking and playing games. Music, singing and dancing were also popular, with some sailors bring musical instruments or musicians aboard to amuse the crew. Seamen also fished for sport but also to supplement and vary their strict diet. Where possible, officers would read and send letters home. It was not uncommon for sailors’ wives and lovers to come aboard the ship for the first leg of a voyage, particularly on the stretch down the Thames to the Downs. Tragically, many women had come aboard the London when it exploded at the Nore.
Although there wasn’t a formal ‘naval uniform’ in the 17th Century, sailors generally wore practical clothing and many wore partial body armour during battle. Commissioned officers were identified from their sword, a baldric (belt worn over one shoulder to carry a weapon).
Food and Drink:
The seamen usually drank beer and were entitled to a gallon per day. They were also given a pound of biscuit a day and also ate cheese, salted-beef, pork, peas and fish. The official provisions could always be supplemented by locally acquired supplies of fruit and vegetables, as well as by fishing, and ships would also carry live fowl and animals that could be eaten when necessary. Captains often brought aboard their own provisions and had their meals cooked separately. They frequently laid on meals for their own or visiting officers.
Naval discipline was considerably less harsh than that used in the army or aboard merchant ships, and captains could not order loss of life or limb on their own authority. Following the Restoration, punishments at sea became progressively more brutal. Common forms of discipline included flogging, lashing, being put in the stocks and caning. Some more bazaar punishments were having a weight hung from your neck until ‘hearts and backs be ready to break’, having a marlin spike fastened into the mouth and having front teeth pulled out.
Medicine and Health:
Conditions on board a naval warship during the 17th Century would have been cramped, low and damp, rife with disease, sickness and lice. In fact, disease was often a greater cause of loss of life than enemy action, with scurvy, typhus and smallpox being particularly common. The nature of work on a ship was such that injury was likely and hard to prevent. Overexertion led to hernias and accidents with heavy equipment led to loss of limbs. Each ship would have a naval surgeon aboard, who, despite the variable nature of their training, would contend with a range of diseases, as well as heal terrible wounds, compound fractures and other serious injuries. | <urn:uuid:d2c44641-b2e5-4536-9a62-db619cedfabc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thelondon.southendmuseums.org.uk/feature-content/life-on-board-a-17th-century-war-ship/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.989823 | 899 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.161918446421623... | 11 | A messdeck on board a ship is an area where naval personnel eat, live and socialize. Each mess had its own table where meals were eaten from wooden bowls. Men are likely to have been allocated their messes, but some sources suggest that they had some choice in the matter.
Men of higher rank would have had their own small cabins offering a certain level of privacy, but the lower ranking sailors would have slept in hammocks in shared cabins. One contemporary said hammocks were ‘no better than nasty holes, which breed sickness, and in a fight are very dangerous’ (Boteler’s Dialogues in Davies 2008, 154). The Captain would have been lucky enough to enjoy a private ‘quarter gallery’. Men provided their own mattress, pillow and blankets, or else bought them from the purser; these fitted into the hammock at night and could be rolled up in it and stowed away during the day. Space was very limited.
Sanitary Arrangements and Cleaning:
It was very important to keep decks clean due to the large amount of waste that was generated by the crew. Without scrubbing decks, waste would flow into the bilges of the boat causing a dreadful stink and spreading disease. Vinegar was sometimes used to help with cleaning.
Most sailors took very few personal possessions with them to sea. In fact, they had very few belongings at all, and they often built up considerable debts, which were often not covered by their wages. On land, they usually lived in rented accommodation in villages along the Thames. Officers had greater wealth and more possessions both on land and at sea.
Whilst off-duty, sailors would entertain themselves by swapping jokes and stories, gambling, smoking and playing games. Music, singing and dancing were also popular, with some sailors bring musical instruments or musicians aboard to amuse the crew. Seamen also fished for sport but also to supplement and vary their strict diet. Where possible, officers would read and send letters home. It was not uncommon for sailors’ wives and lovers to come aboard the ship for the first leg of a voyage, particularly on the stretch down the Thames to the Downs. Tragically, many women had come aboard the London when it exploded at the Nore.
Although there wasn’t a formal ‘naval uniform’ in the 17th Century, sailors generally wore practical clothing and many wore partial body armour during battle. Commissioned officers were identified from their sword, a baldric (belt worn over one shoulder to carry a weapon).
Food and Drink:
The seamen usually drank beer and were entitled to a gallon per day. They were also given a pound of biscuit a day and also ate cheese, salted-beef, pork, peas and fish. The official provisions could always be supplemented by locally acquired supplies of fruit and vegetables, as well as by fishing, and ships would also carry live fowl and animals that could be eaten when necessary. Captains often brought aboard their own provisions and had their meals cooked separately. They frequently laid on meals for their own or visiting officers.
Naval discipline was considerably less harsh than that used in the army or aboard merchant ships, and captains could not order loss of life or limb on their own authority. Following the Restoration, punishments at sea became progressively more brutal. Common forms of discipline included flogging, lashing, being put in the stocks and caning. Some more bazaar punishments were having a weight hung from your neck until ‘hearts and backs be ready to break’, having a marlin spike fastened into the mouth and having front teeth pulled out.
Medicine and Health:
Conditions on board a naval warship during the 17th Century would have been cramped, low and damp, rife with disease, sickness and lice. In fact, disease was often a greater cause of loss of life than enemy action, with scurvy, typhus and smallpox being particularly common. The nature of work on a ship was such that injury was likely and hard to prevent. Overexertion led to hernias and accidents with heavy equipment led to loss of limbs. Each ship would have a naval surgeon aboard, who, despite the variable nature of their training, would contend with a range of diseases, as well as heal terrible wounds, compound fractures and other serious injuries. | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Hume Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Birth Element :
John Hume is an Irish politician and civil rights, activist. He was the leader and one of the founders of the Social and Democratic Labour Party. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998. He is considered to be one of the most important leaders in the modern political history of Ireland.
John Hume was born on January 18, 1937, in Derry, Northern Ireland. His family was Roman Catholic. At the time, the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland were poorly treated by the Protestant majority and by the police force. Growing up as the witness of this hostility, he was determined to make a change and to fight for social equality.
Hume was a student at the St. Columb's College and St. Patrick's College at the University of Maynooth, where he started his studies to become a priest. He later quit that programme and began studying French and history, obtaining a bachelor's degree in 1958 and a master's degree in 1964. He then returned to his hometown and got a job as a teacher in a local secondary school. He believed that proper education could help people improve their lives and by that set aside the social inequalities.
John Hume decided to improve the conditions in his town and joined the civil rights movement. He started advocating for many different causes. He participated in an unsuccessful attempt to open Ireland's second university in Derry. He was one of the founders of the Derry Credit Union, which issued loans at smaller rates than most banks, therefore helping people who couldn't otherwise afford them.
He helped form the Derry Housing Association, which built new homes in the area. He was also a prominent figure in Derry Citizen's Action Committee, a movement which was supposed to expose the wrongdoings of the Unionist Government.
Because the authorities opposed many of his requests, Hume organized a few nonviolent street protests. However, his campaigns were met with harsh and sometimes even violent opposition.
With his sights set on unifying Ireland, John Hume was committed to forming a party based on the European Social Democratic model. In 1970, he founded the Social and Democratic Labour Party, along with five other Parliament members and one Senator. He became the leader of the Party in 1979.
Because of his active leadership in the Derry community, Hume got elected as a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1969. This was just the beginning of the many times he would be chosen as a representative of the people. He was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1973. He served as the Minister of Commerce for just a few months in 1974. He was chosen to represent Northern Ireland in the European Parliament in 1979, and he then got re-elected in 1983, 1987, 1992, and 1997. In 1983, he took a seat in the British Parliament.
As an advocate for peace and partnership, John Hume served a crucial role as a negotiator for agreements and an adviser to different politicians. He also helped shut down laws that allowed for the violent behaviour of the army and their transgressions against the people of Northern Ireland.
Hume's most significant achievement began when he got involved in 'secret talks' with Gerry Adams, the leader of the Irish political party Sinn Fein, whose goal was to unify Ireland. These talks supposedly led to the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1985, a treaty which aimed to solve the disputes in Northern Ireland.
The people were not satisfied with it, so Hume continued the dialogue with both the British government and Sinn Fein. This so-called 'Hume-Adams process' ultimately led to the ceasefire between Unionist paramilitary groups and the Irish Republican Army, and relative peace was established.
The process then continued with the meeting between John Hume and Unionist leader David Trimble, along with members of the government and the Sinn Fein Party. The talks ended with the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. This agreement stated that the government of Northern Ireland would consist of multiple power-sharing parties, and it ensured cooperation between the British and Irish governments. The peace in the country was finally restored.
Hume stepped down from the leadership of the Social Democratic and Labour Party in 2001. He announced his complete retirement from politics in 2004.
As one of the key figures behind the resolution of the situation in Northern Ireland, John Hume was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998 alongside Unionist leader David Trimble. He also received the Gandhi Peace Prize and the Martin Luther King Award, which makes him the only recipient of the three major peace prizes. He has also received numerous honorary doctorates, mostly from universities based in the United States. In 2012, Pope Benedict XVI gave Hume the title of Knight Commander of the Papal Order of St. Gregory the Great.
Hume is considered to be the driving force behind many of the political events in Northern Ireland. Because of his peaceful ideals and the great results he has achieved he is widely admired and respected by the people. In 2010, he was pronounced the Greatest Person in Ireland; a title won by a nationwide television poll. Upon his retirement, even his political opponents decided to pay their utmost respect to him.
Despite his official retirement from politics in 2004, John Hume remained consistent with his social activism. He continued to promote issues such as European integration, and he was involved in charitable campaigns which try to combat poverty. He has had a few public speeches, including visits to different universities. He also served as the president of the Derry Football Club, which he has supported his entire life. He stayed involved in the International Credit Union, an area he has been invested in since the early beginnings of his activism.
Unfortunately, due to an illness he had in the 1990s, he suffered brain damage, and he now has a form of dementia and memory loss. He lives with his wife Patricia, with whom he has three daughters and two sons. | <urn:uuid:c8e5a140-483e-4b65-a99f-106190cb31f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/john-hume/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.989722 | 1,199 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.2973426580429077,... | 5 | John Hume Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Birth Element :
John Hume is an Irish politician and civil rights, activist. He was the leader and one of the founders of the Social and Democratic Labour Party. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998. He is considered to be one of the most important leaders in the modern political history of Ireland.
John Hume was born on January 18, 1937, in Derry, Northern Ireland. His family was Roman Catholic. At the time, the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland were poorly treated by the Protestant majority and by the police force. Growing up as the witness of this hostility, he was determined to make a change and to fight for social equality.
Hume was a student at the St. Columb's College and St. Patrick's College at the University of Maynooth, where he started his studies to become a priest. He later quit that programme and began studying French and history, obtaining a bachelor's degree in 1958 and a master's degree in 1964. He then returned to his hometown and got a job as a teacher in a local secondary school. He believed that proper education could help people improve their lives and by that set aside the social inequalities.
John Hume decided to improve the conditions in his town and joined the civil rights movement. He started advocating for many different causes. He participated in an unsuccessful attempt to open Ireland's second university in Derry. He was one of the founders of the Derry Credit Union, which issued loans at smaller rates than most banks, therefore helping people who couldn't otherwise afford them.
He helped form the Derry Housing Association, which built new homes in the area. He was also a prominent figure in Derry Citizen's Action Committee, a movement which was supposed to expose the wrongdoings of the Unionist Government.
Because the authorities opposed many of his requests, Hume organized a few nonviolent street protests. However, his campaigns were met with harsh and sometimes even violent opposition.
With his sights set on unifying Ireland, John Hume was committed to forming a party based on the European Social Democratic model. In 1970, he founded the Social and Democratic Labour Party, along with five other Parliament members and one Senator. He became the leader of the Party in 1979.
Because of his active leadership in the Derry community, Hume got elected as a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1969. This was just the beginning of the many times he would be chosen as a representative of the people. He was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1973. He served as the Minister of Commerce for just a few months in 1974. He was chosen to represent Northern Ireland in the European Parliament in 1979, and he then got re-elected in 1983, 1987, 1992, and 1997. In 1983, he took a seat in the British Parliament.
As an advocate for peace and partnership, John Hume served a crucial role as a negotiator for agreements and an adviser to different politicians. He also helped shut down laws that allowed for the violent behaviour of the army and their transgressions against the people of Northern Ireland.
Hume's most significant achievement began when he got involved in 'secret talks' with Gerry Adams, the leader of the Irish political party Sinn Fein, whose goal was to unify Ireland. These talks supposedly led to the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1985, a treaty which aimed to solve the disputes in Northern Ireland.
The people were not satisfied with it, so Hume continued the dialogue with both the British government and Sinn Fein. This so-called 'Hume-Adams process' ultimately led to the ceasefire between Unionist paramilitary groups and the Irish Republican Army, and relative peace was established.
The process then continued with the meeting between John Hume and Unionist leader David Trimble, along with members of the government and the Sinn Fein Party. The talks ended with the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. This agreement stated that the government of Northern Ireland would consist of multiple power-sharing parties, and it ensured cooperation between the British and Irish governments. The peace in the country was finally restored.
Hume stepped down from the leadership of the Social Democratic and Labour Party in 2001. He announced his complete retirement from politics in 2004.
As one of the key figures behind the resolution of the situation in Northern Ireland, John Hume was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998 alongside Unionist leader David Trimble. He also received the Gandhi Peace Prize and the Martin Luther King Award, which makes him the only recipient of the three major peace prizes. He has also received numerous honorary doctorates, mostly from universities based in the United States. In 2012, Pope Benedict XVI gave Hume the title of Knight Commander of the Papal Order of St. Gregory the Great.
Hume is considered to be the driving force behind many of the political events in Northern Ireland. Because of his peaceful ideals and the great results he has achieved he is widely admired and respected by the people. In 2010, he was pronounced the Greatest Person in Ireland; a title won by a nationwide television poll. Upon his retirement, even his political opponents decided to pay their utmost respect to him.
Despite his official retirement from politics in 2004, John Hume remained consistent with his social activism. He continued to promote issues such as European integration, and he was involved in charitable campaigns which try to combat poverty. He has had a few public speeches, including visits to different universities. He also served as the president of the Derry Football Club, which he has supported his entire life. He stayed involved in the International Credit Union, an area he has been invested in since the early beginnings of his activism.
Unfortunately, due to an illness he had in the 1990s, he suffered brain damage, and he now has a form of dementia and memory loss. He lives with his wife Patricia, with whom he has three daughters and two sons. | 1,295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Successful Were the Methods Used to Fight Apartheid in South Africa?
How Successful were the Methods used to Fight Apartheid in South Africa?
This essay will be discussing Apartheid and what methods were used to fight it, also whether they were successful or not. The word Apartheid is an Afrikaans word for apart or separateness. This was a law put in place by an Afrikaans Prime Minister called Dr. Daniel Malan, Dr. Malan put this law in place in 1948 to keep the Afrikaans race pure of any Black or Coloured blood, and there was always separation between blacks and whites but this law made it legal and legitimate. Apartheid was generally just a different approach to segregation. Blacks and Coloureds were not allowed to do certain things that they could do …show more content…
Another demonstration was on March 28th were ANC (African National Congress) organized a protest day were many people stayed home from work and then ended with a mass burning of the passes. Also another protest was in Cape Town were thirty thousand people marched through the city. Another method of fighting Apartheid was creating organizations that were for black civil rights. The African National Congress was an organization the fought that discrimination against black civil rights, this group was created in1912 to unite the different tribes of black Africans so they could fight white dominancy as a combined force, Coloureds and Indians were not included in this organization. When the Apartheid laws were put in place the ANC (African National Congress) jumped to attention. On May 1 1950 the ANC organized a ‘Freedom Day’ when black workers went on strike to protest Apartheid. This was not successful in ending Apartheid because the white government did not want | <urn:uuid:030e13d5-178e-48cf-b5ad-5712aeadecd1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/How-Successful-Were-The-Methods-Used/PKJ44LDK5C | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.984816 | 354 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2831230461... | 1 | How Successful Were the Methods Used to Fight Apartheid in South Africa?
How Successful were the Methods used to Fight Apartheid in South Africa?
This essay will be discussing Apartheid and what methods were used to fight it, also whether they were successful or not. The word Apartheid is an Afrikaans word for apart or separateness. This was a law put in place by an Afrikaans Prime Minister called Dr. Daniel Malan, Dr. Malan put this law in place in 1948 to keep the Afrikaans race pure of any Black or Coloured blood, and there was always separation between blacks and whites but this law made it legal and legitimate. Apartheid was generally just a different approach to segregation. Blacks and Coloureds were not allowed to do certain things that they could do …show more content…
Another demonstration was on March 28th were ANC (African National Congress) organized a protest day were many people stayed home from work and then ended with a mass burning of the passes. Also another protest was in Cape Town were thirty thousand people marched through the city. Another method of fighting Apartheid was creating organizations that were for black civil rights. The African National Congress was an organization the fought that discrimination against black civil rights, this group was created in1912 to unite the different tribes of black Africans so they could fight white dominancy as a combined force, Coloureds and Indians were not included in this organization. When the Apartheid laws were put in place the ANC (African National Congress) jumped to attention. On May 1 1950 the ANC organized a ‘Freedom Day’ when black workers went on strike to protest Apartheid. This was not successful in ending Apartheid because the white government did not want | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Around a month after Japan's continuous attacks, the United States Coast Guard launched The Coast Guard Beach Patrol. Commonly referred to as the "Sand Pounders", they took over the original responsibilities and functions of the Life Saving Service as well as the duties of looking out for any suspicious or enemy ships, stopping communications between ships and people on the shore, and reporting or preventing any enemy landings. While the Sand Pounders were not expected to stop a sea invasion, they did provide local reassurance. The United States Coast Guard also constructed several watchtowers along the coast range in Oregon which were operated for the entire duration of a day.
The Sand Pounders were largely comprised of recruits from the Midwest and east of the Cascades, which was horse country. The coastline of Oregon stretches approximately 363 miles (584 kilometers), meaning horseback was the optimal way of travel. Within a year, more than three-thousand horses were assigned to the Coast Guard, which made carrying equipment, radios, and rifles more easy and accessible. In addition, with their clear sense of smell and ability to be trained, dogs began to assist the Sand Pounders. | <urn:uuid:bbfad806-84df-41fe-a3f0-525257035c5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldfamouslanglois.com/content/sand-pounders-patroling-oregon-coast | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.983115 | 232 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.214243620... | 4 | Around a month after Japan's continuous attacks, the United States Coast Guard launched The Coast Guard Beach Patrol. Commonly referred to as the "Sand Pounders", they took over the original responsibilities and functions of the Life Saving Service as well as the duties of looking out for any suspicious or enemy ships, stopping communications between ships and people on the shore, and reporting or preventing any enemy landings. While the Sand Pounders were not expected to stop a sea invasion, they did provide local reassurance. The United States Coast Guard also constructed several watchtowers along the coast range in Oregon which were operated for the entire duration of a day.
The Sand Pounders were largely comprised of recruits from the Midwest and east of the Cascades, which was horse country. The coastline of Oregon stretches approximately 363 miles (584 kilometers), meaning horseback was the optimal way of travel. Within a year, more than three-thousand horses were assigned to the Coast Guard, which made carrying equipment, radios, and rifles more easy and accessible. In addition, with their clear sense of smell and ability to be trained, dogs began to assist the Sand Pounders. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In ancient times, women were treated fairly in most cases. In fact, men and women were considered as equals in all aspects of life. This fact is best demonstrated by the fact that some of the writings in the Vedas, the Hindu holy book, were written by women . This means, of course, that they were educated and schooled equally. In addition to being religious writers, women could be priests or fortune-tellers, and could perform some of the many rituals dedicated to women . All of these jobs were vital to the community and important to their culture. However, this would not last for too long. As Indians came into contact with other people, like Aryans and Muslims, they were introduced to new ideas about the status of women . These ideas were harmful to women's rights and abilities.
Oddly enough, during the medieval period of India, the women of India took two steps back in their power, ability, and influence, due to several important changes. Thanks to Muslim invaders from the Northeast, Indians were introduced to a new view of women, where women were thought of as weak and inferior, and that they needed to be protected like minors. The Muslims had a heavy hand in India for around 1000 years . Previously honorable positions, like priests and fortune-tellers, lost their prestige, and they were treated badly. Despite their formerly high position, they were abused and neglected. Gradually, the way of life shifted so that instead of women being an important part of life regularly, it was only on specific rare occasions that they were even involved. Through cultural diffusion, new practices were put in to use that altered women's way of life . Marriage, a union between a man and a woman, was altered over time, and the new practices were introduced radically changed women's lives. Among these demeaning practices included child marriages, where the wife was often way younger than the husband . Marrying so young hurt them in the long run because when their husband died, they were deemed unlucky. sati, the ritual burning of a wife (especially by burning) after the death of the husband, and also devadasis, where the woman is married to the temple or monastery, causing exploitation . These drastic changes in the lives of women then faced hostility later in time.
As time moved on, India was exposed to even more ideas, many of which conflicted. A major turning point happened in 1858, when India became a colony of Great Britain . Although their conquerors were not perfect themselves in regards to women's rights, India gained a lot of knowledge during their occupation. However, a schism occurred that divided the country. There was a major conflict between traditional roles and expectations of women's and modern roles and expectations . Hardliners looked at precedent to decide what was the best way to determine the status of women, while supporters of reform looked to the rest of the world. The beginning of changes started with the reform movements in the late nineteenth century , which addressed practices like sati, child marriage, and the life of the widows. Despite laws made by native Indians and additionally ones made by Great Britain, many Indians continued the horrible practices and kept their women under wraps . Despite the fact that women have equality of status under the country's Constitution, many anomalies exist in their treatment; most of which occur because of the influence of religion.
Religion, an aspect of life that holds a lot of importance, created different sets of rules for women and how they should be treated. The two most prevalent religions are Hinduism and Islam. However, Hindus are 6 times greater in quantity . Hinduism is curious because despite the fact that they preach equality between sexes, they have specific practices that prevent said equality. The most common practice is purdah . It is the seclusion and hiding of women by men in order to protect their sanctity. By this practice, women are systematically forced out of opportunities in the economic world, because they can't be near other people . In its extreme form, it calls for the women to have her whole body veiled, similar to Muslim culture. Islam is a religion that doesn't allow much for women either. They have a belief that it is for the women's own good that they are sheltered, because it keeps them away from possible impropriety . Muslim women are treated as second-class citizens, despite the fact that their holy book, the Koran, dictates that all humans are equal. However, Muslim ideas do not have as high a power as Hindu beliefs do. This is because when the Muslim conquerors swept through India, they only attacked the northern part . Their culture was prevalent there, but mixed with other ideas when it diffused south. That is why Muslims are only 13.5% of the population, and Hindus are 80.5% . This discrepancy in people means that the ideas of Hindus are more widely regarded than that of Muslims.
Overall, the status of women in India varies greatly, from the somewhat oppressed north to the often more privileged south. Their status has changed along with the time period that they were in, and also based on their religion. Because of these factors, their status has been in constant motion since it was settled in 4000 B.C. , and will surely change in the future.
Works CitedBhargava, Ashok. India, a Country Study. Washington: Library of Congress, 1996. 249-251.
Drèze, Jean Drèze. India, Economic Development and Social Opportunity. Delhi: Oxford UP, 1995. 1-292.
"India." CIA World Factbook. 15 Apr. 2008. Governent of United States. 20 Apr. 2008 .
Kamat, Dr. Jyotsna J. "Status of Women in Medieval Karnataka." http://www.kamat.com/jyotsna/women.htm. 20 Dec. 2007. 20 Apr. 2008 .
Lee, Rose J. Democracy and the Status of Women in East Asia. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000. 1-213.
Madhok, Sujata. "Women : Background & Perspective." Infochange 3 (2008): 1.
Srinivasan, Shobha Srinivasan. "Journal Article by Shobha Srinivasan; Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 28, 1997." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 28 (1997): 1. Questia. 20 Apr. 2008. | <urn:uuid:c76f80a1-4fe3-4f3e-9d08-6de8b0b67164> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Status-Women-India-65198875.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.981263 | 1,315 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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-0.079149916768... | 1 | In ancient times, women were treated fairly in most cases. In fact, men and women were considered as equals in all aspects of life. This fact is best demonstrated by the fact that some of the writings in the Vedas, the Hindu holy book, were written by women . This means, of course, that they were educated and schooled equally. In addition to being religious writers, women could be priests or fortune-tellers, and could perform some of the many rituals dedicated to women . All of these jobs were vital to the community and important to their culture. However, this would not last for too long. As Indians came into contact with other people, like Aryans and Muslims, they were introduced to new ideas about the status of women . These ideas were harmful to women's rights and abilities.
Oddly enough, during the medieval period of India, the women of India took two steps back in their power, ability, and influence, due to several important changes. Thanks to Muslim invaders from the Northeast, Indians were introduced to a new view of women, where women were thought of as weak and inferior, and that they needed to be protected like minors. The Muslims had a heavy hand in India for around 1000 years . Previously honorable positions, like priests and fortune-tellers, lost their prestige, and they were treated badly. Despite their formerly high position, they were abused and neglected. Gradually, the way of life shifted so that instead of women being an important part of life regularly, it was only on specific rare occasions that they were even involved. Through cultural diffusion, new practices were put in to use that altered women's way of life . Marriage, a union between a man and a woman, was altered over time, and the new practices were introduced radically changed women's lives. Among these demeaning practices included child marriages, where the wife was often way younger than the husband . Marrying so young hurt them in the long run because when their husband died, they were deemed unlucky. sati, the ritual burning of a wife (especially by burning) after the death of the husband, and also devadasis, where the woman is married to the temple or monastery, causing exploitation . These drastic changes in the lives of women then faced hostility later in time.
As time moved on, India was exposed to even more ideas, many of which conflicted. A major turning point happened in 1858, when India became a colony of Great Britain . Although their conquerors were not perfect themselves in regards to women's rights, India gained a lot of knowledge during their occupation. However, a schism occurred that divided the country. There was a major conflict between traditional roles and expectations of women's and modern roles and expectations . Hardliners looked at precedent to decide what was the best way to determine the status of women, while supporters of reform looked to the rest of the world. The beginning of changes started with the reform movements in the late nineteenth century , which addressed practices like sati, child marriage, and the life of the widows. Despite laws made by native Indians and additionally ones made by Great Britain, many Indians continued the horrible practices and kept their women under wraps . Despite the fact that women have equality of status under the country's Constitution, many anomalies exist in their treatment; most of which occur because of the influence of religion.
Religion, an aspect of life that holds a lot of importance, created different sets of rules for women and how they should be treated. The two most prevalent religions are Hinduism and Islam. However, Hindus are 6 times greater in quantity . Hinduism is curious because despite the fact that they preach equality between sexes, they have specific practices that prevent said equality. The most common practice is purdah . It is the seclusion and hiding of women by men in order to protect their sanctity. By this practice, women are systematically forced out of opportunities in the economic world, because they can't be near other people . In its extreme form, it calls for the women to have her whole body veiled, similar to Muslim culture. Islam is a religion that doesn't allow much for women either. They have a belief that it is for the women's own good that they are sheltered, because it keeps them away from possible impropriety . Muslim women are treated as second-class citizens, despite the fact that their holy book, the Koran, dictates that all humans are equal. However, Muslim ideas do not have as high a power as Hindu beliefs do. This is because when the Muslim conquerors swept through India, they only attacked the northern part . Their culture was prevalent there, but mixed with other ideas when it diffused south. That is why Muslims are only 13.5% of the population, and Hindus are 80.5% . This discrepancy in people means that the ideas of Hindus are more widely regarded than that of Muslims.
Overall, the status of women in India varies greatly, from the somewhat oppressed north to the often more privileged south. Their status has changed along with the time period that they were in, and also based on their religion. Because of these factors, their status has been in constant motion since it was settled in 4000 B.C. , and will surely change in the future.
Works CitedBhargava, Ashok. India, a Country Study. Washington: Library of Congress, 1996. 249-251.
Drèze, Jean Drèze. India, Economic Development and Social Opportunity. Delhi: Oxford UP, 1995. 1-292.
"India." CIA World Factbook. 15 Apr. 2008. Governent of United States. 20 Apr. 2008 .
Kamat, Dr. Jyotsna J. "Status of Women in Medieval Karnataka." http://www.kamat.com/jyotsna/women.htm. 20 Dec. 2007. 20 Apr. 2008 .
Lee, Rose J. Democracy and the Status of Women in East Asia. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000. 1-213.
Madhok, Sujata. "Women : Background & Perspective." Infochange 3 (2008): 1.
Srinivasan, Shobha Srinivasan. "Journal Article by Shobha Srinivasan; Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 28, 1997." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 28 (1997): 1. Questia. 20 Apr. 2008. | 1,380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Glasshouses like Baccarat, Saint-Louis, Clichy, and Pantin revived ancient techniques such as flame working, filigree, and millefiori, “thousand flowers” wrought from brightly colored glass canes; they also perfected plant and animal motifs. These paperweights were useful, fashionable, relatively inexpensive, and cheery (a way to keep flowers on desks even in winter), and their manufacture spread through parts of Europe. Immigrant glassworkers brought the trend and their know-how to America. But by 1860, the bauble-bubble was cooling off.
What does the act of committing words to paper do? Initially it was assumed this simply happened through catharsis, that people felt better because they’d let out their pent-up feelings. But then Pennebaker began looking in detail at the language people used in their writing. | <urn:uuid:5b70d107-aab1-484b-bc7d-76cd0d8319e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thisdayandthat.net/tag/writing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.980496 | 184 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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What does the act of committing words to paper do? Initially it was assumed this simply happened through catharsis, that people felt better because they’d let out their pent-up feelings. But then Pennebaker began looking in detail at the language people used in their writing. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Materials: Wood, Glass
This object is a washboard, which was used to wash clothes. Before there were a washing machines and dryers to clean and dry our clothes a washboard and a clothesline were everyday household items. But this was a step up from how clothes were washed before the washboard was introduced into Western Europe. They would have to soak and beat clothes with washing bats to clean them. Some Eastern European countries like Norway and Finland have had washboards made from wood with notches carved into them for centuries but it was not officially patented until 1797. The first washboards were made entirely of wood, but in the 19th Century steel and zinc ridges replaced the wooden ones, but they still had a wooden frame. Later into the 19th century and early 20th century glass washboards, like the one pictured above, were introduced but were not as commonly used as the ones made from metal.
The way to wash clothes with a washboard would be by setting up two tubs one with hot water and another with warm or room temperature water. Once the water is in the tubs you then add the dirty clothes to the tub with hot water in it. It is suggested that the clothes are allowed to sit in the water to loosen up any dirt or stains, but it is not a necessary step to the process. After putting the clothes in the water you will then set the washboard in the tub with the clothes. The soap is then applied; it can be applied in one of three ways. 1) By shaving some off of a bar of soap and adding it into the water. 2) By scrubbing a bar of soap against the washboard. 3) By scrubbing a bar of soap against the clothes themselves. Any way you want to do it you will be adding soap to the clothes and the water. After the soap is applied, the clothes are then be scrubbed one-by-one against the washboard until they are clean. After a piece of clothing has been scrubbed it is then wrung out of any excess water and soap, then rinsed and repeated until the all of the soap is rinsed away. Some people had a machine that would wring the clothes out for them instead of having to do it by hand. After the clothes have been washed they are hung up on a wash line, which consists of a wire or a piece of twine tied between two objects, usually two posts are used, but in cities the line is more often strung between buildings. [Illa Bennett, edited by Kathryn S. McCloud] | <urn:uuid:9f6d68ff-f356-4ae1-94d3-a6f55d915591> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.texancultures.com/object-washboard/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.98857 | 527 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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This object is a washboard, which was used to wash clothes. Before there were a washing machines and dryers to clean and dry our clothes a washboard and a clothesline were everyday household items. But this was a step up from how clothes were washed before the washboard was introduced into Western Europe. They would have to soak and beat clothes with washing bats to clean them. Some Eastern European countries like Norway and Finland have had washboards made from wood with notches carved into them for centuries but it was not officially patented until 1797. The first washboards were made entirely of wood, but in the 19th Century steel and zinc ridges replaced the wooden ones, but they still had a wooden frame. Later into the 19th century and early 20th century glass washboards, like the one pictured above, were introduced but were not as commonly used as the ones made from metal.
The way to wash clothes with a washboard would be by setting up two tubs one with hot water and another with warm or room temperature water. Once the water is in the tubs you then add the dirty clothes to the tub with hot water in it. It is suggested that the clothes are allowed to sit in the water to loosen up any dirt or stains, but it is not a necessary step to the process. After putting the clothes in the water you will then set the washboard in the tub with the clothes. The soap is then applied; it can be applied in one of three ways. 1) By shaving some off of a bar of soap and adding it into the water. 2) By scrubbing a bar of soap against the washboard. 3) By scrubbing a bar of soap against the clothes themselves. Any way you want to do it you will be adding soap to the clothes and the water. After the soap is applied, the clothes are then be scrubbed one-by-one against the washboard until they are clean. After a piece of clothing has been scrubbed it is then wrung out of any excess water and soap, then rinsed and repeated until the all of the soap is rinsed away. Some people had a machine that would wring the clothes out for them instead of having to do it by hand. After the clothes have been washed they are hung up on a wash line, which consists of a wire or a piece of twine tied between two objects, usually two posts are used, but in cities the line is more often strung between buildings. [Illa Bennett, edited by Kathryn S. McCloud] | 534 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hermann Goering was born in 1893 and died in 1946. Goering was one of the most senior politicians in Nazi Germany and a close confidante of Hitler. Wary of rivals, Goering did not have a harmonious relationship with the likes of Himmler, Hess and Goebbels who he saw as wanting to steal his power.
Goering he was born in Bavaria. His father was a member of the colonial service in Africa. Goering found fame in World War One as a fighter ace. He won numerous awards for bravery and was the last commander of the legendary Richthofen Fighter Squadron. By the end of the war, he could claim to have some degree of fame in Germany.
After the war ended, he studied at Munich University between 1920 and 1921. Disillusioned with Weimar’s politicians and their supposed weakness, he joined the Nazi Party in October 1922. Goering was wounded in the Beer Hall Putsch.
He spent time in Sweden – from 1924 to 1928 – before returning to Germany and being elected to the Reichstag in 1928. In 1932, Goering was appointed Speaker of the Reichstag. Outside of Hitler, he was certainly the most well known Nazi in Germany.
When Hitler was appointed chancellor and after the establishment of the dictatorship in Germany, Goering acquired many positions. He was appointed Prime Minister and Interior Minister for Prussia and he was given control of the Luftwaffe – Germany’s growing air force. Much impetus was given to the Luftwaffe to developed itself and to use modern fighter and bomber planes. When the war started, Germany was well equipped in the air to carry out Blitzkrieg with devastating effect against Poland.
The devastating impact of planes used during the attack on Poland in September 1939 strengthened his position within the Nazi Party. This continued when Blitzkrieg was launched on western Europe. However, his power started to wane after the failure of the Luftwaffe to destroy Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain. Goering had also publically stated that no enemy bombs would land on Berlin “or my name is not Hermann Goering”. When this did happen, it dented his standing in the Nazi Party.
From 1940 on he fought to keep his power from others. Rather than fight for the same common goal, Goering and his rivals were constantly thinking of ways to extend their power at the expense of others. To what extent this damaged Germany’s ability to fight the war is difficult to assess – but Albert Speer in “Inside the Third Reich” believed it did not do their cause any good.
Speer also commented in this book that if Goering did not understand a scientific development, he would not give that development his support and reported accordingly to Hitler. Speer claimed that the V weapons could have been ready two years before they were first used in 1944 but for the lack of support from Goering. He also failed to fully understand radar and its implications. The radar base at Ventnor in the Isle of Wight was not attacked during the Battle of Britian simply because Goering did not order it. That one base gave Fighter Command vital reports throughout the Battle of Britain.
Goering’s behaviour became increasingly bizarre as the war progressed. He was addicted to drugs such as morphine. He became increasingly lazy and fat. His lifestyle became very ostentatious which angered many Nazis who were at least aware that the average German was suffering hardships during the Allied bombing campaign.
In May 1945, Goering surrendered to the Americans. He was by far the most important Nazi not to commit suicide or be killed. In prison he lost much weight and was weaned off of his drug addiction. He was put on trial at Nuremberg on charges of crimes against humanity and waging war. Of the senior Nazis on trial, he was the only one to put up a forceful defence and on occasions had the courtroom laughing with his comments. This did not save him and he was sentenced to be hanged.
Goering was due to be executed on October 15th 1946. Just hours before his execution, he committed suicide by taking cyanide thereby cheating the hangman.
|“I am what I have always been – the last Renaissance man, if I may be allowed to say so.”Goering.|
|“If the Catholic Christian is convinced that the Pope in infallible in all religious and ethical matters, so we National Socialists declare with the same ardent conviction that for us too the Führer is absolutely infallible in all political and other matters. It is a blessing for Germany that in Hitler the rare union has taken place between the most acute logical thinker and truly profound philosopher and the iron man of action, tenacious to the limit.”Goering.|
- Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no…
- The Nazi Party’s second four year plan started in 1936 and continued to 1939. The organisation of the second Four-Year Plan was put in… | <urn:uuid:e603bc4f-2359-4fc6-9448-a4632373fd4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/nazi-leaders/hermann-goering/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.988278 | 1,055 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.322168588638305... | 7 | Hermann Goering was born in 1893 and died in 1946. Goering was one of the most senior politicians in Nazi Germany and a close confidante of Hitler. Wary of rivals, Goering did not have a harmonious relationship with the likes of Himmler, Hess and Goebbels who he saw as wanting to steal his power.
Goering he was born in Bavaria. His father was a member of the colonial service in Africa. Goering found fame in World War One as a fighter ace. He won numerous awards for bravery and was the last commander of the legendary Richthofen Fighter Squadron. By the end of the war, he could claim to have some degree of fame in Germany.
After the war ended, he studied at Munich University between 1920 and 1921. Disillusioned with Weimar’s politicians and their supposed weakness, he joined the Nazi Party in October 1922. Goering was wounded in the Beer Hall Putsch.
He spent time in Sweden – from 1924 to 1928 – before returning to Germany and being elected to the Reichstag in 1928. In 1932, Goering was appointed Speaker of the Reichstag. Outside of Hitler, he was certainly the most well known Nazi in Germany.
When Hitler was appointed chancellor and after the establishment of the dictatorship in Germany, Goering acquired many positions. He was appointed Prime Minister and Interior Minister for Prussia and he was given control of the Luftwaffe – Germany’s growing air force. Much impetus was given to the Luftwaffe to developed itself and to use modern fighter and bomber planes. When the war started, Germany was well equipped in the air to carry out Blitzkrieg with devastating effect against Poland.
The devastating impact of planes used during the attack on Poland in September 1939 strengthened his position within the Nazi Party. This continued when Blitzkrieg was launched on western Europe. However, his power started to wane after the failure of the Luftwaffe to destroy Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain. Goering had also publically stated that no enemy bombs would land on Berlin “or my name is not Hermann Goering”. When this did happen, it dented his standing in the Nazi Party.
From 1940 on he fought to keep his power from others. Rather than fight for the same common goal, Goering and his rivals were constantly thinking of ways to extend their power at the expense of others. To what extent this damaged Germany’s ability to fight the war is difficult to assess – but Albert Speer in “Inside the Third Reich” believed it did not do their cause any good.
Speer also commented in this book that if Goering did not understand a scientific development, he would not give that development his support and reported accordingly to Hitler. Speer claimed that the V weapons could have been ready two years before they were first used in 1944 but for the lack of support from Goering. He also failed to fully understand radar and its implications. The radar base at Ventnor in the Isle of Wight was not attacked during the Battle of Britian simply because Goering did not order it. That one base gave Fighter Command vital reports throughout the Battle of Britain.
Goering’s behaviour became increasingly bizarre as the war progressed. He was addicted to drugs such as morphine. He became increasingly lazy and fat. His lifestyle became very ostentatious which angered many Nazis who were at least aware that the average German was suffering hardships during the Allied bombing campaign.
In May 1945, Goering surrendered to the Americans. He was by far the most important Nazi not to commit suicide or be killed. In prison he lost much weight and was weaned off of his drug addiction. He was put on trial at Nuremberg on charges of crimes against humanity and waging war. Of the senior Nazis on trial, he was the only one to put up a forceful defence and on occasions had the courtroom laughing with his comments. This did not save him and he was sentenced to be hanged.
Goering was due to be executed on October 15th 1946. Just hours before his execution, he committed suicide by taking cyanide thereby cheating the hangman.
|“I am what I have always been – the last Renaissance man, if I may be allowed to say so.”Goering.|
|“If the Catholic Christian is convinced that the Pope in infallible in all religious and ethical matters, so we National Socialists declare with the same ardent conviction that for us too the Führer is absolutely infallible in all political and other matters. It is a blessing for Germany that in Hitler the rare union has taken place between the most acute logical thinker and truly profound philosopher and the iron man of action, tenacious to the limit.”Goering.|
- Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no…
- The Nazi Party’s second four year plan started in 1936 and continued to 1939. The organisation of the second Four-Year Plan was put in… | 1,087 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1 Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson was an American statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 . He was born near the end of the colonial era, somewhere near the then-unmarked border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family of relatively ...read more.
Also, Jackson was literally the only president to cut the national debt. It's crazy but true. - IcetailofWishClan
Jackson was a strong supporter of states rights, and had a populist economic policy. His motto was "shoot first and ask questions later" and was, obviously, pretty politically incorrect. - Alpha101
2 Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as he was vice president at the time of the assassination of [Abraham Lincoln].
Usually seen as one of our worst Presidents, Johnson opposed federal intervention in the affairs of the states, even to protect newly freed slaves. - Alpha101
3 James Polk
Polk went against the wishes of many liberals at the time and declared war on Mexico. He was a firm believer in imperialism and the Manifest Destiny. - Alpha101
4 James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States, serving immediately prior to the American Civil War.
While Buchanan feared a Civil War, he believed that the federal government didn't have the right to try to prevent it. - Alpha101
5 Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States. Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation.
Pierce helped expand slavery, and was also a firm believer in the Manifest Destiny. - Alpha101
6 Grover Cleveland
Stephen Grover Cleveland was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, the only president in American history to serve two non-consecutive terms in office.
Cleveland is worshipped by many Libertarians because he Vetoed lots of legislation that he deemed to be unconstitutional. However, he was also an anti-imperialist. - Alpha101
7 Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his early years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia, South Carolina.
Wilson was a strong anti-communist, and used often illegal tactics in order to suppress it. Also, his views on race were...less than desirable. - Alpha101
8 Bill Clinton
William Jefferson Clinton (Born August 19th 1946) is an American politician who was the 42nd President of the United States. He previously served as governor of Arkansas. He became president after unseating incumbent president George H.W. Bush in 1992. He was re-elected in 1996 after defeating Senator ...read more.
Clinton once claimed that he was an Eisenhower Republican. He wasn't too far off the mark. He deregulated many sectors of the economy, cut welfare, passed NAFTA, expanded the War on Drugs, expanded the death penalty, and passed the Defense of Marriage Act and Don't Ask Don't Tell. - Alpha101
Abolished welfare; with Newt's help.
Made government smaller,
9 John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29th, 1917-November 22, 1963) commonly referred to by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th President of the United States from January 1961 until his assassination. The Cuban Missile Crisis, The Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, ...read more.
Kennedy, a hero to many Liberals, was more conservative than you think. He opposed most forms of gun control, tried to cut taxes, was a war hawk, and was probably the first strong supporter of Israel. - Alpha101
Kennedy would absolutely be a Republican if he were alive today.
I wouldn't go that far. I think he would still be a Democrat, but he wouldn't be as liberal as most Democrats today. He would be more of a moderate. - Alpha101
10 Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. is an American politician and author who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center.
Carter helped deregulate many areas of the economy, and helped fight inflation, which many conservatives believe is the main threat to an economy. He is also pro-life. - Alpha101
11 Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 to 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and dominated his party for many years as a central figure in world events ...read more.
One of the least Conservative Presidents
12 Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II served as the 44th president of the United States of America. He was elected in 2008 after serving in the Senate from 2005-08, beating John McCain and becoming the first African-American to be elected President of the United States. He was elected again in 2012, beating Mitt ...read more.
13 Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States, an American politician of the Democratic Party.
No. Most Liberal President Ever.
14 Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson, often referred to as LBJ, was an American politician who served as the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969.
He Should be Higher | <urn:uuid:7a02b8db-8367-4851-a97b-8e025bfe0502> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thetoptens.com/conservative-democratic-presidents/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.985039 | 1,196 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.17419344186782837... | 1 | 1 Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson was an American statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 . He was born near the end of the colonial era, somewhere near the then-unmarked border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family of relatively ...read more.
Also, Jackson was literally the only president to cut the national debt. It's crazy but true. - IcetailofWishClan
Jackson was a strong supporter of states rights, and had a populist economic policy. His motto was "shoot first and ask questions later" and was, obviously, pretty politically incorrect. - Alpha101
2 Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as he was vice president at the time of the assassination of [Abraham Lincoln].
Usually seen as one of our worst Presidents, Johnson opposed federal intervention in the affairs of the states, even to protect newly freed slaves. - Alpha101
3 James Polk
Polk went against the wishes of many liberals at the time and declared war on Mexico. He was a firm believer in imperialism and the Manifest Destiny. - Alpha101
4 James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States, serving immediately prior to the American Civil War.
While Buchanan feared a Civil War, he believed that the federal government didn't have the right to try to prevent it. - Alpha101
5 Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States. Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation.
Pierce helped expand slavery, and was also a firm believer in the Manifest Destiny. - Alpha101
6 Grover Cleveland
Stephen Grover Cleveland was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, the only president in American history to serve two non-consecutive terms in office.
Cleveland is worshipped by many Libertarians because he Vetoed lots of legislation that he deemed to be unconstitutional. However, he was also an anti-imperialist. - Alpha101
7 Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his early years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia, South Carolina.
Wilson was a strong anti-communist, and used often illegal tactics in order to suppress it. Also, his views on race were...less than desirable. - Alpha101
8 Bill Clinton
William Jefferson Clinton (Born August 19th 1946) is an American politician who was the 42nd President of the United States. He previously served as governor of Arkansas. He became president after unseating incumbent president George H.W. Bush in 1992. He was re-elected in 1996 after defeating Senator ...read more.
Clinton once claimed that he was an Eisenhower Republican. He wasn't too far off the mark. He deregulated many sectors of the economy, cut welfare, passed NAFTA, expanded the War on Drugs, expanded the death penalty, and passed the Defense of Marriage Act and Don't Ask Don't Tell. - Alpha101
Abolished welfare; with Newt's help.
Made government smaller,
9 John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29th, 1917-November 22, 1963) commonly referred to by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th President of the United States from January 1961 until his assassination. The Cuban Missile Crisis, The Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, ...read more.
Kennedy, a hero to many Liberals, was more conservative than you think. He opposed most forms of gun control, tried to cut taxes, was a war hawk, and was probably the first strong supporter of Israel. - Alpha101
Kennedy would absolutely be a Republican if he were alive today.
I wouldn't go that far. I think he would still be a Democrat, but he wouldn't be as liberal as most Democrats today. He would be more of a moderate. - Alpha101
10 Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. is an American politician and author who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center.
Carter helped deregulate many areas of the economy, and helped fight inflation, which many conservatives believe is the main threat to an economy. He is also pro-life. - Alpha101
11 Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 to 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and dominated his party for many years as a central figure in world events ...read more.
One of the least Conservative Presidents
12 Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II served as the 44th president of the United States of America. He was elected in 2008 after serving in the Senate from 2005-08, beating John McCain and becoming the first African-American to be elected President of the United States. He was elected again in 2012, beating Mitt ...read more.
13 Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States, an American politician of the Democratic Party.
No. Most Liberal President Ever.
14 Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson, often referred to as LBJ, was an American politician who served as the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969.
He Should be Higher | 1,320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1802, Congress abolished the Board of Commissioners overseeing Washington and incorporated Washington City as a municipality on the same legal footing as Georgetown and Alexandria. The act passed both the House and Senate, being signed into law by President Jefferson on May 3rd, 1802.
Washington to have a new mayor
Under the new charter, Washington was to have a mayor, appointed by the President of the United States and a city council elected by the people (free white male inhabitants of full age who had resided 12 months or more in the city and paid full taxes the prior year). The council was composed of two odd-numbered chambers, seven members in the first and five in the second chamber.
Jefferson appointed his friend Robert Brent, a fellow Virginian. On Monday, June 7th, 1802, the election for city council was held with twelve men being selected for the two chambers.
In the early days of Washington, the President had authority and influence over all matters and the lines between state, congressional, executive and municipal jurisdictions were still being defined. Jefferson was involved in issues of national importance to granting liquor licenses in the District. Brent’s job as the inaugural mayor was to build a municipal government to oversee the city, a job he accepted, refusing a salary.
Regulating the size of bricks
One of the first acts passed by the new city council was in October of 1802, regulating the size of bricks. The new law stated that after January of the following year, all bricks sold in the city should be eight and three-quarter inches long, four and one-fourth inches wide. Any brick not conforming to this regulation would result in a fine of $1 for every one thousand made, sold or offered for sale.
I came across an interesting letter from Thomas Jefferson to Brent on March 10th, 1807. It refers to a request for appropriations of funds to improve roads in the District.
SIR,–I have received your letter of yesterday, asking the application of a part of a late appropriation of Congress, to certain avenues and roads in this place.
The only appropriation ever before made by Congress to an object of this nature, was “to the public buildings and the highways between them.” This ground was deliberately taken, and I accordingly restrained the application of the money to the avenue between the Capitol and the Executive buildings, and the roads round the two squares.
The last appropriation was in terms much more lax, to wit, “for avenues and roads in the District of Columbia.” This, indeed, would take in a large field, but besides that we cannot suppose Congress intended to tax the people of the United States at large, for all the avenues in Washington and roads in Columbia; we know the fact to have been that the expression was strongly objected to, and was saved merely from a want of time to discuss, (the last day of the session,) and the fear of losing the whole bill. but the sum appropriated (three thousand dollars) shows they did not mean it for so large a field; for by the time the Pennsylvania avenue, between the two houses, is widened, newly gravelled, planted, brick tunnels instead of wood, the roads round the squares put in order, and that in the south front of the war office dug down to its proper level, there will be no more of the three thousand dollars left than will be wanting for constant repairs. With this view of the just and probably intention of the legislature, I shall not think myself authorized to take advantage of a lax expression, forced on by circumstances, to carry the execution of the law into a region of expense which would merit great consideration before they should embark in it. Accept my friendly salutations, and assurances of great esteem and respect.
The second mayor is appointed
Brent served until June of 1811, when he declined to continue serving as mayor of Washington. On Monday, June 3rd, 1811, President James Madison appointed Daniel Rapine to the position of mayor.
He was a major land-owner in the area and had his home at what is now 12th St. and Maryland Ave. SW. In 1817, he built Brentwood Mansion in Washington County, having it designed by one of the Capitol’s architects, Benjamin Latrobe. The site is now part of Gallaudet University at 6th and Florida Ave. NE. The D.C. neighborhood of Brentwood takes its name from Robert Brent and his mansion.
Sadly, Robert never had a chance to live out his years at Brentwood. He was partially paralyzed by a stroke and died in September of 1819 at the age of 55. | <urn:uuid:85c26247-eb3c-4365-a88f-5346592c640a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ghostsofdc.org/2012/02/28/robert-brent-friend-of-thomas-jefferson-and-washington-citys-first-mayor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.981105 | 951 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.13348546... | 4 | In 1802, Congress abolished the Board of Commissioners overseeing Washington and incorporated Washington City as a municipality on the same legal footing as Georgetown and Alexandria. The act passed both the House and Senate, being signed into law by President Jefferson on May 3rd, 1802.
Washington to have a new mayor
Under the new charter, Washington was to have a mayor, appointed by the President of the United States and a city council elected by the people (free white male inhabitants of full age who had resided 12 months or more in the city and paid full taxes the prior year). The council was composed of two odd-numbered chambers, seven members in the first and five in the second chamber.
Jefferson appointed his friend Robert Brent, a fellow Virginian. On Monday, June 7th, 1802, the election for city council was held with twelve men being selected for the two chambers.
In the early days of Washington, the President had authority and influence over all matters and the lines between state, congressional, executive and municipal jurisdictions were still being defined. Jefferson was involved in issues of national importance to granting liquor licenses in the District. Brent’s job as the inaugural mayor was to build a municipal government to oversee the city, a job he accepted, refusing a salary.
Regulating the size of bricks
One of the first acts passed by the new city council was in October of 1802, regulating the size of bricks. The new law stated that after January of the following year, all bricks sold in the city should be eight and three-quarter inches long, four and one-fourth inches wide. Any brick not conforming to this regulation would result in a fine of $1 for every one thousand made, sold or offered for sale.
I came across an interesting letter from Thomas Jefferson to Brent on March 10th, 1807. It refers to a request for appropriations of funds to improve roads in the District.
SIR,–I have received your letter of yesterday, asking the application of a part of a late appropriation of Congress, to certain avenues and roads in this place.
The only appropriation ever before made by Congress to an object of this nature, was “to the public buildings and the highways between them.” This ground was deliberately taken, and I accordingly restrained the application of the money to the avenue between the Capitol and the Executive buildings, and the roads round the two squares.
The last appropriation was in terms much more lax, to wit, “for avenues and roads in the District of Columbia.” This, indeed, would take in a large field, but besides that we cannot suppose Congress intended to tax the people of the United States at large, for all the avenues in Washington and roads in Columbia; we know the fact to have been that the expression was strongly objected to, and was saved merely from a want of time to discuss, (the last day of the session,) and the fear of losing the whole bill. but the sum appropriated (three thousand dollars) shows they did not mean it for so large a field; for by the time the Pennsylvania avenue, between the two houses, is widened, newly gravelled, planted, brick tunnels instead of wood, the roads round the squares put in order, and that in the south front of the war office dug down to its proper level, there will be no more of the three thousand dollars left than will be wanting for constant repairs. With this view of the just and probably intention of the legislature, I shall not think myself authorized to take advantage of a lax expression, forced on by circumstances, to carry the execution of the law into a region of expense which would merit great consideration before they should embark in it. Accept my friendly salutations, and assurances of great esteem and respect.
The second mayor is appointed
Brent served until June of 1811, when he declined to continue serving as mayor of Washington. On Monday, June 3rd, 1811, President James Madison appointed Daniel Rapine to the position of mayor.
He was a major land-owner in the area and had his home at what is now 12th St. and Maryland Ave. SW. In 1817, he built Brentwood Mansion in Washington County, having it designed by one of the Capitol’s architects, Benjamin Latrobe. The site is now part of Gallaudet University at 6th and Florida Ave. NE. The D.C. neighborhood of Brentwood takes its name from Robert Brent and his mansion.
Sadly, Robert never had a chance to live out his years at Brentwood. He was partially paralyzed by a stroke and died in September of 1819 at the age of 55. | 967 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although Zionism and Arab Nationalism are at loggerheads over Palestine (or perhaps Southern Syria), the two have a certain amount in common. Both movements won international recognition during the First World War. Both arose out of the ashes of the Ottoman Empire and both came into existence at around the same time, roughly 1900.
In attaining their aims both movements disregarded a variety of existing peoples: In the case of the Arabs the Kurds, the Nubians, the Copts, the Druze and the Berbers are among the potential nations who were prevented from self-definition by Arab Nationalism. The Jews' success came at the expense of the local Arab population.
Both Arab Nationalism and Zionism seek to recreate ancient peoples. The ancient people that the Zionists sought to recreate, had not existed as a political entity for almost 2,000 years. In antiquity religion and nationality were generally combined so the combination of religion and nationalism proposed by the Zionists made sense in terms of the ancient people they were emulating, the problem being the exclusion of non-Jews, and that the people were divorced from the geography they claimed. In their favor however, the Zionists had a clear vision of the relevant piece of geography, the language it would use and a highly mobile people, used to emigration.
The ancient people that the Arabs sought to recreate, had not existed as a political entity for at least 600 years. The Arabs, unlike the Jews inhabited the geographic entity they aspired to control, but their definition of its location was linguistic. The Arabs also combined religion and nation in their identity, but because many of the initial nationalists were Christian, they chose to ignore the religious element and focus on the language as the defining aspect. Basically the Arabs were not trying to recreate an ancient people, but an ancient Empire: It was as if the English suddenly attempted to force a nation out of the world's English speakers, claiming that the USA, Canada, Australia, Ireland, India and Jamaica were really part of the same nation.
This notion of nationality is also reminiscent of attempts to unite all German speakers in a single national group. It is problematic in its implications for the large groups of non-Arab speakers and also due to the fact that if Jews from the Arab world are Arabs then Israel might be more Arab then Iraq.
The huge geographic disadvantage of Zionism has in some respect been a strength, Zionists have always felt they must educate their followers in what "Being an Israeli" meant and also self-consciously sought to forge a new nation. The unusual willingness of Jews to relocate, learn a new language and acquire a new identity has enabled Zionists to pretty much define the nation as they saw fit. In the 'thirties, British immigration restrictions meant that candidates for "aliya" had to prove fluency in Hebrew and devotion to ideals before they could receive the few life-giving visas the British were prepared to allocate.
In contrast the Arab states were emulating a highly successful but no longer relevant empire, while their new nation-states' educational systems spent their budgets advancing conflicting supra-national identities which undermine the population's loyalty and undermine the whole point of "being Iraqi" or "being Syrian".
Monday, September 15, 2014
Although Zionism and Arab Nationalism are at loggerheads over Palestine (or perhaps Southern Syria), the two have a certain amount in common...
In 1948 the Palestinians were sure they couldn't fail, they outnumbered the Jews two to one and had the support of all the Arab states. ...
Hope I grew up knowing very little about my birth grandmother - not even her name - although I knew that she had been killed in the Holoca...
I had a chat with my sister yesterday. She lives in Rome, and tells me that a friend of hers read about my grandmother's passport (I ha... | <urn:uuid:c5d60d78-0c71-489f-9d36-2733601e1efe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.telaviv1.org.il/2014/09/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.981074 | 778 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0482630282640... | 1 | Although Zionism and Arab Nationalism are at loggerheads over Palestine (or perhaps Southern Syria), the two have a certain amount in common. Both movements won international recognition during the First World War. Both arose out of the ashes of the Ottoman Empire and both came into existence at around the same time, roughly 1900.
In attaining their aims both movements disregarded a variety of existing peoples: In the case of the Arabs the Kurds, the Nubians, the Copts, the Druze and the Berbers are among the potential nations who were prevented from self-definition by Arab Nationalism. The Jews' success came at the expense of the local Arab population.
Both Arab Nationalism and Zionism seek to recreate ancient peoples. The ancient people that the Zionists sought to recreate, had not existed as a political entity for almost 2,000 years. In antiquity religion and nationality were generally combined so the combination of religion and nationalism proposed by the Zionists made sense in terms of the ancient people they were emulating, the problem being the exclusion of non-Jews, and that the people were divorced from the geography they claimed. In their favor however, the Zionists had a clear vision of the relevant piece of geography, the language it would use and a highly mobile people, used to emigration.
The ancient people that the Arabs sought to recreate, had not existed as a political entity for at least 600 years. The Arabs, unlike the Jews inhabited the geographic entity they aspired to control, but their definition of its location was linguistic. The Arabs also combined religion and nation in their identity, but because many of the initial nationalists were Christian, they chose to ignore the religious element and focus on the language as the defining aspect. Basically the Arabs were not trying to recreate an ancient people, but an ancient Empire: It was as if the English suddenly attempted to force a nation out of the world's English speakers, claiming that the USA, Canada, Australia, Ireland, India and Jamaica were really part of the same nation.
This notion of nationality is also reminiscent of attempts to unite all German speakers in a single national group. It is problematic in its implications for the large groups of non-Arab speakers and also due to the fact that if Jews from the Arab world are Arabs then Israel might be more Arab then Iraq.
The huge geographic disadvantage of Zionism has in some respect been a strength, Zionists have always felt they must educate their followers in what "Being an Israeli" meant and also self-consciously sought to forge a new nation. The unusual willingness of Jews to relocate, learn a new language and acquire a new identity has enabled Zionists to pretty much define the nation as they saw fit. In the 'thirties, British immigration restrictions meant that candidates for "aliya" had to prove fluency in Hebrew and devotion to ideals before they could receive the few life-giving visas the British were prepared to allocate.
In contrast the Arab states were emulating a highly successful but no longer relevant empire, while their new nation-states' educational systems spent their budgets advancing conflicting supra-national identities which undermine the population's loyalty and undermine the whole point of "being Iraqi" or "being Syrian".
Monday, September 15, 2014
Although Zionism and Arab Nationalism are at loggerheads over Palestine (or perhaps Southern Syria), the two have a certain amount in common...
In 1948 the Palestinians were sure they couldn't fail, they outnumbered the Jews two to one and had the support of all the Arab states. ...
Hope I grew up knowing very little about my birth grandmother - not even her name - although I knew that she had been killed in the Holoca...
I had a chat with my sister yesterday. She lives in Rome, and tells me that a friend of hers read about my grandmother's passport (I ha... | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1647 On 22 August, at Bois, France, was born Denis Papin. He was a French inventor, physicist and mathematician, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine, and of the pressure cooker.
1661-1669 Attended University at Angers, from which he graduated with a medical degree. His father was a doctor and he also studied medicine to Protestant University in Angers and then he got his Ph.D.
1671 Coming after a short time to Paris, he met Huyghens and together they did some researches regarding means for raising considerable loads.
1674 He published at Paris his first scientific work called “New Experiences to Achieve Vacuum”.
1675 He left to England where he met Robert Boyle who he showed the different improvements he had done for pneumatic machine construction. The two scholars worked then together.
1681 To Boyle’s proposal, Papin was elected member of Royal Society in London. During this time he published some theoretical issues regarded to large cooking pot, which at that time was named “Papin’s pot”, under the title “Way of Boil Meat Shortly and with Little Expense”. He demonstrated the possibility to bring water to a temperature above 100 degrees by heating it in closed dishes.
1685 He went back to Paris but he was forced, because of Edict in Nantes, to leave France. He settled in England where he was greeted with honours. Because of his renown he was given a Department of Mathematics in Marbourg. He did not stop his favourite works.
1690 Within a published memoir steam-engine theory was founded, running by an alternative work of the piston. This piston was pushed from top to bottom in a vertical pump body by the water vapors that were formed under it because of heat; when the piston finished the race, the fire was removed, the water steam was cooling and decreasing elastic force and atmospheric pressure, exercising itself above the piston forced it to go down again.
1707 Papin improved this machine. Savery and Newcomen had already built such a device in 1705. Papin admitted within the published memoir the fact that Englishmen had achieved the same result by the same means. But it is known that since 1690 there was a description of the device in its first form, done by Papin.
1709 Sciences Academy in Paris appointed him a Corresponding Member. Then Papin dealt many years with the construction of a ship with oars moved by steam. This ship was destroyed by boatmen in Weser, who considered that their livelihood was in danger. Papin returned to London after that asking to Royal Society the support to built another ship, but he did not get anything.
1712 He left England and went back to Casel.
1714 This year Denis Papin died. The last years of his life are not very known. It is believed that after the depletion of latest material resources for improving his steam-engine, he would have died in poverty.
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0.0186154227... | 1 | 1647 On 22 August, at Bois, France, was born Denis Papin. He was a French inventor, physicist and mathematician, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine, and of the pressure cooker.
1661-1669 Attended University at Angers, from which he graduated with a medical degree. His father was a doctor and he also studied medicine to Protestant University in Angers and then he got his Ph.D.
1671 Coming after a short time to Paris, he met Huyghens and together they did some researches regarding means for raising considerable loads.
1674 He published at Paris his first scientific work called “New Experiences to Achieve Vacuum”.
1675 He left to England where he met Robert Boyle who he showed the different improvements he had done for pneumatic machine construction. The two scholars worked then together.
1681 To Boyle’s proposal, Papin was elected member of Royal Society in London. During this time he published some theoretical issues regarded to large cooking pot, which at that time was named “Papin’s pot”, under the title “Way of Boil Meat Shortly and with Little Expense”. He demonstrated the possibility to bring water to a temperature above 100 degrees by heating it in closed dishes.
1685 He went back to Paris but he was forced, because of Edict in Nantes, to leave France. He settled in England where he was greeted with honours. Because of his renown he was given a Department of Mathematics in Marbourg. He did not stop his favourite works.
1690 Within a published memoir steam-engine theory was founded, running by an alternative work of the piston. This piston was pushed from top to bottom in a vertical pump body by the water vapors that were formed under it because of heat; when the piston finished the race, the fire was removed, the water steam was cooling and decreasing elastic force and atmospheric pressure, exercising itself above the piston forced it to go down again.
1707 Papin improved this machine. Savery and Newcomen had already built such a device in 1705. Papin admitted within the published memoir the fact that Englishmen had achieved the same result by the same means. But it is known that since 1690 there was a description of the device in its first form, done by Papin.
1709 Sciences Academy in Paris appointed him a Corresponding Member. Then Papin dealt many years with the construction of a ship with oars moved by steam. This ship was destroyed by boatmen in Weser, who considered that their livelihood was in danger. Papin returned to London after that asking to Royal Society the support to built another ship, but he did not get anything.
1712 He left England and went back to Casel.
1714 This year Denis Papin died. The last years of his life are not very known. It is believed that after the depletion of latest material resources for improving his steam-engine, he would have died in poverty.
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 830 | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who is Confucius?
Confucius was an ancient Chinese teacher, politician, and philosopher. He belonged to the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. Confucius is one of the few leaders who based their philosophy on the virtues that are required for the day-to-day living. His philosophy centered on personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. Known as Master Kong to the Chinese, he taught people how to cultivate the value of modesty, planning, respect, moral behavior, honesty and sincerity, apart from common sense. He preached that adopting these values was the only way a human being could lead a good life. Confucius was of the opinion that true happiness would only be brought from well-planned actions and helping of the fellow men. His philosophy was aimed at benefiting not only a few selected groups, but all the people of the empire he was a part of.
Confucius Childhood & Early Life
It is believed that Confucius was born in Zou, Lu state (near present-day Qufu, Shandong Province) in 551 B.C. According to Chinese tradition, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state and Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings.
At that time a class structure was prevalent in ancient China. Confucius belonged to Shi Class that was ranked between old nobility and the common people. People belonging to this class sought social position as per their skills and talents.
His father’s name was Kong He (aka Shuliang He) and he was an officer in the Lu Military. It is said that his father had divorced his first wife as she had given birth to two daughters and a disfigured son. Yan, Confucius’ mother, was his second wife.
At the age of 3 in 548 B.C he lost his father and was brought up by his mother Yan Zhengzai under difficult financial conditions.
At the age of 23 he lost his mother and as per the prevalent tradition, he spent 3 years in mourning.
There is not much information available regarding his education but it is said that he studied with Lao Dan and Daoist Master. He studied music with Chang Hong and Lute with Xiang.
In his early years, he worked as a book-keeper, cowherd and a clerk.
He was the first teacher in China whose aim was to make education available for all. In his 30s (around 519 B.C), he adopted teaching as a career in order to fulfill his aspiration of making teaching a vocation. His command on six arts namely calligraphy, ritual, charioteering, arithmetic, music and archery and his knowledge about history, classical traditions and poetry aided him in this.
It was in 501 B.C or when he was in his late 40s that he stepped into politics and was appointed the governor of a town in Lu state. At that time this was considered to be a minor position. He then served as minister of public works. However, he eventually became the “Minister of Crime” in Lu state.
The Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house and there were three aristocratic families under the duke, whose heads held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. Confucius wanted to return the authority of the state to the duke and establish a centralized government. This was not possible without dismantling the fortifications of the city-strongholds belonging to the three aristocratic families.
He achieved considerable success in his plan but could not achieve the reforms that were aimed at restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. In the process, he had made powerful enemies within the state.
He is believed to have departed his homeland in 497 BC after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, and did not return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.
According to another source (shiji), Confucius’ involvement in the government of the Lu state became a reason of distress for the neighboring state of Qi. Qi state was worried that Lu might become powerful so it tried to lure the Duke of Lu by sending him 100 horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls. The Duke was lured and indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. This left Confucius highly disappointed. Around 498 B.C he resigned and began travelling to north-east and central China where he propounded his political beliefs.
Confucius His Philosophy - Confucianism
It is often considered and followed in a very religious manner by Chinese but there is a debate about its religious character – many don’t consider it religious and find its character quite secular. Though it talks about elements of the afterlife and has views concerning Heaven but it is somewhat indifferent to some spiritual matters which are generally considered crucial to religious thought.
Confucianism concerns itself with the practical aspects of life, such as good manners, treating others kindly and enhancing family relations. Instead of being poetic about God or metaphysics, Confucius directed his teachings on moral and ethical grounds.
Bothered about earthly matters, he rested his theory on two main ideas - being a true gentleman and having proper conduct. He stressed that a true gentleman is one who has five characteristics - integrity, righteousness, loyalty, altruism and goodness. As for proper conduct, the second most important foundation of Confucianism, a person should practice social decorum and rituals, as it is the quickest path to ethical growth.
Confucius was of the opinion that moderation was the only way to stay between life's extremes. He believed that each person should maintain the decorum of their position - for instance, a father should behave like a responsible person and not move away from his duties.
For him, family was very important and he believed that relationship between master and servant, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger siblings and two friends must be honored. He also urged people to honor the aged people.
Confucius' political thought emerged out of his ethical thought. According to him, the best government is one that governs through "rites" and people's natural morality (ethics) and not by using bribery and coercion.
He urged people with political power to model themselves on earlier examples. He is believed to have used past institutions and rites for revival of a unified royal state.
He did not believe in the concept of "democracy" as he believed that the common masses lacked the intellect to make decisions for themselves, and that (in his view), since not everyone is created equal, not everyone has a right of self-government.
He supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, who should follow the ideals of truth and honesty. He emphasized that if a ruler ruled correctly then others will follow the proper actions of their ruler.
He stressed the need to give due respect to superiors but he also said that the subordinates must give advice to their superiors if they believed the superiors were taking the wrong course of action.
He believed that rulers should rule by example and if they do so, there was no need for orders by force or punishment.
Confucius Personal Life & Legacy
Confucius tied the knot with Qiguan when he was 19 years old and a year later they were blessed with a child whom they named, Kong Li. Later he was blessed with two more children - daughters. One of her daughters is thought to have died early in her life as a child. It is believed that he did not have cordial relations with his wife and children.
He stayed in exile for approximately 12 years. The talk about him being a man of vision kept building. Zuo Zhuan states that he returned to Lu when he was 68 with the aim of preserving and teaching his classical traditions through writing and editing.
He left for heavenly abode at the age of 73 in 479 B.C. If “Records of the Historian” is to be believed, he had around 3,000 followers and approximately 72 of his students were able to have a command on the “six arts” that were mastered by Confucius.
Teachings of Confucius have been organized in Analects by his numerous disciples. His philosophical school was kept operational by his only grandson Zisi even after his death. Eventually, the ideals of Confucius were inculcated among students who later held official positions in Courts and paved way for Confucianism to set its dogma.
There isn’t any surviving sculpture or portrait of Confucius. He is believed to have been visually portrayed during Han Dynasty. There have been a number of portraits that depict him as an ideal philosopher.
In earlier times, it was customary to have a portrait in his temples but during the reign of Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty it was decided that the only portrait of Confucius should be displayed in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong.
He was buried in the historical part of Qufu, in Kong Lin cemetery. The original tomb in his memory is on the bank of the Sishui River.
Just after his death, his hometown ‘Qufu’ turned into a place of remembrance and devotion. According to ancient Chinese sources, it became a pilgrimage place for ministers.
This place has now become a cultural tourism spot and is visited by many people. In pan-China cultures, the representations of Buddha, Laozi and Confucius can be found together in many temples.
Every year, Chinese hold picturesque memorial ceremonies of Confucius which is now a part of their tradition.
Confucius biography timelines
- It is believed that Confucius was born in Zou, Lu state (near present-day Qufu, Shandong Province) in 551 B.C. According to Chinese tradition, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state and Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings.551 BC
- At the age of 3 in 548 B.C he lost his father and was brought up by his mother Yan Zhengzai under difficult financial conditions.548 BC
- He was the first teacher in China whose aim was to make education available for all. In his 30s (around 519 B.C), he adopted teaching as a career in order to fulfill his aspiration of making teaching a vocation. His command on six arts namely calligraphy, ritual, charioteering, arithmetic, music and archery and his knowledge about history, classical traditions and poetry aided him in this.519 BC
- It was in 501 B.C or when he was in his late 40s that he stepped into politics and was appointed the governor of a town in Lu state. At that time this was considered to be a minor position. He then served as minister of public works. However, he eventually became the “Minister of Crime” in Lu state.501 BC
- He left for heavenly abode at the age of 73 in 479 B.C. If “Records of the Historian” is to be believed, he had around 3,000 followers and approximately 72 of his students were able to have a command on the “six arts” that were mastered by Confucius.479 BC
Frequently asked questions about Confucius
What is Confucius birthday?
Confucius was born at September 28, 551 BC
Where is Confucius's birth place?
Confucius was born in Qufu
What is Confucius nationalities?
Confucius's nationalities is Chinese
Who is Confucius spouses?
Confucius's spouses is Qiguan
Who is Confucius siblings?
Confucius's siblings is Kong Li
Who is Confucius's father?
Confucius's father is Shuliang He
Who is Confucius's mother?
Confucius's mother is Yan Zhengzai
What is Confucius's sun sign?
Confucius is Libra
When was Confucius died?
Confucius was died at 479 BC
Where was Confucius died?
Confucius was died in Qufu
Which age was Confucius died?
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0.269487738609313... | 1 | Who is Confucius?
Confucius was an ancient Chinese teacher, politician, and philosopher. He belonged to the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. Confucius is one of the few leaders who based their philosophy on the virtues that are required for the day-to-day living. His philosophy centered on personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. Known as Master Kong to the Chinese, he taught people how to cultivate the value of modesty, planning, respect, moral behavior, honesty and sincerity, apart from common sense. He preached that adopting these values was the only way a human being could lead a good life. Confucius was of the opinion that true happiness would only be brought from well-planned actions and helping of the fellow men. His philosophy was aimed at benefiting not only a few selected groups, but all the people of the empire he was a part of.
Confucius Childhood & Early Life
It is believed that Confucius was born in Zou, Lu state (near present-day Qufu, Shandong Province) in 551 B.C. According to Chinese tradition, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state and Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings.
At that time a class structure was prevalent in ancient China. Confucius belonged to Shi Class that was ranked between old nobility and the common people. People belonging to this class sought social position as per their skills and talents.
His father’s name was Kong He (aka Shuliang He) and he was an officer in the Lu Military. It is said that his father had divorced his first wife as she had given birth to two daughters and a disfigured son. Yan, Confucius’ mother, was his second wife.
At the age of 3 in 548 B.C he lost his father and was brought up by his mother Yan Zhengzai under difficult financial conditions.
At the age of 23 he lost his mother and as per the prevalent tradition, he spent 3 years in mourning.
There is not much information available regarding his education but it is said that he studied with Lao Dan and Daoist Master. He studied music with Chang Hong and Lute with Xiang.
In his early years, he worked as a book-keeper, cowherd and a clerk.
He was the first teacher in China whose aim was to make education available for all. In his 30s (around 519 B.C), he adopted teaching as a career in order to fulfill his aspiration of making teaching a vocation. His command on six arts namely calligraphy, ritual, charioteering, arithmetic, music and archery and his knowledge about history, classical traditions and poetry aided him in this.
It was in 501 B.C or when he was in his late 40s that he stepped into politics and was appointed the governor of a town in Lu state. At that time this was considered to be a minor position. He then served as minister of public works. However, he eventually became the “Minister of Crime” in Lu state.
The Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house and there were three aristocratic families under the duke, whose heads held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. Confucius wanted to return the authority of the state to the duke and establish a centralized government. This was not possible without dismantling the fortifications of the city-strongholds belonging to the three aristocratic families.
He achieved considerable success in his plan but could not achieve the reforms that were aimed at restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. In the process, he had made powerful enemies within the state.
He is believed to have departed his homeland in 497 BC after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, and did not return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.
According to another source (shiji), Confucius’ involvement in the government of the Lu state became a reason of distress for the neighboring state of Qi. Qi state was worried that Lu might become powerful so it tried to lure the Duke of Lu by sending him 100 horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls. The Duke was lured and indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. This left Confucius highly disappointed. Around 498 B.C he resigned and began travelling to north-east and central China where he propounded his political beliefs.
Confucius His Philosophy - Confucianism
It is often considered and followed in a very religious manner by Chinese but there is a debate about its religious character – many don’t consider it religious and find its character quite secular. Though it talks about elements of the afterlife and has views concerning Heaven but it is somewhat indifferent to some spiritual matters which are generally considered crucial to religious thought.
Confucianism concerns itself with the practical aspects of life, such as good manners, treating others kindly and enhancing family relations. Instead of being poetic about God or metaphysics, Confucius directed his teachings on moral and ethical grounds.
Bothered about earthly matters, he rested his theory on two main ideas - being a true gentleman and having proper conduct. He stressed that a true gentleman is one who has five characteristics - integrity, righteousness, loyalty, altruism and goodness. As for proper conduct, the second most important foundation of Confucianism, a person should practice social decorum and rituals, as it is the quickest path to ethical growth.
Confucius was of the opinion that moderation was the only way to stay between life's extremes. He believed that each person should maintain the decorum of their position - for instance, a father should behave like a responsible person and not move away from his duties.
For him, family was very important and he believed that relationship between master and servant, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger siblings and two friends must be honored. He also urged people to honor the aged people.
Confucius' political thought emerged out of his ethical thought. According to him, the best government is one that governs through "rites" and people's natural morality (ethics) and not by using bribery and coercion.
He urged people with political power to model themselves on earlier examples. He is believed to have used past institutions and rites for revival of a unified royal state.
He did not believe in the concept of "democracy" as he believed that the common masses lacked the intellect to make decisions for themselves, and that (in his view), since not everyone is created equal, not everyone has a right of self-government.
He supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, who should follow the ideals of truth and honesty. He emphasized that if a ruler ruled correctly then others will follow the proper actions of their ruler.
He stressed the need to give due respect to superiors but he also said that the subordinates must give advice to their superiors if they believed the superiors were taking the wrong course of action.
He believed that rulers should rule by example and if they do so, there was no need for orders by force or punishment.
Confucius Personal Life & Legacy
Confucius tied the knot with Qiguan when he was 19 years old and a year later they were blessed with a child whom they named, Kong Li. Later he was blessed with two more children - daughters. One of her daughters is thought to have died early in her life as a child. It is believed that he did not have cordial relations with his wife and children.
He stayed in exile for approximately 12 years. The talk about him being a man of vision kept building. Zuo Zhuan states that he returned to Lu when he was 68 with the aim of preserving and teaching his classical traditions through writing and editing.
He left for heavenly abode at the age of 73 in 479 B.C. If “Records of the Historian” is to be believed, he had around 3,000 followers and approximately 72 of his students were able to have a command on the “six arts” that were mastered by Confucius.
Teachings of Confucius have been organized in Analects by his numerous disciples. His philosophical school was kept operational by his only grandson Zisi even after his death. Eventually, the ideals of Confucius were inculcated among students who later held official positions in Courts and paved way for Confucianism to set its dogma.
There isn’t any surviving sculpture or portrait of Confucius. He is believed to have been visually portrayed during Han Dynasty. There have been a number of portraits that depict him as an ideal philosopher.
In earlier times, it was customary to have a portrait in his temples but during the reign of Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty it was decided that the only portrait of Confucius should be displayed in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong.
He was buried in the historical part of Qufu, in Kong Lin cemetery. The original tomb in his memory is on the bank of the Sishui River.
Just after his death, his hometown ‘Qufu’ turned into a place of remembrance and devotion. According to ancient Chinese sources, it became a pilgrimage place for ministers.
This place has now become a cultural tourism spot and is visited by many people. In pan-China cultures, the representations of Buddha, Laozi and Confucius can be found together in many temples.
Every year, Chinese hold picturesque memorial ceremonies of Confucius which is now a part of their tradition.
Confucius biography timelines
- It is believed that Confucius was born in Zou, Lu state (near present-day Qufu, Shandong Province) in 551 B.C. According to Chinese tradition, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state and Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings.551 BC
- At the age of 3 in 548 B.C he lost his father and was brought up by his mother Yan Zhengzai under difficult financial conditions.548 BC
- He was the first teacher in China whose aim was to make education available for all. In his 30s (around 519 B.C), he adopted teaching as a career in order to fulfill his aspiration of making teaching a vocation. His command on six arts namely calligraphy, ritual, charioteering, arithmetic, music and archery and his knowledge about history, classical traditions and poetry aided him in this.519 BC
- It was in 501 B.C or when he was in his late 40s that he stepped into politics and was appointed the governor of a town in Lu state. At that time this was considered to be a minor position. He then served as minister of public works. However, he eventually became the “Minister of Crime” in Lu state.501 BC
- He left for heavenly abode at the age of 73 in 479 B.C. If “Records of the Historian” is to be believed, he had around 3,000 followers and approximately 72 of his students were able to have a command on the “six arts” that were mastered by Confucius.479 BC
Frequently asked questions about Confucius
What is Confucius birthday?
Confucius was born at September 28, 551 BC
Where is Confucius's birth place?
Confucius was born in Qufu
What is Confucius nationalities?
Confucius's nationalities is Chinese
Who is Confucius spouses?
Confucius's spouses is Qiguan
Who is Confucius siblings?
Confucius's siblings is Kong Li
Who is Confucius's father?
Confucius's father is Shuliang He
Who is Confucius's mother?
Confucius's mother is Yan Zhengzai
What is Confucius's sun sign?
Confucius is Libra
When was Confucius died?
Confucius was died at 479 BC
Where was Confucius died?
Confucius was died in Qufu
Which age was Confucius died?
Confucius was died at age 72 | 2,589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This program is adaptable to middle and high school students, and is available to adult community groups.
In order to combat hatred and genocide, it is important to understand the devastating effects of racism throughout history. As time passes, the opportunity to learn from and personally engage with Holocaust survivors becomes increasingly rare. Through this unique program, audiences will hear firsthand about the Holocaust and learn timeless lessons about resilience, courage, human dignity and living without hate.
Eyewitness to History can be held at your school, community location, or as part of a visit to the Mizel Museum.
Jack Adler was born in Poland in 1929. He witnessed the decay of humanity while enduring life in two ghettos and the horrors of three concentration camps. His younger sister was killed at Auschwitz, his older sister died at Bergen-Belsen, his brother and mother died in the Pabianice ghetto in Poland, and his father in Dachau. At 16, he was liberated by American soldiers and moved to the U.S. as a war orphan. Jack now speaks all over the United States and internationally to spread his message of living without hate. Though his entire family was murdered by the Nazis, he still has hope for the human race and emphasizes the importance of respecting others. Jack’s take on hatred, racism, bigotry, and misused religious beliefs challenges audiences to analyze their own beliefs and adhere to the principles of the Golden Rule: treat others as we ourselves want to be treated.
Sara Moses’ earliest memories are of life in the Piotrków ghetto. Because she had no toys, she often used her imagination to create playthings. After Sara’s mother was taken from the ghetto and killed in a Nazi death camp, she herself was sent to a Nazi work camp and later to Bergen-Belsen. Though she contracted scarlet fever, typhus and typhoid, and children all around her were dying, Sara survived. She credits the imagination she cultivated many years earlier in the ghetto for enabling her to mentally escape from the horrors around her. Sara was liberated by British troops in April 1945. Soon after, she was reunited with her father, who also had survived the death camps. Now, Sara tells her story in an attempt to combat what she calls “destructive, deadly silence” – the refusal to speak out for those in need. Her message empowers audiences to fight injustices by making themselves heard.
Osi Sladek was born in Czechoslovakia in 1935. In 1938, Slovakia seceded from Czechoslovakia and became an ally of Nazi Germany. Almost immediately, Jews were subjected to persecution and oppression. As Jews were being rounded up and killed, Osi’s family lived in hiding, posing as gentiles. As the search for Jews intensified, Osi’s family ventured into the mountains and lived there with little food and shelter until they were liberated by the Russian army in 1945. In 1949, his family moved to Israel, and eventually, Osi settled in the United States. Now he speaks to schools and organizations to share his story. Though he lived in constant fear during the Holocaust, he never lost his faith. His message is one of good overcoming evil. As he tells audiences: “Goodness goes much further than evil in life. Never lose faith. Go on and live a good life.”
Born to devout Catholics in 1934 in Germany, Rudi Florian’s parents opposed the Nazis but didn’t dare to do so openly. As a child, Rudi’s teachers were Nazis and his schoolbooks contained Nazi propaganda. When he was 10 years old, he briefly served in the Hitler Youth until his mother came up with an excuse to have him released. When Russian troops invaded Germany, Rudi’s family was displaced to Poland. Eventually, they moved to East Berlin, where Rudi encountered Communist propaganda. Later in life, Rudi made a pledge to “join those who warned that genocide can happen again to any group of people, anywhere…” and served in the United States Air Force for 30 years. Now retired, Rudi educates others about the importance of remembering the Holocaust, the value of human rights and the sanctity of life.
Of Blessed Memory
1934 – 2019
Paula worked with the Mizel Museum for more than 20 years, sharing her unforgettable story with thousands of children in schools across Colorado. She inspired countless more with her remarkable strength, resilience and compassion.
Born in 1934 in Poland, Paula and her family were sent to the Vilna ghetto when she was eight years old. Her father escaped to join the famed Bielski partisans with plans to get his family out as well. Before he could, Paula’s mother was taken and killed. Paula’s father then arranged for her and her brother to be smuggled out of the ghetto, and they survived the Holocaust with the Bielski partisans in the Naliboki Forest. Paula immigrated to the U.S. in 1949 and regularly spoke to students and organizations about how she was able to survive. Paula’s hope was that her story would help people become more compassionate and inspire them to reach out to those suffering pain and loss.
“There was no rhyme or reason why we should have survived, except to tell the story.” | <urn:uuid:9456ea02-038a-4555-bdbf-a39d127576f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mizelmuseum.org/program/eyewitness-to-history-a-holocaust-survivor-speaks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.983644 | 1,102 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.100396022200... | 13 | This program is adaptable to middle and high school students, and is available to adult community groups.
In order to combat hatred and genocide, it is important to understand the devastating effects of racism throughout history. As time passes, the opportunity to learn from and personally engage with Holocaust survivors becomes increasingly rare. Through this unique program, audiences will hear firsthand about the Holocaust and learn timeless lessons about resilience, courage, human dignity and living without hate.
Eyewitness to History can be held at your school, community location, or as part of a visit to the Mizel Museum.
Jack Adler was born in Poland in 1929. He witnessed the decay of humanity while enduring life in two ghettos and the horrors of three concentration camps. His younger sister was killed at Auschwitz, his older sister died at Bergen-Belsen, his brother and mother died in the Pabianice ghetto in Poland, and his father in Dachau. At 16, he was liberated by American soldiers and moved to the U.S. as a war orphan. Jack now speaks all over the United States and internationally to spread his message of living without hate. Though his entire family was murdered by the Nazis, he still has hope for the human race and emphasizes the importance of respecting others. Jack’s take on hatred, racism, bigotry, and misused religious beliefs challenges audiences to analyze their own beliefs and adhere to the principles of the Golden Rule: treat others as we ourselves want to be treated.
Sara Moses’ earliest memories are of life in the Piotrków ghetto. Because she had no toys, she often used her imagination to create playthings. After Sara’s mother was taken from the ghetto and killed in a Nazi death camp, she herself was sent to a Nazi work camp and later to Bergen-Belsen. Though she contracted scarlet fever, typhus and typhoid, and children all around her were dying, Sara survived. She credits the imagination she cultivated many years earlier in the ghetto for enabling her to mentally escape from the horrors around her. Sara was liberated by British troops in April 1945. Soon after, she was reunited with her father, who also had survived the death camps. Now, Sara tells her story in an attempt to combat what she calls “destructive, deadly silence” – the refusal to speak out for those in need. Her message empowers audiences to fight injustices by making themselves heard.
Osi Sladek was born in Czechoslovakia in 1935. In 1938, Slovakia seceded from Czechoslovakia and became an ally of Nazi Germany. Almost immediately, Jews were subjected to persecution and oppression. As Jews were being rounded up and killed, Osi’s family lived in hiding, posing as gentiles. As the search for Jews intensified, Osi’s family ventured into the mountains and lived there with little food and shelter until they were liberated by the Russian army in 1945. In 1949, his family moved to Israel, and eventually, Osi settled in the United States. Now he speaks to schools and organizations to share his story. Though he lived in constant fear during the Holocaust, he never lost his faith. His message is one of good overcoming evil. As he tells audiences: “Goodness goes much further than evil in life. Never lose faith. Go on and live a good life.”
Born to devout Catholics in 1934 in Germany, Rudi Florian’s parents opposed the Nazis but didn’t dare to do so openly. As a child, Rudi’s teachers were Nazis and his schoolbooks contained Nazi propaganda. When he was 10 years old, he briefly served in the Hitler Youth until his mother came up with an excuse to have him released. When Russian troops invaded Germany, Rudi’s family was displaced to Poland. Eventually, they moved to East Berlin, where Rudi encountered Communist propaganda. Later in life, Rudi made a pledge to “join those who warned that genocide can happen again to any group of people, anywhere…” and served in the United States Air Force for 30 years. Now retired, Rudi educates others about the importance of remembering the Holocaust, the value of human rights and the sanctity of life.
Of Blessed Memory
1934 – 2019
Paula worked with the Mizel Museum for more than 20 years, sharing her unforgettable story with thousands of children in schools across Colorado. She inspired countless more with her remarkable strength, resilience and compassion.
Born in 1934 in Poland, Paula and her family were sent to the Vilna ghetto when she was eight years old. Her father escaped to join the famed Bielski partisans with plans to get his family out as well. Before he could, Paula’s mother was taken and killed. Paula’s father then arranged for her and her brother to be smuggled out of the ghetto, and they survived the Holocaust with the Bielski partisans in the Naliboki Forest. Paula immigrated to the U.S. in 1949 and regularly spoke to students and organizations about how she was able to survive. Paula’s hope was that her story would help people become more compassionate and inspire them to reach out to those suffering pain and loss.
“There was no rhyme or reason why we should have survived, except to tell the story.” | 1,103 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slave narratives are an important part of the history of African Americans as they present the exact events and details as they happened. The slave narratives provide a vivid and clear picture of the experiences and provide clearer details on how various activities were carried out on the fields. The slaves give their thoughts and perceptions on the various issues that surrounded them. The narratives take into consideration the characters of those interviewed and provide a better picture on how they viewed themselves as slaves.
The issue of slavery has long been a controversial issue and has taken many turns in the last six decades where slaves started being heard. The slave narratives in this case provide us with a sneak preview into the day-to-day activities and lives of the slaves and the perceptions they had about their lives. Various characteristics are brought out in both narratives that depict the nature of relationships between slavery and the aftermath of slavery. The slave narratives of Susan Quall and Dave wade provide an insight into the lives of the slaves of their time and the suffering they passed through.
The slave narratives presented by Dave white and Susan Quall are similar in the sense that they use a language that is not easily understood. Only fellow slaves could understand the language and make sense out of the incorrect grammatical sentences. The conversation involved many grammatical errors that needed more keenness to understand what one was saying. Dave white’s communication was more legible than Susan Quall’s. The narratives are an important aspect of African American history that gives firsthand information about the experiences of slaves.
The slave narrative by Dave white starts with the Lord’s Prayer where he makes much beseeching and implorations about his state and especially that of the slaves as a whole. From his prayer one can know the plight of slaves as he talks of poverty among the slaves though indirectly. He introduced himself as a person who was born from slave parents, had been, and had grown up as a slave (White, 1933). The slave mentality still sticks to his mind. He came from St. Simon Island where he had been most of his life. He shows a lot of wretchedness and deep sorrow over the life he is living and as a result, the sorry state of affairs. In his narrative, he talks and expresses a lot of hopelessness, which he can only express in prayer. The call for mercy in the prayer shows that there is a lot of oppression coupled with injustices that makes the slaves suffered in silence. Dave’s narrative is different from that of Quall since many deep emotions are expressed and he uses a prayer to start the conversion. As such, the prayer becomes a point of releasing what has been welling up inside him because of constant oppression and injustice meted on him and to other slaves.
Susan Quall’s narrative depicts the various interactions between the slave masters and delves further into their relationships with the slaves (Quall, 1932). Show was from the state of South Carolina. The slave narrative categorically focusses on theft and the aftermath of the action. The slaves may have resorted to theft due to poverty they experienced because of joblessness. The women as a gender were to carry out various errands as put for the by the narrative. The women would thus take information from the slave masters to their counterparts in the field. The roles of women in the narrative are more clearly seen to be those of farming and carrying out various roles like being sent to inform other slaves on any issues raised.
Dave white does not talk of gender issues in his narrative but focusses on the general sufferings that the African Americans are passing through. He speaks of being born in slavery and still being a slave to the present. Quall focuses on the social issues on the farm and the resultant treatment they get from their masters. Dave expressed his fillings through the prayer mostly while Quall gives various experiences in prose form.
Both narratives have the similarity of having many grammatical mistakes. Susan Quall focusses on the relationships between the masters and the slaves while Dave white focusses more on what the blacks were passing through and the mentality they had about slavery. The narratives point to the effect of slavery on the minds of the African Americans. Quall focusses on the treatment meted out on the slaves where they are treated cruelly especially where they commit theft among other actions. Both narratives have question marks where they may have paused and not known what to say due to maybe being drawn in a lot of thought on what could not completely be expressed in words. Both narratives explain the sorry state of the former slaves and point out the disparities that have driven them to desperately make a living even to the extent of stealing. Order Unique Answer Now | <urn:uuid:8f218bf4-5226-4797-a895-47b73ec095dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/african-american-slavery-susan-quall-vs-dave-wade-slave-narratives/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.983076 | 952 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.399540066... | 1 | Slave narratives are an important part of the history of African Americans as they present the exact events and details as they happened. The slave narratives provide a vivid and clear picture of the experiences and provide clearer details on how various activities were carried out on the fields. The slaves give their thoughts and perceptions on the various issues that surrounded them. The narratives take into consideration the characters of those interviewed and provide a better picture on how they viewed themselves as slaves.
The issue of slavery has long been a controversial issue and has taken many turns in the last six decades where slaves started being heard. The slave narratives in this case provide us with a sneak preview into the day-to-day activities and lives of the slaves and the perceptions they had about their lives. Various characteristics are brought out in both narratives that depict the nature of relationships between slavery and the aftermath of slavery. The slave narratives of Susan Quall and Dave wade provide an insight into the lives of the slaves of their time and the suffering they passed through.
The slave narratives presented by Dave white and Susan Quall are similar in the sense that they use a language that is not easily understood. Only fellow slaves could understand the language and make sense out of the incorrect grammatical sentences. The conversation involved many grammatical errors that needed more keenness to understand what one was saying. Dave white’s communication was more legible than Susan Quall’s. The narratives are an important aspect of African American history that gives firsthand information about the experiences of slaves.
The slave narrative by Dave white starts with the Lord’s Prayer where he makes much beseeching and implorations about his state and especially that of the slaves as a whole. From his prayer one can know the plight of slaves as he talks of poverty among the slaves though indirectly. He introduced himself as a person who was born from slave parents, had been, and had grown up as a slave (White, 1933). The slave mentality still sticks to his mind. He came from St. Simon Island where he had been most of his life. He shows a lot of wretchedness and deep sorrow over the life he is living and as a result, the sorry state of affairs. In his narrative, he talks and expresses a lot of hopelessness, which he can only express in prayer. The call for mercy in the prayer shows that there is a lot of oppression coupled with injustices that makes the slaves suffered in silence. Dave’s narrative is different from that of Quall since many deep emotions are expressed and he uses a prayer to start the conversion. As such, the prayer becomes a point of releasing what has been welling up inside him because of constant oppression and injustice meted on him and to other slaves.
Susan Quall’s narrative depicts the various interactions between the slave masters and delves further into their relationships with the slaves (Quall, 1932). Show was from the state of South Carolina. The slave narrative categorically focusses on theft and the aftermath of the action. The slaves may have resorted to theft due to poverty they experienced because of joblessness. The women as a gender were to carry out various errands as put for the by the narrative. The women would thus take information from the slave masters to their counterparts in the field. The roles of women in the narrative are more clearly seen to be those of farming and carrying out various roles like being sent to inform other slaves on any issues raised.
Dave white does not talk of gender issues in his narrative but focusses on the general sufferings that the African Americans are passing through. He speaks of being born in slavery and still being a slave to the present. Quall focuses on the social issues on the farm and the resultant treatment they get from their masters. Dave expressed his fillings through the prayer mostly while Quall gives various experiences in prose form.
Both narratives have the similarity of having many grammatical mistakes. Susan Quall focusses on the relationships between the masters and the slaves while Dave white focusses more on what the blacks were passing through and the mentality they had about slavery. The narratives point to the effect of slavery on the minds of the African Americans. Quall focusses on the treatment meted out on the slaves where they are treated cruelly especially where they commit theft among other actions. Both narratives have question marks where they may have paused and not known what to say due to maybe being drawn in a lot of thought on what could not completely be expressed in words. Both narratives explain the sorry state of the former slaves and point out the disparities that have driven them to desperately make a living even to the extent of stealing. Order Unique Answer Now | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The breadcrumbs were discovered at the Black Desert archeological site in north-eastern Jordan. It is believed a fireplace was used to bake the bread.
Amaia Arranz-Otaegui, a University of Copenhagen postdoctoral researcher in archaeology and lead author of the research, told Euronews the discovery “changes many things… we always believed bread was not a product of hunter-gatherers”
Historians have traditionally linked bread to the dawn of agriculture when people cultivated plants such as wheat and ground them into flour.
Arranz-Otaegu made the unexpected discovery in the lab while looking through her soil samples. She says she found the charred crumbs but could not tell what they were. Her colleague then looked at the samples and said: “It looks like bread.”
They were both shocked as they realised they were holding evidence of oldest bread in the world.
The bread is believed to be made by a culture called the Natufians. The hunter-gatherers embraced a sedentary rather than nomadic lifestyle.
“We already knew the Natufians were complex, they started building with stone and made artistic manifestations. The production of bread adds to that, they started doing lots of things that were the start of everything really,” Arranz-Otaegu said.
The bread would have resembled a flatbread such as a pitta and was made out of wild cereals such as barley, einkorn or oats, as well as tubers from an aquatic papyrus relative, that had been ground into flour.
Arranz-Otaegu said there are now many more questions to ask, such as if the bread was a staple or specialty. She believes the latter.
Researchers have tried to reconstruct the recipe.
“We don’t really know what it would have tasted like” but “the texture was gritty, a little bit salty, and a little sweet,” Arranz-Otaegu said.
“I think it is something you could eat if you were open-minded.”
Read on EuroNews | <urn:uuid:294cf0b2-9333-4d73-8cdd-3d61aae3397c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hedgeaccordingly.com/2018/07/17/politics/worlds-oldest-bread-found-at-prehistoric-dig-site-in-jordan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.987829 | 446 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.0069644637... | 1 | The breadcrumbs were discovered at the Black Desert archeological site in north-eastern Jordan. It is believed a fireplace was used to bake the bread.
Amaia Arranz-Otaegui, a University of Copenhagen postdoctoral researcher in archaeology and lead author of the research, told Euronews the discovery “changes many things… we always believed bread was not a product of hunter-gatherers”
Historians have traditionally linked bread to the dawn of agriculture when people cultivated plants such as wheat and ground them into flour.
Arranz-Otaegu made the unexpected discovery in the lab while looking through her soil samples. She says she found the charred crumbs but could not tell what they were. Her colleague then looked at the samples and said: “It looks like bread.”
They were both shocked as they realised they were holding evidence of oldest bread in the world.
The bread is believed to be made by a culture called the Natufians. The hunter-gatherers embraced a sedentary rather than nomadic lifestyle.
“We already knew the Natufians were complex, they started building with stone and made artistic manifestations. The production of bread adds to that, they started doing lots of things that were the start of everything really,” Arranz-Otaegu said.
The bread would have resembled a flatbread such as a pitta and was made out of wild cereals such as barley, einkorn or oats, as well as tubers from an aquatic papyrus relative, that had been ground into flour.
Arranz-Otaegu said there are now many more questions to ask, such as if the bread was a staple or specialty. She believes the latter.
Researchers have tried to reconstruct the recipe.
“We don’t really know what it would have tasted like” but “the texture was gritty, a little bit salty, and a little sweet,” Arranz-Otaegu said.
“I think it is something you could eat if you were open-minded.”
Read on EuroNews | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Queen Hatshepsut, one of the most famous women and queens throughout history, as this woman was characterized by beauty and strength of character.
She is called the favorite woman of Amun. It belongs to the eighteenth dynasty of the ancient Egyptians.
She was married to King Thutmose II. She assumed the reign of Egypt after his death.
and is considered one of the most powerful queens in the history of Egypt.
Hatshepsut was the guardian of Thutmose III after the death of her husband Until she assumed the throne of Egypt.
The life of Queen Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut was born in 1508 BC and is considered the eldest daughter of King Thutmose I.
Ahmose I is the grandfather of Queen Hatshepsut and is considered the leader of Egypt in getting rid of the Hyksos invasion.
This queen is considered one of the most famous queens in the history of ancient Egypt.
Historians consider it one of the most successful kings in the history of Egypt and the world.
The Hatshepsut Temple in Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, the story of this queen has been engraved on it.
in which it recounts many of her life’s situations from childhood until her assumption of power.
Hatshepsut’s education stage
This queen is known for her love of learning and research in many different branches of life.
Where was taught in the era of the ancient state in Egypt, ethics, the principles of reading and writing, and the rules of the Pharaonic language?
She also taught religious rituals in ancient Egypt. Which increased its popularity among the Egyptians because of its culture.
The school system in ancient Egypt was similar to the present, where teaching takes place in the morning until noon.
And the Pharaonic civilization has always been concerned with not distinguishing between the classes of the people in education.
More information about Hatshepsut from this link
The reign of Queen Hatshepsut
Because she is a woman, the idea of assuming the throne of Egypt was very difficult for Hatshepsut.
King Tuthmosis the First ruled Egypt with the assistance of his eldest daughter.
As it was the only heir to him (because there were no male heirs).The king died when she was twenty years old.
At the beginning of her rule of the country, there were many forms of chaos and turmoil.
Where many of the people of Egypt objected to a woman taking over the country. As a result, she was married to King Thutmose II.
Her half-brother was. He was suffering from several diseases and he was not aware of how to manage the affairs of the country properly.
Her husband died in 1501 BC. After that, the rule of Egypt was shared with Hatshepsut through Tuthmosis the Third.
The most important achievements of Queen Hatshepsut
· During her reign, Hatshepsut was concerned with strengthening and arming the Egyptian army. It also carried out military campaigns by sea for the neighboring countries.
· She was one of the kings most concerned with building temples during her reign, and she built her own temple in Luxor.
· The Queen sent a fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to import rare types of fish. | <urn:uuid:a75cc17a-4546-4cef-8bbd-30a84343faa5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.egypttourz.com/queen-hatshepsut-and-her-rule-over-egypt-for-22-years/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.980604 | 688 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.347923755645... | 9 | Queen Hatshepsut, one of the most famous women and queens throughout history, as this woman was characterized by beauty and strength of character.
She is called the favorite woman of Amun. It belongs to the eighteenth dynasty of the ancient Egyptians.
She was married to King Thutmose II. She assumed the reign of Egypt after his death.
and is considered one of the most powerful queens in the history of Egypt.
Hatshepsut was the guardian of Thutmose III after the death of her husband Until she assumed the throne of Egypt.
The life of Queen Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut was born in 1508 BC and is considered the eldest daughter of King Thutmose I.
Ahmose I is the grandfather of Queen Hatshepsut and is considered the leader of Egypt in getting rid of the Hyksos invasion.
This queen is considered one of the most famous queens in the history of ancient Egypt.
Historians consider it one of the most successful kings in the history of Egypt and the world.
The Hatshepsut Temple in Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, the story of this queen has been engraved on it.
in which it recounts many of her life’s situations from childhood until her assumption of power.
Hatshepsut’s education stage
This queen is known for her love of learning and research in many different branches of life.
Where was taught in the era of the ancient state in Egypt, ethics, the principles of reading and writing, and the rules of the Pharaonic language?
She also taught religious rituals in ancient Egypt. Which increased its popularity among the Egyptians because of its culture.
The school system in ancient Egypt was similar to the present, where teaching takes place in the morning until noon.
And the Pharaonic civilization has always been concerned with not distinguishing between the classes of the people in education.
More information about Hatshepsut from this link
The reign of Queen Hatshepsut
Because she is a woman, the idea of assuming the throne of Egypt was very difficult for Hatshepsut.
King Tuthmosis the First ruled Egypt with the assistance of his eldest daughter.
As it was the only heir to him (because there were no male heirs).The king died when she was twenty years old.
At the beginning of her rule of the country, there were many forms of chaos and turmoil.
Where many of the people of Egypt objected to a woman taking over the country. As a result, she was married to King Thutmose II.
Her half-brother was. He was suffering from several diseases and he was not aware of how to manage the affairs of the country properly.
Her husband died in 1501 BC. After that, the rule of Egypt was shared with Hatshepsut through Tuthmosis the Third.
The most important achievements of Queen Hatshepsut
· During her reign, Hatshepsut was concerned with strengthening and arming the Egyptian army. It also carried out military campaigns by sea for the neighboring countries.
· She was one of the kings most concerned with building temples during her reign, and she built her own temple in Luxor.
· The Queen sent a fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to import rare types of fish. | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Disputed Historical Figure
During the mid-Goryeo period in the 13th century, those in power deprived farmers of their land for various reasons. Farmers who lost their land often degenerated into slaves. To remedy the situation, the Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and Farming Population was first introduced in 1269. The government organization tasked with land and slavery reform was re-established several more times afterwards. The office played the most critical role ever in 1366 during the reign of King Gongmin. It was Buddhist monk Shin Don who pushed ahead with reform through this organization.
On the back of full confidence of the king, Shin Don grabbed the halls of power. Some describe him as a reformer or a revolutionist, while others call him a corrupt and wicked monk blinded by greed for power. Let’s find out more about Shin don, one of the most disputed historical figures in Korean history.
Buddhist Monk in King Gongmin’s Dream Wipes Farmers’ Tears
Shin Don was born as the son of a female slave in a Buddhist temple. Without a father, he was brought up by his single mother. He naturally became a Buddhist monk and spent his childhood with his Dharma name “Pyeonjo(편조).”
Shin Don met King Gongmin for the first time in 1358. Having been disappointed with the aristocratic class with power, the king was looking for a new figure to push for reform.
One day, the king had a dream. In the dream, a man was about to kill the king when a passing Buddhist priest rescued the king. It turned out that the king met Shin Don soon after this dream.
King Gongmin believed that Shin Don was none other than the Buddhist monk he had seen in his dream. Afterwards, the king met him frequently and gave him a nickname “cheonghan geosa(청한거사),” meaning a hermit of clarity and leisure. Shin Don started to engage in state affairs in earnest. He was determined to reform the corrupt society.
His politics focused on improving the public livelihood. Previous kings set up the Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and Farming Population, but Shin Don re-established the organization to reform land and slavery systems. He enforced the law requiring aristocrats to return the land they had taken from helpless farmers to the original owners. If low-class people or slaves wanted to be commoners, Shin Don granted their wish. Of course, farmers and slaves hailed him as a great reformer or a saint.
Harboring Ambition based on King’s Trust
However, a history book known as History of Goryeo calls Shin Don a vicious Buddhist monk. In the book, he is described as a person who pretended to be a saint with his words, but spoke ill of other people and did harm to them while enticing women into having inappropriate relationships with him. The book also said despite all these evil acts, the double-faced man was completely different in front of the king.
Shin Don wasn’t afraid of anything as he enjoyed the full confidence of the king. Aristocrats pleaded with the king to stay away from the evil man, even plotting to get rid of him. But the king only sided with his beloved retainer.
Yet, their close relationship began to crumble gradually after Shin Don proposed to relocate the capital. As the king grew aware of Shin Don’s increasing ambition, he began to keep the man at a distance. Shin Don plotted treason, only to be sent into exile. He was later beheaded.
Goryeo Reformer also Reviewed as Vicious Monk
Shin Don assumed power for a relatively short period of six years under King Gongmin in the Goryeo era. His political status was rather abnormal as it was only rooted in the king’s deep trust. It is also said that he lacked qualifications for a politician.
But he utilized a government office to return the land that aristocrats had taken away from farmers to the original owners, and also selected politicians through the education system of Sunggyungwan. Obviously, these were highly important tasks that someone had to carry out. | <urn:uuid:19a4344b-3208-4e30-af10-ae5a8667cbaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?lang=e&menu_cate=history&id=&board_seq=61447&page=0&board_code=korean_story | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.982643 | 870 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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During the mid-Goryeo period in the 13th century, those in power deprived farmers of their land for various reasons. Farmers who lost their land often degenerated into slaves. To remedy the situation, the Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and Farming Population was first introduced in 1269. The government organization tasked with land and slavery reform was re-established several more times afterwards. The office played the most critical role ever in 1366 during the reign of King Gongmin. It was Buddhist monk Shin Don who pushed ahead with reform through this organization.
On the back of full confidence of the king, Shin Don grabbed the halls of power. Some describe him as a reformer or a revolutionist, while others call him a corrupt and wicked monk blinded by greed for power. Let’s find out more about Shin don, one of the most disputed historical figures in Korean history.
Buddhist Monk in King Gongmin’s Dream Wipes Farmers’ Tears
Shin Don was born as the son of a female slave in a Buddhist temple. Without a father, he was brought up by his single mother. He naturally became a Buddhist monk and spent his childhood with his Dharma name “Pyeonjo(편조).”
Shin Don met King Gongmin for the first time in 1358. Having been disappointed with the aristocratic class with power, the king was looking for a new figure to push for reform.
One day, the king had a dream. In the dream, a man was about to kill the king when a passing Buddhist priest rescued the king. It turned out that the king met Shin Don soon after this dream.
King Gongmin believed that Shin Don was none other than the Buddhist monk he had seen in his dream. Afterwards, the king met him frequently and gave him a nickname “cheonghan geosa(청한거사),” meaning a hermit of clarity and leisure. Shin Don started to engage in state affairs in earnest. He was determined to reform the corrupt society.
His politics focused on improving the public livelihood. Previous kings set up the Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and Farming Population, but Shin Don re-established the organization to reform land and slavery systems. He enforced the law requiring aristocrats to return the land they had taken from helpless farmers to the original owners. If low-class people or slaves wanted to be commoners, Shin Don granted their wish. Of course, farmers and slaves hailed him as a great reformer or a saint.
Harboring Ambition based on King’s Trust
However, a history book known as History of Goryeo calls Shin Don a vicious Buddhist monk. In the book, he is described as a person who pretended to be a saint with his words, but spoke ill of other people and did harm to them while enticing women into having inappropriate relationships with him. The book also said despite all these evil acts, the double-faced man was completely different in front of the king.
Shin Don wasn’t afraid of anything as he enjoyed the full confidence of the king. Aristocrats pleaded with the king to stay away from the evil man, even plotting to get rid of him. But the king only sided with his beloved retainer.
Yet, their close relationship began to crumble gradually after Shin Don proposed to relocate the capital. As the king grew aware of Shin Don’s increasing ambition, he began to keep the man at a distance. Shin Don plotted treason, only to be sent into exile. He was later beheaded.
Goryeo Reformer also Reviewed as Vicious Monk
Shin Don assumed power for a relatively short period of six years under King Gongmin in the Goryeo era. His political status was rather abnormal as it was only rooted in the king’s deep trust. It is also said that he lacked qualifications for a politician.
But he utilized a government office to return the land that aristocrats had taken away from farmers to the original owners, and also selected politicians through the education system of Sunggyungwan. Obviously, these were highly important tasks that someone had to carry out. | 842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Birds have different types of beaks due to evolution, which has ensured that birds have beaks which are best suited to getting the food that they need.
For example, the saddlebill bird has a very long, sharp beak which is red, yellow and black. It stabs water animals, so this type of beak is required.
Eagles and other birds of prey tear flesh using both their beak and their talons or claws and so they have very sharp beaks. Waxwings on the other hand eat berries, so their beaks are more adapted to clasping tiny berries.
A bird has no teeth, so its beak is very important to assist with feeding. However, a lot of the 'chewing' is actually done within the second part of the bird's stomach, which is commonly known as the 'gizzard'. Some birds actually swallow small pebbles or grit to assist the gizzard in breaking down the food.
Because they eat different things
Well, Birds are not all the same. They're different depending on their living habitat. Where they live and eat. Most Tropical birds are fish & seaweed eaters so their peak straight while some are short and others are long. Frigate birds have a downturn peak which people from my country explain its nature in a legend of the birds. Once, long ago, birds were friendly with each other and soon they plan a get-together party. Before the party was over, they all had a swim. Each bird put away its peak in a secret place. The Frigate bird however, forgot to hide its peak and found out later that it was stolen and was replaced by a turned-peak......Anyway, I think you get the point now.....
Each bird has a beak appropriate for it's lifestyle like the cuved beak of parrots used for crushing nuts, a storks arrow beak for grabbing fish and small creatures and an eagles hooked beak for tearing flesh
As they don't have teeth, they use beak as their mouth and even their nostrils are found on their beaks. So they should have a beak to get their food to assist with feeding etc.
Birds have different types of beaks to make their homes
Each of the birds has its very own beak cause its lifestyle | <urn:uuid:4992d80f-efa1-41e3-8e27-10699cb19dc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pets-animals.blurtit.com/14845/why-do-birds-have-different-types-of-beaks | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.986298 | 473 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.2078561186790... | 1 | Birds have different types of beaks due to evolution, which has ensured that birds have beaks which are best suited to getting the food that they need.
For example, the saddlebill bird has a very long, sharp beak which is red, yellow and black. It stabs water animals, so this type of beak is required.
Eagles and other birds of prey tear flesh using both their beak and their talons or claws and so they have very sharp beaks. Waxwings on the other hand eat berries, so their beaks are more adapted to clasping tiny berries.
A bird has no teeth, so its beak is very important to assist with feeding. However, a lot of the 'chewing' is actually done within the second part of the bird's stomach, which is commonly known as the 'gizzard'. Some birds actually swallow small pebbles or grit to assist the gizzard in breaking down the food.
Because they eat different things
Well, Birds are not all the same. They're different depending on their living habitat. Where they live and eat. Most Tropical birds are fish & seaweed eaters so their peak straight while some are short and others are long. Frigate birds have a downturn peak which people from my country explain its nature in a legend of the birds. Once, long ago, birds were friendly with each other and soon they plan a get-together party. Before the party was over, they all had a swim. Each bird put away its peak in a secret place. The Frigate bird however, forgot to hide its peak and found out later that it was stolen and was replaced by a turned-peak......Anyway, I think you get the point now.....
Each bird has a beak appropriate for it's lifestyle like the cuved beak of parrots used for crushing nuts, a storks arrow beak for grabbing fish and small creatures and an eagles hooked beak for tearing flesh
As they don't have teeth, they use beak as their mouth and even their nostrils are found on their beaks. So they should have a beak to get their food to assist with feeding etc.
Birds have different types of beaks to make their homes
Each of the birds has its very own beak cause its lifestyle | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December is now the 12th month of the Gregorian (New Style) calendar and has 31 days.
In the old Roman calendar, the year started with March and was divided into ten months, of which December was the last, as it is now and that is why it is derived from the Latin word decem, or ten.
- Again, even after the Roman calendar was extensively revised with two additional months (January and February placed at the beginning of the year), December continued to keep its incorrect name.
- There were several attempts to re-name the month of December for emperors or their wives, mistresses, or other relatives.
- None of the attempts to change the name of December ever lasted for very long.
- The Saturnalia was the best known Roman festival held in December.
- It was originally celebrated on December 17, but was gradually extended for seven additional days to December 24; therefore, including the time of the winter solstice.
- Very little is known about the original form of the Saturnalian rituals.
- It is thought that they were undoubtedly connected with agriculture, since their timing coincided with the completion of the autumnal sowing at the onset of the coldest season of the year.
- The festival of the Saturnalia had many of the characteristics of our modern Christmas in that social disticntions disapeared as all persons greeted one another with a cheerful “Io Saturnalia” (Hurrah Saturnalia); exchanged presents (traditionally wax candles and little terra-cotta dolls); and celebrated with “merriment; reveling, and feasting”.
- December is another misnamed month that no society or authority has been able to change because of its long tradition or perhaps because most people are not even aware of its original meaning and inappropriate connotation.
Americans have more time-saving devices and less time for worthy projects than any other people in the world.
Sources of information for this page are located at this Calendars Bibliography Unit.
You may return to the main lists
of calendar links from here.
of words derived from Latin and Greek sources.
for comments or type in email@example.com
, if you prefer. | <urn:uuid:7b904a48-dc1b-4944-aa0d-65f26e9ffcce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wordinfo.info/unit/3200/s:month | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.981886 | 460 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1910039484500... | 1 | December is now the 12th month of the Gregorian (New Style) calendar and has 31 days.
In the old Roman calendar, the year started with March and was divided into ten months, of which December was the last, as it is now and that is why it is derived from the Latin word decem, or ten.
- Again, even after the Roman calendar was extensively revised with two additional months (January and February placed at the beginning of the year), December continued to keep its incorrect name.
- There were several attempts to re-name the month of December for emperors or their wives, mistresses, or other relatives.
- None of the attempts to change the name of December ever lasted for very long.
- The Saturnalia was the best known Roman festival held in December.
- It was originally celebrated on December 17, but was gradually extended for seven additional days to December 24; therefore, including the time of the winter solstice.
- Very little is known about the original form of the Saturnalian rituals.
- It is thought that they were undoubtedly connected with agriculture, since their timing coincided with the completion of the autumnal sowing at the onset of the coldest season of the year.
- The festival of the Saturnalia had many of the characteristics of our modern Christmas in that social disticntions disapeared as all persons greeted one another with a cheerful “Io Saturnalia” (Hurrah Saturnalia); exchanged presents (traditionally wax candles and little terra-cotta dolls); and celebrated with “merriment; reveling, and feasting”.
- December is another misnamed month that no society or authority has been able to change because of its long tradition or perhaps because most people are not even aware of its original meaning and inappropriate connotation.
Americans have more time-saving devices and less time for worthy projects than any other people in the world.
Sources of information for this page are located at this Calendars Bibliography Unit.
You may return to the main lists
of calendar links from here.
of words derived from Latin and Greek sources.
for comments or type in email@example.com
, if you prefer. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Time has failed to worn the rich fabric of Chaucer’s literature. His is not only redeemed the poet of medieval days but also the poet for all the times to come past, present and future. He not merely deserves the entitlement of being an extraordinary poet but also enjoys the stardom of being the father of literature specifically English. He was a man possessing the rarest gift for writing. He had succeeded most probably in holding up a mirror to society and Mother Nature as whole and reflected in his literature. Busy schedules both personal and professional life during his days weren’t strong enough to defeat Chaucer’s ardent interest for writing, for he wrote nonetheless and flourished. Furthermore he had skillfully crafted the intricacies representing humanity through many magnificent poetical accomplishments.
Geoffrey Chaucer contributed immensely for the development of poetry of English. He is also designated as the co-founder or father of literature particularly English. He wasn’t simply an ordinary poet but also bore the entitlement as the farsighted philosopher. He contributed immensely in shaping and molding the literature of English. From giving new heights to language of English despite being confronted by many challenges popularly the Black Death, to putting forth language of English to be rich, sophisticated and entertaining as that of French and Latin of his days. Furthermore he proved that English language could convey all the complexities of serious literature which was redeemed impossible during his days. (Pugh, T. 2013).
Chaucer’s ability to connect with Mother Nature, his ability to understand the law of interconnection and various experiences in work and life fed his writing. His literature is the incorporation of unique blend of interesting, funny, unexpected, insightful themes which overall gives a unique feel to readers mind and literature of English as well. His literature evokes in readers a sense of wonder, amazement, and helps reader brainstorm their deep seated knowledge in order to fully understand as well as to analyze the level concerning his rich achievements. Masterpieces popularly the tales of Canterbury are all imaginative and insightful, and are enough designation to portray the significant contribution he made towards literature of English. There are many things that inspired his writing career such as political chaotic life called as the dark ages, meaning instability in political thus he used this as a theme in his writing.
The things like corrupted religious institution that are self-centered, greedy, corrupted, ignorant religious headed person that is clergy match people to rethink and move to new religious institutions. Dark social economic outbreak of incurable disease, heavy taxes, feminine all this inspire people to come up one revolution thus declining the feudal system by reshaping their behavior and marking the new beginning social structure. People started to feel and think about nationalism and patriotism. They also thought about equity, oneness and liberty. This is also the era that marked the beginning of everything. There was a rise of nationalistic feeling. Medieval era had intense concept, chivalric qualities, romance and adventures. All this were included in Chaucer’s work. This were enough proof to redeem him as a realistic writer who painted the picture of 14th century which was vividly clear. Thus he is designated as the co-founder of literature specifically English.
Geoffrey Chaucer was a great human being a humanitarian perhaps, who saw the need to bring improvement in people’s life by reflecting the complexities of his days in his writing. Laying the groundwork for women empowerment indeed proves his farsighted vision. The tale “wife of bath’’ takes into account character of women to be far more superior to that man. He showcased that women are capable of protecting themselves either physically and emotionally. This tale challenges all the stereotypical practices where women were expected to stay low key and ruled over by their husband. This tale incorporates all the good funny humors to attract audience and more importantly in raising the voice of women in man dominated society. Smith, J. T, (2014).
The tales of Canterbury which uses the technique ‘’story within the story ‘’incorporates a combination of unexpected themes. . He was the first and foremost writer to write about people coming from different social backgrounds. During his time many talented writers and poet wrote or focused more on high class people. He however saw the need to bring change to this trend by introducing people from different backgrounds in his innovative works. This tale marks spirituality as a benchmark for levelling the people irrespective of their race and profession. Chaucer, G. (1985). His works encircles around bettering the humanity. It provides readers ample opportunity to explore, analyze, delve deeper into understanding the true nature of human being. Then these combination of different human traits are embedded in his masterpieces.
Example in Canterbury tales thirty one people had different outlook on life that shape their personalities and identity as whole. He can rightly be called the poet of humanity. Chaucer’s literature has withstood the test of time as he is still remembered and cherished by many as one of the talented writer of olden times. He is the one who gave color to literature of English and he is known for his bountiful accomplishment towards literature. He is a man to express in words the experiences he gained and use a picture of life in his age for all level society. The contribution he showered toward literature is insightful, profane and despite confronted by many challenges during his time he had followed his passion for writing and reflected on his literature. | <urn:uuid:2b133317-240d-4039-8315-427b77d81e99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/why-chaucer-is-known-as-father-of-english-poetry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.984827 | 1,112 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.33812758326530... | 2 | Time has failed to worn the rich fabric of Chaucer’s literature. His is not only redeemed the poet of medieval days but also the poet for all the times to come past, present and future. He not merely deserves the entitlement of being an extraordinary poet but also enjoys the stardom of being the father of literature specifically English. He was a man possessing the rarest gift for writing. He had succeeded most probably in holding up a mirror to society and Mother Nature as whole and reflected in his literature. Busy schedules both personal and professional life during his days weren’t strong enough to defeat Chaucer’s ardent interest for writing, for he wrote nonetheless and flourished. Furthermore he had skillfully crafted the intricacies representing humanity through many magnificent poetical accomplishments.
Geoffrey Chaucer contributed immensely for the development of poetry of English. He is also designated as the co-founder or father of literature particularly English. He wasn’t simply an ordinary poet but also bore the entitlement as the farsighted philosopher. He contributed immensely in shaping and molding the literature of English. From giving new heights to language of English despite being confronted by many challenges popularly the Black Death, to putting forth language of English to be rich, sophisticated and entertaining as that of French and Latin of his days. Furthermore he proved that English language could convey all the complexities of serious literature which was redeemed impossible during his days. (Pugh, T. 2013).
Chaucer’s ability to connect with Mother Nature, his ability to understand the law of interconnection and various experiences in work and life fed his writing. His literature is the incorporation of unique blend of interesting, funny, unexpected, insightful themes which overall gives a unique feel to readers mind and literature of English as well. His literature evokes in readers a sense of wonder, amazement, and helps reader brainstorm their deep seated knowledge in order to fully understand as well as to analyze the level concerning his rich achievements. Masterpieces popularly the tales of Canterbury are all imaginative and insightful, and are enough designation to portray the significant contribution he made towards literature of English. There are many things that inspired his writing career such as political chaotic life called as the dark ages, meaning instability in political thus he used this as a theme in his writing.
The things like corrupted religious institution that are self-centered, greedy, corrupted, ignorant religious headed person that is clergy match people to rethink and move to new religious institutions. Dark social economic outbreak of incurable disease, heavy taxes, feminine all this inspire people to come up one revolution thus declining the feudal system by reshaping their behavior and marking the new beginning social structure. People started to feel and think about nationalism and patriotism. They also thought about equity, oneness and liberty. This is also the era that marked the beginning of everything. There was a rise of nationalistic feeling. Medieval era had intense concept, chivalric qualities, romance and adventures. All this were included in Chaucer’s work. This were enough proof to redeem him as a realistic writer who painted the picture of 14th century which was vividly clear. Thus he is designated as the co-founder of literature specifically English.
Geoffrey Chaucer was a great human being a humanitarian perhaps, who saw the need to bring improvement in people’s life by reflecting the complexities of his days in his writing. Laying the groundwork for women empowerment indeed proves his farsighted vision. The tale “wife of bath’’ takes into account character of women to be far more superior to that man. He showcased that women are capable of protecting themselves either physically and emotionally. This tale challenges all the stereotypical practices where women were expected to stay low key and ruled over by their husband. This tale incorporates all the good funny humors to attract audience and more importantly in raising the voice of women in man dominated society. Smith, J. T, (2014).
The tales of Canterbury which uses the technique ‘’story within the story ‘’incorporates a combination of unexpected themes. . He was the first and foremost writer to write about people coming from different social backgrounds. During his time many talented writers and poet wrote or focused more on high class people. He however saw the need to bring change to this trend by introducing people from different backgrounds in his innovative works. This tale marks spirituality as a benchmark for levelling the people irrespective of their race and profession. Chaucer, G. (1985). His works encircles around bettering the humanity. It provides readers ample opportunity to explore, analyze, delve deeper into understanding the true nature of human being. Then these combination of different human traits are embedded in his masterpieces.
Example in Canterbury tales thirty one people had different outlook on life that shape their personalities and identity as whole. He can rightly be called the poet of humanity. Chaucer’s literature has withstood the test of time as he is still remembered and cherished by many as one of the talented writer of olden times. He is the one who gave color to literature of English and he is known for his bountiful accomplishment towards literature. He is a man to express in words the experiences he gained and use a picture of life in his age for all level society. The contribution he showered toward literature is insightful, profane and despite confronted by many challenges during his time he had followed his passion for writing and reflected on his literature. | 1,100 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Townshend Revenue Act
The Townshend Revenue Act
The Townshend Revenue Act
Issued by British Parliament
Passed on June 29, 1767; excerpted from
Documents of American History, 1958
"There shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid, unto his Majesty, his heirs, and successors, for upon and the respective Goods herein after mentioned, which shall be imported from Great Britain into any colony or plantation in America…. "
From the Townshend Revenue Act
The Stamp Act of 1765 was passed by Parliament to help pay for British soldiers on duty in America. It raised money by taxing printed matter such as newspapers, legal documents, and even the sale of dice and playing cards. After the colonies expressed their outrage, Parliament repealed the tax. But England still needed money from the colonies to help pay for the soldiers. Charles Townshend (1725–1767), an adviser for King George III (1738–1820), informed the king and Parliament that he had figured out a way to tax the colonies without their objecting. Not only would his proposals raise money, Townshend said, they would also demonstrate Parliament's power over the colonies. Parliament passed the Townshend Acts on June 29,1767. They included the Townshend Revenue Act, which is excerpted later; an act setting up a new board of customs commissioners (customs are taxes on imported and exported goods); and an act suspending New York's lawmaking body, the New York Assembly.
A revenue is money collected to pay for the expenses of government. The first Townshend Act, the Townshend Revenue Act called for taxes on lead, glass, paint, tea, and other items. The second Townshend Act created a board of customs commissioners to enforce the Townshend Revenue Act as well as other British trade laws that had been loosely enforced up until then. The third Townshend Act, called the Restraining Act, suspended the New York Assembly. It was passed at the request of Thomas Gage (1721–1787), commander in chief of British soldiers in America from 1763 to 1775.
British soldiers were in America for two reasons: to protect colonial settlers on the western frontier (western New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland) from hostile Indians, and to make sure France did not try to reclaim the land it had recently lost to Great Britain (see Stamp Act entry on p. 7). General Gage was headquartered in New York City, and most of his soldiers were spread throughout New York state. The colonists were supposed to provide housing and food for the soldiers, in their own homes if no other quarters could be found. General Gage had problems getting the colonists to cooperate, so at his request, Parliament passed the Quartering Act in 1765. The Act ordered colonial officials to provide living quarters for Gage's soldiers for a period of two years. New York officials complained because the financial burden fell most heavily on New York state. When the New York Assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act, Gage asked Parliament to suspend the assembly (prevent it from passing any laws), and Parliament did so by way of a Townshend Act.
Things to remember while reading an excerpt from the Townshend Revenue Act:
- The colonists had objected to the Stamp Act partly because its purpose was to forcibly collect money in the colonies to pay for British government expenses—the expenses of keeping British soldiers in America. The colonists called the Stamp Act an "internal tax," the kind of tax they said could only be imposed by colonial assemblies, made up of representatives chosen by American colonists. If England needed money to pay for English government expenses, the colonists believed that England had to collect tax money from Englishmen in England.
- The Townshend Revenue Act proposed that Britain would collect small taxes on certain products that were shipped to colonial ports. Parliament thought the colonies could have no objection; this was a tax on trade items, an "external tax," the kind of tax the colonies had always paid. When he testified before Parliament about repealing the Stamp Act, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) told Parliament that the colonists would have no objection to paying taxes on imports and exports. But Parliament underestimated the growing anti-tax mood in the colonies. After their experience with the Stamp Act, the colonies were prepared to resent any kind of tax imposed by Parliament.
- The Townshend Revenue Act also expanded the powers of the hated admiralty courts. Anyone who tried to avoid paying the new taxes—smugglers, for instance—would be tried in admiralty courts. Under the terms of the Town-shend Revenue Act, admiralty court judges, as well as governors and other royal officials, would now be paid out of the tax money collected. This meant they would depend on England for their salaries, not on the colonial assemblies, as before. Townshend meant to ensure that angry colonists could not stop British officials from performing their jobs by withholding their paychecks. In the long run, Townshend meant to tighten British control over the economy and the governing of the colonies.
- In a further crackdown on smugglers, the concept of writs of assistance was revived under the Townshend Revenue Act. Writs of assistance were documents that allowed British customs officials to enter and search any warehouse or private home at any time to look for smuggled goods. The customs officials could order colonial officials to assist them in the searches. Such writs had been legal since 1755 but were seldom used. The Townshend Revenue Act promised to make the unpopular searches common, in violation of the deeply held belief that a man's home was his castle.
Excerpt from the Townshend Revenue Act
An act for granting certain duties in the British colonies and plantations in America; for allowing a drawback of the duties of customs upon the exportation from this kingdom, of coffee and cocoa nuts of the produce of the said colonies or plantations; for discontinuing the drawbacks payable on china earthen ware exported to America; and for more effectually preventing the clandestine running of goods in the said colonies and plantations.
WHEREAS, it is expedient that a revenue should be raised, in your Majesty's dominions in America, for making a more certain and adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of justice, and the support of civil government, in such provinces as it shall be found necessary; and towards further defraying the expenses of defending, protecting and securing the said dominions; … be it enacted … That … there shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid, unto his Majesty, his heirs, and successors, for upon and the respective Goods herein after mentioned, which shall be imported from Great Britain into any colony or plantation in America which now is or hereafter may be, under the dominion of his Majesty, his heirs, or successors, the several Rates and Duties following; that is to say,
For every hundredweight avoirdupois of crown, plate, flint, and white glass, four shillings and eight pence.
For every hundred weight avoirdupois of green glass, one shilling and two pence.
[The Act continues with a list of other taxed items. It then declares that the monies raised will be used to pay for "defending, protecting, and securing, the British colonies and plantations in America" and can also be used for other expenses. The Act describes steps that would insure that the new taxes could be collected.]
It is lawful for any officer of his Majesty's customs, authorized by writ of assistance under the seal of his Majesty's court of exchequer, to take a constable, headborough, or other public officer inhabiting near unto the place, and in the daytime to enter and go into any house, shop, cellar, warehouse, or room or other place and, in case of resistance, to break open doors, chests, trunks, and other package there, to seize, and from thence to bring, any kind of goods or merchandise whatsoever prohibited or unaccustomed, and to put and secure the same in his Majesty's storehouse next to the place where such seizure shall be made….
[It is also made legal] that the officers for collecting and managing his Majesty's revenue, and inspecting the plantation trade, in America, shall have the same powers and authorities to enter houses or warehouses, to search or seize goods prohibited to be imported or exported into or out of any of the said plantations, or for which any duties are payable, or ought to have been paid….(Commager, pp.63–64)
What happened next …
At first, most of the colonists reacted cautiously to the Townshend Acts. But Samuel Adams (1722–1803), a member of the Sons of Liberty, a Massachusetts assemblyman, and a man with a longstanding bitterness against Great Britain, took action. Shortly after the new customs officers arrived in Boston in November 1767 and prepared to open for business, Adams wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter (so called because it was addressed to a large number of people). The letter pointed out that Parliament's attempt to raise a revenue was contrary to the colonists' rights, because they were not represented in Parliament. (Remember that Parliament believed it had the right to make laws binding on the colonies "in all cases whatsoever," according to the Declaratory Act.) The Circular Letter
was adopted by the Massachusetts Assembly in February 1768, and copies were sent to all the colonies.
While the other colonies discussed the Circular Letter and pondered what to do, King George created a new American Department and named Wills Hill, the Earl of Hillsborough, head of it. Hill believed he should show the colonies who was boss. One of his first moves in his new job was to compose his own circular letter and send it to all colonial governors (who were appointed by Great Britain). In his circular letter, Hill advised the governors to treat the Massachusetts Circular Letter "with the contempt it deserves." He informed the governors that any assembly that approved the Circular Letter was to be dissolved. Hills did not intend it, but his action had the effect of uniting the colonies in sympathy for Massachusetts.
Massachusetts proceeded to become the center of colonial defiance. The Sons of Liberty staged a wave of sometimes-violent protests in Boston. Customs officials who tried to carry out their jobs were tarred and feathered (a painful procedure in which a person is covered with hot tar and coated with feathers). Finally, they asked Governor Francis Bernard (1712–1779) for protection. He proved unwilling to act—he said that Boston's citizens would never stand for him calling in British soldiers to patrol the streets; in fact, he feared for his life if he did it. So the commissioners called upon the British Royal Navy in Halifax, Nova Scotia (Canada), and a British warship sailed into Boston.
Made bold by the presence of the British Navy, customs commissioners singled out John Hancock (1737–1793), one of Boston's wealthiest and most popular citizens, to teach Boston a lesson. In June 1768, Hancock's boat Liberty was seized by customs officers for an alleged violation of the Town-shend
Acts. In turn, the customs officers found their own boat set on fire. As tempers flared, Governor Bernard suspended the Massachusetts Assembly in June 1768. From London came orders to British general Gage to move some of his soldiers from New York to Boston. On October 1, the British Army took control of Boston Common.
With British soldiers camped on Boston's doorstep, the spirit of defiance spread. One by one, nearly every assembly expressed its approval of the Massachusetts Circular Letter and was suspended. The assemblies met in secret, and by the end of 1768, most had adopted agreements not to import British goods until the Townshend Acts were repealed. Over the next few months, British imports to America fell by nearly half.
Parliament had expected the Townshend Revenue Act to bring in about 9 percent of the total yearly cost of paying for soldiers to protect the colonies. With customs officials unwilling to carry out their duties for fear of mob action, in 1768, the actual amount collected was about 4 percent of the total cost, and in the next two years, the Townshend Revenue Act brought in even less than that—not a lot of money for all the trouble it was causing.
British merchants complained loudly about the finan cial losses they were enduring because Americans were not buy ing their goods. In England, people were being thrown out of work because there was no market for the goods they produced. British merchants told Parliament it was foolish to risk profits from trade in a quarrel over a small amount of tax money.
In Boston, tension was thick. Samuel Adams and his Sons of Liberty complained loudly and often about the presence of British soldiers. Everything finally came to a head with the Boston Massacre of March 5, 1770, when five people were killed in a clash between British soldiers and townspeople. Parliament and colonists alike were shocked by the violence in Boston. Parliament once again backed down, and on April 12, 1770, the Townshend Acts were repealed. Only the tax on tea was kept. In the end, what was good for British merchants won out over Parliament's desire to show the colonies who was boss.
After the shock of the Boston Massacre, a period of calm fell over the colonies and England. The New York Gazette offered this opinion: "It's high time a stop was put to mobbing…. God knows where it will end." With British merchantshappily trading once again, and distracted by problems with Spain, Parliament was almost silent on the question of the American colonies for the next three years—until the Tea Act was passed in 1773.
Did you know …
- Charles Townshend was clever and witty, loud and amusing, and his nickname was "Champagne Charlie" (pronounced sham-PAIN; a sparkling wine). His personality traits were apparently good enough qualifications for King George, who listened to Townshend's advice and supported the Townshend Acts. Within months after the Acts went into effect, Townshend died at the young age of forty-two. There are different stories of how Townshend got his nickname. According to one version, he gave an important speech while apparently drunk. According to another version, some of his speeches had the effect of making his listeners feel as lightheaded as if they had been drinking champagne.
- Samuel Adams's dislike for the British dated back to at least 1741. Adams was eighteen and attending what is now Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, when the British-appointed governor of Massachusetts, Jonathan Belcher (1682–1787), declared illegal The Land Bank founded by Adams's father. The Adams family lost all its money, and Samuel had to take a job as a waiter to pay his way through college. He thought it wrong for the governor to have so much power over the colonists.
- Benjamin Franklin had a close friend, William Strahan, who was a member of Parliament. In November 1769, as the time drew near when Parliament would be discussing colonial outrage over the Townshend Acts, Strahan wrote a letter to his friend. He asked Franklin to give his views on the situation so Parliament might better understand what was going on. Franklin told Strahan that a partial repeal (keeping a tax on tea, for example) would not satisfy the colonists. Franklin said it was not the tax they objected to but its purpose—"the better support of [British] government…. This the colonists think unnecessary, unjust, and dangerous to their most important rights." Franklin warned Strahan that if Parliament did not modify its hard line against the colonies, there was likely to be more violence and loss of affection for England.
- Parliament was not inclined to listen to Franklin's warnings. Members were getting firsthand information from Thomas Gage, commander in chief of British troops in America from 1763 to 1775. Gage witnessed the turmoil that began with the Stamp Act in 1763 and escalated with the Townshend Acts. He reported his concerns in letters to Parliament. In March 1768, he warned that Americans were moving toward "a struggle for independency." Gage could see that his soldiers were unpopular with Bostonians. He warned Parliament in a letter written before the Boston Massacre in 1770 that his soldiers were suffering "assaults upon their persons till their lives were in danger," and it was only a matter of time before they resisted and defended themselves. His reports hardened the hearts of King George and his advisers against any sort of compromise with the colonists.
- It was probably Samuel Adams who gave the name "massacre" to the March 5, 1770, incident in which five citizens were killed by British soldiers. British Captain Thomas Preston and eight of his men were arrested and charged with manslaughter (taking the life of another without the intention of doing injury). A trial was held, but little evidence was produced that Preston ordered his men to fire, nor was it known who actually fired. Preston said that in all the confusion, it was impossible to know "who said fire, or don't fire, or stop your firing." Preston and six others were finally let go; two others were found guilty, were branded (burned with a hot iron) on the hand, and released. Founding Father and Boston lawyer John Adams (1735–1826) defended the soldiers in court. He said it was only right that the men receive a fair trial.
Where to Learn More
Clark, Dora Mae. British Opinion and the American Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell, 1966.
Commager, Henry Steele. Documents of American History. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1958.
Draper, Theodore. A Struggle for Power: The American Revolution. New York, Random House, 1996.
Farley, Karin Clafford. Samuel Adams: Grandfather of His Country. Austin, TX: Raintree/Steck Vaughn, 1994.
Fradin, Dennis Brindell. Samuel Adams: The Father of American Independence. New York: Clarion Books, 1998.
Rinaldi, Ann. The Fifth of March: A Story of the Boston Massacre. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1993.
Charles Townshend was the second son of the third Viscount Townshend. A viscount (pronounced VIE-count) is a member of British royalty who ranks below an earl and above a baron. This is a fairly high rank, but as a second son, Charles would not inherit the title. His mother was an heiress who is said to have been brilliant, witty, and direct. Townshend inherited those positive qualities. On the negative side, he has been described as a man without principles. British author Tobias Smollett (1721–1771) said that Townshend would have been "a really great man if he had had any consistency or stability of character."
Townshend was educated in Holland and England and was elected to Parliament in 1747, where he served until 1761. In 1766, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer, the man in charge of collecting the money needed to run the British government. Almost immediately, he proposed the acts that are associated with his name. The very next year, he died of "an incurable putrid fever," most likely typhus, which is often spread by fleas.
Samuel Adams, Committee-Man and Son of Liberty
Samuel Adams was born on September 27, 1722, in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Mary Fifield Adams and Samuel Adams. The elder Adams made his living as a beer brewer but also acted as a church assistant, tax assessor, and town official. The young Samuel was educated at the Boston Latin School, the first public school in the American colonies. In 1736, he went away to Harvard College (later Harvard University) with the intention of becoming a minister. But when the younger Adams was eighteen, a bank founded by his father was declared illegal and the elder Adams lost all his money, a situation young Samuel blamed on the British-appointed governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780). The loss of the family fortune forced the younger Adams to take a job as a waiter to pay his way through college. He became bitter towards the British over this issue.
Adams gave up the idea of being a minister, and when he graduated from Harvard College in 1743, he engaged in a variety of business ventures. But his heart was not in any of them, and they all proved unsuccessful. The young man preferred to spend his time in political discussions. Over time, he hardened in his opinion that America should become free of Britain and what he considered its corrupt ways.
By 1764, it might have seemed to observers that the forty-two-year-old Adams was something of a failure. He was poor and had lost several businesses and most of the money he inherited from his father. He was just beginning to show his political skills, however, and his real successes still lay ahead.
Adams was becoming known as an agitator who stirred up political resistance to Britain. More and more of his time was spent talking with anyone who would listen about the rights and liberties of the American colonists. Adams first spoke out in taverns and at informal meetings around Boston. In 1772, at Adams's request, the town of Boston appointed a Committee of Correspondence. Its twenty-one members met to state the rights of the colonists and work to have them widely publicized throughout the colonies. In a short time, many such letter-writing networks were set up, and the move toward colonial unity advanced.
Adams also headed a secret organization in Boston, the Sons of Liberty. This group took its name from a speech given in Parliament by a man who opposed the Stamp Act of 1765. He had called the colonists "these sons of liberty." Adams's Sons of Liberty sometimes called themselves Committees of Correspondence to cover up their secret activities. It was they who were responsible for many of the acts of mob violence against people who remained loyal to Great Britain. The Sons burned homes and tarred and feathered stamp agents, forcing all such agents to resign even before the Stamp Act was supposed to go into effect.
Perhaps Adams's greatest triumph was the Boston Tea Party (1773). British government in Massachusetts collapsed afterward, and the Committees of Correspondence served for a time as the colonial government. Some people say Adams provoked the incidents at Lexington and Concord in 1775 that resulted in the first shots of the war being fired. Throughout the war, Adams kept constantly busy, keeping patriots inflamed, counseling colonial leaders, and writing countless newspaper articles. By the war's end in 1783, he had burned himself out. He seemed unable to do anything constructive; his talent had been in destruction of British rule. He died in Boston on October 2, 1803. This Founding Father, whom many historians say was largely responsible for American independence, was called by President Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) "the Man of the Revolution." | <urn:uuid:5cea0684-0679-446d-bacd-fe446a2e0571> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/educational-magazines/townshend-revenue-act | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.980993 | 4,773 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.30325931310653... | 1 | The Townshend Revenue Act
The Townshend Revenue Act
The Townshend Revenue Act
Issued by British Parliament
Passed on June 29, 1767; excerpted from
Documents of American History, 1958
"There shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid, unto his Majesty, his heirs, and successors, for upon and the respective Goods herein after mentioned, which shall be imported from Great Britain into any colony or plantation in America…. "
From the Townshend Revenue Act
The Stamp Act of 1765 was passed by Parliament to help pay for British soldiers on duty in America. It raised money by taxing printed matter such as newspapers, legal documents, and even the sale of dice and playing cards. After the colonies expressed their outrage, Parliament repealed the tax. But England still needed money from the colonies to help pay for the soldiers. Charles Townshend (1725–1767), an adviser for King George III (1738–1820), informed the king and Parliament that he had figured out a way to tax the colonies without their objecting. Not only would his proposals raise money, Townshend said, they would also demonstrate Parliament's power over the colonies. Parliament passed the Townshend Acts on June 29,1767. They included the Townshend Revenue Act, which is excerpted later; an act setting up a new board of customs commissioners (customs are taxes on imported and exported goods); and an act suspending New York's lawmaking body, the New York Assembly.
A revenue is money collected to pay for the expenses of government. The first Townshend Act, the Townshend Revenue Act called for taxes on lead, glass, paint, tea, and other items. The second Townshend Act created a board of customs commissioners to enforce the Townshend Revenue Act as well as other British trade laws that had been loosely enforced up until then. The third Townshend Act, called the Restraining Act, suspended the New York Assembly. It was passed at the request of Thomas Gage (1721–1787), commander in chief of British soldiers in America from 1763 to 1775.
British soldiers were in America for two reasons: to protect colonial settlers on the western frontier (western New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland) from hostile Indians, and to make sure France did not try to reclaim the land it had recently lost to Great Britain (see Stamp Act entry on p. 7). General Gage was headquartered in New York City, and most of his soldiers were spread throughout New York state. The colonists were supposed to provide housing and food for the soldiers, in their own homes if no other quarters could be found. General Gage had problems getting the colonists to cooperate, so at his request, Parliament passed the Quartering Act in 1765. The Act ordered colonial officials to provide living quarters for Gage's soldiers for a period of two years. New York officials complained because the financial burden fell most heavily on New York state. When the New York Assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act, Gage asked Parliament to suspend the assembly (prevent it from passing any laws), and Parliament did so by way of a Townshend Act.
Things to remember while reading an excerpt from the Townshend Revenue Act:
- The colonists had objected to the Stamp Act partly because its purpose was to forcibly collect money in the colonies to pay for British government expenses—the expenses of keeping British soldiers in America. The colonists called the Stamp Act an "internal tax," the kind of tax they said could only be imposed by colonial assemblies, made up of representatives chosen by American colonists. If England needed money to pay for English government expenses, the colonists believed that England had to collect tax money from Englishmen in England.
- The Townshend Revenue Act proposed that Britain would collect small taxes on certain products that were shipped to colonial ports. Parliament thought the colonies could have no objection; this was a tax on trade items, an "external tax," the kind of tax the colonies had always paid. When he testified before Parliament about repealing the Stamp Act, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) told Parliament that the colonists would have no objection to paying taxes on imports and exports. But Parliament underestimated the growing anti-tax mood in the colonies. After their experience with the Stamp Act, the colonies were prepared to resent any kind of tax imposed by Parliament.
- The Townshend Revenue Act also expanded the powers of the hated admiralty courts. Anyone who tried to avoid paying the new taxes—smugglers, for instance—would be tried in admiralty courts. Under the terms of the Town-shend Revenue Act, admiralty court judges, as well as governors and other royal officials, would now be paid out of the tax money collected. This meant they would depend on England for their salaries, not on the colonial assemblies, as before. Townshend meant to ensure that angry colonists could not stop British officials from performing their jobs by withholding their paychecks. In the long run, Townshend meant to tighten British control over the economy and the governing of the colonies.
- In a further crackdown on smugglers, the concept of writs of assistance was revived under the Townshend Revenue Act. Writs of assistance were documents that allowed British customs officials to enter and search any warehouse or private home at any time to look for smuggled goods. The customs officials could order colonial officials to assist them in the searches. Such writs had been legal since 1755 but were seldom used. The Townshend Revenue Act promised to make the unpopular searches common, in violation of the deeply held belief that a man's home was his castle.
Excerpt from the Townshend Revenue Act
An act for granting certain duties in the British colonies and plantations in America; for allowing a drawback of the duties of customs upon the exportation from this kingdom, of coffee and cocoa nuts of the produce of the said colonies or plantations; for discontinuing the drawbacks payable on china earthen ware exported to America; and for more effectually preventing the clandestine running of goods in the said colonies and plantations.
WHEREAS, it is expedient that a revenue should be raised, in your Majesty's dominions in America, for making a more certain and adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of justice, and the support of civil government, in such provinces as it shall be found necessary; and towards further defraying the expenses of defending, protecting and securing the said dominions; … be it enacted … That … there shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid, unto his Majesty, his heirs, and successors, for upon and the respective Goods herein after mentioned, which shall be imported from Great Britain into any colony or plantation in America which now is or hereafter may be, under the dominion of his Majesty, his heirs, or successors, the several Rates and Duties following; that is to say,
For every hundredweight avoirdupois of crown, plate, flint, and white glass, four shillings and eight pence.
For every hundred weight avoirdupois of green glass, one shilling and two pence.
[The Act continues with a list of other taxed items. It then declares that the monies raised will be used to pay for "defending, protecting, and securing, the British colonies and plantations in America" and can also be used for other expenses. The Act describes steps that would insure that the new taxes could be collected.]
It is lawful for any officer of his Majesty's customs, authorized by writ of assistance under the seal of his Majesty's court of exchequer, to take a constable, headborough, or other public officer inhabiting near unto the place, and in the daytime to enter and go into any house, shop, cellar, warehouse, or room or other place and, in case of resistance, to break open doors, chests, trunks, and other package there, to seize, and from thence to bring, any kind of goods or merchandise whatsoever prohibited or unaccustomed, and to put and secure the same in his Majesty's storehouse next to the place where such seizure shall be made….
[It is also made legal] that the officers for collecting and managing his Majesty's revenue, and inspecting the plantation trade, in America, shall have the same powers and authorities to enter houses or warehouses, to search or seize goods prohibited to be imported or exported into or out of any of the said plantations, or for which any duties are payable, or ought to have been paid….(Commager, pp.63–64)
What happened next …
At first, most of the colonists reacted cautiously to the Townshend Acts. But Samuel Adams (1722–1803), a member of the Sons of Liberty, a Massachusetts assemblyman, and a man with a longstanding bitterness against Great Britain, took action. Shortly after the new customs officers arrived in Boston in November 1767 and prepared to open for business, Adams wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter (so called because it was addressed to a large number of people). The letter pointed out that Parliament's attempt to raise a revenue was contrary to the colonists' rights, because they were not represented in Parliament. (Remember that Parliament believed it had the right to make laws binding on the colonies "in all cases whatsoever," according to the Declaratory Act.) The Circular Letter
was adopted by the Massachusetts Assembly in February 1768, and copies were sent to all the colonies.
While the other colonies discussed the Circular Letter and pondered what to do, King George created a new American Department and named Wills Hill, the Earl of Hillsborough, head of it. Hill believed he should show the colonies who was boss. One of his first moves in his new job was to compose his own circular letter and send it to all colonial governors (who were appointed by Great Britain). In his circular letter, Hill advised the governors to treat the Massachusetts Circular Letter "with the contempt it deserves." He informed the governors that any assembly that approved the Circular Letter was to be dissolved. Hills did not intend it, but his action had the effect of uniting the colonies in sympathy for Massachusetts.
Massachusetts proceeded to become the center of colonial defiance. The Sons of Liberty staged a wave of sometimes-violent protests in Boston. Customs officials who tried to carry out their jobs were tarred and feathered (a painful procedure in which a person is covered with hot tar and coated with feathers). Finally, they asked Governor Francis Bernard (1712–1779) for protection. He proved unwilling to act—he said that Boston's citizens would never stand for him calling in British soldiers to patrol the streets; in fact, he feared for his life if he did it. So the commissioners called upon the British Royal Navy in Halifax, Nova Scotia (Canada), and a British warship sailed into Boston.
Made bold by the presence of the British Navy, customs commissioners singled out John Hancock (1737–1793), one of Boston's wealthiest and most popular citizens, to teach Boston a lesson. In June 1768, Hancock's boat Liberty was seized by customs officers for an alleged violation of the Town-shend
Acts. In turn, the customs officers found their own boat set on fire. As tempers flared, Governor Bernard suspended the Massachusetts Assembly in June 1768. From London came orders to British general Gage to move some of his soldiers from New York to Boston. On October 1, the British Army took control of Boston Common.
With British soldiers camped on Boston's doorstep, the spirit of defiance spread. One by one, nearly every assembly expressed its approval of the Massachusetts Circular Letter and was suspended. The assemblies met in secret, and by the end of 1768, most had adopted agreements not to import British goods until the Townshend Acts were repealed. Over the next few months, British imports to America fell by nearly half.
Parliament had expected the Townshend Revenue Act to bring in about 9 percent of the total yearly cost of paying for soldiers to protect the colonies. With customs officials unwilling to carry out their duties for fear of mob action, in 1768, the actual amount collected was about 4 percent of the total cost, and in the next two years, the Townshend Revenue Act brought in even less than that—not a lot of money for all the trouble it was causing.
British merchants complained loudly about the finan cial losses they were enduring because Americans were not buy ing their goods. In England, people were being thrown out of work because there was no market for the goods they produced. British merchants told Parliament it was foolish to risk profits from trade in a quarrel over a small amount of tax money.
In Boston, tension was thick. Samuel Adams and his Sons of Liberty complained loudly and often about the presence of British soldiers. Everything finally came to a head with the Boston Massacre of March 5, 1770, when five people were killed in a clash between British soldiers and townspeople. Parliament and colonists alike were shocked by the violence in Boston. Parliament once again backed down, and on April 12, 1770, the Townshend Acts were repealed. Only the tax on tea was kept. In the end, what was good for British merchants won out over Parliament's desire to show the colonies who was boss.
After the shock of the Boston Massacre, a period of calm fell over the colonies and England. The New York Gazette offered this opinion: "It's high time a stop was put to mobbing…. God knows where it will end." With British merchantshappily trading once again, and distracted by problems with Spain, Parliament was almost silent on the question of the American colonies for the next three years—until the Tea Act was passed in 1773.
Did you know …
- Charles Townshend was clever and witty, loud and amusing, and his nickname was "Champagne Charlie" (pronounced sham-PAIN; a sparkling wine). His personality traits were apparently good enough qualifications for King George, who listened to Townshend's advice and supported the Townshend Acts. Within months after the Acts went into effect, Townshend died at the young age of forty-two. There are different stories of how Townshend got his nickname. According to one version, he gave an important speech while apparently drunk. According to another version, some of his speeches had the effect of making his listeners feel as lightheaded as if they had been drinking champagne.
- Samuel Adams's dislike for the British dated back to at least 1741. Adams was eighteen and attending what is now Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, when the British-appointed governor of Massachusetts, Jonathan Belcher (1682–1787), declared illegal The Land Bank founded by Adams's father. The Adams family lost all its money, and Samuel had to take a job as a waiter to pay his way through college. He thought it wrong for the governor to have so much power over the colonists.
- Benjamin Franklin had a close friend, William Strahan, who was a member of Parliament. In November 1769, as the time drew near when Parliament would be discussing colonial outrage over the Townshend Acts, Strahan wrote a letter to his friend. He asked Franklin to give his views on the situation so Parliament might better understand what was going on. Franklin told Strahan that a partial repeal (keeping a tax on tea, for example) would not satisfy the colonists. Franklin said it was not the tax they objected to but its purpose—"the better support of [British] government…. This the colonists think unnecessary, unjust, and dangerous to their most important rights." Franklin warned Strahan that if Parliament did not modify its hard line against the colonies, there was likely to be more violence and loss of affection for England.
- Parliament was not inclined to listen to Franklin's warnings. Members were getting firsthand information from Thomas Gage, commander in chief of British troops in America from 1763 to 1775. Gage witnessed the turmoil that began with the Stamp Act in 1763 and escalated with the Townshend Acts. He reported his concerns in letters to Parliament. In March 1768, he warned that Americans were moving toward "a struggle for independency." Gage could see that his soldiers were unpopular with Bostonians. He warned Parliament in a letter written before the Boston Massacre in 1770 that his soldiers were suffering "assaults upon their persons till their lives were in danger," and it was only a matter of time before they resisted and defended themselves. His reports hardened the hearts of King George and his advisers against any sort of compromise with the colonists.
- It was probably Samuel Adams who gave the name "massacre" to the March 5, 1770, incident in which five citizens were killed by British soldiers. British Captain Thomas Preston and eight of his men were arrested and charged with manslaughter (taking the life of another without the intention of doing injury). A trial was held, but little evidence was produced that Preston ordered his men to fire, nor was it known who actually fired. Preston said that in all the confusion, it was impossible to know "who said fire, or don't fire, or stop your firing." Preston and six others were finally let go; two others were found guilty, were branded (burned with a hot iron) on the hand, and released. Founding Father and Boston lawyer John Adams (1735–1826) defended the soldiers in court. He said it was only right that the men receive a fair trial.
Where to Learn More
Clark, Dora Mae. British Opinion and the American Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell, 1966.
Commager, Henry Steele. Documents of American History. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1958.
Draper, Theodore. A Struggle for Power: The American Revolution. New York, Random House, 1996.
Farley, Karin Clafford. Samuel Adams: Grandfather of His Country. Austin, TX: Raintree/Steck Vaughn, 1994.
Fradin, Dennis Brindell. Samuel Adams: The Father of American Independence. New York: Clarion Books, 1998.
Rinaldi, Ann. The Fifth of March: A Story of the Boston Massacre. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1993.
Charles Townshend was the second son of the third Viscount Townshend. A viscount (pronounced VIE-count) is a member of British royalty who ranks below an earl and above a baron. This is a fairly high rank, but as a second son, Charles would not inherit the title. His mother was an heiress who is said to have been brilliant, witty, and direct. Townshend inherited those positive qualities. On the negative side, he has been described as a man without principles. British author Tobias Smollett (1721–1771) said that Townshend would have been "a really great man if he had had any consistency or stability of character."
Townshend was educated in Holland and England and was elected to Parliament in 1747, where he served until 1761. In 1766, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer, the man in charge of collecting the money needed to run the British government. Almost immediately, he proposed the acts that are associated with his name. The very next year, he died of "an incurable putrid fever," most likely typhus, which is often spread by fleas.
Samuel Adams, Committee-Man and Son of Liberty
Samuel Adams was born on September 27, 1722, in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Mary Fifield Adams and Samuel Adams. The elder Adams made his living as a beer brewer but also acted as a church assistant, tax assessor, and town official. The young Samuel was educated at the Boston Latin School, the first public school in the American colonies. In 1736, he went away to Harvard College (later Harvard University) with the intention of becoming a minister. But when the younger Adams was eighteen, a bank founded by his father was declared illegal and the elder Adams lost all his money, a situation young Samuel blamed on the British-appointed governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780). The loss of the family fortune forced the younger Adams to take a job as a waiter to pay his way through college. He became bitter towards the British over this issue.
Adams gave up the idea of being a minister, and when he graduated from Harvard College in 1743, he engaged in a variety of business ventures. But his heart was not in any of them, and they all proved unsuccessful. The young man preferred to spend his time in political discussions. Over time, he hardened in his opinion that America should become free of Britain and what he considered its corrupt ways.
By 1764, it might have seemed to observers that the forty-two-year-old Adams was something of a failure. He was poor and had lost several businesses and most of the money he inherited from his father. He was just beginning to show his political skills, however, and his real successes still lay ahead.
Adams was becoming known as an agitator who stirred up political resistance to Britain. More and more of his time was spent talking with anyone who would listen about the rights and liberties of the American colonists. Adams first spoke out in taverns and at informal meetings around Boston. In 1772, at Adams's request, the town of Boston appointed a Committee of Correspondence. Its twenty-one members met to state the rights of the colonists and work to have them widely publicized throughout the colonies. In a short time, many such letter-writing networks were set up, and the move toward colonial unity advanced.
Adams also headed a secret organization in Boston, the Sons of Liberty. This group took its name from a speech given in Parliament by a man who opposed the Stamp Act of 1765. He had called the colonists "these sons of liberty." Adams's Sons of Liberty sometimes called themselves Committees of Correspondence to cover up their secret activities. It was they who were responsible for many of the acts of mob violence against people who remained loyal to Great Britain. The Sons burned homes and tarred and feathered stamp agents, forcing all such agents to resign even before the Stamp Act was supposed to go into effect.
Perhaps Adams's greatest triumph was the Boston Tea Party (1773). British government in Massachusetts collapsed afterward, and the Committees of Correspondence served for a time as the colonial government. Some people say Adams provoked the incidents at Lexington and Concord in 1775 that resulted in the first shots of the war being fired. Throughout the war, Adams kept constantly busy, keeping patriots inflamed, counseling colonial leaders, and writing countless newspaper articles. By the war's end in 1783, he had burned himself out. He seemed unable to do anything constructive; his talent had been in destruction of British rule. He died in Boston on October 2, 1803. This Founding Father, whom many historians say was largely responsible for American independence, was called by President Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) "the Man of the Revolution." | 4,955 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George III.—A Story of the Spinning‑Wheel
W HILE Britain was fighting and losing a great colony, another battle was being fought and won. This was a peaceful battle—the battle of industries and inventions. To invent really means to find out, and people were now finding out all kinds of things which made living much more easy and comfortable.
The two chief things which were found out about this time were, first, how to spin cotton, wool, and linen by machinery instead of by hand; second, how to use steam to make this machinery work, and how to make it draw trains along lines and carry ships over the sea.
Before spinning-frames were invented, women used to spin with wheels in their own homes. But that was such slow work that the weavers could not get enough yarn to keep their looms going, and because of that they could not make as much cloth as they might otherwise have done. They grumbled so much about this that clever people began to wonder if it would be possible to spin in some quicker way. Among these clever people was a man called Richard Arkwright.
Richard Arkwright's father and mother were very poor and they had a great many children—thirteen in all, and of those thirteen Richard was the youngest. As Richard's father and mother were so poor and had so many children they had no money to spend in sending them to school, and in those days there were no free schools. So Richard hardly knew how to read or write. What he did know he taught himself with the help of an uncle who was very kind to him.
When Richard grew up he became a barber. He rented a little cellar and there he stuck up his red and white pole which is the sign of a barber's shop. Then he waited for people to come to have their hair cut and to be shaved.
But for some reason or other very few people came. Perhaps it was because Richard's shop was little and dark and down stairs. Perhaps it was because he was always thinking of other things and so did not make a very good barber. Whatever the reason was, few people came and Richard became poorer and poorer.
At last he had a great idea. If people would not come to be shaved for two pence, which was the usual price, why then he would shave them for one penny, and in this way cut out all the other barbers. So he wrote a big sign and pasted it over his doorway. "Come to the Subterraneous Barber. He shaves for a penny!!" Subterraneous means underground. It was not long before some people saw this sign. "Hullo!" they said "what is this? Shave for a penny? Well, there is no harm in trying."
So they tried, and Richard's shop became the fashion. It was crowded, while those of other barbers were empty.
The other barbers were very angry. But what was to be done? People were not likely to pay two pence, when they could be shaved for one penny.
But at last the barbers all agreed that they, too, should put up signs saying that they shaved for one penny. Richard, however, did not want to lose all the trade which he had gained. He wrote out a new sign, "Come to the Subterraneous Barber. He shaves for a halfpenny!!" So he was still the cheapest barber in the town. But shaving for a halfpenny did not pay very well.
At this time nearly every one wore wigs. Even people who had hair enough of their own cut it short and wore wigs of long hair, tied behind with ribbon, as you can see in the picture.
Arkwright found out how to dye hair different colours, so he left off shaving, and travelled about the country buying hair from people who were willing to sell it. Then he dyed it to the fashionable colour, and made it into wigs for fine gentlemen. This paid very much better than shaving people for a halfpenny, and soon Arkwright's hair was known to be the best in the country. He got on so well that he gave up his little shop in the cellar and took a better one.
But Richard was not really interested in making wigs. What he really liked was machinery, and he spent all his spare time making models of a spinning-frame. He got a man called Kay, who was a watchmaker, to help him, and Richard soon became so interested in his machinery that he neglected his business and became quite poor again.
Richard's wife, finding that they were growing poorer and poorer, thought that this was all the fault of the models, so one day she smashed them, hoping her husband would go back to his wig-making. Richard was very grieved when he found his beautiful models broken, but far from giving up, he became even more determined to go on making models. He was so poor by this time, and his clothes were in such rags that he could not go out in the streets.
Richard got leave to set up his machine in a school house. The house was in a quiet place surrounded by a garden, so that Arkwright and Kay could work in peace. This was very necessary, for Richard Arkwright's wife was not the only person who wished to smash models or even machinery itself. The work-people were very ignorant, and they hated these new inventions which they thought were going to take away their work. They hated them so much that, when the new inventions came into use, the work-people often broke into the factories and wrecked the machines.
But even in his quiet garden, Richard was not quite safe, for two old women who lived not far off could hear the whirring and humming of the machinery. They were very frightened at these new strange noises which they thought must be made by evil spirits. They told people that the sound was as if the wicked one was tuning his bagpipes while Arkwright and Kay danced a jig. The people would have broken into the house to see what really was there, but they were too much afraid of the evil spirits.
At last Arkwright conquered all his difficulties. His spinning-frame was a success and although his troubles did not end for a long time, he at length made a great fortune and died Sir Richard Arkwright. He not only made a great fortune for himself, but he helped to make Britain wealthy. After Arkwright's invention came into use, the looms could make so much cloth that the merchants had enough not only to supply Britain, but to sell to other countries. Britain began to be called the workshop of the world, and a few years later, a great Frenchman called us "a nation of shopkeepers," a name of which we have no reason to be ashamed.
Other men besides Arkwright invented spinning-frames, but I
have told you about Arkwright because
his was the first
really successful frame, and the machines which are used
Arkwright built mills and taught his work-people how to use the machines, and from his time the great factories began to grow up which now give work to so many people, and which have made so many towns rich and famous. Arkwright's frames were first worked by water, so that a factory could only be built near a stream. But later, when Watt and Stephenson discovered the power of steam, they were worked by steam.
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-0.08138843625783... | 1 | George III.—A Story of the Spinning‑Wheel
W HILE Britain was fighting and losing a great colony, another battle was being fought and won. This was a peaceful battle—the battle of industries and inventions. To invent really means to find out, and people were now finding out all kinds of things which made living much more easy and comfortable.
The two chief things which were found out about this time were, first, how to spin cotton, wool, and linen by machinery instead of by hand; second, how to use steam to make this machinery work, and how to make it draw trains along lines and carry ships over the sea.
Before spinning-frames were invented, women used to spin with wheels in their own homes. But that was such slow work that the weavers could not get enough yarn to keep their looms going, and because of that they could not make as much cloth as they might otherwise have done. They grumbled so much about this that clever people began to wonder if it would be possible to spin in some quicker way. Among these clever people was a man called Richard Arkwright.
Richard Arkwright's father and mother were very poor and they had a great many children—thirteen in all, and of those thirteen Richard was the youngest. As Richard's father and mother were so poor and had so many children they had no money to spend in sending them to school, and in those days there were no free schools. So Richard hardly knew how to read or write. What he did know he taught himself with the help of an uncle who was very kind to him.
When Richard grew up he became a barber. He rented a little cellar and there he stuck up his red and white pole which is the sign of a barber's shop. Then he waited for people to come to have their hair cut and to be shaved.
But for some reason or other very few people came. Perhaps it was because Richard's shop was little and dark and down stairs. Perhaps it was because he was always thinking of other things and so did not make a very good barber. Whatever the reason was, few people came and Richard became poorer and poorer.
At last he had a great idea. If people would not come to be shaved for two pence, which was the usual price, why then he would shave them for one penny, and in this way cut out all the other barbers. So he wrote a big sign and pasted it over his doorway. "Come to the Subterraneous Barber. He shaves for a penny!!" Subterraneous means underground. It was not long before some people saw this sign. "Hullo!" they said "what is this? Shave for a penny? Well, there is no harm in trying."
So they tried, and Richard's shop became the fashion. It was crowded, while those of other barbers were empty.
The other barbers were very angry. But what was to be done? People were not likely to pay two pence, when they could be shaved for one penny.
But at last the barbers all agreed that they, too, should put up signs saying that they shaved for one penny. Richard, however, did not want to lose all the trade which he had gained. He wrote out a new sign, "Come to the Subterraneous Barber. He shaves for a halfpenny!!" So he was still the cheapest barber in the town. But shaving for a halfpenny did not pay very well.
At this time nearly every one wore wigs. Even people who had hair enough of their own cut it short and wore wigs of long hair, tied behind with ribbon, as you can see in the picture.
Arkwright found out how to dye hair different colours, so he left off shaving, and travelled about the country buying hair from people who were willing to sell it. Then he dyed it to the fashionable colour, and made it into wigs for fine gentlemen. This paid very much better than shaving people for a halfpenny, and soon Arkwright's hair was known to be the best in the country. He got on so well that he gave up his little shop in the cellar and took a better one.
But Richard was not really interested in making wigs. What he really liked was machinery, and he spent all his spare time making models of a spinning-frame. He got a man called Kay, who was a watchmaker, to help him, and Richard soon became so interested in his machinery that he neglected his business and became quite poor again.
Richard's wife, finding that they were growing poorer and poorer, thought that this was all the fault of the models, so one day she smashed them, hoping her husband would go back to his wig-making. Richard was very grieved when he found his beautiful models broken, but far from giving up, he became even more determined to go on making models. He was so poor by this time, and his clothes were in such rags that he could not go out in the streets.
Richard got leave to set up his machine in a school house. The house was in a quiet place surrounded by a garden, so that Arkwright and Kay could work in peace. This was very necessary, for Richard Arkwright's wife was not the only person who wished to smash models or even machinery itself. The work-people were very ignorant, and they hated these new inventions which they thought were going to take away their work. They hated them so much that, when the new inventions came into use, the work-people often broke into the factories and wrecked the machines.
But even in his quiet garden, Richard was not quite safe, for two old women who lived not far off could hear the whirring and humming of the machinery. They were very frightened at these new strange noises which they thought must be made by evil spirits. They told people that the sound was as if the wicked one was tuning his bagpipes while Arkwright and Kay danced a jig. The people would have broken into the house to see what really was there, but they were too much afraid of the evil spirits.
At last Arkwright conquered all his difficulties. His spinning-frame was a success and although his troubles did not end for a long time, he at length made a great fortune and died Sir Richard Arkwright. He not only made a great fortune for himself, but he helped to make Britain wealthy. After Arkwright's invention came into use, the looms could make so much cloth that the merchants had enough not only to supply Britain, but to sell to other countries. Britain began to be called the workshop of the world, and a few years later, a great Frenchman called us "a nation of shopkeepers," a name of which we have no reason to be ashamed.
Other men besides Arkwright invented spinning-frames, but I
have told you about Arkwright because
his was the first
really successful frame, and the machines which are used
Arkwright built mills and taught his work-people how to use the machines, and from his time the great factories began to grow up which now give work to so many people, and which have made so many towns rich and famous. Arkwright's frames were first worked by water, so that a factory could only be built near a stream. But later, when Watt and Stephenson discovered the power of steam, they were worked by steam.
When Watt and Stephenson made their engines and built railways, when British steamships carrying British goods sailed proudly over the seas, Britain was more than ever mistress of the waves, and she was also the workshop and the market of the world. | 1,558 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From its earliest years, the Methodist movement held an annual Conference. These volumes, published between 1862 and 1864, collect the minutes from the conferences held from 1744 to 1824.
In 1803, one of the questions for debate was whether women should continue being allowed to preach – something that John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, had sanctioned in 1761. This had always been a controversial issue, and after Wesley’s death in 1791 it caused increasing problems and disagreement in the movement. As these minutes show, the 1803 conference ruled that women should no longer preach, because so many people opposed it and because it was felt that there were already enough male preachers. In keeping with Methodist doctrine that believers should attend to God’s individual plan for them, it was decided that if a woman was sure that she had an ‘extraordinary call’ to preach, she could do so before other women only, and even then only under certain conditions.
George Eliot's Adam Bede opens in 1799, and most of the novel’s action takes place in that and the following year. We first meet Dinah Morris, the young Methodist, as she is on her way to preach on the village green. Eliot emphasises the power and sincerity and femininity of her preaching: she speaks ‘directly from her own emotions and under the inspiration of her own simple faith’, and her words have a profound effect on her listeners. There is no doubt that Dinah has a ‘vocation’ to preach (Ch. 2).
However, by the close of the novel Dinah has ‘“given it [preaching] up, all but talking to the people a bit in their houses”’ (Epilogue). The epilogue of Adam Bede is set in 1807, several years after the decree that women should no longer preach. Adam’s brother, Seth, suggests that Dinah should have defied the decree; Adam disagrees, saying that most women preachers did more harm than good, and Dinah ‘thought it right to set th’example o’ submitting’. Many readers have struggled with this ending: Dinah, once determined to stay unmarried and devote herself to religious work, has retreated from the public sphere and been absorbed into the traditional female roles of wife and mother. | <urn:uuid:a90dbf71-793a-4860-898a-4d7a177ee8cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/minutes-of-the-1803-methodist-conference?shelfitemviewer=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.980714 | 488 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.076750077... | 1 | From its earliest years, the Methodist movement held an annual Conference. These volumes, published between 1862 and 1864, collect the minutes from the conferences held from 1744 to 1824.
In 1803, one of the questions for debate was whether women should continue being allowed to preach – something that John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, had sanctioned in 1761. This had always been a controversial issue, and after Wesley’s death in 1791 it caused increasing problems and disagreement in the movement. As these minutes show, the 1803 conference ruled that women should no longer preach, because so many people opposed it and because it was felt that there were already enough male preachers. In keeping with Methodist doctrine that believers should attend to God’s individual plan for them, it was decided that if a woman was sure that she had an ‘extraordinary call’ to preach, she could do so before other women only, and even then only under certain conditions.
George Eliot's Adam Bede opens in 1799, and most of the novel’s action takes place in that and the following year. We first meet Dinah Morris, the young Methodist, as she is on her way to preach on the village green. Eliot emphasises the power and sincerity and femininity of her preaching: she speaks ‘directly from her own emotions and under the inspiration of her own simple faith’, and her words have a profound effect on her listeners. There is no doubt that Dinah has a ‘vocation’ to preach (Ch. 2).
However, by the close of the novel Dinah has ‘“given it [preaching] up, all but talking to the people a bit in their houses”’ (Epilogue). The epilogue of Adam Bede is set in 1807, several years after the decree that women should no longer preach. Adam’s brother, Seth, suggests that Dinah should have defied the decree; Adam disagrees, saying that most women preachers did more harm than good, and Dinah ‘thought it right to set th’example o’ submitting’. Many readers have struggled with this ending: Dinah, once determined to stay unmarried and devote herself to religious work, has retreated from the public sphere and been absorbed into the traditional female roles of wife and mother. | 494 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bessie Coleman became the first African American woman to hold a pilot license, which she achieved in 1921.
Bessie was born in 1892 in east Texas. She grew up in a three-room shack and her family picked cotton and did the laundry for several white locals. As a young girl, Bessie walked four miles to school every day to attend a segregated school that only had one classroom. On the weekends and holidays, Bessie would help her family out by picking cotton.
Through reading, Bessie discovered the world of aviation and always dreamed that one day she would be able to fly a plane. As she got older, she realised that this wouldn’t be an easy feat.
Bessie had to drop out of college after a year because she couldn’t afford it and then when she was 23-years-old, she moved to Chicago. Here, she worked two jobs and saved for five years to fulfill her dream of becoming a pilot. However, at the time, African Americans, Native Americans, and women were unable to attend flight schools in the United States. Everybody refused to teach Bessie how to fly.1
Undeterred, Bessie soon discovered that if she travelled to Europe, she could attend flight school there. Robert S. Abbot, founder and editor of the Chicago Defender, urged Bessie to pursue her dreams and in 1920, Bessie had saved up enough money to travel to France. She travelled halfway across the world where during the day, she took courses at one of the best flight schools – L’Ecole d’Aviation des Freres Caudron at Le Crotoy in the Somme – and during the night, she taught herself how to speak French.
Within a year, she had earned an international pilot’s license issued in Paris by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale, granting her the right to fly anywhere in the world. In fact, Bessie was the first black woman to ever have a pilot license. “She was born with a kind of self-confidence in which she viewed herself as very gifted, very special – as someone who was going to amount to something,” said Doris Rich, author of Queen Bess: Daredevil Aviator. 2
Shortly after Bessie’s return to the United States, she became a stunt flier and performed for audiences where she earned the moniker “Queen Bessie.” She was renowned for her pinpoint landings and “figure 8s.”3 She travelled across the country, giving exhibition flights and speaking at black churches and schools. When she took to the sky, she wore a French pilot outfit with a leather helmet and a long leather coat. In 1922, she was dubbed as “the world’s greatest woman flier,” at an American air show.
Her lifelong dream was to establish a flying school for young African American aviators who wanted to follow in her footsteps but didn’t have the money to travel to a European flight school. Unfortunately, she would not live long enough to achieve this dream.
On 30 April, 1926, Bessie was planning on flying at an air show in Florida. She was flying in her JN-4 plane that had previously been grounded several times due to unusual behaviour. Shortly after Bessie took off, the plane made an unexpected dive. When the plane began spinning, it threw Bessie offboard, at 2,000 feet. Bessie came crashing to the ground where she died on impact. It was later discovered that a loose wrench had dropped into the plane’s gearbox and jammed it.
She was buried in Chicago’s Lincoln Cemetery.
Bessie had been an inspiration to men and women all across the world. She overcame the obstacles of poverty, race and gender. “Because of Bessie Coleman, we have overcome that which was worse than racial barriers. We have overcome the barriers within ourselves and dared to dream,” said civil rights activist, Lieutenant William J Powell.4
- The Tampa Tribune, 7 September, 2000 – “Pioneer Aviator Honored with Road”
- St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 6 September, 1993 – “First Black Aviatrix Left a High-Flying Legacy”
- Sun Sentinel, 9 April, 1995 – “Black Heritage Series Salutes Woman Aviator”
- International Business Times, 26 January, 2017 – “Google Doodle Honours First Black Female Pilot” | <urn:uuid:d18dcad4-092b-4a49-a8b7-3faf9140705a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://morbidology.com/the-first-woman-african-american-pilot-bessie-coleman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00408.warc.gz | en | 0.983178 | 949 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.03358058... | 1 | Bessie Coleman became the first African American woman to hold a pilot license, which she achieved in 1921.
Bessie was born in 1892 in east Texas. She grew up in a three-room shack and her family picked cotton and did the laundry for several white locals. As a young girl, Bessie walked four miles to school every day to attend a segregated school that only had one classroom. On the weekends and holidays, Bessie would help her family out by picking cotton.
Through reading, Bessie discovered the world of aviation and always dreamed that one day she would be able to fly a plane. As she got older, she realised that this wouldn’t be an easy feat.
Bessie had to drop out of college after a year because she couldn’t afford it and then when she was 23-years-old, she moved to Chicago. Here, she worked two jobs and saved for five years to fulfill her dream of becoming a pilot. However, at the time, African Americans, Native Americans, and women were unable to attend flight schools in the United States. Everybody refused to teach Bessie how to fly.1
Undeterred, Bessie soon discovered that if she travelled to Europe, she could attend flight school there. Robert S. Abbot, founder and editor of the Chicago Defender, urged Bessie to pursue her dreams and in 1920, Bessie had saved up enough money to travel to France. She travelled halfway across the world where during the day, she took courses at one of the best flight schools – L’Ecole d’Aviation des Freres Caudron at Le Crotoy in the Somme – and during the night, she taught herself how to speak French.
Within a year, she had earned an international pilot’s license issued in Paris by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale, granting her the right to fly anywhere in the world. In fact, Bessie was the first black woman to ever have a pilot license. “She was born with a kind of self-confidence in which she viewed herself as very gifted, very special – as someone who was going to amount to something,” said Doris Rich, author of Queen Bess: Daredevil Aviator. 2
Shortly after Bessie’s return to the United States, she became a stunt flier and performed for audiences where she earned the moniker “Queen Bessie.” She was renowned for her pinpoint landings and “figure 8s.”3 She travelled across the country, giving exhibition flights and speaking at black churches and schools. When she took to the sky, she wore a French pilot outfit with a leather helmet and a long leather coat. In 1922, she was dubbed as “the world’s greatest woman flier,” at an American air show.
Her lifelong dream was to establish a flying school for young African American aviators who wanted to follow in her footsteps but didn’t have the money to travel to a European flight school. Unfortunately, she would not live long enough to achieve this dream.
On 30 April, 1926, Bessie was planning on flying at an air show in Florida. She was flying in her JN-4 plane that had previously been grounded several times due to unusual behaviour. Shortly after Bessie took off, the plane made an unexpected dive. When the plane began spinning, it threw Bessie offboard, at 2,000 feet. Bessie came crashing to the ground where she died on impact. It was later discovered that a loose wrench had dropped into the plane’s gearbox and jammed it.
She was buried in Chicago’s Lincoln Cemetery.
Bessie had been an inspiration to men and women all across the world. She overcame the obstacles of poverty, race and gender. “Because of Bessie Coleman, we have overcome that which was worse than racial barriers. We have overcome the barriers within ourselves and dared to dream,” said civil rights activist, Lieutenant William J Powell.4
- The Tampa Tribune, 7 September, 2000 – “Pioneer Aviator Honored with Road”
- St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 6 September, 1993 – “First Black Aviatrix Left a High-Flying Legacy”
- Sun Sentinel, 9 April, 1995 – “Black Heritage Series Salutes Woman Aviator”
- International Business Times, 26 January, 2017 – “Google Doodle Honours First Black Female Pilot” | 942 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you write, smash it out on social media, or create fantastic video, nominate yourself or a friend here for The Orange Flower Awards 2020. Last date to apply – Jan 12th
What were the struggles and motivations of female saints of India? A brief history of women saints from Kashmir to Karnataka, Gujarat to Bengal.
Lalla or Lal Ded as she was known, was a rebel female saint of India in fourteenth-century Kashmir. A mystic of the Kashmiri Shaivite sect who inspired and interacted with many Sufis, she created mystic poetry, verses that are among the earliest compositions in the Kashmiri language called Vaks (literal meaning: speech or voice).
Born in Pandrethan (ancient Puranadhisthana) near Srinagar into a Kashmiri Pandit family, she was trained in Trika, a mystic tradition of Shaivism in Kashmir. Married at the age of twelve, she was regularly mistreated by her mother-in-law and husband. She left her marital home for good at twenty-four and renouncing material life, is said to have wandered naked (with her hanging belly covering her private parts) reciting Vaks. Legends abound and several miracles are attributed to her.
In her poems, she rebelled against prevailing social norms, rejecting rituals in favour of meditative devotion, questioning the secondary status of women and advocating equality for all. She vehemently opposed the ritualistic aspects of Trika, revolting against the powerful clergy of the times who had transformed these rituals into a means of exploitation. The ritual-free Trika of Lal-Ded emerged, giving a new lease of life to Kashmiri Shaivite spiritual tradition.
Lal Ded demystified Shaivism by composing in the language of the common people, making its tenets accessible to all. Her Vaks stem from personal experience, conveying the realisation that the divine resides within, expressing her yearning and irritation with the divine in turn. The supreme is omnipresent, she sang, there is no distinction between Hindu and Muslim. The Hindus called her Lalleshwari and the Muslims Lalla Arifa, but both endearingly called her Lal Ded (grandmother).
Her poetry has been translated widely, the most recent English translation being I, Lalla: The Poems of Lal Ded by Ranjit Hoskote, published by Penguin.
Meerabai was a sixteenth-century mystic poet and devotee of Krishna who has been claimed by the North Indian Hindu tradition of Bhakti saints.
Born into a royal family in what is now Rajasthan, she was the only child of her parents. After her mother died when she was five, she was sent to her grandparents, who were devout worshippers of Vishnu. She was educated in music, religion, politics and government.
Most legends about Meera mention her disregard for social and family conventions, her devotion to god Krishna, her treating Krishna as her husband and her being persecuted for her religious devotion.
Her husband died sometime before her father passed away when she was around 30. The hostility increased as Meera refused to commit sati. She became more detached, frequenting the temple, discoursing with sadhus, and dancing before the deity as she wrote in one of her poems.
Meerabai’s poems, composed in passionate praise of Krishna, are known as bhajans and are popular across India.
Gangasati, a medieval saint-poet of the bhakti tradition, composed devotional songs in Gujarati that have been handed down through the oral tradition.
She was born in a Vaghela Rajput family in the Saurashtra region of present-day Gujarat. She was married to Kahlubha, who shared her love of bhajan and satsang. Providing hospitality to sages and pilgrims was an important part of their lives. They had a son, Ajobha, who was married to Paanbai.
The story goes that to prove his spiritual powers, Kalubha once resurrected a cow but later regretted it and decided to end his life. Gangasati urged him to let her take samadhi too but he asked her to wait until she had passed on what she knew to Paanbai, their daughter-in-law. She agreed and composed a song a day for fifty-one days – each around a specific theme like nature or the guru-shishya relationship – as instruction to Paanbai, after which she took samadhi.
Her bhajans do not mention any specific deity but refer to god as nirguna, without form or attributes, and are still popular in Gujarat.
Janabai, known as Sant Janabai, was a Marāthi religious poet born in the thirteenth century to a family that came at the bottom of the caste ladder.
When she was still a child, her mother died, and her father (shortly before his own death) took her to Pandharpur where she worked as a maid in the household of Damasheti and Gonai, parents of Namdev who went on to be a prominent Marathi religious poet. Janabai was probably a little older than the young Namdev, and attended to him throughout her life.
The religious environment of Pandharpur and specifically at the home of Janabai’s employers, coupled with her own devotion to Lord Vitthala (Vishnu) and talent as a poet made Janabai blossom. Though she never had any formal schooling, she composed a large number of verses of the abhang form, which survived as a result of being included in collections of Namdev’s own works.
Sant Sakhubai was a saint of the Bhakti movement era from the same region. She too was a great devotee of Panduranga Vitthala.
Sakhubai was born into a very poor family in Pandharpur, but married into a rich one. Her in-laws, though, ill-treated her. She suffered physical abuse and mental agony at the hands of her husband and in-laws. Tales of miracles are part of common lore about her.
Muktabai or Muktai was a saint in the Varkari tradition who wrote forty-one abhangs. She was born in a Deshastha Brahmin family, the last of the four children of Vitthal Govind Kulkarni and Rukmini, a pious couple from a village near Paithan on the banks of the Godavari. Vitthal lied about his marriage to be initiated into sanyas. When found out, the couple was excommunicated from the caste. Later Vitthal and Rukmini ended their lives, hoping their children would be accepted into society after their death. The orphaned children had to resort to begging, but all four went on to contribute abhangs and commentaries on the Gita.
Muktai’s elder brother, Dnyaneshwar, is considered the first Varkari saint, known for the Prakrit retelling of the Bhagwad Gita, revered as the Dnyaneshwari.
Akka Mahadevi was a twelfth-century saint-poet, prominent in the Veerashaiva Bhakti movement. She is highly regarded across economic and social strata, and a household name even today in the region. Her role in female emancipation and her contribution to the history and literature of the region is valued by scholars.
Born in Udutadi (now in Shimoga, Karnataka), she was initiated into mysticism at a young age. It is said that King Kaushika saw Mahadevi when his procession was passing by and wanted to marry her, but Mahadevi refused. Finally, she agreed to a conditional marriage. But when the king went back on his word, Mahadevi left the palace.
A non-conformist, she considered the Lord Chenna Mallikarjuna (Shiva) as her husband and went about as a wandering poet-saint with nothing but her hair over her body. The title Akka (elder sister) was given to her by the other great Veerashaiva saints in acknowledgement of her contribution to the discussions at the Anubhava Mantapa, a spiritual academy in Kalyana, Bidar, where people across caste, class and gender participated.
In simple language, her verses, called vachanas, explore complex ideas such as the various paths to enlightenment (moksha, which she termed arivu), killing the ‘I’, conquering the senses and desire.
Andal was a Bhakti saint who composed hymns in eighth-century Tamil. She was the only woman among the twelve Alwars – medieval Vaishnavite poets who took the scriptures to the masses, composing hymns in Tamil that are considered the equivalent of the Sanskrit Vedas.
She was found as an infant under a tulsi plant by her father, Periyalwar (also one of the twelve Alwars). Andal loved Krishna as a child; as a teenager she refused to be betrothed to any mortal man.
The Thiruppavai attributed to the young Andal and the Nachiyar Thirumozhi said to have been composed in her teens are sung even today in Tamilnadu where she is revered.
Sarada Devi was a notable woman saint and mystic of the nineteenth century. She was the wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, a nineteenth-century mystic of Bengal, who played an important role in the growth of the Ramakrishna movement.
She was born to a poor Brahmin couple in a village in Bengal. She started meditating from childhood and there are accounts of visions and mystic experiences. At the age of five, she was married to Ramakrishna.
Sarada Devi paved the way for the future generation of women to take up monasticity. Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission situated at Dakshineshwar are based on her ideals and life. Sarada Devi did not receive formal education and did not write any books, but her spiritual insights are highly regarded by scholars. Her utterances have been recorded by disciples.
Why did these women on the path of devotion have to reject family life (unless they happened to be wedded to like-minded men) and ‘marry god’? It is tempting to pin it on gender, until one thinks of the male bhakti saints – they weren’t spared either. Kabir too was persecuted. Society has never been kind to the questioners, the seekers, the outliers. Status quo is comfortable.
What prompted these women, some rich and some poor; some in unhappy marriages and some not; brahmin, Rajput or sudra to take the path they did? We cannot say with certainty. Which came first – spiritual enlightenment or the quest for social equality? Or is that question invalid – aren’t the two intertwined? Isn’t realisation of the supreme intertwined with the knowledge that all are one? And that everyone is equal regardless of religion, caste or gender?
An immersion in their works, or in the divine, might reveal answers.
Become a premium user on Women’s Web and get access to exclusive content for women, plus useful Women’s Web events and resources in your city.
Image source: By Onef9day (clicked at Delhi Haat) [CC BY 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons
Arundhati Venkatesh is a children's writer. Her books have won several awards, including the
This is a wonderful read!! Thanks for sharing!!
A wonderful read. Wish there were more role models like these for women
i m proud that such a culture existed where women gave up everything including her cloths…….but sad it does not exist ant more
10 Kashmiri Women Achievers That Make Us Proud!
Beti Bhagao Abhiyaan: This Discriminatory Bill Against The Women Of J&K Needs To Go!
This ‘Pagli’ Of Kashmir Gave Birth Alone In Pain, Her Infant Devoured By Dogs
No Mr. Khattar! Kashmiri Girls’ Consent Is Not A Joke!
Get our weekly mailer and never miss out on the best reads by and about women! | <urn:uuid:f3849388-7fbe-461c-8f32-5d32222f6454> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.womensweb.in/2016/12/female-saints-of-india/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.980947 | 2,612 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.2933899760246... | 1 | If you write, smash it out on social media, or create fantastic video, nominate yourself or a friend here for The Orange Flower Awards 2020. Last date to apply – Jan 12th
What were the struggles and motivations of female saints of India? A brief history of women saints from Kashmir to Karnataka, Gujarat to Bengal.
Lalla or Lal Ded as she was known, was a rebel female saint of India in fourteenth-century Kashmir. A mystic of the Kashmiri Shaivite sect who inspired and interacted with many Sufis, she created mystic poetry, verses that are among the earliest compositions in the Kashmiri language called Vaks (literal meaning: speech or voice).
Born in Pandrethan (ancient Puranadhisthana) near Srinagar into a Kashmiri Pandit family, she was trained in Trika, a mystic tradition of Shaivism in Kashmir. Married at the age of twelve, she was regularly mistreated by her mother-in-law and husband. She left her marital home for good at twenty-four and renouncing material life, is said to have wandered naked (with her hanging belly covering her private parts) reciting Vaks. Legends abound and several miracles are attributed to her.
In her poems, she rebelled against prevailing social norms, rejecting rituals in favour of meditative devotion, questioning the secondary status of women and advocating equality for all. She vehemently opposed the ritualistic aspects of Trika, revolting against the powerful clergy of the times who had transformed these rituals into a means of exploitation. The ritual-free Trika of Lal-Ded emerged, giving a new lease of life to Kashmiri Shaivite spiritual tradition.
Lal Ded demystified Shaivism by composing in the language of the common people, making its tenets accessible to all. Her Vaks stem from personal experience, conveying the realisation that the divine resides within, expressing her yearning and irritation with the divine in turn. The supreme is omnipresent, she sang, there is no distinction between Hindu and Muslim. The Hindus called her Lalleshwari and the Muslims Lalla Arifa, but both endearingly called her Lal Ded (grandmother).
Her poetry has been translated widely, the most recent English translation being I, Lalla: The Poems of Lal Ded by Ranjit Hoskote, published by Penguin.
Meerabai was a sixteenth-century mystic poet and devotee of Krishna who has been claimed by the North Indian Hindu tradition of Bhakti saints.
Born into a royal family in what is now Rajasthan, she was the only child of her parents. After her mother died when she was five, she was sent to her grandparents, who were devout worshippers of Vishnu. She was educated in music, religion, politics and government.
Most legends about Meera mention her disregard for social and family conventions, her devotion to god Krishna, her treating Krishna as her husband and her being persecuted for her religious devotion.
Her husband died sometime before her father passed away when she was around 30. The hostility increased as Meera refused to commit sati. She became more detached, frequenting the temple, discoursing with sadhus, and dancing before the deity as she wrote in one of her poems.
Meerabai’s poems, composed in passionate praise of Krishna, are known as bhajans and are popular across India.
Gangasati, a medieval saint-poet of the bhakti tradition, composed devotional songs in Gujarati that have been handed down through the oral tradition.
She was born in a Vaghela Rajput family in the Saurashtra region of present-day Gujarat. She was married to Kahlubha, who shared her love of bhajan and satsang. Providing hospitality to sages and pilgrims was an important part of their lives. They had a son, Ajobha, who was married to Paanbai.
The story goes that to prove his spiritual powers, Kalubha once resurrected a cow but later regretted it and decided to end his life. Gangasati urged him to let her take samadhi too but he asked her to wait until she had passed on what she knew to Paanbai, their daughter-in-law. She agreed and composed a song a day for fifty-one days – each around a specific theme like nature or the guru-shishya relationship – as instruction to Paanbai, after which she took samadhi.
Her bhajans do not mention any specific deity but refer to god as nirguna, without form or attributes, and are still popular in Gujarat.
Janabai, known as Sant Janabai, was a Marāthi religious poet born in the thirteenth century to a family that came at the bottom of the caste ladder.
When she was still a child, her mother died, and her father (shortly before his own death) took her to Pandharpur where she worked as a maid in the household of Damasheti and Gonai, parents of Namdev who went on to be a prominent Marathi religious poet. Janabai was probably a little older than the young Namdev, and attended to him throughout her life.
The religious environment of Pandharpur and specifically at the home of Janabai’s employers, coupled with her own devotion to Lord Vitthala (Vishnu) and talent as a poet made Janabai blossom. Though she never had any formal schooling, she composed a large number of verses of the abhang form, which survived as a result of being included in collections of Namdev’s own works.
Sant Sakhubai was a saint of the Bhakti movement era from the same region. She too was a great devotee of Panduranga Vitthala.
Sakhubai was born into a very poor family in Pandharpur, but married into a rich one. Her in-laws, though, ill-treated her. She suffered physical abuse and mental agony at the hands of her husband and in-laws. Tales of miracles are part of common lore about her.
Muktabai or Muktai was a saint in the Varkari tradition who wrote forty-one abhangs. She was born in a Deshastha Brahmin family, the last of the four children of Vitthal Govind Kulkarni and Rukmini, a pious couple from a village near Paithan on the banks of the Godavari. Vitthal lied about his marriage to be initiated into sanyas. When found out, the couple was excommunicated from the caste. Later Vitthal and Rukmini ended their lives, hoping their children would be accepted into society after their death. The orphaned children had to resort to begging, but all four went on to contribute abhangs and commentaries on the Gita.
Muktai’s elder brother, Dnyaneshwar, is considered the first Varkari saint, known for the Prakrit retelling of the Bhagwad Gita, revered as the Dnyaneshwari.
Akka Mahadevi was a twelfth-century saint-poet, prominent in the Veerashaiva Bhakti movement. She is highly regarded across economic and social strata, and a household name even today in the region. Her role in female emancipation and her contribution to the history and literature of the region is valued by scholars.
Born in Udutadi (now in Shimoga, Karnataka), she was initiated into mysticism at a young age. It is said that King Kaushika saw Mahadevi when his procession was passing by and wanted to marry her, but Mahadevi refused. Finally, she agreed to a conditional marriage. But when the king went back on his word, Mahadevi left the palace.
A non-conformist, she considered the Lord Chenna Mallikarjuna (Shiva) as her husband and went about as a wandering poet-saint with nothing but her hair over her body. The title Akka (elder sister) was given to her by the other great Veerashaiva saints in acknowledgement of her contribution to the discussions at the Anubhava Mantapa, a spiritual academy in Kalyana, Bidar, where people across caste, class and gender participated.
In simple language, her verses, called vachanas, explore complex ideas such as the various paths to enlightenment (moksha, which she termed arivu), killing the ‘I’, conquering the senses and desire.
Andal was a Bhakti saint who composed hymns in eighth-century Tamil. She was the only woman among the twelve Alwars – medieval Vaishnavite poets who took the scriptures to the masses, composing hymns in Tamil that are considered the equivalent of the Sanskrit Vedas.
She was found as an infant under a tulsi plant by her father, Periyalwar (also one of the twelve Alwars). Andal loved Krishna as a child; as a teenager she refused to be betrothed to any mortal man.
The Thiruppavai attributed to the young Andal and the Nachiyar Thirumozhi said to have been composed in her teens are sung even today in Tamilnadu where she is revered.
Sarada Devi was a notable woman saint and mystic of the nineteenth century. She was the wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, a nineteenth-century mystic of Bengal, who played an important role in the growth of the Ramakrishna movement.
She was born to a poor Brahmin couple in a village in Bengal. She started meditating from childhood and there are accounts of visions and mystic experiences. At the age of five, she was married to Ramakrishna.
Sarada Devi paved the way for the future generation of women to take up monasticity. Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission situated at Dakshineshwar are based on her ideals and life. Sarada Devi did not receive formal education and did not write any books, but her spiritual insights are highly regarded by scholars. Her utterances have been recorded by disciples.
Why did these women on the path of devotion have to reject family life (unless they happened to be wedded to like-minded men) and ‘marry god’? It is tempting to pin it on gender, until one thinks of the male bhakti saints – they weren’t spared either. Kabir too was persecuted. Society has never been kind to the questioners, the seekers, the outliers. Status quo is comfortable.
What prompted these women, some rich and some poor; some in unhappy marriages and some not; brahmin, Rajput or sudra to take the path they did? We cannot say with certainty. Which came first – spiritual enlightenment or the quest for social equality? Or is that question invalid – aren’t the two intertwined? Isn’t realisation of the supreme intertwined with the knowledge that all are one? And that everyone is equal regardless of religion, caste or gender?
An immersion in their works, or in the divine, might reveal answers.
Become a premium user on Women’s Web and get access to exclusive content for women, plus useful Women’s Web events and resources in your city.
Image source: By Onef9day (clicked at Delhi Haat) [CC BY 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons
Arundhati Venkatesh is a children's writer. Her books have won several awards, including the
This is a wonderful read!! Thanks for sharing!!
A wonderful read. Wish there were more role models like these for women
i m proud that such a culture existed where women gave up everything including her cloths…….but sad it does not exist ant more
10 Kashmiri Women Achievers That Make Us Proud!
Beti Bhagao Abhiyaan: This Discriminatory Bill Against The Women Of J&K Needs To Go!
This ‘Pagli’ Of Kashmir Gave Birth Alone In Pain, Her Infant Devoured By Dogs
No Mr. Khattar! Kashmiri Girls’ Consent Is Not A Joke!
Get our weekly mailer and never miss out on the best reads by and about women! | 2,523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
March 21, 2014
Most people distinguish kings as their supreme leader that would protect them from harm. In reality, there are kings that are not looked up to because of that. King Henry VIII was viewed as one of the most debatable rulers in history. His desperation to have a male son, and his need for power led him to do things no one else had done. He influenced England and literature in many different ways through his life choices. On June 28, 1491, in Greenwich, England, Henry VIII was born to King Henry Tudor VII and Elizabeth of York. His parents didn’t pay much attention to him until his two older siblings, Elizabeth and Arthur passed away. Growing up, he was a very energetic, athletic, and intelligent adolescent. He was very smart speaking fluent in French, Latin, and Spanish. He also played many instruments and was a composer (History of the Monarchy The Tudors Henry VIII 1). In April of 1509, Henry VII passed away leaving Henry VIII the throne at age seventeen. Shortly after, Henry married Catherine of Aragon in order to continue the alliance with Spain that was begun with her marriage to his older brother, Arthur. Catherine wasn’t able to have a son, so Henry pursued Anne Boleyn who was a maid of honor in his court. Henry tried to annul his marriage to Catherine, but the Pope wouldn’t allow it. Henry decided to break from the Church which granted him a divorce. He secretly married Anne in 1533. She also couldn’t produce a son, so he made up charges of witchcraft and adultery with her friend Thomas Wyatt and had Anne beheaded in 1536. Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour was supposedly his only true love. Jane shortly died after having a son, Edward VI. Jane’s death was the only one that caused Henry to mourn over and remove himself from the court. Henry’s next marriage was arranged by Thomas Cromwell to a German princess Anne of Cleves. She was so unattractive that Henry could not force himself to stay married to her. He ended the marriage with an annulment. Sixteen days later, he married the young Kathryn Howard who was nineteen while he was forty-nine. Rumors started about her having liaisons while they were married and Henry had her and her lovers executed in 1542. Henry’s final wife who was widowed was Catherine Parr. She didn’t have any children of her own, but she became a stepmother and wife who took care of Henry until his death in January of 1547 (The Six Wives of Henry VIII 1).
Henry stayed well informed about different issues, but had no real interest in running a country. Throughout his reign, he made many decisions that would play a part in England’s future. He instigated major restructuring of the government including the establishment of a bureaucracy. His change of the navy into a fleet of fighting ships enabled and encouraged England’s involvement in several wars with Scotland and France over many fights that had been unsettled for years. The fighting continued until 1516 when he gave up fighting to promote peace in Europe (The World Book Encyclopedia 188).
Henry developed a positive relationship with the Pope. It began in 1513 when they became friends in a Holy League against France. In 1521, the Pope gave him the title “Defender of the Faith” for his book Defense of the Seven Sacraments (Henry VIII 1). When Henry wanted to divorce his first wife, he challenged the Pope’s authority. He used his position as king to bully the church and the Pope hoping to force the Pope to grant his divorce. In 1532, England passed the Act of Annates which cancelled the Pope’s power over England and cut funding to the Catholic Church. Parliament passed antipapal legislation and Thomas Cranmer announced Henry’s marriage to Catherine invalid. This legislation brought about the Act in Restraint of Appeals which said that England was independent of all foreign… | <urn:uuid:9fe0513e-0b36-4e21-950e-86c26a27068b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Research-Paper-Henry-Viii-And-His-613737.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.990944 | 827 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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Most people distinguish kings as their supreme leader that would protect them from harm. In reality, there are kings that are not looked up to because of that. King Henry VIII was viewed as one of the most debatable rulers in history. His desperation to have a male son, and his need for power led him to do things no one else had done. He influenced England and literature in many different ways through his life choices. On June 28, 1491, in Greenwich, England, Henry VIII was born to King Henry Tudor VII and Elizabeth of York. His parents didn’t pay much attention to him until his two older siblings, Elizabeth and Arthur passed away. Growing up, he was a very energetic, athletic, and intelligent adolescent. He was very smart speaking fluent in French, Latin, and Spanish. He also played many instruments and was a composer (History of the Monarchy The Tudors Henry VIII 1). In April of 1509, Henry VII passed away leaving Henry VIII the throne at age seventeen. Shortly after, Henry married Catherine of Aragon in order to continue the alliance with Spain that was begun with her marriage to his older brother, Arthur. Catherine wasn’t able to have a son, so Henry pursued Anne Boleyn who was a maid of honor in his court. Henry tried to annul his marriage to Catherine, but the Pope wouldn’t allow it. Henry decided to break from the Church which granted him a divorce. He secretly married Anne in 1533. She also couldn’t produce a son, so he made up charges of witchcraft and adultery with her friend Thomas Wyatt and had Anne beheaded in 1536. Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour was supposedly his only true love. Jane shortly died after having a son, Edward VI. Jane’s death was the only one that caused Henry to mourn over and remove himself from the court. Henry’s next marriage was arranged by Thomas Cromwell to a German princess Anne of Cleves. She was so unattractive that Henry could not force himself to stay married to her. He ended the marriage with an annulment. Sixteen days later, he married the young Kathryn Howard who was nineteen while he was forty-nine. Rumors started about her having liaisons while they were married and Henry had her and her lovers executed in 1542. Henry’s final wife who was widowed was Catherine Parr. She didn’t have any children of her own, but she became a stepmother and wife who took care of Henry until his death in January of 1547 (The Six Wives of Henry VIII 1).
Henry stayed well informed about different issues, but had no real interest in running a country. Throughout his reign, he made many decisions that would play a part in England’s future. He instigated major restructuring of the government including the establishment of a bureaucracy. His change of the navy into a fleet of fighting ships enabled and encouraged England’s involvement in several wars with Scotland and France over many fights that had been unsettled for years. The fighting continued until 1516 when he gave up fighting to promote peace in Europe (The World Book Encyclopedia 188).
Henry developed a positive relationship with the Pope. It began in 1513 when they became friends in a Holy League against France. In 1521, the Pope gave him the title “Defender of the Faith” for his book Defense of the Seven Sacraments (Henry VIII 1). When Henry wanted to divorce his first wife, he challenged the Pope’s authority. He used his position as king to bully the church and the Pope hoping to force the Pope to grant his divorce. In 1532, England passed the Act of Annates which cancelled the Pope’s power over England and cut funding to the Catholic Church. Parliament passed antipapal legislation and Thomas Cranmer announced Henry’s marriage to Catherine invalid. This legislation brought about the Act in Restraint of Appeals which said that England was independent of all foreign… | 841 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reserve Bank of India
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the Central Banking Institution of India. RBI controls the Monetary Policy as a sole controller. RBI also controls the liquidity (flow of Money) in the Indian Market.
Prior to establishment of RBI, the functions of a central bank were virtually being done by the Imperial Bank of India. RBI started its operations from April 1, 1935. It was established via the RBI act 1934, so it is also known as a statutory body. Similarly, SBI is also a statutory body deriving its legality from SBI Act 1955. RBI did not start as a Government owned bank but as a privately held bank without major government ownership. It started with a Share Capital of Rs. 5 Crore, divided into shares of Rs. 100 each fully paid up. In the beginning, this entire capital was owned by private shareholders.
Out of this Rs. 5 Crore, the amount of Rs. 4,97,8000 was subscribed by the private shareholders while Rs. 2,20,000 was subscribed by central government. After independence, the government passed Reserve Bank (Transfer to Public Ownership) Act, 1948 and took over RBI from private shareholders after paying appropriate compensation. Thus, nationalization of RBI took place in 1949 and from January 1, 1949, RBI started working as a government owned bank.
Hilton Young Commission
Hilton-Young Commission was the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance set up by British Government of India in 1920s. In 1926, this commission had recommended to the government to create a central bank in the country. On the basis of mainly this commission, the RBI act was passed.
Key Landmarks in the journey of RBI
Original Headquarters Of RBI
Original headquarters of RBI were in Kolkata, but in 1937, it was shifted to Shahid Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai, which serves as current headquarters of RBI. | <urn:uuid:22d00178-665c-4b39-9c68-518525a69f9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.examscorer.com/reserve-bank-of-india.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.985607 | 389 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.24986571073... | 1 | Reserve Bank of India
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the Central Banking Institution of India. RBI controls the Monetary Policy as a sole controller. RBI also controls the liquidity (flow of Money) in the Indian Market.
Prior to establishment of RBI, the functions of a central bank were virtually being done by the Imperial Bank of India. RBI started its operations from April 1, 1935. It was established via the RBI act 1934, so it is also known as a statutory body. Similarly, SBI is also a statutory body deriving its legality from SBI Act 1955. RBI did not start as a Government owned bank but as a privately held bank without major government ownership. It started with a Share Capital of Rs. 5 Crore, divided into shares of Rs. 100 each fully paid up. In the beginning, this entire capital was owned by private shareholders.
Out of this Rs. 5 Crore, the amount of Rs. 4,97,8000 was subscribed by the private shareholders while Rs. 2,20,000 was subscribed by central government. After independence, the government passed Reserve Bank (Transfer to Public Ownership) Act, 1948 and took over RBI from private shareholders after paying appropriate compensation. Thus, nationalization of RBI took place in 1949 and from January 1, 1949, RBI started working as a government owned bank.
Hilton Young Commission
Hilton-Young Commission was the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance set up by British Government of India in 1920s. In 1926, this commission had recommended to the government to create a central bank in the country. On the basis of mainly this commission, the RBI act was passed.
Key Landmarks in the journey of RBI
Original Headquarters Of RBI
Original headquarters of RBI were in Kolkata, but in 1937, it was shifted to Shahid Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai, which serves as current headquarters of RBI. | 433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For thousands of years, The Voynich Manuscript has confused people around the world. With its strange language, colorful illustrations and shadowed history, the Voynich Manuscript is one of the greatest and oldest mysteries of the world. Virtually nothing is known about the Manuscript’s author or illustrator; but using modern technology and knowledge of the past, is it possible to explore who wrote this codex of mysteries? There have been many theories as to who may have wrote it, from Roger Bacon to Wilfrid Voynich, of who the manuscript was named after. One of the most evidence-backed author is Gaspar De Torres. Gaspar was wealthy and well connected, becoming a ‘Master of Students’ at Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco and teaching writing and reading at Imperial College. Now, years later, we have learned much about him and his relation to the Voynich Manuscript. Through years of research and tests, evidence suggests that Gaspar did indeed write the Voynich Manuscript, which is backed by evidence and years of research around the mysterious codex. But, to look further into the writing of the Voynich Manuscript, we must first look at Gaspar’s history and connection to the manuscript. Gaspar De Torres was born in 1510 in Santo Domingo. His family was extremely well connected and wealthy; His father, Melchior, owned 1,000 slaves who worked on his multiple sugar plantations. Because his family was so wealthy, Gaspar attended La Pontificia Universidad de Mexico, the first university of Mexico. He was awarded a doctorate degree in medicine in 1553 and went on to get a degree in Licentiate in 1569. These degrees would qualify Gaspar to write the Voynich Manuscript, as it consists of passages that talk about medicinal and herbal subjects. He became a ‘master of students’ at his old university and taught reading and writing. There are records of his working there in 1568, right around the time the Voynich Manuscript might have been written. The university he worked at had the only scriptorium in New Spain, which would have provided him with ink, pigments, parchment, and vellum not available anywhere else. Many of the plant’s names come from Spanish and Nahuatl origins, and others were derived from Taino. Along with that, there are many Latin abbreviations throughout the book. Gaspar was fluent in all of these languages, which is shown throughout his biography. To protect his work, Gaspar could have created a mix of languages from those that he had known, resulting in the manuscripts indecipherable texts. In 1580, Gaspar was appointed Governor pro tempore- and fled eight months later, disappearing for no reason. But why would he do that? Of course, if he had something to hide from the inquisition, say the Voynich Manuscript, then he would have reason to flee from the Inquisition, which might explain why he ran away. As Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca states in an article, “The contents of the Voynich Codex would have been particularly offensive to the Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, in view of the presence of the kabbalah imagery and the fact that the text was written in a symbolic cypher. Not only would it have been burned if found, but the owner would have been punished appropriately” (Janick, 349). To save his work, and himself, he fled the Inquisition and passed the book along to another owner, who then sold it to Rudolf II. Many years later, after testing had been done on Folio 1v, a section of the Voynich, it was revealed that his initials can be seen inscribed one of the pages. This would show that he had, at some point, owned it. Along with the theory that Gaspar owned it, many other authors have been called the ‘author’ of the Voynich Manuscript, most importantly Roger Bacon. Bacon was born in 1220 in England, who was very educated and whose family was extremely wealthy. But, as a Friar, Bacon was religious, which goes strikingly against the religiously neutral Voynich Manuscript. It’s content goes against possibly everything he believes in as a religious expert. More importantly, Bacon died in 1292, and the manuscript has been dated to the 14-1500’s, light years after he died. And, as he likely never traveled, he would have no knowledge of Colonial New Spain, where they theorize the manuscript originated from. Along with this, many other possible authors keep getting refuted as we learn more about it. Because we know around the time it was created and where it originated, we can then cross out people like John Dee, who held the manuscript for some time in the 1600’s and lived in England. Gaspar De Torres is among those in the list of possible authors, and matches up with almost everything relating to the Voynich Manuscript, unlike Bacon or Dee. The Voynich Manuscript is largely unknown and undiscovered; but with new research, it is possible to find out who wrote it and why. Because it is so unknown, speculation about the author ranges and is vast in its entirety. But, Gaspar De Torres is the most probable author. As we learn more about this mysterious codex, more and more theories will keep getting crossed out and disputed, until only Gaspar De Torres remains. Through years of research and tests, evidence suggests that Gaspar did indeed write the Voynich Manuscript, which is backed by evidence and years of research around the mysterious codex. | <urn:uuid:25d7b96c-abe6-42c9-8025-c1e8e8b54a91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://houghtonlakeboard.org/for-and-knowledge-of-the-past-is-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.984811 | 1,186 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.23600064... | 3 | For thousands of years, The Voynich Manuscript has confused people around the world. With its strange language, colorful illustrations and shadowed history, the Voynich Manuscript is one of the greatest and oldest mysteries of the world. Virtually nothing is known about the Manuscript’s author or illustrator; but using modern technology and knowledge of the past, is it possible to explore who wrote this codex of mysteries? There have been many theories as to who may have wrote it, from Roger Bacon to Wilfrid Voynich, of who the manuscript was named after. One of the most evidence-backed author is Gaspar De Torres. Gaspar was wealthy and well connected, becoming a ‘Master of Students’ at Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco and teaching writing and reading at Imperial College. Now, years later, we have learned much about him and his relation to the Voynich Manuscript. Through years of research and tests, evidence suggests that Gaspar did indeed write the Voynich Manuscript, which is backed by evidence and years of research around the mysterious codex. But, to look further into the writing of the Voynich Manuscript, we must first look at Gaspar’s history and connection to the manuscript. Gaspar De Torres was born in 1510 in Santo Domingo. His family was extremely well connected and wealthy; His father, Melchior, owned 1,000 slaves who worked on his multiple sugar plantations. Because his family was so wealthy, Gaspar attended La Pontificia Universidad de Mexico, the first university of Mexico. He was awarded a doctorate degree in medicine in 1553 and went on to get a degree in Licentiate in 1569. These degrees would qualify Gaspar to write the Voynich Manuscript, as it consists of passages that talk about medicinal and herbal subjects. He became a ‘master of students’ at his old university and taught reading and writing. There are records of his working there in 1568, right around the time the Voynich Manuscript might have been written. The university he worked at had the only scriptorium in New Spain, which would have provided him with ink, pigments, parchment, and vellum not available anywhere else. Many of the plant’s names come from Spanish and Nahuatl origins, and others were derived from Taino. Along with that, there are many Latin abbreviations throughout the book. Gaspar was fluent in all of these languages, which is shown throughout his biography. To protect his work, Gaspar could have created a mix of languages from those that he had known, resulting in the manuscripts indecipherable texts. In 1580, Gaspar was appointed Governor pro tempore- and fled eight months later, disappearing for no reason. But why would he do that? Of course, if he had something to hide from the inquisition, say the Voynich Manuscript, then he would have reason to flee from the Inquisition, which might explain why he ran away. As Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca states in an article, “The contents of the Voynich Codex would have been particularly offensive to the Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, in view of the presence of the kabbalah imagery and the fact that the text was written in a symbolic cypher. Not only would it have been burned if found, but the owner would have been punished appropriately” (Janick, 349). To save his work, and himself, he fled the Inquisition and passed the book along to another owner, who then sold it to Rudolf II. Many years later, after testing had been done on Folio 1v, a section of the Voynich, it was revealed that his initials can be seen inscribed one of the pages. This would show that he had, at some point, owned it. Along with the theory that Gaspar owned it, many other authors have been called the ‘author’ of the Voynich Manuscript, most importantly Roger Bacon. Bacon was born in 1220 in England, who was very educated and whose family was extremely wealthy. But, as a Friar, Bacon was religious, which goes strikingly against the religiously neutral Voynich Manuscript. It’s content goes against possibly everything he believes in as a religious expert. More importantly, Bacon died in 1292, and the manuscript has been dated to the 14-1500’s, light years after he died. And, as he likely never traveled, he would have no knowledge of Colonial New Spain, where they theorize the manuscript originated from. Along with this, many other possible authors keep getting refuted as we learn more about it. Because we know around the time it was created and where it originated, we can then cross out people like John Dee, who held the manuscript for some time in the 1600’s and lived in England. Gaspar De Torres is among those in the list of possible authors, and matches up with almost everything relating to the Voynich Manuscript, unlike Bacon or Dee. The Voynich Manuscript is largely unknown and undiscovered; but with new research, it is possible to find out who wrote it and why. Because it is so unknown, speculation about the author ranges and is vast in its entirety. But, Gaspar De Torres is the most probable author. As we learn more about this mysterious codex, more and more theories will keep getting crossed out and disputed, until only Gaspar De Torres remains. Through years of research and tests, evidence suggests that Gaspar did indeed write the Voynich Manuscript, which is backed by evidence and years of research around the mysterious codex. | 1,208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About The Necropolis
Snefru’s pyramid at Meidum was surrounded by many private burials of Dynasty IV – the first newly established elite cemetery since the archaic necropolis at Saqqara. The fact that this necropolis was established gives credence to the suggestion that the Meidum pyramid did not collapse during its construction. The mastaba cemeteries are located to the north and east of the pyramid and provided some of the most well known of the Old Kingdom statuary and paintings.
On the eastern side of Snefru’s monument at the northern edge of the escarpment, there are several mastabas dating to the king’s reign. The largest of these, located just outside the enclosure walls on the north-east corner of the pyramid is known as Mastaba 17, numbered by Petrie who investigated it in 1910.
The owner of this tomb is anonymous, but thought to be a royal prince, probably a son of Snefru. Inside the tomb Petrie found an uninscribed sarcophagus which is still in situ. The earliest mummy Petrie found at Meidum was in 1891 and dated to Dynasty V, but this was destroyed when the London Royal College of Surgeons was bombed during the second world war.
Tomb of Nefermaat (Mastaba 16)
Nefermaat, who was also probably a son of Snefru, is the owner of a large mastaba tomb to the north of Snefru’s pyramid. The tomb was investigated by Auguste Mariette in 1871, who found that the superstructure was built with mud bricks, while the inner walls were lined with limestone blocks decorated with painted scenes of daily life. There were two chapels located in the eastern part of the tomb, one at the south for Nefermaat and the northern one for his wife Itet.
It was in Itet’s tomb-chapel that Mariette found the famous scene of the ‘Meidum Geese’, one of the most skilfully painted pieces of Old Kingdom art (now on display in the Cairo Museum). The tomb-owner’s status is obvious by the craftsmanship of the artists employed. When Petrie excavated the tomb in 1892 he found more fragments of reliefs, especially of animals and hunting scenes. Some of the scenes were painted while others were incised and filled with coloured vitreous paste – a technique which did not become widely used because it was too fragile. Fragmentary scenes included trapping birds in the marshes with a clapnet, and agricultural activities which were to become the focus of later Old Kingdom tomb paintings. One beautiful fragment showing the artists skill in depicting the detailed coloured plumage of a bird can be seen in the British Museum. On the west wall of each chapel was an elaborate false door of the deceased.
Tomb of Rahotep (Mastaba 6)
The mastaba of Rahotep and his wife Nofret, son and daughter-in-law of Snefru, was also excavated by Mariette in 1871 and is situated to the north-east of Nefermaat’s tomb. It is smaller than the former tomb, but its outer walls are impressively decorated with the ‘palace façade’ motif. The internal arrangements are similar to those of Nefermaat, Rahotep and his wife each having a tomb chapel on the western side.
Rahotep was a ‘King’s Son’ and ‘Priest of Heliopolis’, titles given in a scene on his false door where the deceased sits at an offering table before beautiful precisely carved hieroglyphs detailing the offerings he should receive (on a panel now in the Louvre Museum). Other scenes from his chapel depict everyday life with pursuits such as hunting in the desert, fishing and trapping birds and agricultural scenes.
The most exciting find by Mariette’s workmen was two well known painted limestone statues of Rahotep and his wife Nofret, now on display in the Cairo Museum. These extraordinary statues were in an excellent state of preservation – probably due to the fact that the chapels in the mastaba had for some reason been sealed off in ancient times, which resulted in a kind of serdab chamber. The greatest effect of this was to preserve the colours on the statues so that they almost look freshly painted today. The figures are each just over 120cm high and are seated on high-backed chairs with foot rests. Rahotep is depicted with his own short black hair, he sports a splendid trimmed black moustache and around his neck he wears a single strand necklace with a heart amulet.
He wears a short white kilt and has one arm held horizontally across his bare chest. The black painted hieroglyphs on the back of his chair give his name and titles. Nofret wears a shoulder-length dark wig with a circlet decorated with a flower motif around her head. An elegant long white gown enfolds her and shows the straps of another garment beneath, also revealing an elaborate collar. Her arms are folded across her chest and her skin is painted in a much lighter colour than her husband’s as was the tradition. Her titles in hieroglyphs on the back of her chair name her as ‘King’s Acquaintance’. The most outstanding feature of the statues is that they both retain their lifelike inlaid eyes of crystal which terrified the Egyptian workmen who first saw them staring out of the tomb.
It would appear that many of the tombs built at Meidum were unfinished and never used for burials, probably due to the fact that Snefru moved his pyramid city to Dashur while constructing his pyramids there. | <urn:uuid:e9a8a4bc-ab7b-41cc-9791-628ae2b06f98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travel2egypt.org/egypt-travel-guide/beni-suef/while-you-are-there/places-to-go/meidum-necropolis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.98188 | 1,212 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2954318225383... | 2 | About The Necropolis
Snefru’s pyramid at Meidum was surrounded by many private burials of Dynasty IV – the first newly established elite cemetery since the archaic necropolis at Saqqara. The fact that this necropolis was established gives credence to the suggestion that the Meidum pyramid did not collapse during its construction. The mastaba cemeteries are located to the north and east of the pyramid and provided some of the most well known of the Old Kingdom statuary and paintings.
On the eastern side of Snefru’s monument at the northern edge of the escarpment, there are several mastabas dating to the king’s reign. The largest of these, located just outside the enclosure walls on the north-east corner of the pyramid is known as Mastaba 17, numbered by Petrie who investigated it in 1910.
The owner of this tomb is anonymous, but thought to be a royal prince, probably a son of Snefru. Inside the tomb Petrie found an uninscribed sarcophagus which is still in situ. The earliest mummy Petrie found at Meidum was in 1891 and dated to Dynasty V, but this was destroyed when the London Royal College of Surgeons was bombed during the second world war.
Tomb of Nefermaat (Mastaba 16)
Nefermaat, who was also probably a son of Snefru, is the owner of a large mastaba tomb to the north of Snefru’s pyramid. The tomb was investigated by Auguste Mariette in 1871, who found that the superstructure was built with mud bricks, while the inner walls were lined with limestone blocks decorated with painted scenes of daily life. There were two chapels located in the eastern part of the tomb, one at the south for Nefermaat and the northern one for his wife Itet.
It was in Itet’s tomb-chapel that Mariette found the famous scene of the ‘Meidum Geese’, one of the most skilfully painted pieces of Old Kingdom art (now on display in the Cairo Museum). The tomb-owner’s status is obvious by the craftsmanship of the artists employed. When Petrie excavated the tomb in 1892 he found more fragments of reliefs, especially of animals and hunting scenes. Some of the scenes were painted while others were incised and filled with coloured vitreous paste – a technique which did not become widely used because it was too fragile. Fragmentary scenes included trapping birds in the marshes with a clapnet, and agricultural activities which were to become the focus of later Old Kingdom tomb paintings. One beautiful fragment showing the artists skill in depicting the detailed coloured plumage of a bird can be seen in the British Museum. On the west wall of each chapel was an elaborate false door of the deceased.
Tomb of Rahotep (Mastaba 6)
The mastaba of Rahotep and his wife Nofret, son and daughter-in-law of Snefru, was also excavated by Mariette in 1871 and is situated to the north-east of Nefermaat’s tomb. It is smaller than the former tomb, but its outer walls are impressively decorated with the ‘palace façade’ motif. The internal arrangements are similar to those of Nefermaat, Rahotep and his wife each having a tomb chapel on the western side.
Rahotep was a ‘King’s Son’ and ‘Priest of Heliopolis’, titles given in a scene on his false door where the deceased sits at an offering table before beautiful precisely carved hieroglyphs detailing the offerings he should receive (on a panel now in the Louvre Museum). Other scenes from his chapel depict everyday life with pursuits such as hunting in the desert, fishing and trapping birds and agricultural scenes.
The most exciting find by Mariette’s workmen was two well known painted limestone statues of Rahotep and his wife Nofret, now on display in the Cairo Museum. These extraordinary statues were in an excellent state of preservation – probably due to the fact that the chapels in the mastaba had for some reason been sealed off in ancient times, which resulted in a kind of serdab chamber. The greatest effect of this was to preserve the colours on the statues so that they almost look freshly painted today. The figures are each just over 120cm high and are seated on high-backed chairs with foot rests. Rahotep is depicted with his own short black hair, he sports a splendid trimmed black moustache and around his neck he wears a single strand necklace with a heart amulet.
He wears a short white kilt and has one arm held horizontally across his bare chest. The black painted hieroglyphs on the back of his chair give his name and titles. Nofret wears a shoulder-length dark wig with a circlet decorated with a flower motif around her head. An elegant long white gown enfolds her and shows the straps of another garment beneath, also revealing an elaborate collar. Her arms are folded across her chest and her skin is painted in a much lighter colour than her husband’s as was the tradition. Her titles in hieroglyphs on the back of her chair name her as ‘King’s Acquaintance’. The most outstanding feature of the statues is that they both retain their lifelike inlaid eyes of crystal which terrified the Egyptian workmen who first saw them staring out of the tomb.
It would appear that many of the tombs built at Meidum were unfinished and never used for burials, probably due to the fact that Snefru moved his pyramid city to Dashur while constructing his pyramids there. | 1,177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“In the time
Of King Herod,
Jesus was born
Τοῦ δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως,
We have a specific time and place for the birth of Jesus. He was born (δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος) in Bethlehem in Judea (ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας), during the reign of King Herod (ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως). Bethlehem was always in the territory of Judah, about 6 miles south of Jerusalem, with a current population of about 25,000 in the present day Palestinian territory. David was from Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. Matthew did not say why Joseph and Mary were in Bethlehem, like Luke, chapter 2, did because of a census. King Herod the Great (74 BCE-1 CE) was the Roman client king of Judea. In fact, the Roman Senate named him King of the Jews in 40 BCE. He built many things during his reign, including expanding the Second Temple in Jerusalem. At his death, his kingdom was divided among his children. | <urn:uuid:eed368f3-3452-4a1a-9135-69ba96b51851> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://efinne1540.wordpress.com/tag/king-herod-the-great/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.980782 | 390 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.28686502575... | 15 | “In the time
Of King Herod,
Jesus was born
Τοῦ δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως,
We have a specific time and place for the birth of Jesus. He was born (δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος) in Bethlehem in Judea (ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας), during the reign of King Herod (ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως). Bethlehem was always in the territory of Judah, about 6 miles south of Jerusalem, with a current population of about 25,000 in the present day Palestinian territory. David was from Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. Matthew did not say why Joseph and Mary were in Bethlehem, like Luke, chapter 2, did because of a census. King Herod the Great (74 BCE-1 CE) was the Roman client king of Judea. In fact, the Roman Senate named him King of the Jews in 40 BCE. He built many things during his reign, including expanding the Second Temple in Jerusalem. At his death, his kingdom was divided among his children. | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Berlin Wall border troops, German Democratic Republic, National People’s Army. After the defeat of the Nazi regime in 1945, Germany was put under the control of the Allied forces with the U.S. British, French, and Soviets, each having their own zone of occupation. As the iron curtain fell on Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union, Germany ended up divided into West and East Germany. The city of Berlin as the capital of the country, was also divided into two zones. East Berlin remained part of the Communist German Democratic Republic and West Berlin became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. Gradually as the Cold War was developing, the ideological barrier became a physical one. In 1961, East Germany’s communist leaders decided that a wall should be built around West Berlin to prevent the intrusion of possible agents and spies. And to prevent their citizens fleeing to the west. Until 1961, the control of the border was under the jurisdiction of the German border police. The Grenzpolizei, but from that point on It began to be considered as a military matter. Border troops of the army: The Grenztruppen were formed to protect the inner border with Western Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and the wall surrounding West Berlin. Since it was part of the army, border troops were organized on the same basis as the rest of the army. Men were recruited from the population between ages 18 to 26, and their service lasted for 18 months. Those who wanted to, could prolong their engagement in order to be promoted into NCO’s or noncommissioned officers. One of the things that attracted young men from East Germany to the border troops, was that they were promised a better education and help in seeking a good civilian job once their service was over. Even though the role of border troops was a popular one, recruiting criteria was very strict. Future soldiers had to be politically correct, as they were to protect the border against the capitalist enemy literally on their doorstep. Those who had even the smallest record of political descent or even those whose closest relatives had showed these traits, were not allowed to join the border troops. Religiousness was also a big drawback in qualification. Another important criteria, was that the potential Bordermen were not residents of areas near the border with West Germany. These criteria were set up because the government didn’t want former Bordermen to help escapees. Those who had close relatives in West Germany were also not considered for the job. The basic training of the border troops was identical to those in the rest of the army. Bordermen were however additionally taught various inspection and patrol skills, observing, dog handling, and even laying mines! Intense training was conducted in order to take their shooting skills to a high level. Every Borderman was obliged to shoot two moving targets at a distance of 200 meters using only four rounds. Such skills prepared them for the task of taking down real-life escapee targets. The main field of training was however political indoctrination as the army didn’t want to have any hesitant shooters in their ranks. More than half of the entire training process was dedicated to the political shaping of the Bordermen. The uniforms and equipment of the border troops were also the same as the rest of the army. Bordermen wore standard stone gray uniforms, with dark green collar signs, and shoulder stripes. On their heads they wore caps or standard East German wide helmets, Which were worn in situations of high alertness. For the equipment, border troops used weapons of Soviet origin made in East Germany. From the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961, The East German army started to receive modern weapons to replace the old weapons from the World War II era. The standard sidearm of the Bordermen was the nine-millimeter Soviet Makarov, while the main weapon was the MPI-K assault rifle, a copy of the Soviet AK-47 Kalashnikov. Every soldier carried one of these with two magazines of ammunition. There were also IMG-K and IMG-D light machine guns, which were copies of the Soviet RPK and RPD. All of these weapons were in the standard Soviet caliber, 7.62 millimeter, even though the new caliber of 5.45 millimeter appeared later, border troops continued to use old ammunition. Border troops were also equipped with heavy machine guns and RPGs. As an addition to this arsenal of weapons, Border Patrols had German Shepherd dogs specialized in searching for people that were hiding. Observing the borderline, as well as the class enemy on the other side, was achieved with the use of binoculars which were a standard piece of equipment for Bordermen on patrol. Portable radios were also supplied for faster communication. Soldiers on duty on watchtowers had static, more powerful binoculars. These binoculars allowed Bordermen to have a better overview and a secure control over a huge area of the border region. The duties of border troops within the Berlin Wall zone were quite simple. They had to patrol the area around the Berlin ring, and to watch out for any attempt of an illegal crossing from the west, and especially from the east. They also performed the same tasks from the watchtowers. If someone was caught making a violation of the border line, Bordermen were allowed to shoot them down without orders. For this reason many Bordermen were trialed and sentenced after the German unification. Although the pay of border troops was a little bit better than the rest of the army, it was still very low compared to West German standards. Many dissatisfied soldiers planned escape attempts to West Germany. Since the division of Berlin, many were attempted. the most famous being the crossing of soldier Conrad Schumann on August 15th, 1961. Conrad was serving at the border troops, and was on his sentry duty at the line that day. At the time, East Germany just began to build the wall. As he was standing at his sentry post watching his comrades on the patrol walking away from the line. He took the opportunity and ran across the barbed wire to West Berlin. In order to prevent such future incidents from happening, the army established a special protocol. Patrols, sentry posts, and watchtowers were always manned by two or three soldiers. In this way if one decided to run to the west, the other could shoot him. Guard shifts lasted for eight hours, and every soldier had at least one per day. In order to disrupt the pattern and prevent possible escapes, shift hours and patrol paths were prone to changes. Even the names of the soldiers on shift were kept secret. Another way to keep the Bordermen obedient and in strict discipline, was the use of State Police known as the Stasi. Stasi agents in the border troops wore the same uniforms and insignia and were used to gather information from the other side. But also, to inspect the border troops for potential escapees. Every tenth officer, and one in 30 soldiers was in collusion with the Stasi. Even though contact with West German guards was forbidden, and control was strict, Bordermen were making constant contact with their Western counterparts. Exchanging insignia and newspapers. The Berlin wall collapsed on November 9th, 1989. Earlier, soldiers of the border troops had stood bewildered and overwhelmed as thousands of East Germans gathered near the wall. Demanding to get through the checkpoints, a demand, which they soon agreed to. The wall fell down without a single shot fired, and a year later, The Grenztruppen would become disbanded. Subscribe to our channel for more animated history videos! Get simple history, the Cold War, out today! Hey simple history fans, if you’re looking for a better way to support the channel and help us create more epic content, consider becoming a sponsor on our channel. Sponsoring means that for just 5 bucks a month, you get these amazing perks! You can be the first to see new episodes with early access! You’ll be able to watch new episodes before anyone else with this perk. A custom icon that shows alongside your username in the comment section and in live chat! When you sponsor us, you also become an influencer, with sponsor only comments! You can communicate directly with us and help us pick the topics that we’ll do next on simple history. Our videos will continue to be uploaded as usual and remember, it’s not mandatory to sponsor us. Thank you for letting us feed your hunger for history! | <urn:uuid:5323f82e-8440-40ee-8d13-9c19b52b72f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wildcaribe.com/berlin-wall-border-troops-grenztruppen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.983892 | 1,727 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.25262969732284... | 2 | Berlin Wall border troops, German Democratic Republic, National People’s Army. After the defeat of the Nazi regime in 1945, Germany was put under the control of the Allied forces with the U.S. British, French, and Soviets, each having their own zone of occupation. As the iron curtain fell on Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union, Germany ended up divided into West and East Germany. The city of Berlin as the capital of the country, was also divided into two zones. East Berlin remained part of the Communist German Democratic Republic and West Berlin became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. Gradually as the Cold War was developing, the ideological barrier became a physical one. In 1961, East Germany’s communist leaders decided that a wall should be built around West Berlin to prevent the intrusion of possible agents and spies. And to prevent their citizens fleeing to the west. Until 1961, the control of the border was under the jurisdiction of the German border police. The Grenzpolizei, but from that point on It began to be considered as a military matter. Border troops of the army: The Grenztruppen were formed to protect the inner border with Western Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and the wall surrounding West Berlin. Since it was part of the army, border troops were organized on the same basis as the rest of the army. Men were recruited from the population between ages 18 to 26, and their service lasted for 18 months. Those who wanted to, could prolong their engagement in order to be promoted into NCO’s or noncommissioned officers. One of the things that attracted young men from East Germany to the border troops, was that they were promised a better education and help in seeking a good civilian job once their service was over. Even though the role of border troops was a popular one, recruiting criteria was very strict. Future soldiers had to be politically correct, as they were to protect the border against the capitalist enemy literally on their doorstep. Those who had even the smallest record of political descent or even those whose closest relatives had showed these traits, were not allowed to join the border troops. Religiousness was also a big drawback in qualification. Another important criteria, was that the potential Bordermen were not residents of areas near the border with West Germany. These criteria were set up because the government didn’t want former Bordermen to help escapees. Those who had close relatives in West Germany were also not considered for the job. The basic training of the border troops was identical to those in the rest of the army. Bordermen were however additionally taught various inspection and patrol skills, observing, dog handling, and even laying mines! Intense training was conducted in order to take their shooting skills to a high level. Every Borderman was obliged to shoot two moving targets at a distance of 200 meters using only four rounds. Such skills prepared them for the task of taking down real-life escapee targets. The main field of training was however political indoctrination as the army didn’t want to have any hesitant shooters in their ranks. More than half of the entire training process was dedicated to the political shaping of the Bordermen. The uniforms and equipment of the border troops were also the same as the rest of the army. Bordermen wore standard stone gray uniforms, with dark green collar signs, and shoulder stripes. On their heads they wore caps or standard East German wide helmets, Which were worn in situations of high alertness. For the equipment, border troops used weapons of Soviet origin made in East Germany. From the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961, The East German army started to receive modern weapons to replace the old weapons from the World War II era. The standard sidearm of the Bordermen was the nine-millimeter Soviet Makarov, while the main weapon was the MPI-K assault rifle, a copy of the Soviet AK-47 Kalashnikov. Every soldier carried one of these with two magazines of ammunition. There were also IMG-K and IMG-D light machine guns, which were copies of the Soviet RPK and RPD. All of these weapons were in the standard Soviet caliber, 7.62 millimeter, even though the new caliber of 5.45 millimeter appeared later, border troops continued to use old ammunition. Border troops were also equipped with heavy machine guns and RPGs. As an addition to this arsenal of weapons, Border Patrols had German Shepherd dogs specialized in searching for people that were hiding. Observing the borderline, as well as the class enemy on the other side, was achieved with the use of binoculars which were a standard piece of equipment for Bordermen on patrol. Portable radios were also supplied for faster communication. Soldiers on duty on watchtowers had static, more powerful binoculars. These binoculars allowed Bordermen to have a better overview and a secure control over a huge area of the border region. The duties of border troops within the Berlin Wall zone were quite simple. They had to patrol the area around the Berlin ring, and to watch out for any attempt of an illegal crossing from the west, and especially from the east. They also performed the same tasks from the watchtowers. If someone was caught making a violation of the border line, Bordermen were allowed to shoot them down without orders. For this reason many Bordermen were trialed and sentenced after the German unification. Although the pay of border troops was a little bit better than the rest of the army, it was still very low compared to West German standards. Many dissatisfied soldiers planned escape attempts to West Germany. Since the division of Berlin, many were attempted. the most famous being the crossing of soldier Conrad Schumann on August 15th, 1961. Conrad was serving at the border troops, and was on his sentry duty at the line that day. At the time, East Germany just began to build the wall. As he was standing at his sentry post watching his comrades on the patrol walking away from the line. He took the opportunity and ran across the barbed wire to West Berlin. In order to prevent such future incidents from happening, the army established a special protocol. Patrols, sentry posts, and watchtowers were always manned by two or three soldiers. In this way if one decided to run to the west, the other could shoot him. Guard shifts lasted for eight hours, and every soldier had at least one per day. In order to disrupt the pattern and prevent possible escapes, shift hours and patrol paths were prone to changes. Even the names of the soldiers on shift were kept secret. Another way to keep the Bordermen obedient and in strict discipline, was the use of State Police known as the Stasi. Stasi agents in the border troops wore the same uniforms and insignia and were used to gather information from the other side. But also, to inspect the border troops for potential escapees. Every tenth officer, and one in 30 soldiers was in collusion with the Stasi. Even though contact with West German guards was forbidden, and control was strict, Bordermen were making constant contact with their Western counterparts. Exchanging insignia and newspapers. The Berlin wall collapsed on November 9th, 1989. Earlier, soldiers of the border troops had stood bewildered and overwhelmed as thousands of East Germans gathered near the wall. Demanding to get through the checkpoints, a demand, which they soon agreed to. The wall fell down without a single shot fired, and a year later, The Grenztruppen would become disbanded. Subscribe to our channel for more animated history videos! Get simple history, the Cold War, out today! Hey simple history fans, if you’re looking for a better way to support the channel and help us create more epic content, consider becoming a sponsor on our channel. Sponsoring means that for just 5 bucks a month, you get these amazing perks! You can be the first to see new episodes with early access! You’ll be able to watch new episodes before anyone else with this perk. A custom icon that shows alongside your username in the comment section and in live chat! When you sponsor us, you also become an influencer, with sponsor only comments! You can communicate directly with us and help us pick the topics that we’ll do next on simple history. Our videos will continue to be uploaded as usual and remember, it’s not mandatory to sponsor us. Thank you for letting us feed your hunger for history! | 1,746 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Read the text and find headings for each paragraph. Note them in the prepared lines in the text.
The men were angry and impatient. They had been in this dirty old cave for over two months now. They had been waiting but nothing had happened. When they first came to the cave they had all been very happy to have found such a good hiding place. The cave was quite big, enough room for the 36 men and their king, Robert the Bruce of Scotland. “If we put some more rocks in front of the cave, King Edward and his men will never find us,” Robert the Bruce said after they had found the cave.
Scotland was at war. King Robert wanted a free and independent Scotland, but his enemy, King Edward, wanted to rule over both England and Scotland, so he had brought a big army to fight against the rebels. The Scottish army had lost almost every battle. Robert the Bruce just did not have enough men to beat the English soldiers. He needed time to think of a good strategy before the next battle, so he had decided to make the cave the new home for himself and his men.
King Robert could feel that his men were restless. They wanted to fight against the people they hated so much because they had taken away their land, made them prisoners and even killed their people. “The men are soldiers, Robert, they would rather die than hide here any longer,” Walter the Steward, Robert’s good friend, said. “They will have to be patient,” King Robert replied. “We have fought and lost so many battles, we must win the next one. If only I had more men. I can’t fight another battle with only a few men.” “And you can’t win a battle in a cave, can you?” Sir Andrew Douglas shouted at his king. He was a very good soldier, but also sometimes wild and hot-headed. “I won’t hide any longer,” he shouted, ran out of the cave, took his horse and rode away angrily. “Another good man has left you,”Walter said with a sad voice. “If you don’t do something soon, there will be more to follow him. ”The King looked very sad and said: “I wish I knew what to do.”
Later that evening Robert was watching the fire in the cave, still thinking about his problem. He couldn’t sleep, he was too worried. His men were thin and weak, they didn’t have enough food anymore. At dinner Walter had even shared the little food he had with the other men. He was such a kind man. King Robert had not eaten anything. He had just not been able to. He had thought of his dead brothers and the rest of his family, prisoners of the English, even his wife and children.
At least his men could sleep. It was silent in the cave. Lost in his thoughts he watched a small spider which was spinning a web in a corner of the cave. Because of the wind and the rough rocks the web broke again and again, but the spider did not give up. One – two – three times it started again. While he was watching it, Robert suddenly felt very tired and fell asleep.
When he woke up again it was already morning. He opened his eyes and looked around. All his men were still sleeping. He looked in the direction where he had seen the spider in the night. King Robert smiled for the first time in many days. In front of him was a perfect spider’s web. “It never gave up,” he said to himself. “The spider lost its web again and again, but it always started again. ”He looked at the web for a long time. “I can do it like the spider. I will not give up! If that little spider can finish its web, I can beat the English. ”Suddenly he felt strong again.
He made up his plan and woke his men up. “Walter, send a soldier to Stirling. Tell them that we will arrive in four days, that we are ready for the next battle and that we need every man. I’m sure they will help us.” It was in the year 1314 that Robert the Bruce fought the battle that was to free Scotland from the English. Today it is famous as the Battle of Bannockburn. 9,000 brave Scotsmen faced 25,000 English soldiers – and won! Their King had told them that the enemy would be defeated if they just didn’t give up. | <urn:uuid:53e99620-06b9-4b19-98f6-8ccaeb28a8c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learnattack.de/englisch/klassenarbeiten/reflexivpronomen-each-otherone-another-substantive-ersetzen | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.994373 | 973 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.0658928900957... | 3 | Read the text and find headings for each paragraph. Note them in the prepared lines in the text.
The men were angry and impatient. They had been in this dirty old cave for over two months now. They had been waiting but nothing had happened. When they first came to the cave they had all been very happy to have found such a good hiding place. The cave was quite big, enough room for the 36 men and their king, Robert the Bruce of Scotland. “If we put some more rocks in front of the cave, King Edward and his men will never find us,” Robert the Bruce said after they had found the cave.
Scotland was at war. King Robert wanted a free and independent Scotland, but his enemy, King Edward, wanted to rule over both England and Scotland, so he had brought a big army to fight against the rebels. The Scottish army had lost almost every battle. Robert the Bruce just did not have enough men to beat the English soldiers. He needed time to think of a good strategy before the next battle, so he had decided to make the cave the new home for himself and his men.
King Robert could feel that his men were restless. They wanted to fight against the people they hated so much because they had taken away their land, made them prisoners and even killed their people. “The men are soldiers, Robert, they would rather die than hide here any longer,” Walter the Steward, Robert’s good friend, said. “They will have to be patient,” King Robert replied. “We have fought and lost so many battles, we must win the next one. If only I had more men. I can’t fight another battle with only a few men.” “And you can’t win a battle in a cave, can you?” Sir Andrew Douglas shouted at his king. He was a very good soldier, but also sometimes wild and hot-headed. “I won’t hide any longer,” he shouted, ran out of the cave, took his horse and rode away angrily. “Another good man has left you,”Walter said with a sad voice. “If you don’t do something soon, there will be more to follow him. ”The King looked very sad and said: “I wish I knew what to do.”
Later that evening Robert was watching the fire in the cave, still thinking about his problem. He couldn’t sleep, he was too worried. His men were thin and weak, they didn’t have enough food anymore. At dinner Walter had even shared the little food he had with the other men. He was such a kind man. King Robert had not eaten anything. He had just not been able to. He had thought of his dead brothers and the rest of his family, prisoners of the English, even his wife and children.
At least his men could sleep. It was silent in the cave. Lost in his thoughts he watched a small spider which was spinning a web in a corner of the cave. Because of the wind and the rough rocks the web broke again and again, but the spider did not give up. One – two – three times it started again. While he was watching it, Robert suddenly felt very tired and fell asleep.
When he woke up again it was already morning. He opened his eyes and looked around. All his men were still sleeping. He looked in the direction where he had seen the spider in the night. King Robert smiled for the first time in many days. In front of him was a perfect spider’s web. “It never gave up,” he said to himself. “The spider lost its web again and again, but it always started again. ”He looked at the web for a long time. “I can do it like the spider. I will not give up! If that little spider can finish its web, I can beat the English. ”Suddenly he felt strong again.
He made up his plan and woke his men up. “Walter, send a soldier to Stirling. Tell them that we will arrive in four days, that we are ready for the next battle and that we need every man. I’m sure they will help us.” It was in the year 1314 that Robert the Bruce fought the battle that was to free Scotland from the English. Today it is famous as the Battle of Bannockburn. 9,000 brave Scotsmen faced 25,000 English soldiers – and won! Their King had told them that the enemy would be defeated if they just didn’t give up. | 920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay
As soon as he had gained power, Hitler was dedicated to removing all restrictions on Germany. He therefore left the League of Nations in October of 1933. They also left the disarmament conference complaining that it was unfair that Germany was disarmed whilst other major powers had weapons.
Hitler planned to create a proper army for Germany and by doing this he also broke the Versailles treaty. Hitler’s Foreign Policy had many main objectives, the most important were to re-arm, create a Reich, and lebensraum.
By using appeasement, Germany took one step at a time to gain what they wanted. By making demands that the allies overlooked as reasonable ones, Hitler gradually increased his domain.
It was not until March 1939 that Hitler actually invaded another country. By this time he had been preparing for war for the past 6 years as his men and arms well in good supply. Some people believed that the treaty of Versailles was unfair to Germany and so thought that Hitler was making reasonable claims.
Especially concerning the Rhineland because that was only an occupied part of Germany itself.
Those people were for the use of appeasement and approved of Germany’s move towards self-sufficiency towards acquiring itself new land or “breathing space”. In the 1920’s Austria had been a democratic republic, making it hard for extreme left or right wing parties to make much political growth. However, when the depression hit, the extremist parties grew rapidly with increasing popularity. A major Party was the Austrian Nazi party who looked to Hitler for support.
In 1932 Engelbert Dolfuss became Chancellor of Austria, promising a powerful government, and restraints on Socialist Parties.Although he supported the Nazi’s in many of their views and favoured right wing policies, the Austrian Nazis assassinated him in 1934. The assassins hoped for a union linking Austria and Germany, but Mussolini moved his troops to the Brenner Pass to prevent this happening. At this particular point Hitler did not want to risk his newly made arms or put his country at risk of war, he therefore withdrew his army for that time and called upon the League of Nations to allow him to rule Czechoslovakia.
In November 1937 Hitler had a meeting with the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax and became convinced that Britain would not fight over Austria, so he prepared a referendum for the Austrian people as to whether or not they preferred a union with Germany. This was later cancelled as Hitler had been making claims saying that Schuschnigg (the new Austrian Chancellor) was mistreating the Austrian Nazis, thus forcing Schyschnigg to resign. German troops entered Vienna on 12th March 1938, and received an ecstatic welcome.Austria was soon incorporated in the Third Reich and an Austrian plebiscite was organised, 99% of the population voted in favour of the union.
Britain took no action against this, despite Hitler’s breaking one of the main clauses of the Versailles Treaty. The allies argued that the Austrian’s had chosen the union with Germany and so encouraged Hitler to do as he wished. Some people believed that this just encouraged Hitler to stake more claims in Europe however they were outweighed by the majority.Czechoslovakia defenceless to German aggression, and it was clear that this was Hitler’s next easiest target in his plan to increase Germany’s territory.
In March 1936, Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland, so the west of Germany could become strong again. This was breaking another of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Although the Allies signed treaties with Czechoslovakia saying that they would do anything they could, they did not have any immediate help or forces needed at that time.Britain and France did not always agree on certain subjects and France was proving increasingly unreliable by pulling out of its previous agreements with Czechoslovakia.
At this point Russia had promised Czechoslovakia its support. This ended up being a turning point for Russia and when they were excluded from agreements with Czechoslovakia they decided that the Allies were not to be trusted. Therefore they joined Forces with Hitler and stunned the world by forming the Nazi-Soviet Non Aggression Pact. This meant that Stalin would be making no attempt to aid Poland.
Hitler had actually already offered him some land in Poland, to make up for the land lost to the Allies at Brest Litovsk. By now people realized that Hitler had no intent on stopping Germany’s expansion. The allies decided something must be done to stop this, and so they rushed to complete treaties with other vulnerable countries nearby Germany such as Poland, Romania and Greece. Although Hitler heard that this was happening, dismissed the possibility of unity between Britain, France and these countries by comparing this situation to the past mistakes the Allies had made.
Britain and France had used appeasement because at the time they both thought that it was best for their countries. Both countries were recovering form the Great Depression that had left millions unemployed, and public opinion was rather displeased with the government ruling at that time. England was in economic struggle, trying to repay debts for World War 1 to America and they had a weak Ally in France. France was not really interested in getting involved with international disputes, as at that particular time, there was a socialist government ruling in France, creating turmoil with the government.
The French dug trenches in the magino line to prepare for a defensive war and seemed unwilling to help or back up Britain. Added to this, Britain and France realized that America was unwilling to join in European disputes and refused to support anyone at this particular time. America was just trying to work itself out of the depression and used isolation to stop draining on its resources and economy. The economic costs of any future war in training, equipment and munitions, was feared.
It was debatable whether or not Britain and France were in a good enough economic shape to support another war.It was extremely debatable whether or not Britain and France would be able to win a possible war without the support of America. Britain and France had lost millions of men during the Great War. So they were unprepared to loose that number of people again; therefore there was large public disposition to commencing a new war.
As Britain was, and still is a democracy, so some notice had to be taken of the majority of the public’s opinion, which was not to go to war if at all possible. It was feared that starting a new war would be worse than the previous one as technology had improved (including bombing).Part of the reason that appeasement was seen as the best option was also the propaganda from the German’s in the Spanish Civil War, which made the Allies over cautious as to how to approach the issue. Germany’s army and resources had been increasing, it was feared that Germany’s large army would start bombing the Allied countries like they had bombed Spain during the civil war.
Britain and France had over-estimated the number of Germany’s forces however although there was an exaggeration of forces, Germany still had a credible amount of men in the army and a large amount of resources.In this case appeasement allowed the allies time to re-arm and increase arms production. This allowed an extra year in which radar; spitfires, conscription and many more vital resources were introduced and improved upon. The allies certainly needed this time to get their act together and to prepare for potential war.
However it also allowed Germany extras time to prepare itself for another war. By using appeasement, the Allies showed no strength to stand up against Hitler/ Mussolini invading other countries and basically encouraged them to continue as they wished.Hitler had closely watched how the Manchurian dispute had (or in this case had not) been resolved. He used this to convince his government to do as he wished and used this to his advantage.
The League of Nations had already proved incapable of decisive action to deter or reverse aggression. At that time there was no working mechanism for other countries to support a stand made against Hitler. The public could see everything had been tried to stop war however it was inevitable that in the end they would have had to go to war with Germany.
Cite this Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay
Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay. (2017, Nov 09). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/why-did-britain-and-france-pursue-a-policy-of-appeasement-between-1933-and-1939-towards-germany/ | <urn:uuid:19b6ae36-9330-4811-b4aa-c8514969fd46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/why-did-britain-and-france-pursue-a-policy-of-appeasement-between-1933-and-1939-towards-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.986749 | 1,812 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.12003193050622... | 1 | Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay
As soon as he had gained power, Hitler was dedicated to removing all restrictions on Germany. He therefore left the League of Nations in October of 1933. They also left the disarmament conference complaining that it was unfair that Germany was disarmed whilst other major powers had weapons.
Hitler planned to create a proper army for Germany and by doing this he also broke the Versailles treaty. Hitler’s Foreign Policy had many main objectives, the most important were to re-arm, create a Reich, and lebensraum.
By using appeasement, Germany took one step at a time to gain what they wanted. By making demands that the allies overlooked as reasonable ones, Hitler gradually increased his domain.
It was not until March 1939 that Hitler actually invaded another country. By this time he had been preparing for war for the past 6 years as his men and arms well in good supply. Some people believed that the treaty of Versailles was unfair to Germany and so thought that Hitler was making reasonable claims.
Especially concerning the Rhineland because that was only an occupied part of Germany itself.
Those people were for the use of appeasement and approved of Germany’s move towards self-sufficiency towards acquiring itself new land or “breathing space”. In the 1920’s Austria had been a democratic republic, making it hard for extreme left or right wing parties to make much political growth. However, when the depression hit, the extremist parties grew rapidly with increasing popularity. A major Party was the Austrian Nazi party who looked to Hitler for support.
In 1932 Engelbert Dolfuss became Chancellor of Austria, promising a powerful government, and restraints on Socialist Parties.Although he supported the Nazi’s in many of their views and favoured right wing policies, the Austrian Nazis assassinated him in 1934. The assassins hoped for a union linking Austria and Germany, but Mussolini moved his troops to the Brenner Pass to prevent this happening. At this particular point Hitler did not want to risk his newly made arms or put his country at risk of war, he therefore withdrew his army for that time and called upon the League of Nations to allow him to rule Czechoslovakia.
In November 1937 Hitler had a meeting with the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax and became convinced that Britain would not fight over Austria, so he prepared a referendum for the Austrian people as to whether or not they preferred a union with Germany. This was later cancelled as Hitler had been making claims saying that Schuschnigg (the new Austrian Chancellor) was mistreating the Austrian Nazis, thus forcing Schyschnigg to resign. German troops entered Vienna on 12th March 1938, and received an ecstatic welcome.Austria was soon incorporated in the Third Reich and an Austrian plebiscite was organised, 99% of the population voted in favour of the union.
Britain took no action against this, despite Hitler’s breaking one of the main clauses of the Versailles Treaty. The allies argued that the Austrian’s had chosen the union with Germany and so encouraged Hitler to do as he wished. Some people believed that this just encouraged Hitler to stake more claims in Europe however they were outweighed by the majority.Czechoslovakia defenceless to German aggression, and it was clear that this was Hitler’s next easiest target in his plan to increase Germany’s territory.
In March 1936, Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland, so the west of Germany could become strong again. This was breaking another of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Although the Allies signed treaties with Czechoslovakia saying that they would do anything they could, they did not have any immediate help or forces needed at that time.Britain and France did not always agree on certain subjects and France was proving increasingly unreliable by pulling out of its previous agreements with Czechoslovakia.
At this point Russia had promised Czechoslovakia its support. This ended up being a turning point for Russia and when they were excluded from agreements with Czechoslovakia they decided that the Allies were not to be trusted. Therefore they joined Forces with Hitler and stunned the world by forming the Nazi-Soviet Non Aggression Pact. This meant that Stalin would be making no attempt to aid Poland.
Hitler had actually already offered him some land in Poland, to make up for the land lost to the Allies at Brest Litovsk. By now people realized that Hitler had no intent on stopping Germany’s expansion. The allies decided something must be done to stop this, and so they rushed to complete treaties with other vulnerable countries nearby Germany such as Poland, Romania and Greece. Although Hitler heard that this was happening, dismissed the possibility of unity between Britain, France and these countries by comparing this situation to the past mistakes the Allies had made.
Britain and France had used appeasement because at the time they both thought that it was best for their countries. Both countries were recovering form the Great Depression that had left millions unemployed, and public opinion was rather displeased with the government ruling at that time. England was in economic struggle, trying to repay debts for World War 1 to America and they had a weak Ally in France. France was not really interested in getting involved with international disputes, as at that particular time, there was a socialist government ruling in France, creating turmoil with the government.
The French dug trenches in the magino line to prepare for a defensive war and seemed unwilling to help or back up Britain. Added to this, Britain and France realized that America was unwilling to join in European disputes and refused to support anyone at this particular time. America was just trying to work itself out of the depression and used isolation to stop draining on its resources and economy. The economic costs of any future war in training, equipment and munitions, was feared.
It was debatable whether or not Britain and France were in a good enough economic shape to support another war.It was extremely debatable whether or not Britain and France would be able to win a possible war without the support of America. Britain and France had lost millions of men during the Great War. So they were unprepared to loose that number of people again; therefore there was large public disposition to commencing a new war.
As Britain was, and still is a democracy, so some notice had to be taken of the majority of the public’s opinion, which was not to go to war if at all possible. It was feared that starting a new war would be worse than the previous one as technology had improved (including bombing).Part of the reason that appeasement was seen as the best option was also the propaganda from the German’s in the Spanish Civil War, which made the Allies over cautious as to how to approach the issue. Germany’s army and resources had been increasing, it was feared that Germany’s large army would start bombing the Allied countries like they had bombed Spain during the civil war.
Britain and France had over-estimated the number of Germany’s forces however although there was an exaggeration of forces, Germany still had a credible amount of men in the army and a large amount of resources.In this case appeasement allowed the allies time to re-arm and increase arms production. This allowed an extra year in which radar; spitfires, conscription and many more vital resources were introduced and improved upon. The allies certainly needed this time to get their act together and to prepare for potential war.
However it also allowed Germany extras time to prepare itself for another war. By using appeasement, the Allies showed no strength to stand up against Hitler/ Mussolini invading other countries and basically encouraged them to continue as they wished.Hitler had closely watched how the Manchurian dispute had (or in this case had not) been resolved. He used this to convince his government to do as he wished and used this to his advantage.
The League of Nations had already proved incapable of decisive action to deter or reverse aggression. At that time there was no working mechanism for other countries to support a stand made against Hitler. The public could see everything had been tried to stop war however it was inevitable that in the end they would have had to go to war with Germany.
Cite this Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay
Why Did Britain And France Pursue A Policy Of Appeasement Between 1933 And 1939 Towards Germany? Essay. (2017, Nov 09). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/why-did-britain-and-france-pursue-a-policy-of-appeasement-between-1933-and-1939-towards-germany/ | 1,819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over the course of the classic novel, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Jane exhibits her dignity and integrity through her interactions with other people and even in her everyday living. The author establishes Jane's character early in the novel through her confrontations with John and Mrs. Reed. The development of her character is central to the novel; meaning, practically the entire theme revolves around her personality and her coming of age. She is depicted as having a very opinionated personality toward others. Bronte does a remarkable job of revealing Jane's character through her actions, words, and appearance. .
Many times throughout the book, her outspoken attitude is turned into aggressive acts. At the start of the novel her cousin, John Reed, hurls a book at her just to anger her and make her fight back, creating her to get in trouble. This is the case in many cases when John starts fights with her; she is always the one who gets punished. One afternoon, Jane is peacefully reading in the windowsill when John walks into the room. He begins criticizing her and throws a book at her, which makes her hit her head on the door, cutting it open. Not being able to stand it any longer, Jane erupts and goes flying at him with her fists clenched ready to kill. The two begin fighting and are rolling around on the floor when Mrs. Reed "comes to John's rescue". He, of course, lies and blames the entire thing on Jane, causing her to be scolded and sent to the red-room. Her integrity is shown when Miss Abbott and Bessie Lee are taking her to the red-room and she puts up a fight and refuses to go. Later on in the story, Jane comes across a man, Mr. Rochester, on a horse in the woods. He is thrown from the horse and she helps him up by letting him lean on her until he is able to mount his horse again. Jane exposes an underlying character trait of caring and sensitivity when she lays with her dying friend, Helen, at Lowood. | <urn:uuid:95911ba2-c975-4b74-bfbd-c3ca9c4e357e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/53034.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00417.warc.gz | en | 0.983394 | 415 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.18485152721... | 3 | Over the course of the classic novel, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Jane exhibits her dignity and integrity through her interactions with other people and even in her everyday living. The author establishes Jane's character early in the novel through her confrontations with John and Mrs. Reed. The development of her character is central to the novel; meaning, practically the entire theme revolves around her personality and her coming of age. She is depicted as having a very opinionated personality toward others. Bronte does a remarkable job of revealing Jane's character through her actions, words, and appearance. .
Many times throughout the book, her outspoken attitude is turned into aggressive acts. At the start of the novel her cousin, John Reed, hurls a book at her just to anger her and make her fight back, creating her to get in trouble. This is the case in many cases when John starts fights with her; she is always the one who gets punished. One afternoon, Jane is peacefully reading in the windowsill when John walks into the room. He begins criticizing her and throws a book at her, which makes her hit her head on the door, cutting it open. Not being able to stand it any longer, Jane erupts and goes flying at him with her fists clenched ready to kill. The two begin fighting and are rolling around on the floor when Mrs. Reed "comes to John's rescue". He, of course, lies and blames the entire thing on Jane, causing her to be scolded and sent to the red-room. Her integrity is shown when Miss Abbott and Bessie Lee are taking her to the red-room and she puts up a fight and refuses to go. Later on in the story, Jane comes across a man, Mr. Rochester, on a horse in the woods. He is thrown from the horse and she helps him up by letting him lean on her until he is able to mount his horse again. Jane exposes an underlying character trait of caring and sensitivity when she lays with her dying friend, Helen, at Lowood. | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When news of the birth of Gustav Mahler’s niece was announced in 1906 in Vienna, there was much rejoicing among the musical royalty. Alma Rosé was born 25 years after her father, Arnold Rosé, and brother-in-law to Gustav Mahler, was appointed concertmaster of the Vienna Court Opera Orchestra and the Vienna Philharmonic. To be born into this family, in a city that personified elegance and sophistication, gave Alma a legacy that defined her very essence.
Her life and martyr’s death was brought to the attention of Richard Newman, an award-winning journalist and music critic, by Alma’s brother, Professor Alfred Rose. A promising conductor in Austria before Hitler’s takeover in 1938, Alfred had been the protégé of Richard Strauss at the Vienna Opera. He did not want to talk about his sister for many years, until a chance encounter in an outdoor market. A stranger heard Alma’s name, and she told him that his sister had saved the lives of many Jewish girls.
Alma was caught by the Nazis in Dijon, France as she was trying to escape from Holland. She was transported to the internment camp at Drancy, and then to Auschwitz. The story of her survival and how she saved the lives of many musicians is especially poignant to musicians. Her fate as a conductor as well as a violinist brought her into close association with her Nazi captors, including Joseph Mengele, the infamous “Angel of Death.”
She was a violinist with great technique and flair, and a musicality grounded in the great Viennese tradition imparted to her by her father and uncle. In the 1930’s she founded and led the brilliant women’s orchestra, the Wiener Walzermadelyn, the Viennese Waltzing Girls, that performed in Munich in 1933, only a few weeks after Adolf Hitler had risen to power in Berlin and declared the birth of the Third Reich. In the years of depression between the world wars, Alma succeeded in bringing employment to many women. This ability would rise to another level when she used her musical and personal skills to survive in the death camp, walking the tight rope between the musicians and the Gestapo.
That Alma would be a musician was pre-ordained. No one could predict, however, how her destiny would unfold. No amount of talent can fully prepare a person for the difficulties inherent in the music profession. To be a Jew in Austria after Hitler annexed it in 1938 didn’t stop Alma from her determination to work as a violinist. She dealt with, as best she could, the circumstances that might ordinarily paralyze a lesser and more ordinary musician. The obstacles she would face, both in her personal and professional life, reached a feverish pitch as the noose around the European Jews tightened.
After accompanying her father to London, where he would be safe from the deadly risk Jews faced in Europe, she moved by herself to Holland from Britain in 1939. She knew full well the dangers that Hitler had inflicted on musicians and other Jewish professionals throughout Germany and Austria. One of the reasons she and her father had left Vienna was because there was no work for them. Some Jews could see that it was not safe for them anywhere on the continent, and had the means to leave while it was still possible. However, for the vast majority, it was next to impossible to leave, with economic factors and limits on immigration imposed on them. Many had hope that such nightmarish living conditions would eventually be reversed.
Alma’s story has been told by several authors, and an even-handed, empathetic history is told in Alma Rosé – Vienna to Auschwitz, by Richard Newman with Karen Kirtley, (2000), Amadeus Press. This is the tragic account of a multi-talented musician whose energy and rich heritage became enmeshed in the crushing massacre of European Jews. Those who were not killed each had a unique, spiritual story of survival. To play the violin and conduct, while helping her fellow musicians survive, gives us a sense of her deep artistic convictions.
Such a story always has many sides, and Alma was cast in a poor light in the movie Playing for Time, starring Jane Alexander as Alma and Vanessa Redgrave as the singer Fania Fènelon. Unlike the book by Newman, it gives no background about the principal characters. It is the version of the story from the book by Fènelon, and it glosses over the death of Alma eight months before the liberation of Auschwitz. Every surviving musician felt the movie desecrated the life of Alma.
The story of Alma’s death is still a mystery, Some believe that it was a result of food poisoning, while others think she was murdered in a plot of revenge by the Nazi SS officers.
Alma’s spirit is a story of the ages, and violinists cannot help but be caught up in her fight for survival. She was the personification of high musical ideals, with the brilliant mind of someone who allowed herself no other choice but to survive.
Long before the war, Alma’s marriage to the popular Czech violin virtuoso Váša Príhoda brought together two high-spirited musicians, but made her vulnerable to the extreme heartache of being cast in his shadow. Her sense of isolation and loneliness plagued her throughout her life, however much her musical talent gave her life meaning. She had a strong and vivacious personality and was a fine virtuoso in her own right. Her fate during the war was to be a witness to the catastrophe that befell Europe’s Jews, and as a player who used her music and her leadership to save many Jews at Auschwitz.
At the beginning of the war, she spent several years in Holland living with a Christian family, all the time fearing that if she were discovered by the Nazis, they and their baby could be taken away. She did not leave in 1940 when many others left, but in 1942, she made plans to escape. Others urged her to go into hiding like Anne Frank, but Alma’s personality prevented her from confining herself in compact quarters with unpredictable strangers whom she would share a residence with.
Alma had an adaptable musical mind and a survival instinct that would be tested when the Jews had nowhere to turn.
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Violinist.com is made possible by...
Discover the best of Violinist.com in these collections of editor Laurie Niles' exclusive interviews. | <urn:uuid:5dd0c491-27cd-4390-b1c7-369d2e561a09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.violinist.com/blog/stein4strings/20176/21200/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.983334 | 1,359 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.072313323... | 11 | When news of the birth of Gustav Mahler’s niece was announced in 1906 in Vienna, there was much rejoicing among the musical royalty. Alma Rosé was born 25 years after her father, Arnold Rosé, and brother-in-law to Gustav Mahler, was appointed concertmaster of the Vienna Court Opera Orchestra and the Vienna Philharmonic. To be born into this family, in a city that personified elegance and sophistication, gave Alma a legacy that defined her very essence.
Her life and martyr’s death was brought to the attention of Richard Newman, an award-winning journalist and music critic, by Alma’s brother, Professor Alfred Rose. A promising conductor in Austria before Hitler’s takeover in 1938, Alfred had been the protégé of Richard Strauss at the Vienna Opera. He did not want to talk about his sister for many years, until a chance encounter in an outdoor market. A stranger heard Alma’s name, and she told him that his sister had saved the lives of many Jewish girls.
Alma was caught by the Nazis in Dijon, France as she was trying to escape from Holland. She was transported to the internment camp at Drancy, and then to Auschwitz. The story of her survival and how she saved the lives of many musicians is especially poignant to musicians. Her fate as a conductor as well as a violinist brought her into close association with her Nazi captors, including Joseph Mengele, the infamous “Angel of Death.”
She was a violinist with great technique and flair, and a musicality grounded in the great Viennese tradition imparted to her by her father and uncle. In the 1930’s she founded and led the brilliant women’s orchestra, the Wiener Walzermadelyn, the Viennese Waltzing Girls, that performed in Munich in 1933, only a few weeks after Adolf Hitler had risen to power in Berlin and declared the birth of the Third Reich. In the years of depression between the world wars, Alma succeeded in bringing employment to many women. This ability would rise to another level when she used her musical and personal skills to survive in the death camp, walking the tight rope between the musicians and the Gestapo.
That Alma would be a musician was pre-ordained. No one could predict, however, how her destiny would unfold. No amount of talent can fully prepare a person for the difficulties inherent in the music profession. To be a Jew in Austria after Hitler annexed it in 1938 didn’t stop Alma from her determination to work as a violinist. She dealt with, as best she could, the circumstances that might ordinarily paralyze a lesser and more ordinary musician. The obstacles she would face, both in her personal and professional life, reached a feverish pitch as the noose around the European Jews tightened.
After accompanying her father to London, where he would be safe from the deadly risk Jews faced in Europe, she moved by herself to Holland from Britain in 1939. She knew full well the dangers that Hitler had inflicted on musicians and other Jewish professionals throughout Germany and Austria. One of the reasons she and her father had left Vienna was because there was no work for them. Some Jews could see that it was not safe for them anywhere on the continent, and had the means to leave while it was still possible. However, for the vast majority, it was next to impossible to leave, with economic factors and limits on immigration imposed on them. Many had hope that such nightmarish living conditions would eventually be reversed.
Alma’s story has been told by several authors, and an even-handed, empathetic history is told in Alma Rosé – Vienna to Auschwitz, by Richard Newman with Karen Kirtley, (2000), Amadeus Press. This is the tragic account of a multi-talented musician whose energy and rich heritage became enmeshed in the crushing massacre of European Jews. Those who were not killed each had a unique, spiritual story of survival. To play the violin and conduct, while helping her fellow musicians survive, gives us a sense of her deep artistic convictions.
Such a story always has many sides, and Alma was cast in a poor light in the movie Playing for Time, starring Jane Alexander as Alma and Vanessa Redgrave as the singer Fania Fènelon. Unlike the book by Newman, it gives no background about the principal characters. It is the version of the story from the book by Fènelon, and it glosses over the death of Alma eight months before the liberation of Auschwitz. Every surviving musician felt the movie desecrated the life of Alma.
The story of Alma’s death is still a mystery, Some believe that it was a result of food poisoning, while others think she was murdered in a plot of revenge by the Nazi SS officers.
Alma’s spirit is a story of the ages, and violinists cannot help but be caught up in her fight for survival. She was the personification of high musical ideals, with the brilliant mind of someone who allowed herself no other choice but to survive.
Long before the war, Alma’s marriage to the popular Czech violin virtuoso Váša Príhoda brought together two high-spirited musicians, but made her vulnerable to the extreme heartache of being cast in his shadow. Her sense of isolation and loneliness plagued her throughout her life, however much her musical talent gave her life meaning. She had a strong and vivacious personality and was a fine virtuoso in her own right. Her fate during the war was to be a witness to the catastrophe that befell Europe’s Jews, and as a player who used her music and her leadership to save many Jews at Auschwitz.
At the beginning of the war, she spent several years in Holland living with a Christian family, all the time fearing that if she were discovered by the Nazis, they and their baby could be taken away. She did not leave in 1940 when many others left, but in 1942, she made plans to escape. Others urged her to go into hiding like Anne Frank, but Alma’s personality prevented her from confining herself in compact quarters with unpredictable strangers whom she would share a residence with.
Alma had an adaptable musical mind and a survival instinct that would be tested when the Jews had nowhere to turn.
This article has been archived and is no longer accepting comments.
Violinist.com is made possible by...
Discover the best of Violinist.com in these collections of editor Laurie Niles' exclusive interviews. | 1,343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Would the capture of Moscow have altered the outcome of World War II? Losing their capital has often led nations to seek peace. Moscow was more than the administrative capital of the Soviet Union: it was also a vital rail hub and production center. There was also the symbolic value: totalitarian dictators, like Hitler and Stalin, crafted images of themselves as all-knowing leaders of their nations. Losing Moscow would certainly have dented popular confidence in Stalin. In fact, Stalin apparently did put out discreet peace feelers to Germany through Sweden, which Hitler ignored.
But the Russo-German War was no ordinary conflict fought over territory or resources. For Nazi Germany, it was a war of extermination and subjugation that would have killed the Russian people or reduced them to slavery. For the Soviet Union, it was a war of survival. What kind of peace would have been possible? There could be no escape through a peace treaty with Hitler.
The War in the East was a fight to the death, and neither capturing nor defending Moscow would change that. The Soviet Union would probably have fought on despite the loss of its capital.
This first appeared last year.
Image Credit: Creative Commons. | <urn:uuid:6dac69c6-c6b0-4c38-ab55-ea86a00542ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/battle-moscow-how-russia-stopped-nazi-germanys-military-23602?page=0%2C1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.984758 | 240 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.6756147146224976... | 1 | Would the capture of Moscow have altered the outcome of World War II? Losing their capital has often led nations to seek peace. Moscow was more than the administrative capital of the Soviet Union: it was also a vital rail hub and production center. There was also the symbolic value: totalitarian dictators, like Hitler and Stalin, crafted images of themselves as all-knowing leaders of their nations. Losing Moscow would certainly have dented popular confidence in Stalin. In fact, Stalin apparently did put out discreet peace feelers to Germany through Sweden, which Hitler ignored.
But the Russo-German War was no ordinary conflict fought over territory or resources. For Nazi Germany, it was a war of extermination and subjugation that would have killed the Russian people or reduced them to slavery. For the Soviet Union, it was a war of survival. What kind of peace would have been possible? There could be no escape through a peace treaty with Hitler.
The War in the East was a fight to the death, and neither capturing nor defending Moscow would change that. The Soviet Union would probably have fought on despite the loss of its capital.
This first appeared last year.
Image Credit: Creative Commons. | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Rise of Realism
Define the definition of " Muckraker. " Make sure you include the term of the individual that created it. President Theodore Roosevelt created the term muckraker during a speech in 1906 he compared the muckrakers to the Person with the Muckrake. A muckraker is a article writer who investigates societal issues.
Naturalism was obviously a literary motion of the overdue 19th hundred years that was an extension of Realism. The fact that was the main focus of the Naturalistic copy writer? The main focus from the Naturalistic copy writer was to show naturalists inside their normal placing or way of living American Realists believed that humanity's flexibility of choice was limited by the power of outside makes. How will this view differ from the angle of the Romantic writer (assume of someone like Emerson)? Romantics believed that free can was a a part of human nature and replaced cause with sentiment as the force at the rear of their actions while realists thought that everyone was only free because of cause like knowing the alternatives of just one choice and after that choosing a distinct option. Inside your opinion, depending on what you have read, how come would post Civil War, newly developing America be attracted to the Realistic motion? I think that they can would be attracted to the Genuine movement because the Realistic activity was about the present people and problems and in addition they spoke about present issues, not possible concerns of the future therefore since they got out of the Municipal War, they wanted to focus on contemporary complications, not upcoming or previous problems. Precisely what is meant by the term " local color"?
Community color is actually a term put on fiction or perhaps poetry, which usually tends to place special focus on a particular establishing, including it is customs, clothes, dialect, and landscape. | <urn:uuid:15000b76-3915-4313-8c42-ac316714c98a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jaffnacollege.org/rise-of-realism/51013-essay-upon-rise-of-realism.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.980347 | 373 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0243094228... | 1 | The Rise of Realism
Define the definition of " Muckraker. " Make sure you include the term of the individual that created it. President Theodore Roosevelt created the term muckraker during a speech in 1906 he compared the muckrakers to the Person with the Muckrake. A muckraker is a article writer who investigates societal issues.
Naturalism was obviously a literary motion of the overdue 19th hundred years that was an extension of Realism. The fact that was the main focus of the Naturalistic copy writer? The main focus from the Naturalistic copy writer was to show naturalists inside their normal placing or way of living American Realists believed that humanity's flexibility of choice was limited by the power of outside makes. How will this view differ from the angle of the Romantic writer (assume of someone like Emerson)? Romantics believed that free can was a a part of human nature and replaced cause with sentiment as the force at the rear of their actions while realists thought that everyone was only free because of cause like knowing the alternatives of just one choice and after that choosing a distinct option. Inside your opinion, depending on what you have read, how come would post Civil War, newly developing America be attracted to the Realistic motion? I think that they can would be attracted to the Genuine movement because the Realistic activity was about the present people and problems and in addition they spoke about present issues, not possible concerns of the future therefore since they got out of the Municipal War, they wanted to focus on contemporary complications, not upcoming or previous problems. Precisely what is meant by the term " local color"?
Community color is actually a term put on fiction or perhaps poetry, which usually tends to place special focus on a particular establishing, including it is customs, clothes, dialect, and landscape. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hieroglyphics is the ancient text that was used to write in Ancient Egypt. This text was discovered to be written as early as 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics means “Sacred text.”
What Are Hieroglyphics?
Hieroglyphics are pictures that are used to make words or letters. There are over 1000 different symbols that are used. Some of the symbols are used to make sounds while some are used to make different letters of the alphabet. There are even pictures that stand for whole words.
Why Was Hieroglyphics Important?
People in Ancient Egypt needed to be able to communicate and to write about things and to keep things documented and since they did not have the normal alphabet that we use, they had to have some way to do this and that is why hieroglyphics was so important.
Who Used Hieroglyphics?
Hieroglyphics was very hard to learn and so it took a lot of education to be able to learn and it took them a lot of time to practice learning how to write each of the letters out. Not only did they have to learn the sounds, they also had to learn to write the shapes.
Some people would start at a very young age, even as young as five or six to learn how to write these ancient texts.
Some of the people that would learn to write in hieroglyphics were the scribes and priests. Scribes were very important and treated very well in Ancient Egypt. Not only were they thought of as being very smart and important, the city did not make them pay taxes or make them go to the army.
Children of people that were rich were the only ones that were allowed to become scribes or to train to be a scribe.
Priests learned to write in hieroglyphics because they needed to be able to write about the religion and to document things for the church. Even though they were leaders of the church and were very busy, they were forced to learn how to write this ancient writing and to teach it to others in the priesthood.
What Did Hieroglyphics Look Like?
Hieroglyphics was written in different directions. We right left to right but with hieroglyphics, it could be written right to left or left to right. We wright up and down but with hieroglyphics, it could be written up and down or down and up.
There were no exclamation marks, periods, commas or any other type of punctuation when writing hieroglyphics. Instead, they would try to make the writing to look like artwork. Sometimes, it would look so amazing that the people would want to copy it and hang it around as artwork.
Instead of writing single letters, some pictures were written to be a whole word. When a picture means a whole word, it is an ideogram. Some of the symbols made a sound. When a symbol makes a sound, this is called a phonogram.
An Egyptian might draw a picture of an eye and it could mean an eye like an eyeball or it could stand for the letter “I.” This is one example as to why writing hieroglyphics was very difficult to learn.
What Did the Ancient Egyptians Write On?
Since we know that paper is a popular thing to write on, it is important to understand what the Egyptians wrote on. They also had paper, but it was different than the paper that we have today. The Egyptians had paper made from a papyrus plant.
The stem of the plant would be used to make the paper and they would make two layers, one going up and down and one going left and right. It would then be covered in cloth and it would be put between two heavy items such as rocks or stones and the strips would stick together and become flat.
After the papyrus paper was made, they would write on it like we write on paper today. Papyrus paper was a very important invention for the Ancient Egyptians, and they would not tell other cultures how to make it so that they could always trade it for other goods.
The Ancient Egyptians would also write on stones so that the writing could be saved forever. One of the most important documents that was found was the Rosetta Stone. This stone had hieroglyphics written on it and historians were able to translate what the stone said.
Since the Rosetta Stone was found, it allowed people to be able to understand hieroglyphics and the different symbols that they used. It is a very important piece of history. It was discovered by a French soldier in 1799 in the city of Rosetta and that is why it is called the Rosetta Stone.
More Facts About Hieroglyphics:
- Some hieroglyphics was written shorter because it could allow the scribes to write what they wanted to write faster. This was a form of hieroglyphics that was called hieratic. Today, we call that type of writing shorthand writing.
- Greeks were made to learn hieroglyphics when they conquered Egypt.
- Many of the Ancient Egyptians could not read and write and most of the hieroglyphic learning was done by people that were rich.
- Imhotep was a very famous scribe from Ancient Egypt. He helped to design the very first pyramid and he was later made a god. He was famous because he was the priest of the sun god before he became a god himself.
What Did You Learn?
- What are hieroglyphics? Hieroglyphics is a text that the Ancient Egyptians learned to write and read.
- did hieroglyphics look like? Hieroglyphics could be letters, sounds or single pictures.
- What does hieroglyphics mean? Hieroglyphics means “Sacred text.”
- Who learned to write hieroglyphics? Most of the people that learned to write hieroglyphics were rich people. Some were scribes and priests. | <urn:uuid:ab1e706b-bedc-447e-819e-315fdf92b57f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/hieroglyphics.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.990637 | 1,236 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.229418814... | 13 | Hieroglyphics is the ancient text that was used to write in Ancient Egypt. This text was discovered to be written as early as 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics means “Sacred text.”
What Are Hieroglyphics?
Hieroglyphics are pictures that are used to make words or letters. There are over 1000 different symbols that are used. Some of the symbols are used to make sounds while some are used to make different letters of the alphabet. There are even pictures that stand for whole words.
Why Was Hieroglyphics Important?
People in Ancient Egypt needed to be able to communicate and to write about things and to keep things documented and since they did not have the normal alphabet that we use, they had to have some way to do this and that is why hieroglyphics was so important.
Who Used Hieroglyphics?
Hieroglyphics was very hard to learn and so it took a lot of education to be able to learn and it took them a lot of time to practice learning how to write each of the letters out. Not only did they have to learn the sounds, they also had to learn to write the shapes.
Some people would start at a very young age, even as young as five or six to learn how to write these ancient texts.
Some of the people that would learn to write in hieroglyphics were the scribes and priests. Scribes were very important and treated very well in Ancient Egypt. Not only were they thought of as being very smart and important, the city did not make them pay taxes or make them go to the army.
Children of people that were rich were the only ones that were allowed to become scribes or to train to be a scribe.
Priests learned to write in hieroglyphics because they needed to be able to write about the religion and to document things for the church. Even though they were leaders of the church and were very busy, they were forced to learn how to write this ancient writing and to teach it to others in the priesthood.
What Did Hieroglyphics Look Like?
Hieroglyphics was written in different directions. We right left to right but with hieroglyphics, it could be written right to left or left to right. We wright up and down but with hieroglyphics, it could be written up and down or down and up.
There were no exclamation marks, periods, commas or any other type of punctuation when writing hieroglyphics. Instead, they would try to make the writing to look like artwork. Sometimes, it would look so amazing that the people would want to copy it and hang it around as artwork.
Instead of writing single letters, some pictures were written to be a whole word. When a picture means a whole word, it is an ideogram. Some of the symbols made a sound. When a symbol makes a sound, this is called a phonogram.
An Egyptian might draw a picture of an eye and it could mean an eye like an eyeball or it could stand for the letter “I.” This is one example as to why writing hieroglyphics was very difficult to learn.
What Did the Ancient Egyptians Write On?
Since we know that paper is a popular thing to write on, it is important to understand what the Egyptians wrote on. They also had paper, but it was different than the paper that we have today. The Egyptians had paper made from a papyrus plant.
The stem of the plant would be used to make the paper and they would make two layers, one going up and down and one going left and right. It would then be covered in cloth and it would be put between two heavy items such as rocks or stones and the strips would stick together and become flat.
After the papyrus paper was made, they would write on it like we write on paper today. Papyrus paper was a very important invention for the Ancient Egyptians, and they would not tell other cultures how to make it so that they could always trade it for other goods.
The Ancient Egyptians would also write on stones so that the writing could be saved forever. One of the most important documents that was found was the Rosetta Stone. This stone had hieroglyphics written on it and historians were able to translate what the stone said.
Since the Rosetta Stone was found, it allowed people to be able to understand hieroglyphics and the different symbols that they used. It is a very important piece of history. It was discovered by a French soldier in 1799 in the city of Rosetta and that is why it is called the Rosetta Stone.
More Facts About Hieroglyphics:
- Some hieroglyphics was written shorter because it could allow the scribes to write what they wanted to write faster. This was a form of hieroglyphics that was called hieratic. Today, we call that type of writing shorthand writing.
- Greeks were made to learn hieroglyphics when they conquered Egypt.
- Many of the Ancient Egyptians could not read and write and most of the hieroglyphic learning was done by people that were rich.
- Imhotep was a very famous scribe from Ancient Egypt. He helped to design the very first pyramid and he was later made a god. He was famous because he was the priest of the sun god before he became a god himself.
What Did You Learn?
- What are hieroglyphics? Hieroglyphics is a text that the Ancient Egyptians learned to write and read.
- did hieroglyphics look like? Hieroglyphics could be letters, sounds or single pictures.
- What does hieroglyphics mean? Hieroglyphics means “Sacred text.”
- Who learned to write hieroglyphics? Most of the people that learned to write hieroglyphics were rich people. Some were scribes and priests. | 1,200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rashel Mironovna Khin hosted salons that made her the toast of Imperial Russia and, with the help of the novelist Ivan Turgenev, became a successful writer in her own right. Khin attended a girl’s gymnasium in Moscow before marrying in 1881 and beginning her studies in history and literature at the Sorbonne in Paris. It was here that she began hosting salons and studying under Turgenev, who died in 1883. Khin translated George Sand and Emile Zola into Russian and wrote numerous short stories and novellas for Russian journals as well as plays which were performed at Moscow’s Malyi Theater. Her work focused on themes of genteel, assimilated Jews who were torn between their longing for status and their responsibilities to their strange, devout, impoverished co-religionists. Unhappy in her marriage but unable to secure a divorce, Khin converted to Catholicism to dissolve the union, and later married Osip Borisovich Goldovski, a Jewish lawyer who had to convert as well to marry her. She fled Russia for France after the 1905 Revolution, but returned in 1914 with dreams of helping create a new, more just nation. Despite these hopes, she quickly became overwhelmed by the demands of the new regime and abandoned her writing altogether.
More on Rashel Mironovna Khin
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Rashel Mironovna Khin." (Viewed on January 18, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/khin-rashel>. | <urn:uuid:28987584-b48a-4d32-ba06-eb1e1df2abc5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qa.jwa.org/people/khin-rashel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.98255 | 332 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.360809147357940... | 1 | Rashel Mironovna Khin hosted salons that made her the toast of Imperial Russia and, with the help of the novelist Ivan Turgenev, became a successful writer in her own right. Khin attended a girl’s gymnasium in Moscow before marrying in 1881 and beginning her studies in history and literature at the Sorbonne in Paris. It was here that she began hosting salons and studying under Turgenev, who died in 1883. Khin translated George Sand and Emile Zola into Russian and wrote numerous short stories and novellas for Russian journals as well as plays which were performed at Moscow’s Malyi Theater. Her work focused on themes of genteel, assimilated Jews who were torn between their longing for status and their responsibilities to their strange, devout, impoverished co-religionists. Unhappy in her marriage but unable to secure a divorce, Khin converted to Catholicism to dissolve the union, and later married Osip Borisovich Goldovski, a Jewish lawyer who had to convert as well to marry her. She fled Russia for France after the 1905 Revolution, but returned in 1914 with dreams of helping create a new, more just nation. Despite these hopes, she quickly became overwhelmed by the demands of the new regime and abandoned her writing altogether.
More on Rashel Mironovna Khin
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Rashel Mironovna Khin." (Viewed on January 18, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/khin-rashel>. | 342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of the Selle, October 1918
The Centralisation of Command
Sir Douglas Haig always believed in the judgement of the man on the spot, but after the losses to the BEF during the actions of 1914 and 1915, the BEF was ‘deskilled' in this judgement process during the build up to the Battle of the Somme of 1916. The lack of experienced commanders encouraged the centralisation of command and control of the battlefield. Even the importance of artillery took this into account as divisional artillery was concentrated and co-ordinated at Corps level, a crucial part of the planning of any operation.
Devolved Command 1918
By 1917 the BEF was adopting a more managerial style with divisional and brigade commanders playing a bigger role in the planning of offensives. 1918 saw the big change: semi-open warfare was only fluid if command and control was devolved downwards to divisional and brigade commanders. Two of the most influential commanders in the 100 Days offensives of the Fourth Army were Major-General E D Budworth (GOC RA Fourth Army) and Major-General AA Montgomery (MGGS Fourth Army).
Beyond the Hindenburg Line, September 1918
After the crossing of the Hindenburg Line in September 1918, the German resistance stiffened and, for a while, it looked as if Foch's autumn offensive would grind to a halt in this sector. The German Army took up a new position along the River Selle, close to Le Cateau (the site of the August 1914 battle of II Corps during the Retreat to the Marne). When Rawlinson's Fourth Army reached the River Selle in October 1918, they were faced with three problems: crossing the river itself; the railway embankment on the far side; and the ridge above the embankment. The decision was made to commence the assault at night and, as the river was not so very wide at this point, planks would be used for the soldiers to cross in single file. Later, pontoons would be required for the artillery to cross the river.
The Fourth Army prepares for battle
Fourth Army took two weeks to prepare for the battle which was to be an attack along a ten mile front. Rawlinson left the planning to his two Corps commanders: TLN Morland (XIII Corps) and Walter Braithwaite (IX Corps). Morland was still in place since 1916, whilst Braithwaite was newly promoted from command of 62nd Division. In XIII Corps the divisional commanders were HC Jackson (50th Division) and HK Bethell (66th Division). Bethell was, at 35, the youngest British divisional commander. Bethel was not the only ‘new type' of commander, as the Brigade commanders in Morland's Corps were all in their own way extraordinary. These were:
P M Robinson (GOC 149 Brigade); George Rollo (GOC 150 Brigade) who was a marine engineer who had joined the army as a civilian and served as a captain in the Liverpool Pals before promotion (civilian to Brigadier-General in four years!); Richard Sugden (GOC 151 Brigade), a corn miller's son who had played Rugby League for Brighouse Rangers and Yorkshire (who would have thought that there would be a General in the Great War who had played Rugby League!) and who was in the Imperial Yeomanry and commissioned from the ranks during the Boer War. He went to war with the 49th (West Riding) Division in 1915.
Facing XIII Corps were three German divisions, the 17th Reserve, the 204th Infantry Division and the243rd Infantry Division (both 204th and 243rd were Wurttemburg divisions and reckoned to be first rate).
The attack took place during the night of the 17 October and continued until 20 October. After crossing the river in fog, the battle developed into a dogfight. In the morning the three brigades were thoroughly mixed up. Unlike earlier battles when time would have been lost while men were sorted back into their original brigades, these three brigade commanders carried on directing the battle, each instructing the battalions closest to their command posts. This was a far better organisation method than existed in the German lines where time was lost re-organising the men.
Chinese Deception Manoeuvres
Further south the divisions in Braithwaite's IX corps were experiencing the same battle conditions. Here Braithwaite had left the organising to his divisional commanders: E P Strickland (1st Division), T O Marden (6th Division) and G F Boyd (46th Division). Of these commanders Gerald Boyd stands out as being different: he joined the Devonshire Regiment in 1895 as a private soldier, was commissioned into the East Yorkshire Regiment in 1900, began the Great War as Brigade Major in Hunter-Weston's 11 Brigade and was finally promoted GOC 46th Division in September 1918. In the night attack Boyd was instructed to carry out ‘Chinese' deception manoeuvres: lots of movement and shelling but not actually taking part in the battle. Opposing IX Corps were four German divisions - 3rd Naval Division (which lost 50% of its men); 5th Reserve (Brandenberg) Division (which lost 75 as casualties); 15th Reserve (Rhineland) Division which was effectively destroyed as a fighting unit; and 24th (Royal Saxon) Division (which lost 3,000 men in total).
Considering the battle as a whole, the plan was excellent and the deception worked. Rawlinson left his Corps commanders to concentrate the bulk of the action in a narrow section and pinched out the strong point at the Andigny Forest. Only 6th Division had mixed results, all the other division achieved their objectives. The effects of the artillery during this battle have often been exaggerated: the counter-battery fire was as effective as earlier battles. The battle was won by the infantry advancing in fog and surprising the Germans who were in excellent positions along the embankment and below the ridge. It is also assumed, mistakenly, that there had been a collapse in German morale at this stage in the war. This just was not true as the casualty rates in both armies were still high. In the BEF they are comparable to the casualty rate during the Battle of Arras, 1917.
These new tactics used by the BEF - combined, ‘all arms’ battles with limited objectives - kept the Germany army occupied. The number of German divisions facing the Third and Fourth Armies was greater than at any other place in the front line on the Western Front (by October 1918 there were 99 German divisions facing 60 BEF divisions). The German high command had moved more men up from the Meuse-Argonne having identified the BEF as their most dangerous opponents. This is one of reasons for the rapid success of the Franco-American offensive in the Meuse-Argonne area, the density of German divisions on their front was lower and they had fewer reserves.
The 100 Days
As the BEF pushed the Germans back during Foch's autumn offensive which we now call ‘The 100 Days’, the average soldier could expect to ‘go over the top' with a greater frequency than in earlier battles such as the Somme in 1916. On average, a soldier could expect to be sent into the attack at least five times during the 100 Days. This is very different to the average Somme survivor who would have experienced three attacks in three and a half months.
After the Battle of the Selle was run down, Haig instructed his army commanders to prepare for the next attack. We know this as the Battle of the Sambre, the last offensive before the Armistice in November 1918.
Reference: This article is based on a talk given by Professor Peter Simkins to the Yorkshire branch of The Western Front Association
Contributed by Peter J. Palmer
This article first appeared in a previous version of The Western Front Association website 7 September 2009
Image: Canadian troops on Arras-Cambrai road 1918 (source: Wikipedia) | <urn:uuid:68c10cea-ba71-4417-a87e-c399eb4b0d31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/world-war-i-articles/the-one-hundred-days/the-battle-of-the-selle-october-1918/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.982092 | 1,664 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.35241943597793... | 5 | The Battle of the Selle, October 1918
The Centralisation of Command
Sir Douglas Haig always believed in the judgement of the man on the spot, but after the losses to the BEF during the actions of 1914 and 1915, the BEF was ‘deskilled' in this judgement process during the build up to the Battle of the Somme of 1916. The lack of experienced commanders encouraged the centralisation of command and control of the battlefield. Even the importance of artillery took this into account as divisional artillery was concentrated and co-ordinated at Corps level, a crucial part of the planning of any operation.
Devolved Command 1918
By 1917 the BEF was adopting a more managerial style with divisional and brigade commanders playing a bigger role in the planning of offensives. 1918 saw the big change: semi-open warfare was only fluid if command and control was devolved downwards to divisional and brigade commanders. Two of the most influential commanders in the 100 Days offensives of the Fourth Army were Major-General E D Budworth (GOC RA Fourth Army) and Major-General AA Montgomery (MGGS Fourth Army).
Beyond the Hindenburg Line, September 1918
After the crossing of the Hindenburg Line in September 1918, the German resistance stiffened and, for a while, it looked as if Foch's autumn offensive would grind to a halt in this sector. The German Army took up a new position along the River Selle, close to Le Cateau (the site of the August 1914 battle of II Corps during the Retreat to the Marne). When Rawlinson's Fourth Army reached the River Selle in October 1918, they were faced with three problems: crossing the river itself; the railway embankment on the far side; and the ridge above the embankment. The decision was made to commence the assault at night and, as the river was not so very wide at this point, planks would be used for the soldiers to cross in single file. Later, pontoons would be required for the artillery to cross the river.
The Fourth Army prepares for battle
Fourth Army took two weeks to prepare for the battle which was to be an attack along a ten mile front. Rawlinson left the planning to his two Corps commanders: TLN Morland (XIII Corps) and Walter Braithwaite (IX Corps). Morland was still in place since 1916, whilst Braithwaite was newly promoted from command of 62nd Division. In XIII Corps the divisional commanders were HC Jackson (50th Division) and HK Bethell (66th Division). Bethell was, at 35, the youngest British divisional commander. Bethel was not the only ‘new type' of commander, as the Brigade commanders in Morland's Corps were all in their own way extraordinary. These were:
P M Robinson (GOC 149 Brigade); George Rollo (GOC 150 Brigade) who was a marine engineer who had joined the army as a civilian and served as a captain in the Liverpool Pals before promotion (civilian to Brigadier-General in four years!); Richard Sugden (GOC 151 Brigade), a corn miller's son who had played Rugby League for Brighouse Rangers and Yorkshire (who would have thought that there would be a General in the Great War who had played Rugby League!) and who was in the Imperial Yeomanry and commissioned from the ranks during the Boer War. He went to war with the 49th (West Riding) Division in 1915.
Facing XIII Corps were three German divisions, the 17th Reserve, the 204th Infantry Division and the243rd Infantry Division (both 204th and 243rd were Wurttemburg divisions and reckoned to be first rate).
The attack took place during the night of the 17 October and continued until 20 October. After crossing the river in fog, the battle developed into a dogfight. In the morning the three brigades were thoroughly mixed up. Unlike earlier battles when time would have been lost while men were sorted back into their original brigades, these three brigade commanders carried on directing the battle, each instructing the battalions closest to their command posts. This was a far better organisation method than existed in the German lines where time was lost re-organising the men.
Chinese Deception Manoeuvres
Further south the divisions in Braithwaite's IX corps were experiencing the same battle conditions. Here Braithwaite had left the organising to his divisional commanders: E P Strickland (1st Division), T O Marden (6th Division) and G F Boyd (46th Division). Of these commanders Gerald Boyd stands out as being different: he joined the Devonshire Regiment in 1895 as a private soldier, was commissioned into the East Yorkshire Regiment in 1900, began the Great War as Brigade Major in Hunter-Weston's 11 Brigade and was finally promoted GOC 46th Division in September 1918. In the night attack Boyd was instructed to carry out ‘Chinese' deception manoeuvres: lots of movement and shelling but not actually taking part in the battle. Opposing IX Corps were four German divisions - 3rd Naval Division (which lost 50% of its men); 5th Reserve (Brandenberg) Division (which lost 75 as casualties); 15th Reserve (Rhineland) Division which was effectively destroyed as a fighting unit; and 24th (Royal Saxon) Division (which lost 3,000 men in total).
Considering the battle as a whole, the plan was excellent and the deception worked. Rawlinson left his Corps commanders to concentrate the bulk of the action in a narrow section and pinched out the strong point at the Andigny Forest. Only 6th Division had mixed results, all the other division achieved their objectives. The effects of the artillery during this battle have often been exaggerated: the counter-battery fire was as effective as earlier battles. The battle was won by the infantry advancing in fog and surprising the Germans who were in excellent positions along the embankment and below the ridge. It is also assumed, mistakenly, that there had been a collapse in German morale at this stage in the war. This just was not true as the casualty rates in both armies were still high. In the BEF they are comparable to the casualty rate during the Battle of Arras, 1917.
These new tactics used by the BEF - combined, ‘all arms’ battles with limited objectives - kept the Germany army occupied. The number of German divisions facing the Third and Fourth Armies was greater than at any other place in the front line on the Western Front (by October 1918 there were 99 German divisions facing 60 BEF divisions). The German high command had moved more men up from the Meuse-Argonne having identified the BEF as their most dangerous opponents. This is one of reasons for the rapid success of the Franco-American offensive in the Meuse-Argonne area, the density of German divisions on their front was lower and they had fewer reserves.
The 100 Days
As the BEF pushed the Germans back during Foch's autumn offensive which we now call ‘The 100 Days’, the average soldier could expect to ‘go over the top' with a greater frequency than in earlier battles such as the Somme in 1916. On average, a soldier could expect to be sent into the attack at least five times during the 100 Days. This is very different to the average Somme survivor who would have experienced three attacks in three and a half months.
After the Battle of the Selle was run down, Haig instructed his army commanders to prepare for the next attack. We know this as the Battle of the Sambre, the last offensive before the Armistice in November 1918.
Reference: This article is based on a talk given by Professor Peter Simkins to the Yorkshire branch of The Western Front Association
Contributed by Peter J. Palmer
This article first appeared in a previous version of The Western Front Association website 7 September 2009
Image: Canadian troops on Arras-Cambrai road 1918 (source: Wikipedia) | 1,787 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (687 words)
The Roman Empire and Han Dynasty both have many similarities and differences. The Roman Empire lasted from 27 BC – 476 CE. The Han Dynasty lasted from 206 – 220 BCE. The Roman Empire included parts of northern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Throughout ancient history, this was known as the largest empire ever. On the other hand, the Han Dynasty included only the southeastern and northeastern parts of present-day China. Even though both Rome and Han were settled in different areas at different times, they were very similar in the way they chose their government officials & their duties and architectural accomplishments, but they had different thoughts on religion.
Both civilizations have been shown to have many similarities and differences, whether it was politically, architecturally, or religiously.
First of all, the two civilizations were both very similar in the way their government was run. The Han Dynasty and Roman Empire were both ruled by Emperors. They were both a bureaucratic government. Both societies were also patriarchal-based and class-based in how they elected their officials.
In order for the Han Dynasty’s potential candidates to become elected, they had to take a civil service exam. The civil service exam was used as an effective way of testing and eventually admitting the men into the bureaucracy. A bureaucracy is a group of non-elected officials inside a government who sets the functions, laws, and rules of that society. In the Roman Empire’s governmental system, the elected officials were appointed and did not need to take an exam, like the Han Dynasty. In the time of the Han and Roman Empires, it was very difficult to govern the vast amounts of land and people that were under rule.
Secondly, both civilizations had architectural accomplishments. The Great Wall of China was built during the time of the Han Dynasty and took much effort and power from the people at the time. This was built as a defense system from outside invaders. Emperor Qin’s grave was discovered in 1974 with an army of terracotta soldiers, horses, and chariots surrounding his tomb for protection in the afterlife. The Romans built the aqueducts at the time of the Roman Empire. This system took water from rivers and brought them into the cities and people’s homes. It’s purpose was for personal hygiene. It was one of the first major sewage systems in the world.
Another Roman accomplishment was the Coliseum. It was used for entertainment. People would watch men, known as gladiators, fight animals and also each other. Sometimes, the Coliseum was flooded for reenactments of old battles. Statues and monuments were also made for elected officials that impacted the Empire dramatically, Roman and Han. Rome had such a complex system of roads, including the Silk Road, which a part of it originated in the Roman Empire. This is where they get the expression “All roads lead to Rome.”
Lastly, the Han and Roman civilizations were noticeably different in their religious beliefs. The Han Dynasty were only alike to the Roman Empire in how they both worshipped the forces of nature, practiced sacrifices, and created shrines to their many gods. The Roman Empire always supported whatever the official religion was at the time. Diversity in religion was tolerated. Christianity was frowned upon because the Christians put “Jesus as the King” and did not put the state of Rome or the current emperor first.
On the other hand, the Han Dynasty believed in the teachings of Confucius, Taoism, Buddhism, and studied the art of Feng Shui. Confucius taught people that they all had a place and responsibility within the family hierarchy. Taoism is known as living in peace with the Tao. Feng Shui is known as the “Earth divination” or finding the positive center of both Heaven and Earth.
Even though both Rome and Han were settled in different areas at different times, they were very similar in the way they chose their government officials & their duties and architectural accomplishments, but they had different thoughts on religion. Both civilizations have been shown to have many similarities and differences, whether it was politically, architecturally, or religiously.
Cite this page
Ap World History Comparison – Han & China. (2016, Oct 18). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/ap-world-history-comparison-han-china-essay | <urn:uuid:e4ffb24e-9e90-4cae-bf1e-4dc504040916> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/ap-world-history-comparison-han-china-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.987547 | 899 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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The Roman Empire and Han Dynasty both have many similarities and differences. The Roman Empire lasted from 27 BC – 476 CE. The Han Dynasty lasted from 206 – 220 BCE. The Roman Empire included parts of northern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Throughout ancient history, this was known as the largest empire ever. On the other hand, the Han Dynasty included only the southeastern and northeastern parts of present-day China. Even though both Rome and Han were settled in different areas at different times, they were very similar in the way they chose their government officials & their duties and architectural accomplishments, but they had different thoughts on religion.
Both civilizations have been shown to have many similarities and differences, whether it was politically, architecturally, or religiously.
First of all, the two civilizations were both very similar in the way their government was run. The Han Dynasty and Roman Empire were both ruled by Emperors. They were both a bureaucratic government. Both societies were also patriarchal-based and class-based in how they elected their officials.
In order for the Han Dynasty’s potential candidates to become elected, they had to take a civil service exam. The civil service exam was used as an effective way of testing and eventually admitting the men into the bureaucracy. A bureaucracy is a group of non-elected officials inside a government who sets the functions, laws, and rules of that society. In the Roman Empire’s governmental system, the elected officials were appointed and did not need to take an exam, like the Han Dynasty. In the time of the Han and Roman Empires, it was very difficult to govern the vast amounts of land and people that were under rule.
Secondly, both civilizations had architectural accomplishments. The Great Wall of China was built during the time of the Han Dynasty and took much effort and power from the people at the time. This was built as a defense system from outside invaders. Emperor Qin’s grave was discovered in 1974 with an army of terracotta soldiers, horses, and chariots surrounding his tomb for protection in the afterlife. The Romans built the aqueducts at the time of the Roman Empire. This system took water from rivers and brought them into the cities and people’s homes. It’s purpose was for personal hygiene. It was one of the first major sewage systems in the world.
Another Roman accomplishment was the Coliseum. It was used for entertainment. People would watch men, known as gladiators, fight animals and also each other. Sometimes, the Coliseum was flooded for reenactments of old battles. Statues and monuments were also made for elected officials that impacted the Empire dramatically, Roman and Han. Rome had such a complex system of roads, including the Silk Road, which a part of it originated in the Roman Empire. This is where they get the expression “All roads lead to Rome.”
Lastly, the Han and Roman civilizations were noticeably different in their religious beliefs. The Han Dynasty were only alike to the Roman Empire in how they both worshipped the forces of nature, practiced sacrifices, and created shrines to their many gods. The Roman Empire always supported whatever the official religion was at the time. Diversity in religion was tolerated. Christianity was frowned upon because the Christians put “Jesus as the King” and did not put the state of Rome or the current emperor first.
On the other hand, the Han Dynasty believed in the teachings of Confucius, Taoism, Buddhism, and studied the art of Feng Shui. Confucius taught people that they all had a place and responsibility within the family hierarchy. Taoism is known as living in peace with the Tao. Feng Shui is known as the “Earth divination” or finding the positive center of both Heaven and Earth.
Even though both Rome and Han were settled in different areas at different times, they were very similar in the way they chose their government officials & their duties and architectural accomplishments, but they had different thoughts on religion. Both civilizations have been shown to have many similarities and differences, whether it was politically, architecturally, or religiously.
Cite this page
Ap World History Comparison – Han & China. (2016, Oct 18). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/ap-world-history-comparison-han-china-essay | 890 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nonsuch Palace was a Tudor royal palace, built by Henry VIII in Surrey, England; it stood from 1538 to 1682-83. Its site lies in what is now Nonsuch Park on the boundaries of the borough of Epsom and Ewell in Surrey and the London Borough of Sutton.
Nonsuch Palace, near Cheam, Surrey, was perhaps the grandest of Henry VIII's building projects. It was built on the site of Cuddington, near Ewell, the church and village having been destroyed and compensation paid to create a suitable site. Work started on 22 April 1538, the first day of Henry's thirtieth regnal year, and six months after the birth of his son, later Edward VI.
Within two months the name "Nonsuch" appears in the building accounts, its name a boast that there was no such palace elsewhere equal to it in magnificence. Construction had been substantially carried out by 1541, but it took several more years to complete. As the Royal Household took possession of vast tracts of surrounding acreage, several major roads were re-routed or by-passed to circumvent what became Nonsuch Great Park.
The palace was designed to be a celebration of the power and the grandeur of the Tudor dynasty, built to rival Francis I's Château de Chambord. Unlike most of Henry's palaces, Nonsuch was not an adaptation of an old building; he chose to build a new palace in this location because it was near to one of his main hunting grounds. However the choice of location was unwise, as there was no nearby supply of water suitable for domestic use. The palace cost at least £24,000 (£104 million in 2009) because of its rich ornamentation and is considered a key work in the introduction of elements of Renaissance design to England.
The palace was incomplete when Henry VIII died in 1547. In 1556 Queen Mary I sold it to Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, who completed it. In 1585 the Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Republic at the palace. It returned to royal hands in the 1590s. Following Parliament's victory in the English Civil War, the Nonsuch estate was confiscated and given to General Thomas Pride, who held it until his death in 1658. The palace was handed back to the Crown after the Restoration in 1660 and remained royal property until 1670, when Charles II gave it to his mistress, Barbara, Countess of Castlemaine. She had it pulled down around 1682-3 and sold off the building materials to pay gambling debts.
Some elements were incorporated into other buildings; for example the wood panelling can still be seen today in the Great Hall at Loseley Park. No trace of the palace remains on its site today but some pieces are held by the British Museum. There is a discernible rise of land where the old Cuddington church used to be, before it was demolished to make way for the palace. Nonsuch Palace should not be confused with Nonsuch Mansion, which is at the east of the park, nor its associated banqueting hall whose foundations are still visible to the south east of the palace site.
Only about three contemporary images of the palace survive, and they do not reveal very much about either the layout or the details of the building. Following the digging of the trenches in World War II, it was reported that pieces of pottery had been discovered in the area, later found to be from the site of the palace. An outline of the site layout was also visible from the air, providing additional evidence in the search for the location of the site.
The site was excavated in 1959-60; the plan of the palace was quite simple with inner and outer courtyards, each with a fortified gatehouse. The exterior and outer courtyard were quite plain, but the inner courtyard was decorated with breathtaking stucco panels moulded in high relief. To the north, it was fortified in a medieval style, but the southern face had ornate Renaissance decoration, with tall octagonal towers at each end. It was within one of these towers that the premiere of Thomas Tallis' masterwork, Spem in alium, was perhaps performed. The 1959 excavation of Nonsuch by Martin Biddle was a key event in the history of archaeology in the UK. It was one of the first post-medieval sites to be excavated, and attracted over 75,000 visitors during the work. This excavation led to major developments in post-medieval archaeology.
John Speed's map of Surrey has an insert depicting the palace and a part of its gardens, including some of the principal ornaments. These are also known from detailed drawings in the "Red Velvet Book", the 1590 Lumley inventory.
In 1959, the year Martin Biddle first excavated Henry VIII's vanished palace of Nonsuch in Surrey, the concept of post-medieval archaeology was virtually unknown. Within a decade the subject was established with its own academic society, and post-medieval sites were being investigated and rescued in their own right. Today the subject is routinely taught at universities, and archaeologists are increasingly specialising in the period which spans the transition between medieval and industrial society. | <urn:uuid:a5387403-2187-4adf-9f80-66d452a60b74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Nonsuch_Palace | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.983943 | 1,099 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4485158... | 1 | Nonsuch Palace was a Tudor royal palace, built by Henry VIII in Surrey, England; it stood from 1538 to 1682-83. Its site lies in what is now Nonsuch Park on the boundaries of the borough of Epsom and Ewell in Surrey and the London Borough of Sutton.
Nonsuch Palace, near Cheam, Surrey, was perhaps the grandest of Henry VIII's building projects. It was built on the site of Cuddington, near Ewell, the church and village having been destroyed and compensation paid to create a suitable site. Work started on 22 April 1538, the first day of Henry's thirtieth regnal year, and six months after the birth of his son, later Edward VI.
Within two months the name "Nonsuch" appears in the building accounts, its name a boast that there was no such palace elsewhere equal to it in magnificence. Construction had been substantially carried out by 1541, but it took several more years to complete. As the Royal Household took possession of vast tracts of surrounding acreage, several major roads were re-routed or by-passed to circumvent what became Nonsuch Great Park.
The palace was designed to be a celebration of the power and the grandeur of the Tudor dynasty, built to rival Francis I's Château de Chambord. Unlike most of Henry's palaces, Nonsuch was not an adaptation of an old building; he chose to build a new palace in this location because it was near to one of his main hunting grounds. However the choice of location was unwise, as there was no nearby supply of water suitable for domestic use. The palace cost at least £24,000 (£104 million in 2009) because of its rich ornamentation and is considered a key work in the introduction of elements of Renaissance design to England.
The palace was incomplete when Henry VIII died in 1547. In 1556 Queen Mary I sold it to Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, who completed it. In 1585 the Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Republic at the palace. It returned to royal hands in the 1590s. Following Parliament's victory in the English Civil War, the Nonsuch estate was confiscated and given to General Thomas Pride, who held it until his death in 1658. The palace was handed back to the Crown after the Restoration in 1660 and remained royal property until 1670, when Charles II gave it to his mistress, Barbara, Countess of Castlemaine. She had it pulled down around 1682-3 and sold off the building materials to pay gambling debts.
Some elements were incorporated into other buildings; for example the wood panelling can still be seen today in the Great Hall at Loseley Park. No trace of the palace remains on its site today but some pieces are held by the British Museum. There is a discernible rise of land where the old Cuddington church used to be, before it was demolished to make way for the palace. Nonsuch Palace should not be confused with Nonsuch Mansion, which is at the east of the park, nor its associated banqueting hall whose foundations are still visible to the south east of the palace site.
Only about three contemporary images of the palace survive, and they do not reveal very much about either the layout or the details of the building. Following the digging of the trenches in World War II, it was reported that pieces of pottery had been discovered in the area, later found to be from the site of the palace. An outline of the site layout was also visible from the air, providing additional evidence in the search for the location of the site.
The site was excavated in 1959-60; the plan of the palace was quite simple with inner and outer courtyards, each with a fortified gatehouse. The exterior and outer courtyard were quite plain, but the inner courtyard was decorated with breathtaking stucco panels moulded in high relief. To the north, it was fortified in a medieval style, but the southern face had ornate Renaissance decoration, with tall octagonal towers at each end. It was within one of these towers that the premiere of Thomas Tallis' masterwork, Spem in alium, was perhaps performed. The 1959 excavation of Nonsuch by Martin Biddle was a key event in the history of archaeology in the UK. It was one of the first post-medieval sites to be excavated, and attracted over 75,000 visitors during the work. This excavation led to major developments in post-medieval archaeology.
John Speed's map of Surrey has an insert depicting the palace and a part of its gardens, including some of the principal ornaments. These are also known from detailed drawings in the "Red Velvet Book", the 1590 Lumley inventory.
In 1959, the year Martin Biddle first excavated Henry VIII's vanished palace of Nonsuch in Surrey, the concept of post-medieval archaeology was virtually unknown. Within a decade the subject was established with its own academic society, and post-medieval sites were being investigated and rescued in their own right. Today the subject is routinely taught at universities, and archaeologists are increasingly specialising in the period which spans the transition between medieval and industrial society. | 1,153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christopher Columbus: Receives His Commission of Exploration from Castile (Spain)
Christopher Columbus was born between the 22nd August and the 31st October 1451, in Genoa (now in Italy). Contrary to common belief Columbus did not discover America, but he did greatly increase European awareness of the New World.
The maritime career of Christopher Columbus began when he was 10 years old. In the years that followed he undertook a number of journeys on the open sea in various roles on various ships. In 1485 he began looking for an opportunity to explore and discover a western route to Asia. He presented his ideas to the king of Portugal and was ultimately frustrated after several attempts. He also tried England, Genoa, Venice and then Spain (Castile) in 1486. He was frustrated in all these attempts (England eventually agreed, but by that time Columbus was already in league with Castile), but the king and queen of Castile (Ferdinand II and Isabella I) retained his services and after many attempts he finally gained the support of Ferdinand II and Isabella I on this day in 1492.
In all, Columbus would make four voyages between Castile and America. His life would end in great disappointment, having been jailed and having the terms of his contract with Castile overturned due to various claims and convictions of abuse of power and mismanagement of the domains over which he governed in the New World. Columbus died on the 20th May 1506 in Valladolid, Crown of Castile (now in Spain).
William Bligh: Mutiny on the Bounty
William Bligh was born on the 9th September 1754 to Francis and Jane Bligh in St Tudy, Cornwall. He was signed up for a career in the Royal Navy when aged 7 in 1761.
In 1776, Bligh was with Captain James Cook as Sailing Master on the Resolution for Cook’s third and final voyage during which Cook was killed. Following this Bligh served on various ships and saw military action at a number of locations including Gibraltar in 1782.
In 1787 Bligh was made commander of the Bounty. On this day in 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty took place. The mutiny was led by Fletcher Christian, Master’s Mate. Bligh and a large number of the crew were provided with a ship’s launch and a small amount of provisions and Bligh made for Timor (from near Tonga). The journey was completed in 47 days and covered a remarkable distance of 6 700km.
It is thought that the mutiny took place in order to escape from the hardline discipline of Bligh and to escape to the island pleasures of Tahiti. Evidence would suggest that Bligh was far more easy going than other captains, though the future ‘mutiny’ in Sydney (see below) would suggest otherwise. Bligh was treated well in the court-martial and was acquitted.
From the Bounty, Bligh served in various roles, including Governor of New South Wales from the 13th August 1806 to the 26th January 1808. His post ended with the Rum Rebellion, which essentially was an on land mutiny by the New South Wales Corps under Major George Johnston. He succeeded Philip Gidley King and was replaced by Lachlan Macquarie.
Bligh’s rise through the ranks of the Royal Navy continued until he was appointed Vice Admiral of the Blue in 1814, though he never again received an active command. He died on the 7th December 1817.
As an interesting side point, the current premier of Queensland (Anna Bligh) is a descendant of William Bligh. | <urn:uuid:1396b3e7-907c-4896-b854-b2b098fbede0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inhistorytoday.wordpress.com/tag/career/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.986262 | 751 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.37031510472... | 4 | Christopher Columbus: Receives His Commission of Exploration from Castile (Spain)
Christopher Columbus was born between the 22nd August and the 31st October 1451, in Genoa (now in Italy). Contrary to common belief Columbus did not discover America, but he did greatly increase European awareness of the New World.
The maritime career of Christopher Columbus began when he was 10 years old. In the years that followed he undertook a number of journeys on the open sea in various roles on various ships. In 1485 he began looking for an opportunity to explore and discover a western route to Asia. He presented his ideas to the king of Portugal and was ultimately frustrated after several attempts. He also tried England, Genoa, Venice and then Spain (Castile) in 1486. He was frustrated in all these attempts (England eventually agreed, but by that time Columbus was already in league with Castile), but the king and queen of Castile (Ferdinand II and Isabella I) retained his services and after many attempts he finally gained the support of Ferdinand II and Isabella I on this day in 1492.
In all, Columbus would make four voyages between Castile and America. His life would end in great disappointment, having been jailed and having the terms of his contract with Castile overturned due to various claims and convictions of abuse of power and mismanagement of the domains over which he governed in the New World. Columbus died on the 20th May 1506 in Valladolid, Crown of Castile (now in Spain).
William Bligh: Mutiny on the Bounty
William Bligh was born on the 9th September 1754 to Francis and Jane Bligh in St Tudy, Cornwall. He was signed up for a career in the Royal Navy when aged 7 in 1761.
In 1776, Bligh was with Captain James Cook as Sailing Master on the Resolution for Cook’s third and final voyage during which Cook was killed. Following this Bligh served on various ships and saw military action at a number of locations including Gibraltar in 1782.
In 1787 Bligh was made commander of the Bounty. On this day in 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty took place. The mutiny was led by Fletcher Christian, Master’s Mate. Bligh and a large number of the crew were provided with a ship’s launch and a small amount of provisions and Bligh made for Timor (from near Tonga). The journey was completed in 47 days and covered a remarkable distance of 6 700km.
It is thought that the mutiny took place in order to escape from the hardline discipline of Bligh and to escape to the island pleasures of Tahiti. Evidence would suggest that Bligh was far more easy going than other captains, though the future ‘mutiny’ in Sydney (see below) would suggest otherwise. Bligh was treated well in the court-martial and was acquitted.
From the Bounty, Bligh served in various roles, including Governor of New South Wales from the 13th August 1806 to the 26th January 1808. His post ended with the Rum Rebellion, which essentially was an on land mutiny by the New South Wales Corps under Major George Johnston. He succeeded Philip Gidley King and was replaced by Lachlan Macquarie.
Bligh’s rise through the ranks of the Royal Navy continued until he was appointed Vice Admiral of the Blue in 1814, though he never again received an active command. He died on the 7th December 1817.
As an interesting side point, the current premier of Queensland (Anna Bligh) is a descendant of William Bligh. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 01/03/2014)
Kosalas as a tribe has not been mentioned in the early Vedic literature. It is only in some of the later Vedic works, like the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Kalpasutras that Kosala is referred to as a country. Kosala has also been mentioned in the Pali Buddhist literature as one of the sixteen great countries of Jambudwipa or India. Panini
has also mentioned Kosala in one of his Sutras. In the Atthasalini Kosala has been mentioned as one of the great Kshatriya tribes in Buddha's time.
Kosala lay to the east of the Kurus and Panchalas, and to the west of the Videhas, from whom it was separated by the river Sadanira, probably the great Gandak. It has been said that the country of Kosala lay to the north-east of the Ganges, and corresponds roughly to the modern Oudh. It has been referred by historians that the Kosalas were the ruling clan in the kingdom whose capital was Savatthi. It has also been said that Kosalas were almost certainly of the Aryan race. They belonged to the solar family, and were supposed to have derived directly from Manu through Iksvaku. It has been referred in the Vedic literature that that the Iksvakus were originally a branch of the Purus. Kosala is known to the Buddhists as the land of the Kosala princes, tracing their descent from Iksvaku. The descent of those ruling princes of Kosala from Iksvaku is borne out by the genealogies in the Ramayana
as well as the Puranas.
In the Shatapatha Brahamana the Kosala-Videhas it has been mentioned that the Kosalas had come into the picture after the Kuru-Panchalas under the influence of Brahmanism. It is in the epic period that Kosala emerges into importance. The scene of action of the Ramayana is in Kosala, the princes of which country carried Aryan civilisation to the south as far as the island of Ceylon. It has been said in history that the Kosalas had friendly relations with the eastern kingdoms of Videha, Anga and Magadha, the Punjab kingdoms of Kekaya, Sindhu and Sauvira, the western kingdom of Surastra, and the Daksinatya kings.
As far as the Kosalas are considered in the Battle at Kurukshetra
it has been said that as defeat was inflicted upon the Kosalas by Bhimasena
they had joined Duryodhana
and had marched against the Pandavas
in the battle of Kurukshetra. After the war of Kurukshetra Kosala kingdom was once again attacked and conquered by Arjuna
It is seen that as in the epics, so also in the Puranas, the Kosalas are given great prominence among the Aryan Kshatriya tribes of North India. According to Purana and Epic accounts, the Kosala line of kings derived from Iksvaku produced a large number of sovereigns who held the glory of the family very high, and some of them were Mandhata, Sagara
, Bhagiratha and Raghu.
Historical records narrate that Trisanku's son Harischandra was a very great monarch of the Kosalas. He had celebrated a Rajasuya sacrifice and had become famous as a samrat or an emperor. It has been said that with Vahu, who had come to throne of Kosala several generations after Harishchandra, the Kosala power had suffered a great reverse. Vahu was defeated by his enemies, a confederacy of the Haihyas, Talajanghas and other allied Kshatriya tribes and was finally forced to abdicate.
Some of the popular Kosala kings were Rituparna, Khatvanga. It has been said that after Lord Rama
, the extensive Kosalan Empire was divided amongst the sons of himself and his three brothers. The sons of the youngest brother, Satrughna, ruled Mathura
; the sons of Laksmana established two kingdoms in the far north, in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas, while Bharata's sons founded the cities of Taksasila and Puskaravati in the Gandhara country, according to the Vayu Purana. The Kosala country proper is said to have been divided into two. In southern Kosala, Kusha, the elder of the two sons of Rama, became king, and transferred his capital from Ayodhya
to Kusasthali which he built on the Vindhya Range. While Lava
, the younger, became the ruler of the northern Kosala country and set up his capital at the city of Saravati or Sravasti which was still the seat of the Kosala sovereigns in the Buddha's time.
Many of the Puranas end their enumeration of the Kosala kings with Brhadbala, while some others, like the Bhagavata has added a few more names of men who were called the future kings of the Iksvaku family.
Kosala in the early days had occupied a prominent position in India but the growing power of the Magadhas had eclipsed the power of the Kosalas. It has also been said that Kosala and Kasi were the closest neighbours but there existed a jealousy among them. Each was looking out for an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the other, and annex either the whole or at least a part of the other's dominions. Sometimes they also appear to have been connected by matrimony, and it is probable that the two countries were united sometimes by conquest and sometimes perhaps by a common heir succeeding to the throne of both countries. Even in Vedic times they were closely associated, as is shown by the phrase Kasi-Kosala, which occurs in Vedic literature.
The inhabitants of Kosala had got converted to Buddhism
. Legend says that once when Lord Buddha had visited the land of the Kosalas many of the Brahmin households had gone to visit him and they were so satisfied that many of them became his life-long disciples and hence the spirit of Buddhism got fostered into Kosala.
About the people of Kosala it has been said that the inhabitants of Kosala were healthy and powerful. The Kosalan kings and princes received a good education which was finished at Taxila. It has been recorded that that a conversational dialect, probably based on the local dialect of Sravasti, was in general use among Kosala officials, among merchants and among the more cultured classes, not only throughout the Kosala dominions but east and west from Delhi
, and north and south from Sravasti to Avanti. An important aspect of the Kosala kingdom was that Kosala was also the very centre of Buddhist literary activity. | <urn:uuid:d6b0d9ff-c9c7-40ba-8163-f6c45fa8427f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/47/kosalas.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.988732 | 1,481 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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Kosalas as a tribe has not been mentioned in the early Vedic literature. It is only in some of the later Vedic works, like the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Kalpasutras that Kosala is referred to as a country. Kosala has also been mentioned in the Pali Buddhist literature as one of the sixteen great countries of Jambudwipa or India. Panini
has also mentioned Kosala in one of his Sutras. In the Atthasalini Kosala has been mentioned as one of the great Kshatriya tribes in Buddha's time.
Kosala lay to the east of the Kurus and Panchalas, and to the west of the Videhas, from whom it was separated by the river Sadanira, probably the great Gandak. It has been said that the country of Kosala lay to the north-east of the Ganges, and corresponds roughly to the modern Oudh. It has been referred by historians that the Kosalas were the ruling clan in the kingdom whose capital was Savatthi. It has also been said that Kosalas were almost certainly of the Aryan race. They belonged to the solar family, and were supposed to have derived directly from Manu through Iksvaku. It has been referred in the Vedic literature that that the Iksvakus were originally a branch of the Purus. Kosala is known to the Buddhists as the land of the Kosala princes, tracing their descent from Iksvaku. The descent of those ruling princes of Kosala from Iksvaku is borne out by the genealogies in the Ramayana
as well as the Puranas.
In the Shatapatha Brahamana the Kosala-Videhas it has been mentioned that the Kosalas had come into the picture after the Kuru-Panchalas under the influence of Brahmanism. It is in the epic period that Kosala emerges into importance. The scene of action of the Ramayana is in Kosala, the princes of which country carried Aryan civilisation to the south as far as the island of Ceylon. It has been said in history that the Kosalas had friendly relations with the eastern kingdoms of Videha, Anga and Magadha, the Punjab kingdoms of Kekaya, Sindhu and Sauvira, the western kingdom of Surastra, and the Daksinatya kings.
As far as the Kosalas are considered in the Battle at Kurukshetra
it has been said that as defeat was inflicted upon the Kosalas by Bhimasena
they had joined Duryodhana
and had marched against the Pandavas
in the battle of Kurukshetra. After the war of Kurukshetra Kosala kingdom was once again attacked and conquered by Arjuna
It is seen that as in the epics, so also in the Puranas, the Kosalas are given great prominence among the Aryan Kshatriya tribes of North India. According to Purana and Epic accounts, the Kosala line of kings derived from Iksvaku produced a large number of sovereigns who held the glory of the family very high, and some of them were Mandhata, Sagara
, Bhagiratha and Raghu.
Historical records narrate that Trisanku's son Harischandra was a very great monarch of the Kosalas. He had celebrated a Rajasuya sacrifice and had become famous as a samrat or an emperor. It has been said that with Vahu, who had come to throne of Kosala several generations after Harishchandra, the Kosala power had suffered a great reverse. Vahu was defeated by his enemies, a confederacy of the Haihyas, Talajanghas and other allied Kshatriya tribes and was finally forced to abdicate.
Some of the popular Kosala kings were Rituparna, Khatvanga. It has been said that after Lord Rama
, the extensive Kosalan Empire was divided amongst the sons of himself and his three brothers. The sons of the youngest brother, Satrughna, ruled Mathura
; the sons of Laksmana established two kingdoms in the far north, in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas, while Bharata's sons founded the cities of Taksasila and Puskaravati in the Gandhara country, according to the Vayu Purana. The Kosala country proper is said to have been divided into two. In southern Kosala, Kusha, the elder of the two sons of Rama, became king, and transferred his capital from Ayodhya
to Kusasthali which he built on the Vindhya Range. While Lava
, the younger, became the ruler of the northern Kosala country and set up his capital at the city of Saravati or Sravasti which was still the seat of the Kosala sovereigns in the Buddha's time.
Many of the Puranas end their enumeration of the Kosala kings with Brhadbala, while some others, like the Bhagavata has added a few more names of men who were called the future kings of the Iksvaku family.
Kosala in the early days had occupied a prominent position in India but the growing power of the Magadhas had eclipsed the power of the Kosalas. It has also been said that Kosala and Kasi were the closest neighbours but there existed a jealousy among them. Each was looking out for an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the other, and annex either the whole or at least a part of the other's dominions. Sometimes they also appear to have been connected by matrimony, and it is probable that the two countries were united sometimes by conquest and sometimes perhaps by a common heir succeeding to the throne of both countries. Even in Vedic times they were closely associated, as is shown by the phrase Kasi-Kosala, which occurs in Vedic literature.
The inhabitants of Kosala had got converted to Buddhism
. Legend says that once when Lord Buddha had visited the land of the Kosalas many of the Brahmin households had gone to visit him and they were so satisfied that many of them became his life-long disciples and hence the spirit of Buddhism got fostered into Kosala.
About the people of Kosala it has been said that the inhabitants of Kosala were healthy and powerful. The Kosalan kings and princes received a good education which was finished at Taxila. It has been recorded that that a conversational dialect, probably based on the local dialect of Sravasti, was in general use among Kosala officials, among merchants and among the more cultured classes, not only throughout the Kosala dominions but east and west from Delhi
, and north and south from Sravasti to Avanti. An important aspect of the Kosala kingdom was that Kosala was also the very centre of Buddhist literary activity. | 1,461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout art history, there have been few painters who portrayed Biblical scenes as vividly as master Italian painter Caravaggio. This painting, which he painted in the year of his death, features David and Goliath. Shepherd David, who defeated armed giant Goliath with a stone, symbolizes a brave and good victor. However, the joy of victory or the triumphant spirit in punishing the evil are not seen on the facial expression of David, who is holding the enemy’s head. Why did the painter depicted the scene as such.
The Italian painter always caused controversies and became the talk of the town. Born in Milan but active in Rome, his bold and realistic religious paintings based on dramatic contrasts catapulted the painter to one of the greatest artists in his time. Nevertheless, he often came under heavy fire for disgracing religious paintings by depicting sensational scenes related with beheading or death and using ordinary people as models. His life was also the subject of criticisms. The hot-tempered painter was put in jail for assault over several occasions. Eventually, he fled to the Naples after committing a murder. Fugitive for the last four years of his life, he did not give up painting.
Tired on running away and repenting on his sins, Caravaggio's 'David with the Head of Goliath' was created to be offered as a tribute to the Pope who had the power of pardoning people. The beheaded face of Goliath looks so disgusting and miserable, reflecting the painter’s own face. However, David also resembled a younger Caravaggio. A younger Caravaggio was sadly looking at his older self. As David also committed murder in order to become a victor, he must have felt complicated and miserable. After all, the painter is repenting on his sins and seeking forgiveness through the dual self-portrait depicting his painful and miserable self. However, it was too late. He died a sudden death on his way to Rome to be pardoned. Arguably, it is said that he died after suffering from an intense fever due to malaria. After 38 years of eventful life, he was able to be freed from the scene of a sinner after death. | <urn:uuid:4968f408-3ff7-4153-a219-6a85b24e94b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20190829/1831757/1/Caravaggio-s-repentance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.990748 | 452 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.42765450477600... | 2 | Throughout art history, there have been few painters who portrayed Biblical scenes as vividly as master Italian painter Caravaggio. This painting, which he painted in the year of his death, features David and Goliath. Shepherd David, who defeated armed giant Goliath with a stone, symbolizes a brave and good victor. However, the joy of victory or the triumphant spirit in punishing the evil are not seen on the facial expression of David, who is holding the enemy’s head. Why did the painter depicted the scene as such.
The Italian painter always caused controversies and became the talk of the town. Born in Milan but active in Rome, his bold and realistic religious paintings based on dramatic contrasts catapulted the painter to one of the greatest artists in his time. Nevertheless, he often came under heavy fire for disgracing religious paintings by depicting sensational scenes related with beheading or death and using ordinary people as models. His life was also the subject of criticisms. The hot-tempered painter was put in jail for assault over several occasions. Eventually, he fled to the Naples after committing a murder. Fugitive for the last four years of his life, he did not give up painting.
Tired on running away and repenting on his sins, Caravaggio's 'David with the Head of Goliath' was created to be offered as a tribute to the Pope who had the power of pardoning people. The beheaded face of Goliath looks so disgusting and miserable, reflecting the painter’s own face. However, David also resembled a younger Caravaggio. A younger Caravaggio was sadly looking at his older self. As David also committed murder in order to become a victor, he must have felt complicated and miserable. After all, the painter is repenting on his sins and seeking forgiveness through the dual self-portrait depicting his painful and miserable self. However, it was too late. He died a sudden death on his way to Rome to be pardoned. Arguably, it is said that he died after suffering from an intense fever due to malaria. After 38 years of eventful life, he was able to be freed from the scene of a sinner after death. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
*The following is excerpted from an online article posted on HealthDay.
Children with strong family ties and school support are more likely to try to stop bullying when they see it, new research suggests.
The study included 450 sixth-graders and 446 ninth-graders who were asked about their relationships with their family, friends and teachers.
The students were then presented with six scenarios of specific aggressive acts: physical aggression; cyberbullying; social exclusion/rejection by a group; intimate partner violence; social aggression, such as teasing or harmful gossip; and exclusion by a former friend.
The investigators then asked the students to rate the acceptability of intervening in these situations.
"We found that family is very important," said study co-author Secil Gonultas, a doctoral student at North Carolina State University.
"The stronger a student's reported 'good family management,' or positive family relationships, the more likely a student was to deem aggressive behaviors and retaliation unacceptable, and the more likely they were to intervene in either case," Gonultas said in a university news release.
And according to study lead author Kelly Lynn Mulvey, "sixth-graders were more likely than ninth-graders to find aggressive behaviors unacceptable and to intervene." Mulvey is an assistant professor of psychology at N.C. State.
"That suggests it's important to maintain anti-bullying efforts into high school -- which many places are already doing," she added.
The researchers also found that students who felt excluded or discriminated against by peers or teachers were less likely to stand up for victims of bullying.
"The study tells us that both home and school factors are important for recognizing bullying behavior as inappropriate, and taking steps to intervene," Mulvey said.
The study was published online recently in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence. | <urn:uuid:e1ac0f80-ba09-44a0-9080-cb11d1428b97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christianheadlines.com/columnists/jim-liebelt/family-school-support-may-help-stop-bullies-in-their-tracks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.983189 | 378 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.1343852579593... | 2 | *The following is excerpted from an online article posted on HealthDay.
Children with strong family ties and school support are more likely to try to stop bullying when they see it, new research suggests.
The study included 450 sixth-graders and 446 ninth-graders who were asked about their relationships with their family, friends and teachers.
The students were then presented with six scenarios of specific aggressive acts: physical aggression; cyberbullying; social exclusion/rejection by a group; intimate partner violence; social aggression, such as teasing or harmful gossip; and exclusion by a former friend.
The investigators then asked the students to rate the acceptability of intervening in these situations.
"We found that family is very important," said study co-author Secil Gonultas, a doctoral student at North Carolina State University.
"The stronger a student's reported 'good family management,' or positive family relationships, the more likely a student was to deem aggressive behaviors and retaliation unacceptable, and the more likely they were to intervene in either case," Gonultas said in a university news release.
And according to study lead author Kelly Lynn Mulvey, "sixth-graders were more likely than ninth-graders to find aggressive behaviors unacceptable and to intervene." Mulvey is an assistant professor of psychology at N.C. State.
"That suggests it's important to maintain anti-bullying efforts into high school -- which many places are already doing," she added.
The researchers also found that students who felt excluded or discriminated against by peers or teachers were less likely to stand up for victims of bullying.
"The study tells us that both home and school factors are important for recognizing bullying behavior as inappropriate, and taking steps to intervene," Mulvey said.
The study was published online recently in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence. | 361 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Revolt of the Moriscos was one of the first real challenges to Philip’s authority that he had to deal with within Spain. The Moriscos were converted Moors who held no important state positions in Spain.
The Moriscos communities in Spain had not been integrated and they remained closely associated with the Turks which lead to suspicions over their loyalty. In 1568 there was an outbreak of strife in Andalusia (the Cadiz and Malaga area) which was symbolic of the bitter relationships between the Moricos and the Christians in southern Spain. In simple terms, the Spanish did not trust the Moriscos and doubted that they were loyal to Madrid. The 1568 rebellion was known as the Rebellion of Alpujarras. The Moriscos had long term grievances but it was short-term ones that sparked off the revolt.
There had been a revolt in 1499 but from 1500 to 1550 an uneasy truce existed. In 1508 the Moriscos had been forbidden to wear their traditional costumes and their ancient customs were banned.
However, these laws were on paper only and were not enforced. The Moriscos did preserve links with Islam in that they spoke Arabic and preserved Arabic culture and this failure to become ‘Spanish’ offended many in Madrid and elsewhere in Spain. Spanish Christians claimed that the Moriscos were sexually promiscuous and that they maintained family vendettas. This all fuelled suspicion and a number of Moriscan communities were forced to live in mountainous regions to exclude them from Spanish life.
From 1500 to 1550, civil and ecclesiastical authorities were at odds with each other on what action to take and combined action failed to materialise. This allowed the Moriscans time to develop a new balance of power.
The area in question where this took place was governed by the Count of Tendilla from the Mondejar branch of the Mendoza family. To maintain their position the Moriscans developed a “special relationship” with Tendilla. The position of the Moriscans came to be closely dependent on the ability of the Mondejar’s to maintain their position at court against increasing intrigue against them.
From 1540 to 1550, the position of the Mondejar family was severely undermined and this increasingly affected the Moriscans position. It also coincided with a chronic economic and religious crisis.
The Moriscans depended on silk for their trade. In the 1550’s the export of woven silk was banned and in 1561 a huge tax was put on Granadan silk. This severely hit the Moriscans. Also at this time the Inquisition was very active especially in investigating the ownership of land in Granada. The Inquisition confiscated much land owned by the Moriscans despite the pleas of Tendilla who needed the tax paid by the Moriscans on the land they owned to pay for his own troops.
Combined with these, the Catholic Church went on the offensive. It cured its own problems of absenteeism and poor work done by the clergy and the appointment of a new Archbishop of Granada (Pedro Guerrero) lead to a more forceful campaign by the Church to fully convert the Moriscans to Christianity.
In November 1566, a reform of Moriscan habits were agreed to.
In January 1567 the reforms were published. They were only an attempt to enforce earlier decrees so they were not novel. 1) Arabic was forbidden 2) Traditional Arabic dress was forbidden 3) the Moriscans were to “abandon their traditional habits” (this was a reference to their supposed sexual habits). The Moriscans sent a deputation to Madrid to plead for the reforms not to be introduced but Pedro de Deza was put in charge of enforcing them. It was this attempt to introduce these reforms that sparked off the revolt.
Why were the reforms introduced?
Nobody had bothered to do so for the previous 50 years so why now?
The answer involved 3 people.
A successful enforcement would greatly enhance the prestige of de Deza at court. It would also give him an advantage over the Mendoza family. The Deza and Mendoza families had been fighting out an age-old family feud and Deza did all he could to embarrass someone (Tendilla) who was known to be lenient towards the Moriscans.
The President of the Council of Castille was Cardinal Espinosa. He was a classic orthodox Catholic and he disliked Tendilla’s leniency towards the Moriscans. He was also concerned that the region was experiencing an administrative breakdown which might result in social unrest. His solution was simple – remove Tendilla and put the region under the control of the President of the Audiencia who happened to be de Deza. This would ensure stability Espinosa claimed and at this time Philip II was very much under the influence of Espinosa.
Philip himself needed stability in Granada because of the threat of the Turks. In 1565, three Moriscan spies had confessed that there was a plan for the Moriscans to seize the Granadan coast as the Turks attacked Malta. Logic dictated that the Turks would then concentrate an attack on Spain aided by the Moriscans who held Granada. This all confirmed the fears of Philip II and to prevent even the merest chance of this happening, Philip agreed to the enforcement of the reforms.
This enforcement caused a revolt by the Moriscans. It broke out in 1568 and confirmed to Philip that the Moriscos could not be trusted and that Islam was about to attack Spain using the revolt to aid them. The terrain proved very difficult for a military campaign but Tendilla, using his local troops, fought some brilliant campaigns. Fearing that he would be too successful and that his power base would expand, Philip II replaced him with his own half-brother called Don John of Austria. He, however, had to wait for his men to arrive from all over Spain. This gave the Moriscos time to organise themselves and it took him until 1570 to put down the revolt.
Philip II needed a solution to the problem and he decided that he would disperse the Moriscos throughout Castille in small isolated villages and he then replaced them with 50,000 Spaniards. However, between 60,000 and 150,000 Moriscos continued to live in Granada and all this ‘solution’ did was spread throughout Castille some very angry people who in their own minds had done nothing wrong and had been punished for no reason at all.
This had a knock-on effect economically in that the Moriscos had always been advanced in their approach to work and they now had little time for Madrid and Spain’s economy was affected accordingly. They had no incentive to work hard for the country and combined with Spain’s poor economic standing further pushed down Spain’s financial and economic standing. | <urn:uuid:3e3677e9-c34d-4c2a-b8dc-4ad60f896f89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/spain-under-phillip-ii/the-revolt-of-the-moriscos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.986251 | 1,418 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.295462667942... | 10 | The Revolt of the Moriscos was one of the first real challenges to Philip’s authority that he had to deal with within Spain. The Moriscos were converted Moors who held no important state positions in Spain.
The Moriscos communities in Spain had not been integrated and they remained closely associated with the Turks which lead to suspicions over their loyalty. In 1568 there was an outbreak of strife in Andalusia (the Cadiz and Malaga area) which was symbolic of the bitter relationships between the Moricos and the Christians in southern Spain. In simple terms, the Spanish did not trust the Moriscos and doubted that they were loyal to Madrid. The 1568 rebellion was known as the Rebellion of Alpujarras. The Moriscos had long term grievances but it was short-term ones that sparked off the revolt.
There had been a revolt in 1499 but from 1500 to 1550 an uneasy truce existed. In 1508 the Moriscos had been forbidden to wear their traditional costumes and their ancient customs were banned.
However, these laws were on paper only and were not enforced. The Moriscos did preserve links with Islam in that they spoke Arabic and preserved Arabic culture and this failure to become ‘Spanish’ offended many in Madrid and elsewhere in Spain. Spanish Christians claimed that the Moriscos were sexually promiscuous and that they maintained family vendettas. This all fuelled suspicion and a number of Moriscan communities were forced to live in mountainous regions to exclude them from Spanish life.
From 1500 to 1550, civil and ecclesiastical authorities were at odds with each other on what action to take and combined action failed to materialise. This allowed the Moriscans time to develop a new balance of power.
The area in question where this took place was governed by the Count of Tendilla from the Mondejar branch of the Mendoza family. To maintain their position the Moriscans developed a “special relationship” with Tendilla. The position of the Moriscans came to be closely dependent on the ability of the Mondejar’s to maintain their position at court against increasing intrigue against them.
From 1540 to 1550, the position of the Mondejar family was severely undermined and this increasingly affected the Moriscans position. It also coincided with a chronic economic and religious crisis.
The Moriscans depended on silk for their trade. In the 1550’s the export of woven silk was banned and in 1561 a huge tax was put on Granadan silk. This severely hit the Moriscans. Also at this time the Inquisition was very active especially in investigating the ownership of land in Granada. The Inquisition confiscated much land owned by the Moriscans despite the pleas of Tendilla who needed the tax paid by the Moriscans on the land they owned to pay for his own troops.
Combined with these, the Catholic Church went on the offensive. It cured its own problems of absenteeism and poor work done by the clergy and the appointment of a new Archbishop of Granada (Pedro Guerrero) lead to a more forceful campaign by the Church to fully convert the Moriscans to Christianity.
In November 1566, a reform of Moriscan habits were agreed to.
In January 1567 the reforms were published. They were only an attempt to enforce earlier decrees so they were not novel. 1) Arabic was forbidden 2) Traditional Arabic dress was forbidden 3) the Moriscans were to “abandon their traditional habits” (this was a reference to their supposed sexual habits). The Moriscans sent a deputation to Madrid to plead for the reforms not to be introduced but Pedro de Deza was put in charge of enforcing them. It was this attempt to introduce these reforms that sparked off the revolt.
Why were the reforms introduced?
Nobody had bothered to do so for the previous 50 years so why now?
The answer involved 3 people.
A successful enforcement would greatly enhance the prestige of de Deza at court. It would also give him an advantage over the Mendoza family. The Deza and Mendoza families had been fighting out an age-old family feud and Deza did all he could to embarrass someone (Tendilla) who was known to be lenient towards the Moriscans.
The President of the Council of Castille was Cardinal Espinosa. He was a classic orthodox Catholic and he disliked Tendilla’s leniency towards the Moriscans. He was also concerned that the region was experiencing an administrative breakdown which might result in social unrest. His solution was simple – remove Tendilla and put the region under the control of the President of the Audiencia who happened to be de Deza. This would ensure stability Espinosa claimed and at this time Philip II was very much under the influence of Espinosa.
Philip himself needed stability in Granada because of the threat of the Turks. In 1565, three Moriscan spies had confessed that there was a plan for the Moriscans to seize the Granadan coast as the Turks attacked Malta. Logic dictated that the Turks would then concentrate an attack on Spain aided by the Moriscans who held Granada. This all confirmed the fears of Philip II and to prevent even the merest chance of this happening, Philip agreed to the enforcement of the reforms.
This enforcement caused a revolt by the Moriscans. It broke out in 1568 and confirmed to Philip that the Moriscos could not be trusted and that Islam was about to attack Spain using the revolt to aid them. The terrain proved very difficult for a military campaign but Tendilla, using his local troops, fought some brilliant campaigns. Fearing that he would be too successful and that his power base would expand, Philip II replaced him with his own half-brother called Don John of Austria. He, however, had to wait for his men to arrive from all over Spain. This gave the Moriscos time to organise themselves and it took him until 1570 to put down the revolt.
Philip II needed a solution to the problem and he decided that he would disperse the Moriscos throughout Castille in small isolated villages and he then replaced them with 50,000 Spaniards. However, between 60,000 and 150,000 Moriscos continued to live in Granada and all this ‘solution’ did was spread throughout Castille some very angry people who in their own minds had done nothing wrong and had been punished for no reason at all.
This had a knock-on effect economically in that the Moriscos had always been advanced in their approach to work and they now had little time for Madrid and Spain’s economy was affected accordingly. They had no incentive to work hard for the country and combined with Spain’s poor economic standing further pushed down Spain’s financial and economic standing. | 1,455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Revolutionizing transoceanic navigation
Published on January 11th, 2018
In the early 1700s, John Harrison invented a remarkable and revolutionary device – a clock – that a ship could carry to accurately calculate longitude. He called his clock the H-1, and its invention puts Harrison in the pantheon of the world’s greatest inventors.
The inability to calculate longitude had led to countless shipwrecks over the prior centuries as sailing technology had enabled increasingly ambitious transoceanic trading voyages. These wrecks ended countless lives and destroyed untold fortunes, so much so that in 1707 the English Parliament offered a prize of £20,000, an enormous sum in that era, to anyone who could solve the longitude problem.
By 1737, the remarkable Mr. Harrison presented his solution to the commission charged with administering the prize and it was deemed satisfactory to everyone involved – except one person. Astonishingly, Harrison himself was unsatisfied by his solution and spent another two decades perfecting his invention.
The same exacting personal standards and urge to tinker that had enabled him to solve the problem prevented him from accepting a prize for something that did not meet his own standards, even if it met the commission’s view.
Instead, Harrison pointed out the foibles of H-1. He was the only person in the room to say anything at all critical of the sea clock, which had not erred more than a few seconds in twenty-four hours to or from Lisbon on the trial run. Still, Harrison said it showed some ‘defects’ that he wanted to correct.
He conceded he needed to do a bit more tinkering with the mechanism. He could also make the clock a lot smaller, he thought. With another two years’ work, if the board could see its way clear to advancing him some funds for further development, he could produce another timekeeper. An even better timekeeper. And then he would come back to the board and request an official trial on a voyage to the West Indies. But not now.
The board gave its stamp of approval to an offer it couldn’t refuse. As for the £500 Harrison wanted as seed money, the board promised to pay half of it as soon as possible. Harrison could claim the other half once he had turned over the finished product to a ship’s captain of the Royal Navy, ready for a road test.
At that point, according to the agreement recorded in the minutes of the meeting, Harrison would either accompany the new timekeeper to the West Indies himself, or appoint ‘some proper Person’ to go in his stead.
By the time Harrison presented the new clock [called the H-2] to the Board of Longitude in January 1741, he was already disgusted with it. He gave the commissioners something of a repeat performance of his previous appearance before them: All he really wanted, he said, was their blessing to go home and try again.
As a result, H-2 never went to sea … [even though it] constituted a minor revolution in precision … [and] passed many rigorous tests with flying colors. The 1741-42 report of the Royal Society says that these tests subjected H-2 to heating, to cooling, and to being ‘agitated for many hours together, with greater violence than what it could receive from the motion of a ship in a storm.’
Not only did H-2 survive this drubbing but it won full backing from the Society … but it wasn’t good enough for Harrison. The same vicelike conviction that led him to his finest innovations — along his own lines of thinking, without regard for the opinions of others — rendered him deaf to praise. What did it matter what the Royal Society thought of H-2, if its mechanism did not pass muster with him?
Harrison, now a London resident and forty-eight years old, faded into his workshop and was hardly heard from during the nearly twenty years he devoted to the completion of H-3, which he called his ‘curious third machine.’ He emerged only to request and collect from the board occasional stipends of £500, as he slogged through the difficulties of transforming the bar-shaped balances of the first two timekeepers into the circular balance wheels that graced the third.
Harrison eventually claimed the prize, and his invention revolutionized transoceanic navigation. | <urn:uuid:d721ae33-bdae-4d6e-814b-c665ef347ead> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sailingscuttlebutt.com/2018/01/11/revolutionizing-transoceanic-navigation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.98155 | 917 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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Published on January 11th, 2018
In the early 1700s, John Harrison invented a remarkable and revolutionary device – a clock – that a ship could carry to accurately calculate longitude. He called his clock the H-1, and its invention puts Harrison in the pantheon of the world’s greatest inventors.
The inability to calculate longitude had led to countless shipwrecks over the prior centuries as sailing technology had enabled increasingly ambitious transoceanic trading voyages. These wrecks ended countless lives and destroyed untold fortunes, so much so that in 1707 the English Parliament offered a prize of £20,000, an enormous sum in that era, to anyone who could solve the longitude problem.
By 1737, the remarkable Mr. Harrison presented his solution to the commission charged with administering the prize and it was deemed satisfactory to everyone involved – except one person. Astonishingly, Harrison himself was unsatisfied by his solution and spent another two decades perfecting his invention.
The same exacting personal standards and urge to tinker that had enabled him to solve the problem prevented him from accepting a prize for something that did not meet his own standards, even if it met the commission’s view.
Instead, Harrison pointed out the foibles of H-1. He was the only person in the room to say anything at all critical of the sea clock, which had not erred more than a few seconds in twenty-four hours to or from Lisbon on the trial run. Still, Harrison said it showed some ‘defects’ that he wanted to correct.
He conceded he needed to do a bit more tinkering with the mechanism. He could also make the clock a lot smaller, he thought. With another two years’ work, if the board could see its way clear to advancing him some funds for further development, he could produce another timekeeper. An even better timekeeper. And then he would come back to the board and request an official trial on a voyage to the West Indies. But not now.
The board gave its stamp of approval to an offer it couldn’t refuse. As for the £500 Harrison wanted as seed money, the board promised to pay half of it as soon as possible. Harrison could claim the other half once he had turned over the finished product to a ship’s captain of the Royal Navy, ready for a road test.
At that point, according to the agreement recorded in the minutes of the meeting, Harrison would either accompany the new timekeeper to the West Indies himself, or appoint ‘some proper Person’ to go in his stead.
By the time Harrison presented the new clock [called the H-2] to the Board of Longitude in January 1741, he was already disgusted with it. He gave the commissioners something of a repeat performance of his previous appearance before them: All he really wanted, he said, was their blessing to go home and try again.
As a result, H-2 never went to sea … [even though it] constituted a minor revolution in precision … [and] passed many rigorous tests with flying colors. The 1741-42 report of the Royal Society says that these tests subjected H-2 to heating, to cooling, and to being ‘agitated for many hours together, with greater violence than what it could receive from the motion of a ship in a storm.’
Not only did H-2 survive this drubbing but it won full backing from the Society … but it wasn’t good enough for Harrison. The same vicelike conviction that led him to his finest innovations — along his own lines of thinking, without regard for the opinions of others — rendered him deaf to praise. What did it matter what the Royal Society thought of H-2, if its mechanism did not pass muster with him?
Harrison, now a London resident and forty-eight years old, faded into his workshop and was hardly heard from during the nearly twenty years he devoted to the completion of H-3, which he called his ‘curious third machine.’ He emerged only to request and collect from the board occasional stipends of £500, as he slogged through the difficulties of transforming the bar-shaped balances of the first two timekeepers into the circular balance wheels that graced the third.
Harrison eventually claimed the prize, and his invention revolutionized transoceanic navigation. | 910 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the Pre-Hispanic days, Pandacan was part of an ancient Malayan kingdom known as Namayan, which was later called by the Spaniards as Sta. Ana de Sapa of the district of Sta. Ana. The kingdom’s jurisdiction includes what we would know today as Dilao (Paco), Quiapo, San Miguel, Sampaloc, Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasig and San Juan del Monte. According to Ricardo Mendoza (1979), the large kingdom was ruled by Lakan Tagkan. It was supposed that Namayan as a rich kingdom, as it was major mercantile area for goods traded by the Chinese. Archeological studies also point out that the kingdom started to flourish in 1175. Pandacan therefore was a part of a greater center of authority and trade. Its culture was drawn from external ties already rooted among the natives of the place.
According to sociologist, Cornelio (2018)., when the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups already occupied the archipelago of more than 7,000 islands. He added that while they did not exist as one country, the islands were nevertheless connected to each other via trade routes and slave-raiding that included other territories in the region. Trade, in fact, existed before the 10th century. Cornelio (2018) stated that the islands also teemed with religious diversity. In addition to that he said the Ifugao in northern Luzon, the Tagalog in southern Luzon, the Visayans such as in the central islands, and the various indigenous communities in Mindanao each of the settlers had their own beliefs, code of ethics, and ways of worship.
He also stated that there were Muslim communities were also scattered around the islands, including Manila. It has become a ground for transaction in exporting and importing goods passing up the Pasig River. By then, King Philip II sent Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, along with Spanish soldiers or as what they call it conquistadors, to Manila in 1571. When they further explored the islands, they found a place along the Pasig River where the Pandan plants heavily flourished along river banks and marshes, that it was known by a name that means “where Pandan grows” – Pandanan. This word, the Spaniards characteristically mispronounced as “Pandacan”.
The origin of the name Pandacan from the pandan plant is supported by the fact that many names in the archipelago were drawn from plants and trees, setting a pattern. During the Pre -Spanish times, Christian and Pagan codes differed- they did not harmonize. Sitoy (1985), in his review of documents concerning pre-Spanish religious beliefs, notes that there were three core characteristics which shaped the religious worldview of Filipinos throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Firstly, Filipinos believed in the existence of parallel spirit world, which was invisible but had an influence on the visible world, and then secondly they believed that there were spirits (anito) everywhere – ranging from the high creator gods to minor spirits that lived in the environment such as trees or rocks or creek.
Filipinos believed that events in the human world were influenced by the actions and interventions of these spirit beings. According to Querido (2009) Pandacan was established as a community in 1574 when Franciscan priests of the Roman Catholic Church established the first mission in the district. He stated that the first stone church in Pandacan was built in 1732 by Father Francisco del Rosario and took 30 years to complete. In addition to that he explained the image of the Holy Child of Jesus or popularly known as Sto. Niño was enshrined at the church and its feast is traditionally celebrated on the third Sunday of January which according to legend, the image of the Santo Niño was recovered from a well near the church and some say the water from the well resulted in the healing many of the settlers. Querido explained that although the well has long been sealed due to pollutants and that a shrine stands on what was once the well. He added that the original church of Pandacan that was completed in the 1700s was twice destroyed by earthquakes, and went on to explain how despite that the modern church now still stood on the ruins and along with that, a parish school stood on what was the Catholic cemetery of the district.
Originally, Pandacan was just a part of Sampaloc’s parish. When Franciscan priests started their first mission in the district, only then was it established to be a community in 1574and later on, a separate parish in 1712. Shortly after being a separate parish, Fr. Francisco del Rosario initiated the establishment of Pandacan’s first stone church in 1732. It is where the ‘hidden’ Sto. Nino would be preserved. The church took almost 28 years to complete. Although, it has been destroyed twice by the earthquakes. Today, a modern church is situated on its ruins as well as a parish school which is located on what was then the Catholic cemetery of Pandacan.
The Aglipay Schism also strengthen the religious life not only in Pandacan, but in the entire Philippine islands as well. The Philippine Independent Church or what is now more known as the Aglipayan Church is an independent Christian church in the Philippines which was built by the members of the Unión Obrera Democrática Filipina when the news broke out about the Spanish priests’ mistreatment towards Filipinos during the Spanish colonial rule. Gregorio Aglipay, an activist and a Roman Catholic priest, was then suggested to be the head of the church by Isabelo de los Reyes, one of the Church’s initiators. The said schism served as a function of the Filipino ecclesiastes’ resentment towards Spanish Catholic order that would then earn the support of the pro-independents as well the American Protestants. Since then, the church has received heavy criticisms from the Roman Catholic Church. However, this would gradually recede as the church draws closer to the Episcopal church.
Meanwhile, the United Methodist Church had its presence be limited to Southeast Asia, specifically in the Philippines and Mongolia as of now. In most of their branches worldwide, they are considered as autonomous churches. The first recorded Methodist church in Asia was established in China in 1847 named as the United Methodist Episcopal Church and in 1899, the first Methodist mission took place here, in the Philippine soil.
The Philippine chapter of UMC is popularly known as Philippine Central Conference (PCC) and has the coverage of at least three episcopal areas encompassing at least 7,000 islands and 50 languages. The origins of the Philippine Episcopal Methodist church began as an extension of the Malaysian Annual Conference. Over the years, it gradually developed and finally in 1905 the Philippine Islands Mission Conference was formed as the Philippine chapter of UMC. This would be held annually in order to celebrate the festivities of the Methodist tradition and at the same, a jurisdictional meeting would take place. This creation of Methodist church in the Philippines was not greeted warmly by the Filipino leaders and thereby claimed that this is a form of “annexation” of the U.S. government under the guise of a religious organization. Around 1908-09 the first schism occurred and a group formed the first independent and sub division of the PCC and was called Iglesia Evangelica Metodista en las Islas Filipinas. | <urn:uuid:77ac6566-5dbf-4745-96ec-40329a4257c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/the-socio-cultural-and-political-impact-of-christianity-in-the-town-of-pandacan-manila | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.984564 | 1,545 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.25628685951232... | 3 | During the Pre-Hispanic days, Pandacan was part of an ancient Malayan kingdom known as Namayan, which was later called by the Spaniards as Sta. Ana de Sapa of the district of Sta. Ana. The kingdom’s jurisdiction includes what we would know today as Dilao (Paco), Quiapo, San Miguel, Sampaloc, Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasig and San Juan del Monte. According to Ricardo Mendoza (1979), the large kingdom was ruled by Lakan Tagkan. It was supposed that Namayan as a rich kingdom, as it was major mercantile area for goods traded by the Chinese. Archeological studies also point out that the kingdom started to flourish in 1175. Pandacan therefore was a part of a greater center of authority and trade. Its culture was drawn from external ties already rooted among the natives of the place.
According to sociologist, Cornelio (2018)., when the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups already occupied the archipelago of more than 7,000 islands. He added that while they did not exist as one country, the islands were nevertheless connected to each other via trade routes and slave-raiding that included other territories in the region. Trade, in fact, existed before the 10th century. Cornelio (2018) stated that the islands also teemed with religious diversity. In addition to that he said the Ifugao in northern Luzon, the Tagalog in southern Luzon, the Visayans such as in the central islands, and the various indigenous communities in Mindanao each of the settlers had their own beliefs, code of ethics, and ways of worship.
He also stated that there were Muslim communities were also scattered around the islands, including Manila. It has become a ground for transaction in exporting and importing goods passing up the Pasig River. By then, King Philip II sent Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, along with Spanish soldiers or as what they call it conquistadors, to Manila in 1571. When they further explored the islands, they found a place along the Pasig River where the Pandan plants heavily flourished along river banks and marshes, that it was known by a name that means “where Pandan grows” – Pandanan. This word, the Spaniards characteristically mispronounced as “Pandacan”.
The origin of the name Pandacan from the pandan plant is supported by the fact that many names in the archipelago were drawn from plants and trees, setting a pattern. During the Pre -Spanish times, Christian and Pagan codes differed- they did not harmonize. Sitoy (1985), in his review of documents concerning pre-Spanish religious beliefs, notes that there were three core characteristics which shaped the religious worldview of Filipinos throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Firstly, Filipinos believed in the existence of parallel spirit world, which was invisible but had an influence on the visible world, and then secondly they believed that there were spirits (anito) everywhere – ranging from the high creator gods to minor spirits that lived in the environment such as trees or rocks or creek.
Filipinos believed that events in the human world were influenced by the actions and interventions of these spirit beings. According to Querido (2009) Pandacan was established as a community in 1574 when Franciscan priests of the Roman Catholic Church established the first mission in the district. He stated that the first stone church in Pandacan was built in 1732 by Father Francisco del Rosario and took 30 years to complete. In addition to that he explained the image of the Holy Child of Jesus or popularly known as Sto. Niño was enshrined at the church and its feast is traditionally celebrated on the third Sunday of January which according to legend, the image of the Santo Niño was recovered from a well near the church and some say the water from the well resulted in the healing many of the settlers. Querido explained that although the well has long been sealed due to pollutants and that a shrine stands on what was once the well. He added that the original church of Pandacan that was completed in the 1700s was twice destroyed by earthquakes, and went on to explain how despite that the modern church now still stood on the ruins and along with that, a parish school stood on what was the Catholic cemetery of the district.
Originally, Pandacan was just a part of Sampaloc’s parish. When Franciscan priests started their first mission in the district, only then was it established to be a community in 1574and later on, a separate parish in 1712. Shortly after being a separate parish, Fr. Francisco del Rosario initiated the establishment of Pandacan’s first stone church in 1732. It is where the ‘hidden’ Sto. Nino would be preserved. The church took almost 28 years to complete. Although, it has been destroyed twice by the earthquakes. Today, a modern church is situated on its ruins as well as a parish school which is located on what was then the Catholic cemetery of Pandacan.
The Aglipay Schism also strengthen the religious life not only in Pandacan, but in the entire Philippine islands as well. The Philippine Independent Church or what is now more known as the Aglipayan Church is an independent Christian church in the Philippines which was built by the members of the Unión Obrera Democrática Filipina when the news broke out about the Spanish priests’ mistreatment towards Filipinos during the Spanish colonial rule. Gregorio Aglipay, an activist and a Roman Catholic priest, was then suggested to be the head of the church by Isabelo de los Reyes, one of the Church’s initiators. The said schism served as a function of the Filipino ecclesiastes’ resentment towards Spanish Catholic order that would then earn the support of the pro-independents as well the American Protestants. Since then, the church has received heavy criticisms from the Roman Catholic Church. However, this would gradually recede as the church draws closer to the Episcopal church.
Meanwhile, the United Methodist Church had its presence be limited to Southeast Asia, specifically in the Philippines and Mongolia as of now. In most of their branches worldwide, they are considered as autonomous churches. The first recorded Methodist church in Asia was established in China in 1847 named as the United Methodist Episcopal Church and in 1899, the first Methodist mission took place here, in the Philippine soil.
The Philippine chapter of UMC is popularly known as Philippine Central Conference (PCC) and has the coverage of at least three episcopal areas encompassing at least 7,000 islands and 50 languages. The origins of the Philippine Episcopal Methodist church began as an extension of the Malaysian Annual Conference. Over the years, it gradually developed and finally in 1905 the Philippine Islands Mission Conference was formed as the Philippine chapter of UMC. This would be held annually in order to celebrate the festivities of the Methodist tradition and at the same, a jurisdictional meeting would take place. This creation of Methodist church in the Philippines was not greeted warmly by the Filipino leaders and thereby claimed that this is a form of “annexation” of the U.S. government under the guise of a religious organization. Around 1908-09 the first schism occurred and a group formed the first independent and sub division of the PCC and was called Iglesia Evangelica Metodista en las Islas Filipinas. | 1,606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jesus at the Centre of Scripture
In the days of the early Church, Philip was called by God to preach in Samaria. Many people were saved through this ministry. In the midst of this great move, God told Philip to go to Gaza, South of Israel. This was a very deserted area, but it was here (Acts 8:29) that Philip saw a man inside a chariot. The man was reading the book of Isaiah, yet did not understand it. He encouraged Philip to sit in the carriage with him and teach him the following scripture:
“He was led like a sheep to the slaughter. As a lamb is silent before the shearers, he did not open his mouth. He was humiliated and received no justice. Who can speak of his descendants? For his life was taken from the earth.” (Acts 8:32-33)
It was through this scripture that Philip was able to tell this man the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:34-35).
The Old Testament is an amazing book. Written across the span of 1500 years from more than 40 authors, it tells one continuous unified story. The Bible is a miracle. How could all these authors, across such a large time span, produce a unified story from beginning to end?
In reality, the whole Old Testament is the story of the man Jesus Christ. He is the central theme of the Bible. In John 5:39, He says, “You search the Scriptures because you think they give you eternal life. But the Scriptures point to Me!” Jesus made an amazing declaration. He was discussing the Old Testament, because the New Testament had not been written yet.
See Matt. 5:17-18, Mk. 12:36. Jesus believed and taught from the Old Testament writings, and He acted upon them. When tempted by Satan in the desert, He said: “It is written”, referring to the Old Testament Scriptures. He knew the Scriptures to be the words of God the Father, therefore there was no place for argument or negotiation. He was determined to obey God His Father, and so he had to submit to the Old Testament.
Jesus turned to the Scriptures to:
- Answer questions
- Solve problems
- Settle disputes
Who was the God that created Heaven and earth? Jehovah—the self-existing one! The New Testament interprets the Old Testament, and tells us that Jesus was already in Christ the Son at creation. See Jn. 1:1-4, Col. 1:16, Gen. 3:15.
Jesus is represented by several characters in the Bible. Isaac was a type of Jesus. Abraham was asked by God to sacrifice Isaac his son on Mount Moriah. On that same mountain 2,000 years later, God offered Jesus our Saviour.
In Genesis, Joseph was another type of Jesus. He was rejected by his brothers and sought after to be killed, yet was exalted by God.
Jesus is interwoven with all of the teaching of the Tabernacle. This is why it was easy for Philip to teach the man about Jesus.
David spoke prophetically about the coming of Jesus: “Then I said, ‘Look, I have come. As is written about me in the Scriptures…’”
Some people might say they believe in God but have difficulty with Jesus Christ. You cannot believe in the god revealed in the Bible and have difficulty believing in Jesus. He is the God of the Bible! John said that if you don’t abide in the doctrine of Christ, then you don’t have God, plain and simple. See Jn. 5:23.
The man in the carriage with Philip was reading one of the Bible’s 300 prophesies of the works of Jesus Christ.
The chance of Jesus fulfilling even 48 of these prophesies was 1×10157. This number is so vast, our minds cannot conceive it. It would take 19 million years to count to this number, at a rate of 250 per minute. However, Jesus did not fulfill 48 prophesies, He fulfilled all 300!
Jesus is the central personality in the Bible. This is why you can base your faith on Jesus. Through preaching about Jesus, Philip was bringing hope to the man. We can bring others that same hope today with this message of love!
That man began to believe in the Jesus of the Scripture, was baptized, and went on His way rejoicing.
If you are really searching, God is faithful. He will reveal Himself to you. But you will not find God until you find Jesus, for He is the only way to the Father. Where do you stand this morning?
Philip was an Evangelist because:
- He believed in Jesus
- He had entrusted his life to Him
- He shared, and talked about Him
- He had no doubt about His Jesus
- He knew the Scriptures, had prepared himself, and was disciplined to Evangelize.
We are called to do the same. We must receive Jesus, be a witness for Him, and entrust our whole life to Him with no reservation. | <urn:uuid:71afb7ae-4d71-4f7c-97c8-d317bec61656> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newlifecc.ca/jesus-at-the-center-of-scriptures/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.980932 | 1,063 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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In the days of the early Church, Philip was called by God to preach in Samaria. Many people were saved through this ministry. In the midst of this great move, God told Philip to go to Gaza, South of Israel. This was a very deserted area, but it was here (Acts 8:29) that Philip saw a man inside a chariot. The man was reading the book of Isaiah, yet did not understand it. He encouraged Philip to sit in the carriage with him and teach him the following scripture:
“He was led like a sheep to the slaughter. As a lamb is silent before the shearers, he did not open his mouth. He was humiliated and received no justice. Who can speak of his descendants? For his life was taken from the earth.” (Acts 8:32-33)
It was through this scripture that Philip was able to tell this man the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:34-35).
The Old Testament is an amazing book. Written across the span of 1500 years from more than 40 authors, it tells one continuous unified story. The Bible is a miracle. How could all these authors, across such a large time span, produce a unified story from beginning to end?
In reality, the whole Old Testament is the story of the man Jesus Christ. He is the central theme of the Bible. In John 5:39, He says, “You search the Scriptures because you think they give you eternal life. But the Scriptures point to Me!” Jesus made an amazing declaration. He was discussing the Old Testament, because the New Testament had not been written yet.
See Matt. 5:17-18, Mk. 12:36. Jesus believed and taught from the Old Testament writings, and He acted upon them. When tempted by Satan in the desert, He said: “It is written”, referring to the Old Testament Scriptures. He knew the Scriptures to be the words of God the Father, therefore there was no place for argument or negotiation. He was determined to obey God His Father, and so he had to submit to the Old Testament.
Jesus turned to the Scriptures to:
- Answer questions
- Solve problems
- Settle disputes
Who was the God that created Heaven and earth? Jehovah—the self-existing one! The New Testament interprets the Old Testament, and tells us that Jesus was already in Christ the Son at creation. See Jn. 1:1-4, Col. 1:16, Gen. 3:15.
Jesus is represented by several characters in the Bible. Isaac was a type of Jesus. Abraham was asked by God to sacrifice Isaac his son on Mount Moriah. On that same mountain 2,000 years later, God offered Jesus our Saviour.
In Genesis, Joseph was another type of Jesus. He was rejected by his brothers and sought after to be killed, yet was exalted by God.
Jesus is interwoven with all of the teaching of the Tabernacle. This is why it was easy for Philip to teach the man about Jesus.
David spoke prophetically about the coming of Jesus: “Then I said, ‘Look, I have come. As is written about me in the Scriptures…’”
Some people might say they believe in God but have difficulty with Jesus Christ. You cannot believe in the god revealed in the Bible and have difficulty believing in Jesus. He is the God of the Bible! John said that if you don’t abide in the doctrine of Christ, then you don’t have God, plain and simple. See Jn. 5:23.
The man in the carriage with Philip was reading one of the Bible’s 300 prophesies of the works of Jesus Christ.
The chance of Jesus fulfilling even 48 of these prophesies was 1×10157. This number is so vast, our minds cannot conceive it. It would take 19 million years to count to this number, at a rate of 250 per minute. However, Jesus did not fulfill 48 prophesies, He fulfilled all 300!
Jesus is the central personality in the Bible. This is why you can base your faith on Jesus. Through preaching about Jesus, Philip was bringing hope to the man. We can bring others that same hope today with this message of love!
That man began to believe in the Jesus of the Scripture, was baptized, and went on His way rejoicing.
If you are really searching, God is faithful. He will reveal Himself to you. But you will not find God until you find Jesus, for He is the only way to the Father. Where do you stand this morning?
Philip was an Evangelist because:
- He believed in Jesus
- He had entrusted his life to Him
- He shared, and talked about Him
- He had no doubt about His Jesus
- He knew the Scriptures, had prepared himself, and was disciplined to Evangelize.
We are called to do the same. We must receive Jesus, be a witness for Him, and entrust our whole life to Him with no reservation. | 1,072 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At Summerlee, we have a number of archaeological items representing the Middle Ages, mostly from across modern Coatbridge and Airdrie. These towns are divided into the Old Monklands (Coatbridge) and the New Monklands (Airdrie). The name ‘Monklands’ goes back to the High Middle Ages, when the Cistercian monks farmed in the region. In 1162, the lands were officially granted to the monks of Newbattle Abbey in Midlothian, by King Malcolm IV.
Originally establishing farms and mills there, the Cistercian monks would keep these lands all through the Middle Ages, becoming the first people in the area to exploit the local coal. When the Reformation came to Scotland, the monks were dispossessed, and their lands given away.
But how much do we know about the monks from Newbattle and the kings who sponsored them?
Monks and Kings
According to contemporary accounts, Malcolm IV was a popular king, though his reign was cut short by his early death. Malcolm was praised for his religious zeal, which perhaps explains why he proved such a generous patron to the monks, and why he had such a good reputation with the monkish chroniclers.
By sponsoring these reclusive men, Malcolm followed in the footsteps of his father, and particularly his famous grandfather, David I. It was David who had first invited the Cistercians into Scotland, establishing them at Melrose Abbey in Roxburghshire.
The Cistercians, called White Monks for their robes, were known for their strict code, the Rule of Saint Benedict, which demanded rigid routine, fasting, constant prayer, and heavy labour of its monks. They were bound only to accept undeveloped grants of land, such as forests and swamps, which they would then make it their mission to develop to the limits of their ability.
Although they relied initially on royal sponsorship, in time a Cistercian abbey would become self-sufficient, living off of the natural resources of their lands. The Cistercians enlisted many illiterate lay brothers, called conversi, to help them in this arduous task. The conversi took vows of chastity and obedience to enter the service of the order.
As well as providing relief to the impoverished lay brothers, medieval monasteries were beacons of culture and learning. The Cistercians, with their strict work ethic, are credited with advances in metallurgy, engineering, and agriculture. They even developed their own style of architecture, ancestral to the Gothic style. With its high arches, its distinctive combination of straight and flowing lines, and the mingling of the simple with the intricate, the Cistercian style was thought to be divinely inspired.
Cistercians and the Davidian Revolution
The Cistercians in Scotland were part of a broader trend of reform, begun in the reign of David I, with far-reaching consequences for Scotland. Exiled from his native country, David spent his formative years in England, at the court of the Anglo-Norman kings. Over time, the Gaelic prince became thoroughly Normanised, and during his reign brought many Norman knights into the country, granting them lands and titles. He reformed Scottish law, bringing it in line with the mainstream feudalism of France and Germany, as well as codifying the customary laws of the ‘Brets and Scots’ (the ‘Brets’ being the Britons of Strathclyde) for the first time.
As well as sponsoring monasteries, David founded many new towns, and invited Flemish settlers into the Clyde valley. By granting lands to Norman and Flemish knights, as well as landless Anglo-Saxons, David built up a strong party of feudal landowners who owed their positions to him alone, rather than to traditional land ownership and kindred ties. These mailed elites and their knights were adept at the latest methods of warfare, which together defined the chivalric culture of the High Middle Ages: the mounted combat that had triumphed at Hastings, and the castle-building that had secured the Norman Conquest.
By the end of his life, David had laid the foundations for a new Scotland, modelled along the same lines as the feudal states of Europe. The new order rested on three pillars (the ‘Three Estates’), strengthened by David and his successors: a strong class of knights; the moral support of the Church; and the material backing of a growing class of skilled burgesses.
The Cistercians had their part to play in this ambitious re-organising of the kingdom. They represented an industrious new current in the church, and their combination of hard work and religious fervour served as an example to laymen and clergy alike. In fact, a recent survey of urban development in England showed that counties that were more exposed to Cistercians developed at a faster rate, perhaps explaining the early roots of the ‘Protestant ethic.’
Cistercians were commercially important as agriculturalists, and also as breeders of horses and cattle, un-monkishly selling their surplus for the order’s profit. Cistercians represented a more worldly type of monk, men with one foot in heaven and another in the marketplace.
With annual assemblies of the abbots at Cîteaux, the French village where the order had been founded, the Cistercians were able to keep abreast of all of the latest developments, whether in technology, politics, theology, or law, that were taking place across Christendom. Through these meetings, the abbots became privy to a far-flung information network, which surely helped their Scottish patrons to anticipate and adapt to the changing times.
Such political concerns would have been outwith the concern of the majority of monks. In contrast to the well-travelled abbots, most monks were forbidden from leaving the monastery at all, except when they were sent to work in the grange. Being sent to the grange meant hard work, but also a much-needed change of surroundings, and perhaps a brief respite from the pressure and scrutiny of monastic life.
But what was the local impact of the Cistercian movement? Were there any people to witness their arrival in their new land? The answer is uncertain. There is substantial evidence of people living in the area as recently as the Iron Age, but after that there is a gap in the local archaeological record, suggesting that the area may have been deserted. If there were freemen living in the area when the monks came, they may have been allowed into the order as conversi. Serfs, on the other hand, would not have been free to make such commitments, and the Cistercians often expelled them from their homes, exposing them to an uncertain future.
Whatever the fate of the locals, we can certainly imagine their bemusement at the sudden appearance of the White Monks on their doorstep, followed by an un-monkish frenzy of activity in the form of herding, clearances, planting, and eventually mining. The Cistercians built numerous farms and mills, and established a chapel at Chapelhall, which was most likely destroyed during the Reformation. They even built a road linking their new settlements with their abbeys in the east, paving the way for trade between Glasgow and Edinburgh, and opening up the wild surrounding country for further settlement and exploitation, secular as well as monastic. | <urn:uuid:4fd6f3cd-ba27-45f4-a75c-489cd71369cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.culturenlmuseums.co.uk/story/the-origin-of-the-monklands/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.98239 | 1,550 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.09457919001579... | 8 | At Summerlee, we have a number of archaeological items representing the Middle Ages, mostly from across modern Coatbridge and Airdrie. These towns are divided into the Old Monklands (Coatbridge) and the New Monklands (Airdrie). The name ‘Monklands’ goes back to the High Middle Ages, when the Cistercian monks farmed in the region. In 1162, the lands were officially granted to the monks of Newbattle Abbey in Midlothian, by King Malcolm IV.
Originally establishing farms and mills there, the Cistercian monks would keep these lands all through the Middle Ages, becoming the first people in the area to exploit the local coal. When the Reformation came to Scotland, the monks were dispossessed, and their lands given away.
But how much do we know about the monks from Newbattle and the kings who sponsored them?
Monks and Kings
According to contemporary accounts, Malcolm IV was a popular king, though his reign was cut short by his early death. Malcolm was praised for his religious zeal, which perhaps explains why he proved such a generous patron to the monks, and why he had such a good reputation with the monkish chroniclers.
By sponsoring these reclusive men, Malcolm followed in the footsteps of his father, and particularly his famous grandfather, David I. It was David who had first invited the Cistercians into Scotland, establishing them at Melrose Abbey in Roxburghshire.
The Cistercians, called White Monks for their robes, were known for their strict code, the Rule of Saint Benedict, which demanded rigid routine, fasting, constant prayer, and heavy labour of its monks. They were bound only to accept undeveloped grants of land, such as forests and swamps, which they would then make it their mission to develop to the limits of their ability.
Although they relied initially on royal sponsorship, in time a Cistercian abbey would become self-sufficient, living off of the natural resources of their lands. The Cistercians enlisted many illiterate lay brothers, called conversi, to help them in this arduous task. The conversi took vows of chastity and obedience to enter the service of the order.
As well as providing relief to the impoverished lay brothers, medieval monasteries were beacons of culture and learning. The Cistercians, with their strict work ethic, are credited with advances in metallurgy, engineering, and agriculture. They even developed their own style of architecture, ancestral to the Gothic style. With its high arches, its distinctive combination of straight and flowing lines, and the mingling of the simple with the intricate, the Cistercian style was thought to be divinely inspired.
Cistercians and the Davidian Revolution
The Cistercians in Scotland were part of a broader trend of reform, begun in the reign of David I, with far-reaching consequences for Scotland. Exiled from his native country, David spent his formative years in England, at the court of the Anglo-Norman kings. Over time, the Gaelic prince became thoroughly Normanised, and during his reign brought many Norman knights into the country, granting them lands and titles. He reformed Scottish law, bringing it in line with the mainstream feudalism of France and Germany, as well as codifying the customary laws of the ‘Brets and Scots’ (the ‘Brets’ being the Britons of Strathclyde) for the first time.
As well as sponsoring monasteries, David founded many new towns, and invited Flemish settlers into the Clyde valley. By granting lands to Norman and Flemish knights, as well as landless Anglo-Saxons, David built up a strong party of feudal landowners who owed their positions to him alone, rather than to traditional land ownership and kindred ties. These mailed elites and their knights were adept at the latest methods of warfare, which together defined the chivalric culture of the High Middle Ages: the mounted combat that had triumphed at Hastings, and the castle-building that had secured the Norman Conquest.
By the end of his life, David had laid the foundations for a new Scotland, modelled along the same lines as the feudal states of Europe. The new order rested on three pillars (the ‘Three Estates’), strengthened by David and his successors: a strong class of knights; the moral support of the Church; and the material backing of a growing class of skilled burgesses.
The Cistercians had their part to play in this ambitious re-organising of the kingdom. They represented an industrious new current in the church, and their combination of hard work and religious fervour served as an example to laymen and clergy alike. In fact, a recent survey of urban development in England showed that counties that were more exposed to Cistercians developed at a faster rate, perhaps explaining the early roots of the ‘Protestant ethic.’
Cistercians were commercially important as agriculturalists, and also as breeders of horses and cattle, un-monkishly selling their surplus for the order’s profit. Cistercians represented a more worldly type of monk, men with one foot in heaven and another in the marketplace.
With annual assemblies of the abbots at Cîteaux, the French village where the order had been founded, the Cistercians were able to keep abreast of all of the latest developments, whether in technology, politics, theology, or law, that were taking place across Christendom. Through these meetings, the abbots became privy to a far-flung information network, which surely helped their Scottish patrons to anticipate and adapt to the changing times.
Such political concerns would have been outwith the concern of the majority of monks. In contrast to the well-travelled abbots, most monks were forbidden from leaving the monastery at all, except when they were sent to work in the grange. Being sent to the grange meant hard work, but also a much-needed change of surroundings, and perhaps a brief respite from the pressure and scrutiny of monastic life.
But what was the local impact of the Cistercian movement? Were there any people to witness their arrival in their new land? The answer is uncertain. There is substantial evidence of people living in the area as recently as the Iron Age, but after that there is a gap in the local archaeological record, suggesting that the area may have been deserted. If there were freemen living in the area when the monks came, they may have been allowed into the order as conversi. Serfs, on the other hand, would not have been free to make such commitments, and the Cistercians often expelled them from their homes, exposing them to an uncertain future.
Whatever the fate of the locals, we can certainly imagine their bemusement at the sudden appearance of the White Monks on their doorstep, followed by an un-monkish frenzy of activity in the form of herding, clearances, planting, and eventually mining. The Cistercians built numerous farms and mills, and established a chapel at Chapelhall, which was most likely destroyed during the Reformation. They even built a road linking their new settlements with their abbeys in the east, paving the way for trade between Glasgow and Edinburgh, and opening up the wild surrounding country for further settlement and exploitation, secular as well as monastic. | 1,513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Birth of Simón Bolivar
Military and political leader Simón Bolívar was born on July 24, 1783, in Caracas, New Granada (present-day Venezuela).
Bolivar came from a wealthy family and moved to Spain in 1799 following the deaths of his parents. Bolívar was married in 1802, but his wife died the following year. After that, he went to Europe and befriended Napoleon. However, a few years later Napoleon named Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain, and its colonies (including Venezuela) and Bolívar joined in the growing resistance movement.
In 1810, Bolívar’s resistance group in Caracas gained independence and he traveled to Britain for a diplomatic mission. However, while he was gone, the battle for control in Caracas and much of South America continued. Bolívar then returned to Venezuela determined to free the country from Spanish control. In May 1813, he invaded Venezuela, starting his Campaña Admirable (Admirable Campaign.) The campaign was a success and led to the creation of the Venezuelan Second Republic and Bolívar being named El Libertador (The Liberator).
Bolívar’s victory was short-lived, as a civil war broke out less than a year later. He was forced to flee the country and hid in Jamaica. There, Bolívar penned his “Letter from Jamaica,” which explained his vision of a South America with a parliament similar to England and a president that could serve without being removed from power.
After gaining support from Haiti, Bolívar returned home and led several military victories. In 1821, two years after New Grenada was freed from Spanish control, the Gran Columbia was formed with Bolívar as president. That same year, Bolívar liberated Peru from Spain and reorganized its political and military system. On August 6, 1825, the Republic of Bolivia was formed, making Bolívar one of a very few men to have a country named after him.
By 1825, Bolívar believed that his goal of a united South America was near. The following year, he called the Congress of Panama to meet in the first hemispheric conference. Many leaders did not agree with his dictatorial policies, and a number of separatist movements began. A civil war quickly erupted. Following a failed assassination attempt, Bolívar resigned in May 1830.
Later that year, Bolívar planned to sail to Europe, but died on December 17, 1830, possibly from tuberculosis. Today Bolívar is a hero in many areas of South America. The currencies of Bolivia and Venezuela are named after him. Many cities also have a main square known as a Plaza Bolívar. His statues stand in cities throughout South America and around the world. He’s also been called the “George Washington of South America.”
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | <urn:uuid:f6dda8b6-cd9f-4376-8217-b8474dfbdbb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-july-24-1783/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.984632 | 610 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.4995479583... | 3 | Birth of Simón Bolivar
Military and political leader Simón Bolívar was born on July 24, 1783, in Caracas, New Granada (present-day Venezuela).
Bolivar came from a wealthy family and moved to Spain in 1799 following the deaths of his parents. Bolívar was married in 1802, but his wife died the following year. After that, he went to Europe and befriended Napoleon. However, a few years later Napoleon named Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain, and its colonies (including Venezuela) and Bolívar joined in the growing resistance movement.
In 1810, Bolívar’s resistance group in Caracas gained independence and he traveled to Britain for a diplomatic mission. However, while he was gone, the battle for control in Caracas and much of South America continued. Bolívar then returned to Venezuela determined to free the country from Spanish control. In May 1813, he invaded Venezuela, starting his Campaña Admirable (Admirable Campaign.) The campaign was a success and led to the creation of the Venezuelan Second Republic and Bolívar being named El Libertador (The Liberator).
Bolívar’s victory was short-lived, as a civil war broke out less than a year later. He was forced to flee the country and hid in Jamaica. There, Bolívar penned his “Letter from Jamaica,” which explained his vision of a South America with a parliament similar to England and a president that could serve without being removed from power.
After gaining support from Haiti, Bolívar returned home and led several military victories. In 1821, two years after New Grenada was freed from Spanish control, the Gran Columbia was formed with Bolívar as president. That same year, Bolívar liberated Peru from Spain and reorganized its political and military system. On August 6, 1825, the Republic of Bolivia was formed, making Bolívar one of a very few men to have a country named after him.
By 1825, Bolívar believed that his goal of a united South America was near. The following year, he called the Congress of Panama to meet in the first hemispheric conference. Many leaders did not agree with his dictatorial policies, and a number of separatist movements began. A civil war quickly erupted. Following a failed assassination attempt, Bolívar resigned in May 1830.
Later that year, Bolívar planned to sail to Europe, but died on December 17, 1830, possibly from tuberculosis. Today Bolívar is a hero in many areas of South America. The currencies of Bolivia and Venezuela are named after him. Many cities also have a main square known as a Plaza Bolívar. His statues stand in cities throughout South America and around the world. He’s also been called the “George Washington of South America.”
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andrew Johnson Essay
Andrew Johnson succeeded President Abraham Lincoln after his assassination to become the 17th president of the United States. He was the vice president then and consequently the first vice president ever to become the president after the death of an incumbent. He was the president of the United States during one of its trying moments when it was still reeling from the effects of the civil war and embroiled into the intense activities and emotions of the Reconstruction. With Abraham Lincoln gone, it was up to Andrew Johnson to supervise the process of reconstruction.
Andrew Johnson was born on December 29, 1808 in North Carolina. He did not formally attend any school and he learnt on his own how to read and write. His early childhood was humble as he was an indentured servant. He plunged into politics in the late 1920s, serving as a mayor in 1833, later proceeding to the Tennessee House of Representatives. He was quite vocal against the big plantations and aristocrats, pursuing the interests of the small scale farmers.
This vocal advocacy witnessed his election into the Tennessee senate and later into the Tennessee House of Representatives. This is a position that he held for five consecutive terms and would later be governor of Tennessee in 1853 (James Ford, 1920).
Though his presidency was embroiled into numerous mishaps Andrew Johnson emerged a fighter from the start. Despite the fact that his state, Tennessee seceded, Johnson continued to serve in the congress vowing to fight the aristocrats from within. Due to his stand, he was appointed by Lincoln to be the military governor of Tennessee and was a significant force in rooting out elements from the state that supported the confederation. He freed slaves reiterating the need the end slavery and grant the black population voting rights. He crossed over to the National Union Party, was appointed the vice president and upon the assassination of Abraham Lincoln sworn into the presidency on April 15, 1865 (W. A. Dunning, 1898).
It was expected that upon becoming the president, he would take a harsh stance against the southern states. Contrary to these expectations, he minced the words he had spoken earlier on treason. He took up a soft stance and offered amnesty to these states. This hence meant that blacks and the southern plantations would be left in the hands of the southerners uncontrolled. It is this leniency that would lead to Johnson and the northern radical Republicans parting ways. They sought for tough measures on the rebellious states. Eric L McKitrick (1988)notes that “despite some indications in the beginning that Johnson’s attitude toward the south might be a harsh one, his policy turned out to be quite otherwise”
Johnson oversaw the passage of the black codes that sought to grant ex-slaves who had been freed a second class citizenship status. It was in response to this that the republicans from the north intensified their bid to curb the admission of the seceding states back into the union. The bruising battle that Andrew Johnson had with the republicans especially over the rights of the black American slaves painted a perception that he was against the emancipation of the slaves. He vetoed the pushing of the civil rights bill in 1865. This was a bill that hoped to confer equal racial status for the blacks and whites especially for the freedmen. Andrew Johnson objected to this claiming that the federal authority was usurping the role of the individual states. He claimed that this was against the provisions in the constitution. This major scuffle in his presidency and his stand on the civil rights endeared him to the democrats who mostly comprised of the southerners. They voted to sustain his veto but the republicans with their superior numbers in the house overrode the veto. The Civil Bights bill went ahead and became law (Eric L. McKitrick 1988).
To understand the stand that the southern states took compared to the northern states, it is important to look at the regions political and economic orientation. The northern states were largely industrialized and had refuted the claims that slavery was a viable investment. Calls for abolishment of slavery had intensified in the north. The southern states on the other hand relied on large plantations. Slavery was the backbone against which the southern economy thrived. The decades of slavery had led southerners to be on the virtual dependence on slavery and creating a sort of a permanent attachment that would take long to severe. The insistence by the republicans in the, north led by Abraham Lincoln, that slavery would be contained, led to angry responses that led to the American civil war. The support of the southern Democratic Party supporters was guaranteed to Andrew Johnson the moment it emerged that his policies were not as harsh and retributive as they had earlier feared (Hatfield, Mark O.1997).
The bruising battle that would follow after the attempts to veto the bill would leave Johnson cornered and powerless. The passage of the fourteenth amendment seeking to entrench the Civil Rights Act into the United States constitution was a resounding defeat to Johnson. The amendment granted citizenship to all the people born in the United States. The amendment also spelt out the penalties that would be imposed to states that failed to grant citizenship to freedmen. The battle between the republicans and the democrats allied to the president would lead to a loss in the house support with the republicans emerging victorious and taking over the authority of implementing the Reconstruction. Johnson became a lame duck. This would place him on a collision path with the congress especially as he was unwilling to compromise. It would lead to the failure of his key agendas and mission as James Ford Rhodes notes (1920, 27) that the “quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy; and for the quarrel and its unhappy results Johnson’s lack of imagination and his inordinate sensitiveness to political gadflies were largely responsible.”
Andrew Johnson faced numerous tribulations while in office that would put a test to his popularity and grasp of power in the house. There were two concerted efforts to end his presidency through impeachment. The first impeachment was based on a furor of complaints lodged against the president. The second impeachment facing the president was as a result of removing the then secretary of war Edwin Stanton. Such a replacement, it was argued, was in gross violation of the Tenure of Office Act, an act that Johnson had tried unsuccessfully to veto. This act had curtailed the powers of the president of sacking his cabinet members. The Supreme Court had made a grand ruling that the president’s actions violated the constitution. The voting in the senate saw the president sail through slightly with those for the impeachment being unable to muster the mandatory two-thirds majority required for an impeachment.
The attempts by the senate to impeach president Andrew Johnson has been put on the spotlight by various scholars and historians. Some claim that had it been successful, the impeachment would have been tantamount to setting a bad precedence that a sitting president can be impeached solely over minor political differences. The analysis of the subsequent events confirm that indeed the president was right in his replacement as twenty years later, the tenure of office act was done way with by the congress. The United States Supreme Court half a century later in 1925 was to affirm the president had residual powers with which to sack a postmaster, without the approval of the legislature. This hence meant that the tenure act had been invalidated (Foster, G. Allen, 1964).
The achievements of Andrew Johnson as the seventeenth president of the United States have sparked a rare debate amongst historians and other scholars. There are those who claim that his record in office was vilified by radical republicans who wanted to have the leadership in the south undermined. Others claim that he was a weak politician who was not apt enough to build standing coalitions. The civil rights movements that characterized the 1960s brought focus to his presidency with these activists claiming that Johnson was the impediment to civil rights and that the radical republican’s played a vital role in giving suffrage rights to the black Americans.
Rhodes; James Ford, 1920. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896. Volume: 6.. Pulitzer prize
W. A. Dunning,1898. Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction .New York.
Schouler, James. 1917. History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 7. 1865–1877. The Reconstruction Period
Hatfield, Mark O.1997., with the Senate Historical Office, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789-1993..Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,.
Eric L. McKitrick 1988. Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction. Oxford University
Foster, G. Allen, 1964. Impeached: The President who almost lost his job New York.
Cite this Andrew Johnson Essay
Andrew Johnson Essay. (2016, Jun 25). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/andrew-johnson/ | <urn:uuid:76e33c11-02cd-4975-b1ca-9f8a67c45400> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/andrew-johnson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.981368 | 1,829 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.4725301265716553,... | 1 | Andrew Johnson Essay
Andrew Johnson succeeded President Abraham Lincoln after his assassination to become the 17th president of the United States. He was the vice president then and consequently the first vice president ever to become the president after the death of an incumbent. He was the president of the United States during one of its trying moments when it was still reeling from the effects of the civil war and embroiled into the intense activities and emotions of the Reconstruction. With Abraham Lincoln gone, it was up to Andrew Johnson to supervise the process of reconstruction.
Andrew Johnson was born on December 29, 1808 in North Carolina. He did not formally attend any school and he learnt on his own how to read and write. His early childhood was humble as he was an indentured servant. He plunged into politics in the late 1920s, serving as a mayor in 1833, later proceeding to the Tennessee House of Representatives. He was quite vocal against the big plantations and aristocrats, pursuing the interests of the small scale farmers.
This vocal advocacy witnessed his election into the Tennessee senate and later into the Tennessee House of Representatives. This is a position that he held for five consecutive terms and would later be governor of Tennessee in 1853 (James Ford, 1920).
Though his presidency was embroiled into numerous mishaps Andrew Johnson emerged a fighter from the start. Despite the fact that his state, Tennessee seceded, Johnson continued to serve in the congress vowing to fight the aristocrats from within. Due to his stand, he was appointed by Lincoln to be the military governor of Tennessee and was a significant force in rooting out elements from the state that supported the confederation. He freed slaves reiterating the need the end slavery and grant the black population voting rights. He crossed over to the National Union Party, was appointed the vice president and upon the assassination of Abraham Lincoln sworn into the presidency on April 15, 1865 (W. A. Dunning, 1898).
It was expected that upon becoming the president, he would take a harsh stance against the southern states. Contrary to these expectations, he minced the words he had spoken earlier on treason. He took up a soft stance and offered amnesty to these states. This hence meant that blacks and the southern plantations would be left in the hands of the southerners uncontrolled. It is this leniency that would lead to Johnson and the northern radical Republicans parting ways. They sought for tough measures on the rebellious states. Eric L McKitrick (1988)notes that “despite some indications in the beginning that Johnson’s attitude toward the south might be a harsh one, his policy turned out to be quite otherwise”
Johnson oversaw the passage of the black codes that sought to grant ex-slaves who had been freed a second class citizenship status. It was in response to this that the republicans from the north intensified their bid to curb the admission of the seceding states back into the union. The bruising battle that Andrew Johnson had with the republicans especially over the rights of the black American slaves painted a perception that he was against the emancipation of the slaves. He vetoed the pushing of the civil rights bill in 1865. This was a bill that hoped to confer equal racial status for the blacks and whites especially for the freedmen. Andrew Johnson objected to this claiming that the federal authority was usurping the role of the individual states. He claimed that this was against the provisions in the constitution. This major scuffle in his presidency and his stand on the civil rights endeared him to the democrats who mostly comprised of the southerners. They voted to sustain his veto but the republicans with their superior numbers in the house overrode the veto. The Civil Bights bill went ahead and became law (Eric L. McKitrick 1988).
To understand the stand that the southern states took compared to the northern states, it is important to look at the regions political and economic orientation. The northern states were largely industrialized and had refuted the claims that slavery was a viable investment. Calls for abolishment of slavery had intensified in the north. The southern states on the other hand relied on large plantations. Slavery was the backbone against which the southern economy thrived. The decades of slavery had led southerners to be on the virtual dependence on slavery and creating a sort of a permanent attachment that would take long to severe. The insistence by the republicans in the, north led by Abraham Lincoln, that slavery would be contained, led to angry responses that led to the American civil war. The support of the southern Democratic Party supporters was guaranteed to Andrew Johnson the moment it emerged that his policies were not as harsh and retributive as they had earlier feared (Hatfield, Mark O.1997).
The bruising battle that would follow after the attempts to veto the bill would leave Johnson cornered and powerless. The passage of the fourteenth amendment seeking to entrench the Civil Rights Act into the United States constitution was a resounding defeat to Johnson. The amendment granted citizenship to all the people born in the United States. The amendment also spelt out the penalties that would be imposed to states that failed to grant citizenship to freedmen. The battle between the republicans and the democrats allied to the president would lead to a loss in the house support with the republicans emerging victorious and taking over the authority of implementing the Reconstruction. Johnson became a lame duck. This would place him on a collision path with the congress especially as he was unwilling to compromise. It would lead to the failure of his key agendas and mission as James Ford Rhodes notes (1920, 27) that the “quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy; and for the quarrel and its unhappy results Johnson’s lack of imagination and his inordinate sensitiveness to political gadflies were largely responsible.”
Andrew Johnson faced numerous tribulations while in office that would put a test to his popularity and grasp of power in the house. There were two concerted efforts to end his presidency through impeachment. The first impeachment was based on a furor of complaints lodged against the president. The second impeachment facing the president was as a result of removing the then secretary of war Edwin Stanton. Such a replacement, it was argued, was in gross violation of the Tenure of Office Act, an act that Johnson had tried unsuccessfully to veto. This act had curtailed the powers of the president of sacking his cabinet members. The Supreme Court had made a grand ruling that the president’s actions violated the constitution. The voting in the senate saw the president sail through slightly with those for the impeachment being unable to muster the mandatory two-thirds majority required for an impeachment.
The attempts by the senate to impeach president Andrew Johnson has been put on the spotlight by various scholars and historians. Some claim that had it been successful, the impeachment would have been tantamount to setting a bad precedence that a sitting president can be impeached solely over minor political differences. The analysis of the subsequent events confirm that indeed the president was right in his replacement as twenty years later, the tenure of office act was done way with by the congress. The United States Supreme Court half a century later in 1925 was to affirm the president had residual powers with which to sack a postmaster, without the approval of the legislature. This hence meant that the tenure act had been invalidated (Foster, G. Allen, 1964).
The achievements of Andrew Johnson as the seventeenth president of the United States have sparked a rare debate amongst historians and other scholars. There are those who claim that his record in office was vilified by radical republicans who wanted to have the leadership in the south undermined. Others claim that he was a weak politician who was not apt enough to build standing coalitions. The civil rights movements that characterized the 1960s brought focus to his presidency with these activists claiming that Johnson was the impediment to civil rights and that the radical republican’s played a vital role in giving suffrage rights to the black Americans.
Rhodes; James Ford, 1920. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896. Volume: 6.. Pulitzer prize
W. A. Dunning,1898. Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction .New York.
Schouler, James. 1917. History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 7. 1865–1877. The Reconstruction Period
Hatfield, Mark O.1997., with the Senate Historical Office, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789-1993..Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,.
Eric L. McKitrick 1988. Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction. Oxford University
Foster, G. Allen, 1964. Impeached: The President who almost lost his job New York.
Cite this Andrew Johnson Essay
Andrew Johnson Essay. (2016, Jun 25). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/andrew-johnson/ | 1,925 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The more you study the history of the Scottish Highlands of the 18th and 19th centuries, the more upset you become. It’s impossible not to be deeply moved by the violence, betrayal, upheaval, and general difficulty experienced by the Highland clans during this time in their history.
Since as far back as the 12th century, families in Scotland were organized into networks, called clans. The word clan comes from the Gaelic meaning “children.” Most clans had a chief, and families paid homage to their leader, living off his land and paying rent in kind in return for protection and alliance. Families often took on the name of their clan chief as a symbol of their loyalty. Clan life in the Highlands of Scotland was a lot different than life today. Most clan family homes had turf walls, with rafters of stout branches thatched with straw, bracken, or heather, and stamped earth floors. Fuel wasn’t purchased – it was free from the peatbanks. Clothes were handwoven of wool or flax. Furniture, crockery, and cutlery was sparse and handmade. Journeys took days, and the most common foods taken on the road were oats, bannocks, the occasional salted meat, and always whisky!
By the end of the 17th century, Scotland was in a period of transition, about to give up its parliament as it had given up its sovereign crown in 1603. A troubling era of religious persecution against the Scottish covenanters ended when William of Orange, a Protestant and grandson of Charles I, took the throne with his wife Mary. However, many Highlanders were Catholic and a number supported the royal House of Stuart.
Between 1688 and 1746, a number of uprisings occurred in an effort to overthrow the Hanoverian royal line in favor of a Stuart king. Supporters of these “rebellions” were called Jacobites, after Jacobus, the Latin form of James, a popular name in the House of Stuart.
The final uprising, the ’45, culminated in the Battle of Culloden, fought on Aprl 16th, 1746. It was the last pitched battle fought on British soil. It pitted a Jacobite force comprised of Highlanders, some lowlanders, and some French, against a government force of mostly English and some Scots and Irish. The Jacobites were led by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, or Bonnie Prince Charlie, a claimant to the throne from the House of Stuart.
After advancing into England, the Jacobites returned to Scotland and met the government forces near Inverness, in the Highlands. The government army, led by the Duke of Cumberland, was larger, more provisioned, more organized, and likely more rested than the Jacobites. The battle occurred on the marshy fields of Culloden. It was short and bloody. Without being able to establish a Highland charge or engage in guerilla warfare, the Jacobites were quickly overwhelmed by government artillery. In the space of an hour, between 1500 and 2000 Jacobites were wounded or killed, as opposed to the government’s 50 deaths and around 300 wounded. The aftermath of the battle was equally brutal, as Cumberland the Butcher ordered survivors to be hunted down and killed. Many innocent people in the region were killed or harmed. Homes were burned and livelihoods dashed. Some Jacobites escaped, others were executed in England. A number of them fled to the Americas or served in other campaigns in Europe. Prince Charles escaped and went into hiding, eventually ending up back in France, never to return again.
Soon after Culloden, laws were passed that banned Highlanders from wearing clan colors or bearing arms. The Gaelic language was marginalized by officialdom. Clans lost land and power. The clan system suffered irreparable harm. Truly, Scotland changed forever during this period. And then the Highland clearances began. In the space of 50 years, the Scottish highlands became one of the most sparsely populated areas in Europe. The Highlanders immigrated far and wide, across the globe in search of a better life. Today, there are more descendants of Highlanders outside Scotland than there are in the country. | <urn:uuid:869854f8-5a73-497a-885f-c657e4c0aad9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://celticlifeintl.com/brief-history-of-the-highlanders/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00029.warc.gz | en | 0.982537 | 867 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.113164052367... | 5 | The more you study the history of the Scottish Highlands of the 18th and 19th centuries, the more upset you become. It’s impossible not to be deeply moved by the violence, betrayal, upheaval, and general difficulty experienced by the Highland clans during this time in their history.
Since as far back as the 12th century, families in Scotland were organized into networks, called clans. The word clan comes from the Gaelic meaning “children.” Most clans had a chief, and families paid homage to their leader, living off his land and paying rent in kind in return for protection and alliance. Families often took on the name of their clan chief as a symbol of their loyalty. Clan life in the Highlands of Scotland was a lot different than life today. Most clan family homes had turf walls, with rafters of stout branches thatched with straw, bracken, or heather, and stamped earth floors. Fuel wasn’t purchased – it was free from the peatbanks. Clothes were handwoven of wool or flax. Furniture, crockery, and cutlery was sparse and handmade. Journeys took days, and the most common foods taken on the road were oats, bannocks, the occasional salted meat, and always whisky!
By the end of the 17th century, Scotland was in a period of transition, about to give up its parliament as it had given up its sovereign crown in 1603. A troubling era of religious persecution against the Scottish covenanters ended when William of Orange, a Protestant and grandson of Charles I, took the throne with his wife Mary. However, many Highlanders were Catholic and a number supported the royal House of Stuart.
Between 1688 and 1746, a number of uprisings occurred in an effort to overthrow the Hanoverian royal line in favor of a Stuart king. Supporters of these “rebellions” were called Jacobites, after Jacobus, the Latin form of James, a popular name in the House of Stuart.
The final uprising, the ’45, culminated in the Battle of Culloden, fought on Aprl 16th, 1746. It was the last pitched battle fought on British soil. It pitted a Jacobite force comprised of Highlanders, some lowlanders, and some French, against a government force of mostly English and some Scots and Irish. The Jacobites were led by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, or Bonnie Prince Charlie, a claimant to the throne from the House of Stuart.
After advancing into England, the Jacobites returned to Scotland and met the government forces near Inverness, in the Highlands. The government army, led by the Duke of Cumberland, was larger, more provisioned, more organized, and likely more rested than the Jacobites. The battle occurred on the marshy fields of Culloden. It was short and bloody. Without being able to establish a Highland charge or engage in guerilla warfare, the Jacobites were quickly overwhelmed by government artillery. In the space of an hour, between 1500 and 2000 Jacobites were wounded or killed, as opposed to the government’s 50 deaths and around 300 wounded. The aftermath of the battle was equally brutal, as Cumberland the Butcher ordered survivors to be hunted down and killed. Many innocent people in the region were killed or harmed. Homes were burned and livelihoods dashed. Some Jacobites escaped, others were executed in England. A number of them fled to the Americas or served in other campaigns in Europe. Prince Charles escaped and went into hiding, eventually ending up back in France, never to return again.
Soon after Culloden, laws were passed that banned Highlanders from wearing clan colors or bearing arms. The Gaelic language was marginalized by officialdom. Clans lost land and power. The clan system suffered irreparable harm. Truly, Scotland changed forever during this period. And then the Highland clearances began. In the space of 50 years, the Scottish highlands became one of the most sparsely populated areas in Europe. The Highlanders immigrated far and wide, across the globe in search of a better life. Today, there are more descendants of Highlanders outside Scotland than there are in the country. | 887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?
Conditions for workers one hundred years ago were horrible. But the oppression hasn't gone away. The wolves still prey on good and honest workers today, just as they did back then.
June 11 is a little known holiday in the mining towns of Cape Breton. In these towns it is known as Davis Day. Here, there is a history of conflict between miners and the coal company. The coal company enjoyed complete and unquestioned support from the Canadian state and the Prime Minister, a slave to the crystal ball named MacKenzie King. This local history is rife with revolutionary passion and bloody struggles between miners, steelworkers and capitalist tyranny.
It is a history that is sufficiently shameful that few, if any, students have learned about it in school. This history is spelled out in the town square of the town of New Waterford under the title, "Standing the Gaff", and under a statue of a man named William Davis. This title is a defiant reference to a comment made by mine vice president, J.E. McLurg, and is often attributed to his boss, BESCO President Roy Wolvin, known locally as Roy the Wolf. He said of the striking miners, "They won't stand the gaff".
He was referring of course, to starvation.
The reason for the holiday is because William Davis was one of three coal miners that was shot on June 11, 1925 at New Waterford Lake by a gang of goons/company police. William Davis died of his wounds. This 'police' force was supported by and worked with the Canadian military.
In the 1920's the miners went on strike as a result of wage cuts. The mine owners had cut their meager wages. Before the cuts, 90% of wages went to food and rent for the average miner and datal employees spent more on food and rent than they earned.
During the strikes the Canadian military were dispatched to Cape Breton equipped with guns, bayonets and machine guns. On June 11, 1925, miners decided to reconnect power to the town from the power plant. In the neighbouring town, Glace Bay, the soldiers placed a machine gun on the steps of a church and defied the miners of Glace Bay to cross a line. The miners from Glace Bay were marching to help their brothers in New Waterford.
These sadistic goons routinely rode on horseback through the streets of New Waterford terrorizing the people. Most of these goons were recruited from outside of Cape Breton where the ideological bent and character of the people was less militant.
These paid goons were beholden to their bosses who wanted the power and water cut off to the people of the New Waterford area. They had to take on the miners and Cape Bretoners being what they are, soon had the quisling company goons terrified. They began to panic and in the violence, they began shooting, jumping in New Waterford Lake and trying to escape on horseback. Many of these cowards were pulled off the horses and beaten by the miners. A local priest had to intervene to save the life of one of these men who was in the hands of the miners.
The miners were understandably angry. The company controlled their water and had cut the supply. They were there to take back the water and to take back the electricity to make life somewhat less unbearable than it had been for them and their families.
The leader of the union was a native of Scotland who had been politically seasoned in his native land. His name was J.B. McLaughlin. McLaughlin was a firey leader who understood the nature of capitalism. He had gained a good deal of his education from the brutality he had witnessed before he had come to Canada.
McLaughlin was eventually thrown into the penitentary for reporting on an incident he witnessed in nearby Whitney Pier where he watched the soldiers beat women and men in the streets. The Steel Workers there were on strike against the same ruthless privateers that owned and ruled the industry and the people of Cape Breton Island. He was convicted on trumped up charges of siditious libel and sentenced to two years in the penetentary. The real reason for his imprisonment was that he represented a threat to not only the mine owners, but to the capitalist system in Canada. They were afraid that he would become an MP (a member of Parliament). McLaughlin said, "Under capitalism the working class has but two courses to follow: crawl - or fight."
A significant part of this history was the power of the Company Store and the control that it had won for the owners (Besco) - over the miners. Many contemporary Cape Bretoners grew up in company houses and back in the day, the miners owed their wages, and as the song says, their souls, to the Company Store.
They would work all week in the dangerous coal mines deep beneath the ocean and at the end of the week the company would "check off" all that was owed. The miners often had little or nothing to show for their work because they were so hoplessly indebted to the company. The company controlled everything. The check off deducted medical bills, water, rent, food, the tools the miners needed to do their jobs; pretty much all the necessities of life. The company however did not gain control over the air the people had to breathe but the steel plant was and still is responsible for Cape Bretoners having the highest cancer rates in Canada.
Miners burned company coal to heat their company homes. They clothed their children and bought their food at the company store. They drank company water and used company electricity.
The struggles in Cape Breton against capitalist tyranny were struggles for basic subsistence and human dignity.The essential problem was that the capitalists had control of everything.
Now Paul Wolfowitz is president of the World Bank. The World Bank and the IMF operate in essentially the same way as the company store did. If you want to understand what's going on in the world today, ask a Cape Bretoner - preferably an old one, about the Company Store. What the neo-cons are doing to the working classes and the poor in the world has been done to Cape Bretoners a few generations ago.
Paul Wolfowitz is in charge of economic policy for about one hundred countries that are struggling to survive economically. His right wing neo con policies have proven to be disastrous for the working class and their methods of strangulation are similar to the old company store on Cape Breton Island. Essentially the idea is to take control of the vital necessities of life and force the people into wage slavery to pay for them.
The World Bank has pushed hard for privatization, even of the water, and Wolfowitz presided over the most extreme privatization binge in history in the embattled and now destroyed nation of Iraq. This neo con tyranny is a very real crisis for the poor and the workers of countries under the rule of the of the World Bank. The World Bank will put an extra strong effort into modernizing developing countries through what they will call free market policies (which in fact are always controlled) and they will privatize the water, the medicine, the electricity - everything. The air may remain free but it will be deadly if the neo cons have their way.
The history of Cape Breton Island as well as many other oppressed regions of the world should not be hidden from school children. It is a history that repeats itself and a history that will continue to repeat itself until we have the courage to put a stop to it. The marriage of the capitalist state to private capital is far more complete now in 2005 than it was in 1925.
Unfortunately, the mindset and the mass media fall heavily under the spell of the wolves that prey upon the innocent. Roy the Wolf terrorized Cape Bretoners in the 1920's and now Paul the Wolf is doing the same thing on a much larger scale.
It is up to the contributors to Indymedia, Usenet, and the internet in general to present the truth to those that have not heard it. The wolves do not have control of it, at least not yet.
We have a lot of work to do.
I believe in education for action. I believe in telling children the truth about the history of the world, that it does not consist of the history of kings, or lords or cabinets. It consists of the history of the mass of the workers, a thing that is not taught in the schools. I believe in telling children how to measure value, a thing that is not taught in any school. - J.B. McLachlan
add a comment on this article | <urn:uuid:953ad0d1-9442-4b1b-b73c-9a241ea6636e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2005/06/318805.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.983985 | 1,766 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.05375266820192337,
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0.21753221750... | 2 | Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?
Conditions for workers one hundred years ago were horrible. But the oppression hasn't gone away. The wolves still prey on good and honest workers today, just as they did back then.
June 11 is a little known holiday in the mining towns of Cape Breton. In these towns it is known as Davis Day. Here, there is a history of conflict between miners and the coal company. The coal company enjoyed complete and unquestioned support from the Canadian state and the Prime Minister, a slave to the crystal ball named MacKenzie King. This local history is rife with revolutionary passion and bloody struggles between miners, steelworkers and capitalist tyranny.
It is a history that is sufficiently shameful that few, if any, students have learned about it in school. This history is spelled out in the town square of the town of New Waterford under the title, "Standing the Gaff", and under a statue of a man named William Davis. This title is a defiant reference to a comment made by mine vice president, J.E. McLurg, and is often attributed to his boss, BESCO President Roy Wolvin, known locally as Roy the Wolf. He said of the striking miners, "They won't stand the gaff".
He was referring of course, to starvation.
The reason for the holiday is because William Davis was one of three coal miners that was shot on June 11, 1925 at New Waterford Lake by a gang of goons/company police. William Davis died of his wounds. This 'police' force was supported by and worked with the Canadian military.
In the 1920's the miners went on strike as a result of wage cuts. The mine owners had cut their meager wages. Before the cuts, 90% of wages went to food and rent for the average miner and datal employees spent more on food and rent than they earned.
During the strikes the Canadian military were dispatched to Cape Breton equipped with guns, bayonets and machine guns. On June 11, 1925, miners decided to reconnect power to the town from the power plant. In the neighbouring town, Glace Bay, the soldiers placed a machine gun on the steps of a church and defied the miners of Glace Bay to cross a line. The miners from Glace Bay were marching to help their brothers in New Waterford.
These sadistic goons routinely rode on horseback through the streets of New Waterford terrorizing the people. Most of these goons were recruited from outside of Cape Breton where the ideological bent and character of the people was less militant.
These paid goons were beholden to their bosses who wanted the power and water cut off to the people of the New Waterford area. They had to take on the miners and Cape Bretoners being what they are, soon had the quisling company goons terrified. They began to panic and in the violence, they began shooting, jumping in New Waterford Lake and trying to escape on horseback. Many of these cowards were pulled off the horses and beaten by the miners. A local priest had to intervene to save the life of one of these men who was in the hands of the miners.
The miners were understandably angry. The company controlled their water and had cut the supply. They were there to take back the water and to take back the electricity to make life somewhat less unbearable than it had been for them and their families.
The leader of the union was a native of Scotland who had been politically seasoned in his native land. His name was J.B. McLaughlin. McLaughlin was a firey leader who understood the nature of capitalism. He had gained a good deal of his education from the brutality he had witnessed before he had come to Canada.
McLaughlin was eventually thrown into the penitentary for reporting on an incident he witnessed in nearby Whitney Pier where he watched the soldiers beat women and men in the streets. The Steel Workers there were on strike against the same ruthless privateers that owned and ruled the industry and the people of Cape Breton Island. He was convicted on trumped up charges of siditious libel and sentenced to two years in the penetentary. The real reason for his imprisonment was that he represented a threat to not only the mine owners, but to the capitalist system in Canada. They were afraid that he would become an MP (a member of Parliament). McLaughlin said, "Under capitalism the working class has but two courses to follow: crawl - or fight."
A significant part of this history was the power of the Company Store and the control that it had won for the owners (Besco) - over the miners. Many contemporary Cape Bretoners grew up in company houses and back in the day, the miners owed their wages, and as the song says, their souls, to the Company Store.
They would work all week in the dangerous coal mines deep beneath the ocean and at the end of the week the company would "check off" all that was owed. The miners often had little or nothing to show for their work because they were so hoplessly indebted to the company. The company controlled everything. The check off deducted medical bills, water, rent, food, the tools the miners needed to do their jobs; pretty much all the necessities of life. The company however did not gain control over the air the people had to breathe but the steel plant was and still is responsible for Cape Bretoners having the highest cancer rates in Canada.
Miners burned company coal to heat their company homes. They clothed their children and bought their food at the company store. They drank company water and used company electricity.
The struggles in Cape Breton against capitalist tyranny were struggles for basic subsistence and human dignity.The essential problem was that the capitalists had control of everything.
Now Paul Wolfowitz is president of the World Bank. The World Bank and the IMF operate in essentially the same way as the company store did. If you want to understand what's going on in the world today, ask a Cape Bretoner - preferably an old one, about the Company Store. What the neo-cons are doing to the working classes and the poor in the world has been done to Cape Bretoners a few generations ago.
Paul Wolfowitz is in charge of economic policy for about one hundred countries that are struggling to survive economically. His right wing neo con policies have proven to be disastrous for the working class and their methods of strangulation are similar to the old company store on Cape Breton Island. Essentially the idea is to take control of the vital necessities of life and force the people into wage slavery to pay for them.
The World Bank has pushed hard for privatization, even of the water, and Wolfowitz presided over the most extreme privatization binge in history in the embattled and now destroyed nation of Iraq. This neo con tyranny is a very real crisis for the poor and the workers of countries under the rule of the of the World Bank. The World Bank will put an extra strong effort into modernizing developing countries through what they will call free market policies (which in fact are always controlled) and they will privatize the water, the medicine, the electricity - everything. The air may remain free but it will be deadly if the neo cons have their way.
The history of Cape Breton Island as well as many other oppressed regions of the world should not be hidden from school children. It is a history that repeats itself and a history that will continue to repeat itself until we have the courage to put a stop to it. The marriage of the capitalist state to private capital is far more complete now in 2005 than it was in 1925.
Unfortunately, the mindset and the mass media fall heavily under the spell of the wolves that prey upon the innocent. Roy the Wolf terrorized Cape Bretoners in the 1920's and now Paul the Wolf is doing the same thing on a much larger scale.
It is up to the contributors to Indymedia, Usenet, and the internet in general to present the truth to those that have not heard it. The wolves do not have control of it, at least not yet.
We have a lot of work to do.
I believe in education for action. I believe in telling children the truth about the history of the world, that it does not consist of the history of kings, or lords or cabinets. It consists of the history of the mass of the workers, a thing that is not taught in the schools. I believe in telling children how to measure value, a thing that is not taught in any school. - J.B. McLachlan
add a comment on this article | 1,781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
French Communist Résistants were deported in disproportionate number to concentration camps during the Second World War. In the decades following the Liberation, the Party memorialized its martyrs, devoting a corner of Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris to a remarkable ensemble of monuments. Yet, it was not just in stone that the dead were remembered but in literature and painting as well. Not all such remembrances, moreover, were executed in the socialist realist mold, as confrontation with the work of Robert Antelme and Pablo Picasso will attest. And the Party’s memorialization efforts were not just devoted to remembering fallen comrades. The Communist world developed an understanding of its own as to the meaning of the camp experience, and it was one that helped to orient believers in the political present. The anti-fascist struggle was not over and done with but ongoing, and memories of the camps helped to identify who fascism’s heirs were in the postwar world. | <urn:uuid:a2086a68-1701-4d99-9fba-a469f1099c2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hellenic.princeton.edu/events/lecture-philip-nord-french-communism-and-memory-deportation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.983993 | 196 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.8658272624015808,... | 3 | French Communist Résistants were deported in disproportionate number to concentration camps during the Second World War. In the decades following the Liberation, the Party memorialized its martyrs, devoting a corner of Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris to a remarkable ensemble of monuments. Yet, it was not just in stone that the dead were remembered but in literature and painting as well. Not all such remembrances, moreover, were executed in the socialist realist mold, as confrontation with the work of Robert Antelme and Pablo Picasso will attest. And the Party’s memorialization efforts were not just devoted to remembering fallen comrades. The Communist world developed an understanding of its own as to the meaning of the camp experience, and it was one that helped to orient believers in the political present. The anti-fascist struggle was not over and done with but ongoing, and memories of the camps helped to identify who fascism’s heirs were in the postwar world. | 192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Shakespeare is widely thought of as the best writer in the English language, and the world’s best playwright. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 and died there in 1616 after a prolific and successful career. He wrote 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and 2 long narrative poems, plus several other incomplete verses, and his works are performed more often than those of any other playwright throughout the world. His significance extends beyond the study of literature and into psychology and linguistics, and we still use many of his phrases today, including ‘good riddance’, ‘star-crossed’, ‘salad days’, and the phrase to ‘eat someone out of house and home’. Some scholars believe that Shakespeare didn’t write the plays which were attributed to him since he only received a Grammar school education, but it’s generally agreed that he was a powerhouse of a writer, and his reputation hasn’t dimmed over the centuries. | <urn:uuid:85efdc8e-bc9b-4f88-ae47-b1cf49d655a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ticketlens.com/en/p666511/london/globe-theatre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.99072 | 215 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.334713369607... | 1 | William Shakespeare is widely thought of as the best writer in the English language, and the world’s best playwright. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 and died there in 1616 after a prolific and successful career. He wrote 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and 2 long narrative poems, plus several other incomplete verses, and his works are performed more often than those of any other playwright throughout the world. His significance extends beyond the study of literature and into psychology and linguistics, and we still use many of his phrases today, including ‘good riddance’, ‘star-crossed’, ‘salad days’, and the phrase to ‘eat someone out of house and home’. Some scholars believe that Shakespeare didn’t write the plays which were attributed to him since he only received a Grammar school education, but it’s generally agreed that he was a powerhouse of a writer, and his reputation hasn’t dimmed over the centuries. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Velociraptor means "swift thief". This is a good name because Velociraptor was a small dinosaur that could run fast (up to about 64 km/h (40 mph)). It also could jump about 10 feet straight up. Velociraptor was a theropod. The theropods were a group of dinosaurs that walked on two legs. This group of dinosaurs are the ancestors of birds. Velociraptor brains were bigger than most other dinosaurs compared to the size of their bodies. Velociraptor was a smart dinosaur for its time.
What did they look like?
The Velociraptor was just under a meter tall (about three feet), usually about 5-6 feet long from nose to tail, and weighed anywhere from 7-15 kilograms (15-33 pounds). Velociraptor had feathers on its skin, the same as birds do today. These dinosaurs walked on two legs and had two hands with three fingers and sharp claws. Their heads were long and narrow like a crocodile, and had a mouth with 26 or more teeth which was able to close very quickly. On each foot, they had a large dangerous curved toe claw. Their claws could grow up to 5 inches long. Velociraptor had a stiff tail that it used for balance. The tail could only flex from side to side, not up and down; this helped the dinosaur run fast and change directions quickly. Velociraptor had two legs which means it was bipedal. Its legs were strong and sturdy and it may have used them to jump. Velociraptors were also very agile.
What did they eat?
Velociraptor was a carnivore. This means that it ate meat. It slashed or punctured its victims with its very long toe claw. Whether closely related dinosaurs like Deinonychus and Dromeosaurus hunted in packs is not known because no evidence has been found.
Alone a Velociraptor could have killed and eaten animals like lizards, early mammals and small or young dinosaurs. In a pack, Velociraptor may have hunted even larger prey such as Homocephale, a pachycephalosaur. One meal that was definitely on a Velociraptor’s menu was Protoceratops. Protoceratops was a plant-eating dinosaur that was a relative of Triceratops, but had no horns and was the size of a pig. Scientists have found a fossil of Velociraptor locked in a fight with a Protoceratops. The animals killed each other during the fight and a sand dune collapsed on top of them.
In a group, Velociraptor could have quickly and quietly circled around an animal that was alone to trap it. Velociraptor hunted by separating a victim from the herd. They killed their prey like today's eagles. Velociraptor would sneak up on its prey and pounce on it, then it will pin its prey to the ground with its claws and body weight and then eat it alive. This technique is called Raptor Prey Restraint (RPR).
When did they live?
Velociraptors lived during the Late Cretaceous period, about 80 - 85 million years ago. This was only 15 million years before the dinosaurs became extinct. The world was much hotter than it is today, and there were no polar ice caps. There were small mammals and birds living at the same time as Velociraptor. There were flowering plants and many insects similar to the ones we see today.
Where did they live?
Velociraptor lived in Asia. Fossils have been found in Russia, China and Mongolia. They lived in a place that was hot and covered by sand dunes. There were streams of water close to where some fossils have been found. They may have lived near the water and preyed on animals that came to drink. Some predators do this today.
The related dinosaur Deinonychus lived in what is now the United States.
How were they discovered?
The first Velociraptor was discovered by Paleontologist Henry Osborn in Mongolia in 1924. A Paleontologist is a scientist that studies dinosaurs. The first fossils found were a skull with jaws and some toes with a claw. The skull was found next to a Protoceratops skull. Paleontologists have found 12 different examples of the animal so far.
Velociraptors and "Jurassic Park"
In popular films called Jurassic Park, the Velociraptor ultimately did not look like it would have in real life. The film's Velociraptors were twice as tall as they really were, they were scaly instead of feathered, and their tails were too flexible. A real Velociraptor was only about 1.6 ft (about 0.5 m) tall. The Velociraptors in Jurassic Park also looked more like the dromaeosaurid (raptor) Deinonychus, that was also Velociraptor's bigger known cousin (also had feathers). But do not let that fool you, these little creatures were also swift, powerful, and would still have no problem killing you.
What do we still need to learn?
- How did they use their long claw when hunting? Did they slash or stab with it? It is not likely they slashed at their prey, as their claws were more designed for gripping, and were too brittle to rip through flesh. So, they most likely used it to stab in and then wiggle it to tear through and rip prey.
- Did they really hunt in packs? All the fossils found have been alone.
- Did they live in packs or did they live alone?
- How much did they eat each day?
- Why did they go extinct?
- What did they use their feathers for?
- If they did not hunt in packs, why did they attack such large prey? | <urn:uuid:544579dd-b0ed-488f-bc07-f4d565f8df8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior_Dinosaurs/Velociraptor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.990553 | 1,258 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.1812288314104... | 1 | Velociraptor means "swift thief". This is a good name because Velociraptor was a small dinosaur that could run fast (up to about 64 km/h (40 mph)). It also could jump about 10 feet straight up. Velociraptor was a theropod. The theropods were a group of dinosaurs that walked on two legs. This group of dinosaurs are the ancestors of birds. Velociraptor brains were bigger than most other dinosaurs compared to the size of their bodies. Velociraptor was a smart dinosaur for its time.
What did they look like?
The Velociraptor was just under a meter tall (about three feet), usually about 5-6 feet long from nose to tail, and weighed anywhere from 7-15 kilograms (15-33 pounds). Velociraptor had feathers on its skin, the same as birds do today. These dinosaurs walked on two legs and had two hands with three fingers and sharp claws. Their heads were long and narrow like a crocodile, and had a mouth with 26 or more teeth which was able to close very quickly. On each foot, they had a large dangerous curved toe claw. Their claws could grow up to 5 inches long. Velociraptor had a stiff tail that it used for balance. The tail could only flex from side to side, not up and down; this helped the dinosaur run fast and change directions quickly. Velociraptor had two legs which means it was bipedal. Its legs were strong and sturdy and it may have used them to jump. Velociraptors were also very agile.
What did they eat?
Velociraptor was a carnivore. This means that it ate meat. It slashed or punctured its victims with its very long toe claw. Whether closely related dinosaurs like Deinonychus and Dromeosaurus hunted in packs is not known because no evidence has been found.
Alone a Velociraptor could have killed and eaten animals like lizards, early mammals and small or young dinosaurs. In a pack, Velociraptor may have hunted even larger prey such as Homocephale, a pachycephalosaur. One meal that was definitely on a Velociraptor’s menu was Protoceratops. Protoceratops was a plant-eating dinosaur that was a relative of Triceratops, but had no horns and was the size of a pig. Scientists have found a fossil of Velociraptor locked in a fight with a Protoceratops. The animals killed each other during the fight and a sand dune collapsed on top of them.
In a group, Velociraptor could have quickly and quietly circled around an animal that was alone to trap it. Velociraptor hunted by separating a victim from the herd. They killed their prey like today's eagles. Velociraptor would sneak up on its prey and pounce on it, then it will pin its prey to the ground with its claws and body weight and then eat it alive. This technique is called Raptor Prey Restraint (RPR).
When did they live?
Velociraptors lived during the Late Cretaceous period, about 80 - 85 million years ago. This was only 15 million years before the dinosaurs became extinct. The world was much hotter than it is today, and there were no polar ice caps. There were small mammals and birds living at the same time as Velociraptor. There were flowering plants and many insects similar to the ones we see today.
Where did they live?
Velociraptor lived in Asia. Fossils have been found in Russia, China and Mongolia. They lived in a place that was hot and covered by sand dunes. There were streams of water close to where some fossils have been found. They may have lived near the water and preyed on animals that came to drink. Some predators do this today.
The related dinosaur Deinonychus lived in what is now the United States.
How were they discovered?
The first Velociraptor was discovered by Paleontologist Henry Osborn in Mongolia in 1924. A Paleontologist is a scientist that studies dinosaurs. The first fossils found were a skull with jaws and some toes with a claw. The skull was found next to a Protoceratops skull. Paleontologists have found 12 different examples of the animal so far.
Velociraptors and "Jurassic Park"
In popular films called Jurassic Park, the Velociraptor ultimately did not look like it would have in real life. The film's Velociraptors were twice as tall as they really were, they were scaly instead of feathered, and their tails were too flexible. A real Velociraptor was only about 1.6 ft (about 0.5 m) tall. The Velociraptors in Jurassic Park also looked more like the dromaeosaurid (raptor) Deinonychus, that was also Velociraptor's bigger known cousin (also had feathers). But do not let that fool you, these little creatures were also swift, powerful, and would still have no problem killing you.
What do we still need to learn?
- How did they use their long claw when hunting? Did they slash or stab with it? It is not likely they slashed at their prey, as their claws were more designed for gripping, and were too brittle to rip through flesh. So, they most likely used it to stab in and then wiggle it to tear through and rip prey.
- Did they really hunt in packs? All the fossils found have been alone.
- Did they live in packs or did they live alone?
- How much did they eat each day?
- Why did they go extinct?
- What did they use their feathers for?
- If they did not hunt in packs, why did they attack such large prey? | 1,231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1286 the king of Scotland died. About ten barons wanted to become the king of Scotland. They asked Edward the First of England to decide the question. He came with a strong army and said that he was the overlord of Scotland since that time. Then he chose John Balliol to be the king of Scotland, but people of the country were against. They did not want Edward to be their overlord and began to fight for their independence. Their leader was William Wallace. The English sent an army to Scotland but Wallace destroyed it. Then Edward came with his army, defeated Wallace and killed him. The Scots found a new leader Robert Bruce. He became the king of Scotland. Edward sent an army against him and Bruce had to hide in the mountains. Only few friends were with him. Their life was difficult. At last Bruce organised an army that was ready to fight. In the battle near a place called Bannockburn the Scots won the independence of their country. This was in 1314. Robert Bruce was the king of Scotland till 1321 when he died. It 1603 Scotland and England were united. In that year James VI of Scotland became James I of England.
Твір на тему гуллівер в наш час.
How Scotland fought for its independence | <urn:uuid:c01543e3-221b-46fe-8301-3873bb7b7676> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ukrtvir.com.ua/how-scotland-fought-for-its-independence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.992976 | 285 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.16507801413... | 1 | In 1286 the king of Scotland died. About ten barons wanted to become the king of Scotland. They asked Edward the First of England to decide the question. He came with a strong army and said that he was the overlord of Scotland since that time. Then he chose John Balliol to be the king of Scotland, but people of the country were against. They did not want Edward to be their overlord and began to fight for their independence. Their leader was William Wallace. The English sent an army to Scotland but Wallace destroyed it. Then Edward came with his army, defeated Wallace and killed him. The Scots found a new leader Robert Bruce. He became the king of Scotland. Edward sent an army against him and Bruce had to hide in the mountains. Only few friends were with him. Their life was difficult. At last Bruce organised an army that was ready to fight. In the battle near a place called Bannockburn the Scots won the independence of their country. This was in 1314. Robert Bruce was the king of Scotland till 1321 when he died. It 1603 Scotland and England were united. In that year James VI of Scotland became James I of England.
Твір на тему гуллівер в наш час.
How Scotland fought for its independence | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Empress Maria Theresa was Marie Antoinette‘s mother, but before she became a mother, she was a child herself. She was born to Emperor Charles VI (Karl VI) and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel on 13 May 1717 at the Hofburg Palace. Her older brother, Leopold John, had been born on 13 April 1716, but he died when he was seven months. Thus, there was great rejoicing in the kingdom when a healthy baby girl was born. (She was also the oldest of three girls, her younger sisters were the Archduchess Maria Anna and the Archduchess Maria Amalia, who lived to be only six years old.)
Because of the loss of Leopold John and the difficulty of having children, Charles VI took steps to provide for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, a document which abolished male-only succession. The sanction allowed Maria Theresa or any of Charles VI’s other daughters to succeed over the children of his elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I. Moreover, Charles VI “felt the importance of securing his beloved daughter’s undisputed title to the throne,” even though he remained disappointed Maria Theresa was not a boy and knew the male line would die with him. She also recognized her political importance, and it was said from an early age she “seemed one of nature’s queens, born to reign and subdue.”
To ensure Marie Theresa obtained the throne, her parents thoughtful considered what was best and decided to educate her using the Jesuits. She studied religion, history, and languages, along with music, drawing, and painting. In addition, her father fancied himself an amateur composer and wrote operas, demanding she and her sister perform in ballets. Although her parents did not succeed, they did try to put Maria Theresa’s “abundant mental faculties” to good use. Contemporaries praised her Latin, but otherwise most people found her education lacking: Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional, and she lacked the formal manner and speech that so characterized her Habsburg predecessors.
To ready her for the throne, her father summoned her to sit by his side at the meetings of the State Council. These meetings were long lasting and dry as toast, but she attended them regularly, sat silently, presumably thoughtful, and showed no outward signs of weariness. When she was 16, she participated in council deliberations for the election of the King of Poland, which caused one person to remark:
“She listened with grave attention to … the councillors … [and] when it came her turn to express her opinions, at her father’s desire, the astonishment of the ministers was unbounded … at the clearness and accuracy of her judgment, and the acuteness and keenness of her perceptions.”
In learning what a sovereign should be, Maria Theresa relied on the example of her father. Charles VI was said to be “a man of slow and phlegmatic temper, a narrow capacity, and a grave and formal deportment.” He attached grave importance to courtly etiquette, smiled little, and was said to have only laughed once. As he did not allow Maria Theresa to participate at council meetings, the only privilege she had was to intercede on the behalf of others. Apparently, at one point her father decided her interceding was too frequent: He became so impatient with her many requests for others, he said, “You seem to imagine a sovereign has nothing to do but grants favors.”
In appearance, Maria Theresa was said to resemble her mother and her younger sister Maria Anna. People described her as far more beautiful than the portraits painted of her, and they noted she was tall, graceful, and majestic. She was also described as having large expressive gray-blue eyes, a transparent complexion, and a wide mouth with full Austrian lips. Her profusion of fair hair tinged with a hint of red was also regularly noted. If these physical characteristics were not appealing enough, “to complete her charms, the tone of her voice was peculiarly soft and sweet.”
In character, she displayed a serious and reserved side, even as a youth. She also cast a shadow over her mild younger sister, who was likewise reserved. She was also said to be inflexible, overbearing, and display pride in her royal station. In fact, some people claimed she would have been viewed as arrogant at times if she had not been “restrained by the example of her … mother,” a woman who was enthusiastically religious and who doted her attentions on her daughter.
The softer side of Maria Theresa was her love for animals. She loved dogs as much as her daughter Marie Antoinette whose dogs followed her en masse as she strolled the halls of Versailles. After Maria Theresa became Empress, she became extremely attached to one dog, a toy spaniel. She loved the spaniel so much, she had it stuffed when it died, and, if you are ever in Vienna, you can see her stuffed spaniel, which appears to be a Phalène (a drop-eared variety of a Papillon), displayed at the Vienna Natural History Museum.
When Maria Theresa was young, her father planned for her to marry Leopold Clement of Lorraine, but Leopold died of smallpox in 1723. A few years later, in 1725, she became betrothed to Charles of Spain, but that marriage fell through also. When it did, she was relieved. Her father was aware that she had become enamored with Francis Stephen, the Duke of Lorraine and Leopold Clement’s younger brother. Francis Stephen had come to Vienna shortly after the death of his brother and was brought up at court with Maria Theresa, who was highly infatuated with him, as one person noted:
“Notwithstanding [Maria Theresa’s] … lofty humor by day, she sighs and pines all night for her Duke of Lorraine. If she sleeps it is only to dream of him; if she wakes, it is but to talk of him to the lady in waiting; so that there is no more probability of her forgetting the very individual government, and the very individual husband which she thinks herself born to.”
It was no wonder Marie Theresa was smitten by the Duke of Lorraine. Francis Stephen was “eminently handsome, indisputably brave, and accomplished in all the courtly exercises that a prince and gentleman [required].” They married on 12 February 1736, when she was 18 and he was 27, and although Francis Stephen was not possessed of any “shining talents,” she loved him all the same. Moreover, she was highly possessive of her husband throughout their marriage, and many contemporaries noted her extremely jealousy for his mistresses, particularly Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg, who was his best-known mistress.
When Charles VI died, Marie Theresa was 24 and no longer a child, and although she may not have been the best prepared monarch, she proved to be a much better ruler than her father, who left her nothing but problems. Indicative of this is a French epitaph for the late Emperor published in the Newcastle Courant that read:
“Of the proud AUSTRIAN Line the last is laid here,
For his Honour too late, for his Children too quick,
Who, in hopes a Male Heir would sometimes appear,
In his Wisdom proud, play’d his Daughter this Trick:
A succession he left here that’s not to be had,
A Spouse to whom nought form his Grandfires descend;
A Long List of Titles may make her run mad;
No Treasure, no Council, no Army, no Friend.”
In fact, the girl who used to sit quiet at council meetings developed into a formidable and forward-thinking ruler. She kept an eye towards maintaining and improving her kingdom, which she accomplished by correcting abuses, abolishing torture, and improving revenues. She also moved Austria from a medieval state to a modern one, and, upon her death, she left a multinational and revitalized empire that influenced other European nations throughout the nineteenth century.
- Oertel, Wilhelm, Maria Theresa, 1905, p. 15.
- The Illustrated American, Volume 8, 1891, p. 547.
- Oertel, p. 18.
- Jameson, Mrs. Anna, Memoirs of Famous Female Sovereigns, 1832, p. 127.
- The Illustrated American, p. 547.
- Jameson, p. 138.
- The Illustrated American, p. 547.
- The Critical Review, Or, Annals of Literature, 1808, p. 154.
- Jameson, p. 131.
- “A French Epitaph for the late Emperor Charles VI,” in Newcastle Courant, 10 October 1741, p. 3. | <urn:uuid:c7c17251-5629-44b0-ae63-122051b60090> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.geriwalton.com/marie-antoinettes-mother-empress-maria-theresa-and-her-childhood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.985536 | 1,906 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.10994358360767... | 14 | Empress Maria Theresa was Marie Antoinette‘s mother, but before she became a mother, she was a child herself. She was born to Emperor Charles VI (Karl VI) and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel on 13 May 1717 at the Hofburg Palace. Her older brother, Leopold John, had been born on 13 April 1716, but he died when he was seven months. Thus, there was great rejoicing in the kingdom when a healthy baby girl was born. (She was also the oldest of three girls, her younger sisters were the Archduchess Maria Anna and the Archduchess Maria Amalia, who lived to be only six years old.)
Because of the loss of Leopold John and the difficulty of having children, Charles VI took steps to provide for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, a document which abolished male-only succession. The sanction allowed Maria Theresa or any of Charles VI’s other daughters to succeed over the children of his elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I. Moreover, Charles VI “felt the importance of securing his beloved daughter’s undisputed title to the throne,” even though he remained disappointed Maria Theresa was not a boy and knew the male line would die with him. She also recognized her political importance, and it was said from an early age she “seemed one of nature’s queens, born to reign and subdue.”
To ensure Marie Theresa obtained the throne, her parents thoughtful considered what was best and decided to educate her using the Jesuits. She studied religion, history, and languages, along with music, drawing, and painting. In addition, her father fancied himself an amateur composer and wrote operas, demanding she and her sister perform in ballets. Although her parents did not succeed, they did try to put Maria Theresa’s “abundant mental faculties” to good use. Contemporaries praised her Latin, but otherwise most people found her education lacking: Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional, and she lacked the formal manner and speech that so characterized her Habsburg predecessors.
To ready her for the throne, her father summoned her to sit by his side at the meetings of the State Council. These meetings were long lasting and dry as toast, but she attended them regularly, sat silently, presumably thoughtful, and showed no outward signs of weariness. When she was 16, she participated in council deliberations for the election of the King of Poland, which caused one person to remark:
“She listened with grave attention to … the councillors … [and] when it came her turn to express her opinions, at her father’s desire, the astonishment of the ministers was unbounded … at the clearness and accuracy of her judgment, and the acuteness and keenness of her perceptions.”
In learning what a sovereign should be, Maria Theresa relied on the example of her father. Charles VI was said to be “a man of slow and phlegmatic temper, a narrow capacity, and a grave and formal deportment.” He attached grave importance to courtly etiquette, smiled little, and was said to have only laughed once. As he did not allow Maria Theresa to participate at council meetings, the only privilege she had was to intercede on the behalf of others. Apparently, at one point her father decided her interceding was too frequent: He became so impatient with her many requests for others, he said, “You seem to imagine a sovereign has nothing to do but grants favors.”
In appearance, Maria Theresa was said to resemble her mother and her younger sister Maria Anna. People described her as far more beautiful than the portraits painted of her, and they noted she was tall, graceful, and majestic. She was also described as having large expressive gray-blue eyes, a transparent complexion, and a wide mouth with full Austrian lips. Her profusion of fair hair tinged with a hint of red was also regularly noted. If these physical characteristics were not appealing enough, “to complete her charms, the tone of her voice was peculiarly soft and sweet.”
In character, she displayed a serious and reserved side, even as a youth. She also cast a shadow over her mild younger sister, who was likewise reserved. She was also said to be inflexible, overbearing, and display pride in her royal station. In fact, some people claimed she would have been viewed as arrogant at times if she had not been “restrained by the example of her … mother,” a woman who was enthusiastically religious and who doted her attentions on her daughter.
The softer side of Maria Theresa was her love for animals. She loved dogs as much as her daughter Marie Antoinette whose dogs followed her en masse as she strolled the halls of Versailles. After Maria Theresa became Empress, she became extremely attached to one dog, a toy spaniel. She loved the spaniel so much, she had it stuffed when it died, and, if you are ever in Vienna, you can see her stuffed spaniel, which appears to be a Phalène (a drop-eared variety of a Papillon), displayed at the Vienna Natural History Museum.
When Maria Theresa was young, her father planned for her to marry Leopold Clement of Lorraine, but Leopold died of smallpox in 1723. A few years later, in 1725, she became betrothed to Charles of Spain, but that marriage fell through also. When it did, she was relieved. Her father was aware that she had become enamored with Francis Stephen, the Duke of Lorraine and Leopold Clement’s younger brother. Francis Stephen had come to Vienna shortly after the death of his brother and was brought up at court with Maria Theresa, who was highly infatuated with him, as one person noted:
“Notwithstanding [Maria Theresa’s] … lofty humor by day, she sighs and pines all night for her Duke of Lorraine. If she sleeps it is only to dream of him; if she wakes, it is but to talk of him to the lady in waiting; so that there is no more probability of her forgetting the very individual government, and the very individual husband which she thinks herself born to.”
It was no wonder Marie Theresa was smitten by the Duke of Lorraine. Francis Stephen was “eminently handsome, indisputably brave, and accomplished in all the courtly exercises that a prince and gentleman [required].” They married on 12 February 1736, when she was 18 and he was 27, and although Francis Stephen was not possessed of any “shining talents,” she loved him all the same. Moreover, she was highly possessive of her husband throughout their marriage, and many contemporaries noted her extremely jealousy for his mistresses, particularly Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg, who was his best-known mistress.
When Charles VI died, Marie Theresa was 24 and no longer a child, and although she may not have been the best prepared monarch, she proved to be a much better ruler than her father, who left her nothing but problems. Indicative of this is a French epitaph for the late Emperor published in the Newcastle Courant that read:
“Of the proud AUSTRIAN Line the last is laid here,
For his Honour too late, for his Children too quick,
Who, in hopes a Male Heir would sometimes appear,
In his Wisdom proud, play’d his Daughter this Trick:
A succession he left here that’s not to be had,
A Spouse to whom nought form his Grandfires descend;
A Long List of Titles may make her run mad;
No Treasure, no Council, no Army, no Friend.”
In fact, the girl who used to sit quiet at council meetings developed into a formidable and forward-thinking ruler. She kept an eye towards maintaining and improving her kingdom, which she accomplished by correcting abuses, abolishing torture, and improving revenues. She also moved Austria from a medieval state to a modern one, and, upon her death, she left a multinational and revitalized empire that influenced other European nations throughout the nineteenth century.
- Oertel, Wilhelm, Maria Theresa, 1905, p. 15.
- The Illustrated American, Volume 8, 1891, p. 547.
- Oertel, p. 18.
- Jameson, Mrs. Anna, Memoirs of Famous Female Sovereigns, 1832, p. 127.
- The Illustrated American, p. 547.
- Jameson, p. 138.
- The Illustrated American, p. 547.
- The Critical Review, Or, Annals of Literature, 1808, p. 154.
- Jameson, p. 131.
- “A French Epitaph for the late Emperor Charles VI,” in Newcastle Courant, 10 October 1741, p. 3. | 1,880 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the conventional Christmas story goes, the Nativity scene was set in Bethlehem near Jerusalem, where the Virgin Mary gave birth to her son, it has now been proposed that Jesus was born 100 miles away, also in Israel and in a town likewise called Bethlehem.
Near the Lebanese and Syrian borders, the town seems to find itself totally excluded from Christmas festivities, as thousands flock to the conventional Biblical Bethlehem in the West Bank to celebrate the grand Christian holiday.
However, several historians claim the location was undeservedly disregarded in the context of biblical history.
The biggest question that has been raised is why Mary and Joseph would travel such a long distance from their home town of Nazareth to the Bethlehem in the West Bank instead of heading to the Bethlehem that is just a stone's throw away from them.
There is a wide-spread belief that the supposed misidentification of Bethlehem may have occurred at St Helena's hands.
Helena, the empress of the Roman Empire in the fourth century, ordered the construction of the Basilica of the Nativity in the West Bank's Bethlehem, on the site where it was believed at the time, that Mary gave birth to Jesus. The error may have been the result of pilgrims mistakenly travelling to the wrong place for almost two millennia.
The Bible refers to Mary's son as Jesus of Nazareth and also says he is from Galilee, which for some qualifies that he was born in this other Bethlehem, contrary to what is written in black and white in the Bible, as geographically, it seems clear that the Bethlehem that is mentioned by Matthew and Luke is the one near Jerusalem.
Dr Aviram Oshrim, an archaeologist at the Israel Antiquities Authority who has been looking into the controversy since the 1990s, has said he is "positive" that the authentic birthplace of Jesus is near Nazareth.
"I was contracted to perform some salvage excavations around building and infrastructure projects in a small rural community in Galilee," he said, further explaining what locals had to tell him:
"When I started work, some of the people who lived around the site told me how Jesus was really born there, not in the south."
The claim prompted him to study the conventional site:
"Intrigued, I researched the archaeological evidence for Bethlehem in Judea at the time of Jesus and found nothing."
Oshrim does not believe that the heavily pregnant Mary could have made it to the West Bank, and on top of it, the newborn baby would hardly have been able to survive the long return journey to Nazareth. Meanwhile, the short trip to Bethlehem in Galilee would have been possible.
Biblical scholar Marcus Borg, who died in 2015, echoed Oshrim's stance, writing in one of his publications that "historically it seems likely that Jesus was actually born in Nazareth". The claim largely coincides without the archaeologists' account of the other Bethlehem near Nazareth.
Borg substantiated his claim, assuming that Matthew and Luke intentionally "placed Jesus's birth in Bethlehem because that is the city of David and in traditional Judaism, the Messiah would be descended from David". "Saying that Jesus was born in Bethlehem is making a statement about his legitimacy as a messiah," he noted. | <urn:uuid:ee3b487a-ebe3-4e07-af26-6062a3985186> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sputniknews.com/society/201912251077810349-christmas-shock-revelation-jesus-was-born-in-a-different-bethlehem-scientists-claim/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.986104 | 661 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.17608186602592468,... | 1 | As the conventional Christmas story goes, the Nativity scene was set in Bethlehem near Jerusalem, where the Virgin Mary gave birth to her son, it has now been proposed that Jesus was born 100 miles away, also in Israel and in a town likewise called Bethlehem.
Near the Lebanese and Syrian borders, the town seems to find itself totally excluded from Christmas festivities, as thousands flock to the conventional Biblical Bethlehem in the West Bank to celebrate the grand Christian holiday.
However, several historians claim the location was undeservedly disregarded in the context of biblical history.
The biggest question that has been raised is why Mary and Joseph would travel such a long distance from their home town of Nazareth to the Bethlehem in the West Bank instead of heading to the Bethlehem that is just a stone's throw away from them.
There is a wide-spread belief that the supposed misidentification of Bethlehem may have occurred at St Helena's hands.
Helena, the empress of the Roman Empire in the fourth century, ordered the construction of the Basilica of the Nativity in the West Bank's Bethlehem, on the site where it was believed at the time, that Mary gave birth to Jesus. The error may have been the result of pilgrims mistakenly travelling to the wrong place for almost two millennia.
The Bible refers to Mary's son as Jesus of Nazareth and also says he is from Galilee, which for some qualifies that he was born in this other Bethlehem, contrary to what is written in black and white in the Bible, as geographically, it seems clear that the Bethlehem that is mentioned by Matthew and Luke is the one near Jerusalem.
Dr Aviram Oshrim, an archaeologist at the Israel Antiquities Authority who has been looking into the controversy since the 1990s, has said he is "positive" that the authentic birthplace of Jesus is near Nazareth.
"I was contracted to perform some salvage excavations around building and infrastructure projects in a small rural community in Galilee," he said, further explaining what locals had to tell him:
"When I started work, some of the people who lived around the site told me how Jesus was really born there, not in the south."
The claim prompted him to study the conventional site:
"Intrigued, I researched the archaeological evidence for Bethlehem in Judea at the time of Jesus and found nothing."
Oshrim does not believe that the heavily pregnant Mary could have made it to the West Bank, and on top of it, the newborn baby would hardly have been able to survive the long return journey to Nazareth. Meanwhile, the short trip to Bethlehem in Galilee would have been possible.
Biblical scholar Marcus Borg, who died in 2015, echoed Oshrim's stance, writing in one of his publications that "historically it seems likely that Jesus was actually born in Nazareth". The claim largely coincides without the archaeologists' account of the other Bethlehem near Nazareth.
Borg substantiated his claim, assuming that Matthew and Luke intentionally "placed Jesus's birth in Bethlehem because that is the city of David and in traditional Judaism, the Messiah would be descended from David". "Saying that Jesus was born in Bethlehem is making a statement about his legitimacy as a messiah," he noted. | 663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Titus Lucretius Carus, known as Lucretius, was born in Rome circa 94 B.C. Little is known about his life apart from the beliefs and values he describes in his epic scientific poem, De rerum natura, or On the Nature of Things. Unfortunately, nothing is known about Lucretius' schooling, family, or literary development. There is confusion regarding his social standing, as the name "Carus" suggests servitude, while "Lucretius" indicates aristocracy. Scholars believe that his six-book masterpiece, De rerum natura, is unfinished. In this epic, he repeatedly discourages the reader from fearing death, advice Lucretius apparently embraced when he committed suicide in about 55 B.C. According to a longstanding (although questionable) rumor reported by the historian Jerome, Lucretius was driven insane by a love potion given to him by his wife.
Throughout his life, Lucretius was surrounded by political upheaval and war. He saw firsthand the cruelty and domination of dictators, along with the instability of such rule. He saw the decline of Rome's republican government and died before stability was restored. He was a man who felt deep compassion for the human race, which he perceived as living in fear and ignorance. He criticized religious leaders who instilled terror in order to bring about moral living. Lucretius was a follower of Epicurus and his scientific, rational way of understanding the world. In turn, Lucretius became a strong influence on later writers such as Virgil and Ovid. | <urn:uuid:a5c1f1d4-27d0-46c2-b399-ad8cade58dae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/topics/titus-lucretius-carus?en_action=content_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00224.warc.gz | en | 0.985738 | 316 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.43272209167480... | 3 | Titus Lucretius Carus, known as Lucretius, was born in Rome circa 94 B.C. Little is known about his life apart from the beliefs and values he describes in his epic scientific poem, De rerum natura, or On the Nature of Things. Unfortunately, nothing is known about Lucretius' schooling, family, or literary development. There is confusion regarding his social standing, as the name "Carus" suggests servitude, while "Lucretius" indicates aristocracy. Scholars believe that his six-book masterpiece, De rerum natura, is unfinished. In this epic, he repeatedly discourages the reader from fearing death, advice Lucretius apparently embraced when he committed suicide in about 55 B.C. According to a longstanding (although questionable) rumor reported by the historian Jerome, Lucretius was driven insane by a love potion given to him by his wife.
Throughout his life, Lucretius was surrounded by political upheaval and war. He saw firsthand the cruelty and domination of dictators, along with the instability of such rule. He saw the decline of Rome's republican government and died before stability was restored. He was a man who felt deep compassion for the human race, which he perceived as living in fear and ignorance. He criticized religious leaders who instilled terror in order to bring about moral living. Lucretius was a follower of Epicurus and his scientific, rational way of understanding the world. In turn, Lucretius became a strong influence on later writers such as Virgil and Ovid. | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Containing The Interval Of Four Hundred And Seventy Six Years.
From The Death Of Moses To The Death Of Eli.
How The Canaanites Brought The Israelites Under Slavery For Twenty Years; After Which They Were Delivered By Barak And Deborah, Who Ruled Over Them For Forty Years.
1. AND now it was that the Israelites, taking no warning by their former misfortunes to amend their manners, and neither worshipping God nor submitting to the laws, were brought under slavery by Jabin, the king of the Canaanites, and that before they had a short breathing time after the slavery under the Moabites; for this Jabin out of Hazor, a city that was situate over the Semechonitis, and had in pay three hundred footmen, and ten thousand horsemen, with fewer than three thousand chariots. Sisera was commander of all his army, and was the principal person in the king's favor. He so sorely beat the Israelites when they fought with him, that he ordered them to pay tribute.
2. So they continued to that hardship for twenty years, as not good enough of themselves to grow wise by their misfortunes. God was willing also hereby the more to subdue their obstinacy and ingratitude towards himself: so when at length they were become penitent, and were so wise as to learn that their calamities arose from their contempt of the laws, they besought Deborah, a certain prophetess among them, (which name in the Hebrew tongue signifies a Bee )to pray to God to take pity on them, and not to overlook them, now they were ruined by the Canaanites. So God granted them deliverance, and chose them a general, Barak, one that was of the tribe of Naphtali. Now Barak, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies Lightning.
3. So Deborah sent for Barak, and bade him choose out ten thousand young men to go against the enemy, because God had said that that number was sufficient, and promised them victory. But when Barak said that he would not be the general unless she would also go as a general with him, she had indignation at what he said
"Thou, O Barak, deliverest up meanly that authority which God hath given thee into the hand of a woman, and I do not reject it!"
So they collected ten thousand men, and pitched their camp at Mount Tabor, where, at the king's command, Sisera met them, and pitched his camp not far from the enemy; whereupon the Israelites, and Barak himself, were so affrighted at the multitude of those enemies, that they were resolved to march off, had not Deborah retained them, and commanded them to fight the enemy that very day, for that they should conquer them, and God would be their assistance.
4. So the battle began; and when they were come to a close fight, there came down from heaven a great storm, with a vast quantity of rain and hail, and the wind blew the rain in the face of the Canaanites, and so darkened their eyes, that their arrows and slings were of no advantage to them, nor would the coldness of the air permit the soldiers to make use of their swords; while this storm did not so much incommode the Israelites, because it came in their backs. They also took such courage, upon the apprehension that God was assisting them, that they fell upon the very midst of their enemies, and slew a great number of them; so that some of them fell by the Israelites, some fell by their own horses, which were put into disorder, and not a few were killed by their own chariots.
At last Sisera, as soon as he saw himself beaten, fled away, and came to a woman whose name was Jael, a Kenite, who received him, when he desired to be concealed; and when he asked for somewhat to drink, she gave him sour milk, of which he drank so unmeasurably that he fell asleep; but when he was asleep, Jael took an iron nail, and with a hammer drove it through his temples into the floor; and when Barak came a little afterward, she showed Sisera nailed to the ground: and thus was this victory gained by a woman, as Deborah had foretold. Barak also fought with Jabin at Hazor; and when he met with him, he slew him: and when the general was fallen, Barak overthrew the city to the foundation, and was the commander of the Israelites for forty years. | <urn:uuid:05505a28-a361-4a4f-881b-2c1ed959d0ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.christianwalks.org/ancient_writings/AntiquitiesJews/ajb05c05.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.989915 | 962 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0080365398898720... | 3 | Containing The Interval Of Four Hundred And Seventy Six Years.
From The Death Of Moses To The Death Of Eli.
How The Canaanites Brought The Israelites Under Slavery For Twenty Years; After Which They Were Delivered By Barak And Deborah, Who Ruled Over Them For Forty Years.
1. AND now it was that the Israelites, taking no warning by their former misfortunes to amend their manners, and neither worshipping God nor submitting to the laws, were brought under slavery by Jabin, the king of the Canaanites, and that before they had a short breathing time after the slavery under the Moabites; for this Jabin out of Hazor, a city that was situate over the Semechonitis, and had in pay three hundred footmen, and ten thousand horsemen, with fewer than three thousand chariots. Sisera was commander of all his army, and was the principal person in the king's favor. He so sorely beat the Israelites when they fought with him, that he ordered them to pay tribute.
2. So they continued to that hardship for twenty years, as not good enough of themselves to grow wise by their misfortunes. God was willing also hereby the more to subdue their obstinacy and ingratitude towards himself: so when at length they were become penitent, and were so wise as to learn that their calamities arose from their contempt of the laws, they besought Deborah, a certain prophetess among them, (which name in the Hebrew tongue signifies a Bee )to pray to God to take pity on them, and not to overlook them, now they were ruined by the Canaanites. So God granted them deliverance, and chose them a general, Barak, one that was of the tribe of Naphtali. Now Barak, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies Lightning.
3. So Deborah sent for Barak, and bade him choose out ten thousand young men to go against the enemy, because God had said that that number was sufficient, and promised them victory. But when Barak said that he would not be the general unless she would also go as a general with him, she had indignation at what he said
"Thou, O Barak, deliverest up meanly that authority which God hath given thee into the hand of a woman, and I do not reject it!"
So they collected ten thousand men, and pitched their camp at Mount Tabor, where, at the king's command, Sisera met them, and pitched his camp not far from the enemy; whereupon the Israelites, and Barak himself, were so affrighted at the multitude of those enemies, that they were resolved to march off, had not Deborah retained them, and commanded them to fight the enemy that very day, for that they should conquer them, and God would be their assistance.
4. So the battle began; and when they were come to a close fight, there came down from heaven a great storm, with a vast quantity of rain and hail, and the wind blew the rain in the face of the Canaanites, and so darkened their eyes, that their arrows and slings were of no advantage to them, nor would the coldness of the air permit the soldiers to make use of their swords; while this storm did not so much incommode the Israelites, because it came in their backs. They also took such courage, upon the apprehension that God was assisting them, that they fell upon the very midst of their enemies, and slew a great number of them; so that some of them fell by the Israelites, some fell by their own horses, which were put into disorder, and not a few were killed by their own chariots.
At last Sisera, as soon as he saw himself beaten, fled away, and came to a woman whose name was Jael, a Kenite, who received him, when he desired to be concealed; and when he asked for somewhat to drink, she gave him sour milk, of which he drank so unmeasurably that he fell asleep; but when he was asleep, Jael took an iron nail, and with a hammer drove it through his temples into the floor; and when Barak came a little afterward, she showed Sisera nailed to the ground: and thus was this victory gained by a woman, as Deborah had foretold. Barak also fought with Jabin at Hazor; and when he met with him, he slew him: and when the general was fallen, Barak overthrew the city to the foundation, and was the commander of the Israelites for forty years. | 962 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andre Reboucas was born in 1838 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He was trained at the Military School of Rio de Janeiro and became an engineer after studying in Europe. After returning to Brazil, Reboucas was named a lieutenant in the engineering corps in the 1864 Paraguayan War. During the war, as naval vessels became more and more integral, Reboucas designed an immersible device which could be projected underwater, causing an explosion with any ship it hit. The device became known as the torpedo.After his military career, Reboucas began teaching at the Polytechnical School in Rio de Janeiro and became very wealthy. He used his wealth to aid in the Brazilian abolition movement, trying to end slavery in Brazil. After growing disgusted with conditions in Brazil, Reboucas moved to Funchal, Madeira, off of the coast of Africa where he died in 1898.
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Achievements by Black inventors can be seen as far back as ancient Africa but much of society has no idea that many of the products or devices that make their everyday lives more enjoyable are the result of the hard work and ingenuity of Blacks.
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PO Box 173 Brandywine, MD 20613 | <urn:uuid:29772d53-257d-4e38-902b-3b536bed5c21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blackinventor.com/andre-reboucas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.980373 | 297 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.516364157... | 7 | Andre Reboucas was born in 1838 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He was trained at the Military School of Rio de Janeiro and became an engineer after studying in Europe. After returning to Brazil, Reboucas was named a lieutenant in the engineering corps in the 1864 Paraguayan War. During the war, as naval vessels became more and more integral, Reboucas designed an immersible device which could be projected underwater, causing an explosion with any ship it hit. The device became known as the torpedo.After his military career, Reboucas began teaching at the Polytechnical School in Rio de Janeiro and became very wealthy. He used his wealth to aid in the Brazilian abolition movement, trying to end slavery in Brazil. After growing disgusted with conditions in Brazil, Reboucas moved to Funchal, Madeira, off of the coast of Africa where he died in 1898.
Other Great Sites
About the Site
The Black Inventor Online Museum ™, is a look at the great and often unrecognized pioneers in the field of invention and innovation.
Achievements by Black inventors can be seen as far back as ancient Africa but much of society has no idea that many of the products or devices that make their everyday lives more enjoyable are the result of the hard work and ingenuity of Blacks.
Some of Our Other SItes
Our Social Media
Adscape International, LLC
PO Box 173 Brandywine, MD 20613 | 309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The connection of Troy and Rome always fascinated me. I always wanted to know how is the great war related to the great city. So, here I have given an effort to know how was the city of ROME founded on 21st April 753 BCE and what is the connection of Troy with the city.
The Virgil’s Aeneid explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas was the chief lieutenant of Hector. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas’s trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, his wife Creusa and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy and transplanted them to Italy. Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island’s western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully.
Dido was, according to ancient Greek and Roman sources, the founder and first queen of Carthage (modern-day Tunisia). She is primarily known from the account given by the Roman poet Virgil in his epic, Aeneid. After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno’s request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno. Dido was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans’ descendants. Aeneas’s mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met. After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome.
Mercury told Aeneas of all the promising Italian lands and orders Aeneas to get his fleet ready. Dido could no longer bear to live. She had her sister Anna build her a pyre under the pretense of burning all that reminded her of Aeneas, including weapons and clothes that Aeneas had left behind and (what she calls) their bridal bed (though, according to Aeneas, they were never officially married). When Dido saw Aeneas’ fleet leaving she cursed him and his Trojans and proclaimed endless hate between Carthage and the descendants of Troy, foreshadowing the Punic Wars. Dido ascended the pyre, lay again on the couch which she had shared with Aeneas, and then fell on a sword that Aeneas had given her. Anna rushed in and embraced her dying sister; Juno sent Iris from heaven to release Dido’s spirit from her body. From their ships, Aeneas and his crew saw the glow of Dido’s burning funeral pyre and could only guess what has happened
After leaving Carthage, Aeneas and his fleet made their way back to Sicily, where they landed at Eryx. Their next major stop was in Italy, shortly before their destination, at Cumae. There they met with the prophetic priestess the Sibyl of Cumae, who assisted Aeneas to descend to the Underworld, where he met with his father. His father once again confirmed his victory in Italy and the founding of Rome and told his son that Lavinia would become his new wife. So, after leaving the Underworld Aeneas gathered his fleet and sailed.
Latinus was the ruler of Latium, His daughter, Lavinia, was promised in marriage to the handsome prince Turnus, but when Latinus sought the oracle, he was told that his daughter should wed the Trojan, Aeneas. The elderly Latinus wishing for peace, obeyed the oracle. Turnus attacked the combined forces of the Trojans and the Latins. In the battle Latinus was killed but Turnus was defeated. Aeneas became the leader of both the Trojan and the Latins who were rapidly marrying into a single people. Turnus turned north to seek help from the powerful Etruscans who then attached the Combined forces of the Latins. Aeneas’s forces defeated the Etruscans and Turnus died by the blade of Aeneas. The war ended leaving the Tiber river as the boundary between the Latins and the Etruscans.
After Aeneas died, his son Ascanius became the king. Ascanius’s mother Creusa was the daughter of the Trojen king Priam. The city of Lavinium, founded by Aeneas earlier, became too small to accommodate the growing population of the Trojans so, Ascanius moved east and established a new city called Alba Longa, thirty years after the city Lavinium was established. As the day progressed Latins became powerful and secured. Ascanius was succeeded by Silvius, the son of Aeneas and Lavinia. Generations followed and from the family tree of Aeneas and Lavinia two brothers came into power named Numitor and Amulius. Amulius seized the power to the throne and the king Numitor was driven out from Alba Longa. All the sons of Numitor was killed and his daughter Rhea Silvia was forced to became a vestal virgin to ensure that she would bear no children who can threat Amulius.
Vestal Virgins : In ancient Rome, the Vestals or Vestal Virgins were priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, home, and family in the Roman religion . The College of the Vestals and its well-being were regarded as fundamental to the continuance and security of Rome. They cultivated the sacred fire that was not allowed to go out. The Vestals were freed of the usual social obligations to marry and bear children, and took a vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests. Their tasks included the maintenance of the fire sacred to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home, collecting water from a sacred spring, preparation of food used in rituals and caring for sacred objects in the temple’s sanctuary. By maintaining Vesta’s sacred fire, from which anyone could receive fire for household use, they functioned as “surrogate housekeepers”, in a religious sense, for all of Rome. Their sacred fire was treated, in Imperial times, as the emperor’s household fire. The Vestals were put in charge of keeping safe the wills and testaments of various people such as Caesar and Mark Antony. In addition, the Vestals also guarded some sacred objects, including the Palladium, and made a special kind of flour called Mola salsa which was sprinkled on all public offerings to a god.
After taking the vows (for becoming a Vestal Virgin), Rhea Silvia, the daughter of Numitor, became the victim of rape and consequently gave birth to twin boys. Rhea declared that the god Mars was the father but nobody gave importance. For the crime of allowing herself to be raped she was thrown imprisoned.
The twins, Romulus & Remus were sent to be drowned in the Tiber however the man entrusted with the task found the river flooded and left the boys in a sluggish water rather than slogging their way into the river itself. When the flood-water ceded, the babies were left alive and well in the reeds. Legend says here that a she wolf coming to the river to quench its thrust found the babies and offered her tits to them to suck along. Later a herdsman came upon the scene and gathered the children up from the wolf and took them home with him. The herdsman and his wife Acca Larentia raised the boys Romulus and Remus.
The two boys grew up to be shepherds like their adoptive father but they used to fight with the local criminals who raided the countryside. The boys also began taking fight against the robbers, raiding their camp and stealing from them. The criminals angered by the theft of their booty set a trap for Romulus and Remus. Romulus managed to escape but Remus was captured. The bargain took Remus to the local landowner who turned out to be none other than the exiled Numitor. The criminals claimed that Remus and his brother were caught stealing Numitor’s cattle and should be punished. Out of perception, Numitor started to inquire and finally recognized Remus as his grandson. On the other side, the herdsman too decided to tell Romulus the whole story. As Numitor, Romulus and Remus came close to each other, the next plan was to capture the throne of Alba Longa from Amulius. With Romulus and Remus leading two groups of men, they attacked and killed Amulius and brought back Numitor to Alba Longa. Numitor became the king.
After Amulius’ death, the brothers left Alba Longa seeking to found their own city at the spot where they were left to be drowned, and each set out to find the best locale. The brothers quarreled over the location of the foundation of their new city; Romulus wished to start the city on the Palatine Hill, while Remus wished to found it on the Aventine Hill. In order to settle their disagreement, they agreed to consult augury; augury is a type of prophecy in which birds are examined and observed to determine what actions or persons the gods favor. Each brother prepared a sacred space on their respective hills and began to watch for birds. Remus claimed to have seen six birds, while Romulus said he saw twelve birds. Romulus asserted that he was the clear winner by six birds, but Remus argued that since he saw his six birds first, he had won. The brothers remained at a standstill and continued to quarrel until Romulus began to dig trenches and build walls around his hill: the Palatine Hill
In response to Romulus’ construction, Remus made continuous fun of the wall and his brother’s city. Remus was so bold as to jump over Romulus’ wall jestingly. In response to Remus’ mockeries and for jumping over his wall, Romulus, angered by his brother’s belittlement, killed him. There are several versions as to how Remus was killed on the day Rome was founded. In Livy’s version, Remus simply died after jumping over Romulus’ wall, which is thought to be a sign from the gods of Rome’s power and fate. According to St. Jerome, Remus was killed for his mockery by one of Romulus’ supporters, either Fabius or Celer, who killed Remus by throwing a spade at his head. Afterwards, Romulus mournfully buries his brother, bestowing upon him full funeral honors. However, most sources would convey that Romulus killed Remus. Remus’ death and founding of Rome are dated by Livy to April 21st, 753 BCE
After Romulus founded the city, it became apparent that he would need to attract settlers in order to ensure the city’s survival. City was opened to all, however all the outrages of the society such as fugitives, escapes, slaves, debtors and criminals all flocked to the new town to start afresh and Romulus welcomed them with open arms. The first Roman legion was established which consisted of three thousand foot soldiers and three hundred cavalry. Soldiers in those days had to equip themselves, so only wealthy citizens own the cavalry. Romulus established a council of hundred senators to help him govern the kingdom. The number ‘hundred’ has got a significance. It is possible that their were not enough men noble enough to be given such responsibilities. Descendants of these senators will be called the Patricians in the later Rome who would find them in constant arch with the Plebeian class, the descendants of the remaining unwashed masses.
Rome was now ready to defend and govern itself but the problem was that the new immigrants were entirely male. Without any woman, around the dream of Rome, would die after a single generation so delegations were sent to the neighboring communities asking for the intermarriages but wherever the Romans went they were refused. Fathers did not want their daughters to marry the Romans who were nothing but a collection of despicable men. Romans resented their rejection and planned for a mass stealing. Romans invited all the neighboring communities in a festival honoring Neptune. A great crowd gathered on the day including the famous Sabines. Romulus suddenly gave a signal and men of Rome captured all the visiting women. Festival broken up as parents of the ceased women fled the city cursing the treachery of the Romans.
Three years after the “rape of the Sabine Women”, the Sabines attempted to get them back. Attacked followed in succession from the victimized communities but each was repelled my Romulus and his men. Only the Sabines did not take the revenge and they waited & planned rather than immediately taking the action. The Sabines bribed a young girl to let them into the Citadel of the City and attacked it before the Romans could react. Romans immediately launched a counter attack. A brief battle was joined but neither side got the upper hand. Finally the Sabine women, daughters at one end and husbands on the other, intervened pleading them to hold. Their movement ultimately moved the opposing armies and the peace was made ultimately making the Romans and the Sabines into a single political entity.
After the Sabines joined with the Romans and power sharing agreement was reached, Romulus agreed to rule jointly with the Sabine king Theseus. The newly integrated citizens of the city were divided into three tribes – the first was made of the Romans, the second was with the Sabines and the third one consisted of the remaining population mostly from the Etruscan origin. A hundred leading Sabines were then added to the senate doubling its size. Leadership thus established, Romulus formed the first great citizens’ assembly “the commit of Creada”. To do so he further divided each tribe into ten Quriae named each one after the name of the abducted Sabine woman to honor them for their role in the peace making. Each Quriae cast one collected vote making thirty total and the assembly was passed with electing various magistrate and enacting various routine laws. Thus the original Political Constitution was settled. The king remained supreme but from the beginning the senate and the citizens’ assembly were involved in various judicial and legislative functions. During this time the Roman legions doubled its size with approximately six thousand men. The power sharing agreement with the Sabine king lasted for five years. After that, due to some reason, the Sabine king had assaulted some anguish from Lavinium and later when he arrived at the city for routine religious services he was killed by a mob. Romulus did not seek war with Lavinia and secretly welcomed the death of his rival co-rular. The Sabines outraged but fearing Romulus’s power and divine mission held themselves. Romulus now reign supreme once again. For the next forty years Rome fought against hostile neighbors continuously usually Etruscans cities to the north. By the time Romulus was dead, he left the Romans with the power to be recon with. His death is not clear. It is possible that he was murdered by his senators.
From a collection of shepherds Rome transformed into an original power. The city’s initial inhabitants were criminals. The City was founded by a man who killed his own brother and was raised by a whore. The newly founded city which could not find a single willing woman to join them and eventually women were kidnapped and rapped and then to protect their ill god they proceeded to make war with their in-laws. There was not a single sympathetic figure in the whole bunch. The city almost found itself ruling for the Etruscans to put the rebel down and restore some decency into the world. But at least the Romans were strong and would not be conquered even if they were total bastards. This is the moral of the Roman birth. The Romans won and grew and thrive not because of they were good or right or god’s chosen people, but because they were strong and knew how to win battle. Might may not make right but can make a thousand year old civilization.
References from:‘The History of ROME’ by Mike Duncan(Podcast Series),
‘Aeneid’ by Virgil,
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... | 4 | The connection of Troy and Rome always fascinated me. I always wanted to know how is the great war related to the great city. So, here I have given an effort to know how was the city of ROME founded on 21st April 753 BCE and what is the connection of Troy with the city.
The Virgil’s Aeneid explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas was the chief lieutenant of Hector. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas’s trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, his wife Creusa and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy and transplanted them to Italy. Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island’s western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully.
Dido was, according to ancient Greek and Roman sources, the founder and first queen of Carthage (modern-day Tunisia). She is primarily known from the account given by the Roman poet Virgil in his epic, Aeneid. After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno’s request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno. Dido was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans’ descendants. Aeneas’s mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met. After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome.
Mercury told Aeneas of all the promising Italian lands and orders Aeneas to get his fleet ready. Dido could no longer bear to live. She had her sister Anna build her a pyre under the pretense of burning all that reminded her of Aeneas, including weapons and clothes that Aeneas had left behind and (what she calls) their bridal bed (though, according to Aeneas, they were never officially married). When Dido saw Aeneas’ fleet leaving she cursed him and his Trojans and proclaimed endless hate between Carthage and the descendants of Troy, foreshadowing the Punic Wars. Dido ascended the pyre, lay again on the couch which she had shared with Aeneas, and then fell on a sword that Aeneas had given her. Anna rushed in and embraced her dying sister; Juno sent Iris from heaven to release Dido’s spirit from her body. From their ships, Aeneas and his crew saw the glow of Dido’s burning funeral pyre and could only guess what has happened
After leaving Carthage, Aeneas and his fleet made their way back to Sicily, where they landed at Eryx. Their next major stop was in Italy, shortly before their destination, at Cumae. There they met with the prophetic priestess the Sibyl of Cumae, who assisted Aeneas to descend to the Underworld, where he met with his father. His father once again confirmed his victory in Italy and the founding of Rome and told his son that Lavinia would become his new wife. So, after leaving the Underworld Aeneas gathered his fleet and sailed.
Latinus was the ruler of Latium, His daughter, Lavinia, was promised in marriage to the handsome prince Turnus, but when Latinus sought the oracle, he was told that his daughter should wed the Trojan, Aeneas. The elderly Latinus wishing for peace, obeyed the oracle. Turnus attacked the combined forces of the Trojans and the Latins. In the battle Latinus was killed but Turnus was defeated. Aeneas became the leader of both the Trojan and the Latins who were rapidly marrying into a single people. Turnus turned north to seek help from the powerful Etruscans who then attached the Combined forces of the Latins. Aeneas’s forces defeated the Etruscans and Turnus died by the blade of Aeneas. The war ended leaving the Tiber river as the boundary between the Latins and the Etruscans.
After Aeneas died, his son Ascanius became the king. Ascanius’s mother Creusa was the daughter of the Trojen king Priam. The city of Lavinium, founded by Aeneas earlier, became too small to accommodate the growing population of the Trojans so, Ascanius moved east and established a new city called Alba Longa, thirty years after the city Lavinium was established. As the day progressed Latins became powerful and secured. Ascanius was succeeded by Silvius, the son of Aeneas and Lavinia. Generations followed and from the family tree of Aeneas and Lavinia two brothers came into power named Numitor and Amulius. Amulius seized the power to the throne and the king Numitor was driven out from Alba Longa. All the sons of Numitor was killed and his daughter Rhea Silvia was forced to became a vestal virgin to ensure that she would bear no children who can threat Amulius.
Vestal Virgins : In ancient Rome, the Vestals or Vestal Virgins were priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, home, and family in the Roman religion . The College of the Vestals and its well-being were regarded as fundamental to the continuance and security of Rome. They cultivated the sacred fire that was not allowed to go out. The Vestals were freed of the usual social obligations to marry and bear children, and took a vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests. Their tasks included the maintenance of the fire sacred to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home, collecting water from a sacred spring, preparation of food used in rituals and caring for sacred objects in the temple’s sanctuary. By maintaining Vesta’s sacred fire, from which anyone could receive fire for household use, they functioned as “surrogate housekeepers”, in a religious sense, for all of Rome. Their sacred fire was treated, in Imperial times, as the emperor’s household fire. The Vestals were put in charge of keeping safe the wills and testaments of various people such as Caesar and Mark Antony. In addition, the Vestals also guarded some sacred objects, including the Palladium, and made a special kind of flour called Mola salsa which was sprinkled on all public offerings to a god.
After taking the vows (for becoming a Vestal Virgin), Rhea Silvia, the daughter of Numitor, became the victim of rape and consequently gave birth to twin boys. Rhea declared that the god Mars was the father but nobody gave importance. For the crime of allowing herself to be raped she was thrown imprisoned.
The twins, Romulus & Remus were sent to be drowned in the Tiber however the man entrusted with the task found the river flooded and left the boys in a sluggish water rather than slogging their way into the river itself. When the flood-water ceded, the babies were left alive and well in the reeds. Legend says here that a she wolf coming to the river to quench its thrust found the babies and offered her tits to them to suck along. Later a herdsman came upon the scene and gathered the children up from the wolf and took them home with him. The herdsman and his wife Acca Larentia raised the boys Romulus and Remus.
The two boys grew up to be shepherds like their adoptive father but they used to fight with the local criminals who raided the countryside. The boys also began taking fight against the robbers, raiding their camp and stealing from them. The criminals angered by the theft of their booty set a trap for Romulus and Remus. Romulus managed to escape but Remus was captured. The bargain took Remus to the local landowner who turned out to be none other than the exiled Numitor. The criminals claimed that Remus and his brother were caught stealing Numitor’s cattle and should be punished. Out of perception, Numitor started to inquire and finally recognized Remus as his grandson. On the other side, the herdsman too decided to tell Romulus the whole story. As Numitor, Romulus and Remus came close to each other, the next plan was to capture the throne of Alba Longa from Amulius. With Romulus and Remus leading two groups of men, they attacked and killed Amulius and brought back Numitor to Alba Longa. Numitor became the king.
After Amulius’ death, the brothers left Alba Longa seeking to found their own city at the spot where they were left to be drowned, and each set out to find the best locale. The brothers quarreled over the location of the foundation of their new city; Romulus wished to start the city on the Palatine Hill, while Remus wished to found it on the Aventine Hill. In order to settle their disagreement, they agreed to consult augury; augury is a type of prophecy in which birds are examined and observed to determine what actions or persons the gods favor. Each brother prepared a sacred space on their respective hills and began to watch for birds. Remus claimed to have seen six birds, while Romulus said he saw twelve birds. Romulus asserted that he was the clear winner by six birds, but Remus argued that since he saw his six birds first, he had won. The brothers remained at a standstill and continued to quarrel until Romulus began to dig trenches and build walls around his hill: the Palatine Hill
In response to Romulus’ construction, Remus made continuous fun of the wall and his brother’s city. Remus was so bold as to jump over Romulus’ wall jestingly. In response to Remus’ mockeries and for jumping over his wall, Romulus, angered by his brother’s belittlement, killed him. There are several versions as to how Remus was killed on the day Rome was founded. In Livy’s version, Remus simply died after jumping over Romulus’ wall, which is thought to be a sign from the gods of Rome’s power and fate. According to St. Jerome, Remus was killed for his mockery by one of Romulus’ supporters, either Fabius or Celer, who killed Remus by throwing a spade at his head. Afterwards, Romulus mournfully buries his brother, bestowing upon him full funeral honors. However, most sources would convey that Romulus killed Remus. Remus’ death and founding of Rome are dated by Livy to April 21st, 753 BCE
After Romulus founded the city, it became apparent that he would need to attract settlers in order to ensure the city’s survival. City was opened to all, however all the outrages of the society such as fugitives, escapes, slaves, debtors and criminals all flocked to the new town to start afresh and Romulus welcomed them with open arms. The first Roman legion was established which consisted of three thousand foot soldiers and three hundred cavalry. Soldiers in those days had to equip themselves, so only wealthy citizens own the cavalry. Romulus established a council of hundred senators to help him govern the kingdom. The number ‘hundred’ has got a significance. It is possible that their were not enough men noble enough to be given such responsibilities. Descendants of these senators will be called the Patricians in the later Rome who would find them in constant arch with the Plebeian class, the descendants of the remaining unwashed masses.
Rome was now ready to defend and govern itself but the problem was that the new immigrants were entirely male. Without any woman, around the dream of Rome, would die after a single generation so delegations were sent to the neighboring communities asking for the intermarriages but wherever the Romans went they were refused. Fathers did not want their daughters to marry the Romans who were nothing but a collection of despicable men. Romans resented their rejection and planned for a mass stealing. Romans invited all the neighboring communities in a festival honoring Neptune. A great crowd gathered on the day including the famous Sabines. Romulus suddenly gave a signal and men of Rome captured all the visiting women. Festival broken up as parents of the ceased women fled the city cursing the treachery of the Romans.
Three years after the “rape of the Sabine Women”, the Sabines attempted to get them back. Attacked followed in succession from the victimized communities but each was repelled my Romulus and his men. Only the Sabines did not take the revenge and they waited & planned rather than immediately taking the action. The Sabines bribed a young girl to let them into the Citadel of the City and attacked it before the Romans could react. Romans immediately launched a counter attack. A brief battle was joined but neither side got the upper hand. Finally the Sabine women, daughters at one end and husbands on the other, intervened pleading them to hold. Their movement ultimately moved the opposing armies and the peace was made ultimately making the Romans and the Sabines into a single political entity.
After the Sabines joined with the Romans and power sharing agreement was reached, Romulus agreed to rule jointly with the Sabine king Theseus. The newly integrated citizens of the city were divided into three tribes – the first was made of the Romans, the second was with the Sabines and the third one consisted of the remaining population mostly from the Etruscan origin. A hundred leading Sabines were then added to the senate doubling its size. Leadership thus established, Romulus formed the first great citizens’ assembly “the commit of Creada”. To do so he further divided each tribe into ten Quriae named each one after the name of the abducted Sabine woman to honor them for their role in the peace making. Each Quriae cast one collected vote making thirty total and the assembly was passed with electing various magistrate and enacting various routine laws. Thus the original Political Constitution was settled. The king remained supreme but from the beginning the senate and the citizens’ assembly were involved in various judicial and legislative functions. During this time the Roman legions doubled its size with approximately six thousand men. The power sharing agreement with the Sabine king lasted for five years. After that, due to some reason, the Sabine king had assaulted some anguish from Lavinium and later when he arrived at the city for routine religious services he was killed by a mob. Romulus did not seek war with Lavinia and secretly welcomed the death of his rival co-rular. The Sabines outraged but fearing Romulus’s power and divine mission held themselves. Romulus now reign supreme once again. For the next forty years Rome fought against hostile neighbors continuously usually Etruscans cities to the north. By the time Romulus was dead, he left the Romans with the power to be recon with. His death is not clear. It is possible that he was murdered by his senators.
From a collection of shepherds Rome transformed into an original power. The city’s initial inhabitants were criminals. The City was founded by a man who killed his own brother and was raised by a whore. The newly founded city which could not find a single willing woman to join them and eventually women were kidnapped and rapped and then to protect their ill god they proceeded to make war with their in-laws. There was not a single sympathetic figure in the whole bunch. The city almost found itself ruling for the Etruscans to put the rebel down and restore some decency into the world. But at least the Romans were strong and would not be conquered even if they were total bastards. This is the moral of the Roman birth. The Romans won and grew and thrive not because of they were good or right or god’s chosen people, but because they were strong and knew how to win battle. Might may not make right but can make a thousand year old civilization.
References from:‘The History of ROME’ by Mike Duncan(Podcast Series),
‘Aeneid’ by Virgil,
Wikipedia & other sources | 3,694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hitler lived in Vienna from 1908 to 1913. He had grown up in a middle-class family, with relatively few contacts with Jewish people, in a place of the ¨Habsburg state in which many German nationalists had been disappointed that the German Empire founded in 1871 had not included the German-speaking regions of the Habsburg Monarchy¨ (“Adolf Hitler: Early Years, 1889–1913.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 19 May 2017.). Vienna was a place known for their ideologies, but not the country as a whole, more like the many famous people we are taught about today. It was a city filled with anti-Semitism and it wasn’t very diverse, which would immediately establish segregation and racism, or even just pure pride in their nationality that could be taken too far. This is the place where Hitler established his ideologies, he was rarely surrounded by Jews, so of course he wouldn’t necessarily trust them. It’s easy to understand, when someone is captivated by their surroundings, they are more than likely to follow what they know best. He had very great influences and it all started here in Vienna. According to the authors of “Adolf Hitler: Early Years, 1889–1913.”, Hitler was mainly influenced by two political ideologies found in Vienna. The first was the German racist nationalism propagated by the Upper Austrian Pan-German politician Georg von Schönerer. The second key influence was that of Karl Lueger, Mayor of Vienna from 1897 to his death in 1910. Born on 17 July 1842, Georg Ritter von Schönerer was an Austrian landowner and politician of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Time went on and he was elected Austria’s imperial parliament as a liberal representative. But as his career progressed, he became more and more of a German nationalist. He later broke away from his party because he had become almost completely against Jewish capitalism. He deemed that the Catholic and the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina were a betrayal of the German interest. He was even once imprisoned for a publication he made over his beliefs. In 1888, he was temporarily thrown in jail for destroying a Jewish-owned newspaper office and assaulting its employees for reporting the death of the admired German emperor Wilhelm I (Whiteside, A.). This action increased Schönerer’s popularity and helped members of his party get elected to the Austrian Parliament. Once he was released, he not only became more popular but also gained followers to his Pan- German Party. As a national political figure, he reached the climax of his influence in 1901, when 21 Pan-Germans were returned to the Reichsrat; his violence disrupted the party and by 1907 it had all but disappeared from Austrian parliamentary politics. Afterwards, he was not re-elected to the party until 1897. But that did not stop his followers, especially young Adolf Hitler. Hitler continued to follow him through everything. Schonerer had so much power that he was able to arrange the dismissal of Minister President Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni from office. Badeni had attempted to put a policy in place in order to prevent Germans from getting into positions of office simply because they didn’t speak the Czech language. Schönerer staged mass protests against the ordinance and disrupted parliamentary, actions which eventually caused Emperor Franz Joseph to dismiss Badeni. Schönerer founded the Los von Rom movement (which caused the conversion of all Roman Catholic German-speaking people of Austria to Lutheran Protestantism, or, in some cases, to the Old Catholic Churches) while the division of Imperial Germany was taking place. This also led to more power to him in addition to 21 members of his party gained seats in Parliament. However, his career came to an end and led his party to suffering as well. Yet none of this was strong enough to break down the philosophy, views and role as a great agitator he held that influenced Hitler. In 1895, Karl Lueger- the leader of a Christian social Party- won over the election to become mayor of Vienna with his authoritarian and anti-Semitic style of leadership, which Hitler also adopted later on. His views were clearly stated in one of his speeches, “Here in our Austrian fatherland the situation is such that the Jews have seized a degree of influence which exceeds their number and importance. (Interjection: ‘Very true!’) In Vienna the poor craftsman has to go begging on Saturday afternoon, to turn the labour of his hands to account, he has to beg at the Jewish furniture dealers. (‘Quite right!’) The influence on the masses, in our country, is in the hands of the Jews, the greater part of the press is in their hands, by far the largest part of all capital and, in particular, high finance, is in Jewish hands, and in this respect the Jews operate a terrorism of a kind that could hardly be worse. For us, in Austria, it is a matter of liberating Christian people from the hegemony of Jewry.” (Lueger,K.). Although he was elected in 1985, it wasn’t until 1987 that he was officially able to take his place as mayor, due to the number of reelections demanded by Emperor Franz Joseph because of his repeated refusals to accept him into office to due his radical anti-Semitism. But once he was placed in office, he really focused on the suburbs; brought streetcars, electricity, and gas under the city government; and developed parks and gardens, schools, and hospitals. Under his administration, Vienna became an efficient, modern metropolis. Lueger did many other things that would make you question his anti-Semitism, but it was apparent enough for Hitler to witness. Hitler moved to Vienna in 1908 and witnessed Lueger at his climax. He praised Lueger charisma and popular appeal in Mein Kampf, although Hitler’s own brand of anti-Semitism adhered more closely to the racial demagoguery. We still see the heavy influence that Lueger had on Hitler. Taking all what has been researched and interpreted into consideration, although Hitler did have his own ideas and ideologies, he was greatly influenced by his earlier years in Vienna, but to be more specific he was influenced to a great extent by what he found there in Vienna. Karl Lueger and Georg von Schönerer were very powerful people that Hitler fell to during that time. Hitler’s early years in this city really made an impact on his mind and made whatever he suspected stronger. This political ideology also contributed to the start of World War 2, when Hitler tries to make everyone “pay” for putting Germany-which he believed was superior- through the Treaty of Versailles. | <urn:uuid:f50df8ab-c2f0-4984-810b-bff8df4f6ca2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/hitler-politician-georg-von-schonerer-the-second-key-influence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.99017 | 1,406 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.356304347... | 1 | Hitler lived in Vienna from 1908 to 1913. He had grown up in a middle-class family, with relatively few contacts with Jewish people, in a place of the ¨Habsburg state in which many German nationalists had been disappointed that the German Empire founded in 1871 had not included the German-speaking regions of the Habsburg Monarchy¨ (“Adolf Hitler: Early Years, 1889–1913.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 19 May 2017.). Vienna was a place known for their ideologies, but not the country as a whole, more like the many famous people we are taught about today. It was a city filled with anti-Semitism and it wasn’t very diverse, which would immediately establish segregation and racism, or even just pure pride in their nationality that could be taken too far. This is the place where Hitler established his ideologies, he was rarely surrounded by Jews, so of course he wouldn’t necessarily trust them. It’s easy to understand, when someone is captivated by their surroundings, they are more than likely to follow what they know best. He had very great influences and it all started here in Vienna. According to the authors of “Adolf Hitler: Early Years, 1889–1913.”, Hitler was mainly influenced by two political ideologies found in Vienna. The first was the German racist nationalism propagated by the Upper Austrian Pan-German politician Georg von Schönerer. The second key influence was that of Karl Lueger, Mayor of Vienna from 1897 to his death in 1910. Born on 17 July 1842, Georg Ritter von Schönerer was an Austrian landowner and politician of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Time went on and he was elected Austria’s imperial parliament as a liberal representative. But as his career progressed, he became more and more of a German nationalist. He later broke away from his party because he had become almost completely against Jewish capitalism. He deemed that the Catholic and the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina were a betrayal of the German interest. He was even once imprisoned for a publication he made over his beliefs. In 1888, he was temporarily thrown in jail for destroying a Jewish-owned newspaper office and assaulting its employees for reporting the death of the admired German emperor Wilhelm I (Whiteside, A.). This action increased Schönerer’s popularity and helped members of his party get elected to the Austrian Parliament. Once he was released, he not only became more popular but also gained followers to his Pan- German Party. As a national political figure, he reached the climax of his influence in 1901, when 21 Pan-Germans were returned to the Reichsrat; his violence disrupted the party and by 1907 it had all but disappeared from Austrian parliamentary politics. Afterwards, he was not re-elected to the party until 1897. But that did not stop his followers, especially young Adolf Hitler. Hitler continued to follow him through everything. Schonerer had so much power that he was able to arrange the dismissal of Minister President Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni from office. Badeni had attempted to put a policy in place in order to prevent Germans from getting into positions of office simply because they didn’t speak the Czech language. Schönerer staged mass protests against the ordinance and disrupted parliamentary, actions which eventually caused Emperor Franz Joseph to dismiss Badeni. Schönerer founded the Los von Rom movement (which caused the conversion of all Roman Catholic German-speaking people of Austria to Lutheran Protestantism, or, in some cases, to the Old Catholic Churches) while the division of Imperial Germany was taking place. This also led to more power to him in addition to 21 members of his party gained seats in Parliament. However, his career came to an end and led his party to suffering as well. Yet none of this was strong enough to break down the philosophy, views and role as a great agitator he held that influenced Hitler. In 1895, Karl Lueger- the leader of a Christian social Party- won over the election to become mayor of Vienna with his authoritarian and anti-Semitic style of leadership, which Hitler also adopted later on. His views were clearly stated in one of his speeches, “Here in our Austrian fatherland the situation is such that the Jews have seized a degree of influence which exceeds their number and importance. (Interjection: ‘Very true!’) In Vienna the poor craftsman has to go begging on Saturday afternoon, to turn the labour of his hands to account, he has to beg at the Jewish furniture dealers. (‘Quite right!’) The influence on the masses, in our country, is in the hands of the Jews, the greater part of the press is in their hands, by far the largest part of all capital and, in particular, high finance, is in Jewish hands, and in this respect the Jews operate a terrorism of a kind that could hardly be worse. For us, in Austria, it is a matter of liberating Christian people from the hegemony of Jewry.” (Lueger,K.). Although he was elected in 1985, it wasn’t until 1987 that he was officially able to take his place as mayor, due to the number of reelections demanded by Emperor Franz Joseph because of his repeated refusals to accept him into office to due his radical anti-Semitism. But once he was placed in office, he really focused on the suburbs; brought streetcars, electricity, and gas under the city government; and developed parks and gardens, schools, and hospitals. Under his administration, Vienna became an efficient, modern metropolis. Lueger did many other things that would make you question his anti-Semitism, but it was apparent enough for Hitler to witness. Hitler moved to Vienna in 1908 and witnessed Lueger at his climax. He praised Lueger charisma and popular appeal in Mein Kampf, although Hitler’s own brand of anti-Semitism adhered more closely to the racial demagoguery. We still see the heavy influence that Lueger had on Hitler. Taking all what has been researched and interpreted into consideration, although Hitler did have his own ideas and ideologies, he was greatly influenced by his earlier years in Vienna, but to be more specific he was influenced to a great extent by what he found there in Vienna. Karl Lueger and Georg von Schönerer were very powerful people that Hitler fell to during that time. Hitler’s early years in this city really made an impact on his mind and made whatever he suspected stronger. This political ideology also contributed to the start of World War 2, when Hitler tries to make everyone “pay” for putting Germany-which he believed was superior- through the Treaty of Versailles. | 1,438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Northern Colony is consisted of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut. The people who lived in Massachusetts's colony were Native Americans and Puritans just like in New Hampshire. The people who lived in the Rhode Island colony were Native Americans, aristocratic families and African American Slaves. The people from Connecticut colony were Native Americans, white Europeans, Dutch and Swedish settlers. The latter 1600's had cultural diversity but there was more in the early 1700's.
In the late 1600's the Northern Colony region was trying to be more independent. Since they had so many different races and cultures they were able to get different point of views on situations helping them become more independent from England. But in the late 1600's Charles all became King. He took an aggressive hand in the management of the colonies affecting their independence. For example the King had control over who gets a charter and whom he can take one away from. In 1686 the Dominion of the New England made Navigational Laws. The fact that England was trying to control the Northern Colonies caused the Glorious Revolution. Which caused the Dominion of New England to crash down. Which led to the colonist to be more independent.Since the colonist were trying to become more independent many different cultures developed causing people to live different lifestyles. This caused the Salem Witch trials.Also since people thought they were freer in the Northern Colonies Church was not that important anymore.
In the early 1700's the Northern Colony there was a mingling of races. Even though there was mostly English people but they were mottled with numerous foreign groups. They had Germans, Scottish and Irish and many more. Also during this time there was a lot more mixes of races like Scot-Irish. There was also multicolored colonial population consisted of other European groups. Like French Hug | <urn:uuid:520739bb-28b4-4a9a-b388-d7a2c3727c0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/compare-and-contrast-the-similarities-and-differences-betwee/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.988156 | 366 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.0471... | 1 | The Northern Colony is consisted of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut. The people who lived in Massachusetts's colony were Native Americans and Puritans just like in New Hampshire. The people who lived in the Rhode Island colony were Native Americans, aristocratic families and African American Slaves. The people from Connecticut colony were Native Americans, white Europeans, Dutch and Swedish settlers. The latter 1600's had cultural diversity but there was more in the early 1700's.
In the late 1600's the Northern Colony region was trying to be more independent. Since they had so many different races and cultures they were able to get different point of views on situations helping them become more independent from England. But in the late 1600's Charles all became King. He took an aggressive hand in the management of the colonies affecting their independence. For example the King had control over who gets a charter and whom he can take one away from. In 1686 the Dominion of the New England made Navigational Laws. The fact that England was trying to control the Northern Colonies caused the Glorious Revolution. Which caused the Dominion of New England to crash down. Which led to the colonist to be more independent.Since the colonist were trying to become more independent many different cultures developed causing people to live different lifestyles. This caused the Salem Witch trials.Also since people thought they were freer in the Northern Colonies Church was not that important anymore.
In the early 1700's the Northern Colony there was a mingling of races. Even though there was mostly English people but they were mottled with numerous foreign groups. They had Germans, Scottish and Irish and many more. Also during this time there was a lot more mixes of races like Scot-Irish. There was also multicolored colonial population consisted of other European groups. Like French Hug | 388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the 2nd conflict as well as the climax. The men are at the end of their rations and must decide “whether they should eat instead of bury the body” (Philbrick 165). The 1st conflict is when the Essex gets hit and knocked down by a huge sperm whale. The men are now stranded in the middle of the ocean and have no idea what to do. The sailors are severely dehydrated and extremely starved. The men are dying off rapidly and their bodies are being used as food. They have all given up hope of being saved. The crew of the Essex has made it to the offshore grounds and have successfully killed and boiled down a few whales. The 1st mate and his surviving crew get picked up by a vessel a few days ahead of the captain and his crewman. The 3 men on Henderson Island were picked up a while later. The crew started with 20 men and ended with but 8. The people of Nantucket are described as being very superstitious Quakers. How the whalers live on and off shore are told. | <urn:uuid:118a87e0-bbf6-4604-9dbf-9d00051ff536> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/yen/2451979 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.99068 | 220 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.491503268480... | 1 | This is the 2nd conflict as well as the climax. The men are at the end of their rations and must decide “whether they should eat instead of bury the body” (Philbrick 165). The 1st conflict is when the Essex gets hit and knocked down by a huge sperm whale. The men are now stranded in the middle of the ocean and have no idea what to do. The sailors are severely dehydrated and extremely starved. The men are dying off rapidly and their bodies are being used as food. They have all given up hope of being saved. The crew of the Essex has made it to the offshore grounds and have successfully killed and boiled down a few whales. The 1st mate and his surviving crew get picked up by a vessel a few days ahead of the captain and his crewman. The 3 men on Henderson Island were picked up a while later. The crew started with 20 men and ended with but 8. The people of Nantucket are described as being very superstitious Quakers. How the whalers live on and off shore are told. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buddhist monk's role towards freedom
By Asuntha Edirisooriya, Sunday Times, Feb 4, 2007
Colombo, Sri Lanka -- Throughout history from the time of King Dutugemunu in 1815, the holistic support and efforts towards independence of the country by Buddhist monks have always been a well known fact.
Ven.Tissa during the reign of King Valagamba, Ven.Deega during the reign of King Rajasinghe and the monks who lived during the invasion of the Cholas and Ven. Senegal Rathnankara in the kingdom of Sitawaka are some of the monks who have been at the helm in the quest for freedom as stated in the annals of history. On the 59th independence of our country it is a great pride to state that monks are currently involved in the forefront.
Venerable Ellawala Medhananda at an interview said,"We have faced many foreign invasions throughout history but we have never wholly surrendered to colonialism. But unfortunately in 1815 the difference of opinion between the despotic King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe and the Kandyan kingdom together with the sectarian division of the monks paved the way to British colonialism. Sri Lanka was given away in writing to the British.
Ellawala Madananda Thero
Poetry that depicted the sorrow within of being ruled by invaders were common during this period. The monks proclaimed their loyalty to their motherland and the concern of not having a ruler from their own country gave much sadness and bitterness. They discussed various plans and toured the island in search of a way of getting rid of the British from the island. The British Governors rebuked and refused entry to foreign land. Ven. Ihamaga requested to go on a pilgrimage but was refused as the Governor believed that he was on the look out for a prince to deliver the country from the grips of the British and Buddhist monks were banned from foreign travel. This statement was made by a letter to England by Governor Colebrooke in 1816. The observation made by Governor Colebrooke stated that the revolt organized by the Buddhist monks is due to the jealousy of the Christian religion being popular among the masses.
They were intent in destroying Buddhism. The monks believed in protecting their religion and with the help of the Kandyans formed the National Liberation Front and the revolt that began from Dambulla spread to the coastal areas. They made a relative of King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe the ruler and lived in an area free from the British. This is stated as a riot of 1818 which is wrong as it was only a protest against British rule that was causing much concern within the country as many monks and leaders of the country were put to death. They burnt and tortured and destroyed means of living and left people to starve to death.
Paddy fields were burnt down to prevent people having access to food and burnt down houses. The destruction in 1818 has made certain areas infertile even today. Ven, Wariyapola Sri Sumangala Thero was involved in the crusade of freedom and it is said that he trampled the British flag in Kandy when the signing off of the country to the British was in progress. He was imprisoned for hiding the Tooth Relic as it was stated that the Relics belong to the Government in power. Communication among the people was possible through the monks. Ven Ihagama, Kapuliyadde and Poddalagoda were arrested but the former was able to escape and later caught again due to the spies posted among the people who worked against their own.
The Colebrooke Commission understood the uprising by the Buddhist monks was due to the lack of freedom to take the Tooth Relic in the annual procession as related to culture and by rule of law they were to protect Buddhism, temples and the monks. The efforts made by the British to convert people into their own faith caused much concern.
Later the British realized the importance of protecting Buddhism which was the religion the majority practiced in Sri Lanka and permission was granted for some bhikkus to participate in the procession of the Tooth Relic. After many uprisings and negotiations Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948." | <urn:uuid:54226f9e-faa0-46f8-8009-7782dd408ab8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=43,3698,0,0,1,0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.985719 | 851 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4492009878158... | 6 | Buddhist monk's role towards freedom
By Asuntha Edirisooriya, Sunday Times, Feb 4, 2007
Colombo, Sri Lanka -- Throughout history from the time of King Dutugemunu in 1815, the holistic support and efforts towards independence of the country by Buddhist monks have always been a well known fact.
Ven.Tissa during the reign of King Valagamba, Ven.Deega during the reign of King Rajasinghe and the monks who lived during the invasion of the Cholas and Ven. Senegal Rathnankara in the kingdom of Sitawaka are some of the monks who have been at the helm in the quest for freedom as stated in the annals of history. On the 59th independence of our country it is a great pride to state that monks are currently involved in the forefront.
Venerable Ellawala Medhananda at an interview said,"We have faced many foreign invasions throughout history but we have never wholly surrendered to colonialism. But unfortunately in 1815 the difference of opinion between the despotic King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe and the Kandyan kingdom together with the sectarian division of the monks paved the way to British colonialism. Sri Lanka was given away in writing to the British.
Ellawala Madananda Thero
Poetry that depicted the sorrow within of being ruled by invaders were common during this period. The monks proclaimed their loyalty to their motherland and the concern of not having a ruler from their own country gave much sadness and bitterness. They discussed various plans and toured the island in search of a way of getting rid of the British from the island. The British Governors rebuked and refused entry to foreign land. Ven. Ihamaga requested to go on a pilgrimage but was refused as the Governor believed that he was on the look out for a prince to deliver the country from the grips of the British and Buddhist monks were banned from foreign travel. This statement was made by a letter to England by Governor Colebrooke in 1816. The observation made by Governor Colebrooke stated that the revolt organized by the Buddhist monks is due to the jealousy of the Christian religion being popular among the masses.
They were intent in destroying Buddhism. The monks believed in protecting their religion and with the help of the Kandyans formed the National Liberation Front and the revolt that began from Dambulla spread to the coastal areas. They made a relative of King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe the ruler and lived in an area free from the British. This is stated as a riot of 1818 which is wrong as it was only a protest against British rule that was causing much concern within the country as many monks and leaders of the country were put to death. They burnt and tortured and destroyed means of living and left people to starve to death.
Paddy fields were burnt down to prevent people having access to food and burnt down houses. The destruction in 1818 has made certain areas infertile even today. Ven, Wariyapola Sri Sumangala Thero was involved in the crusade of freedom and it is said that he trampled the British flag in Kandy when the signing off of the country to the British was in progress. He was imprisoned for hiding the Tooth Relic as it was stated that the Relics belong to the Government in power. Communication among the people was possible through the monks. Ven Ihagama, Kapuliyadde and Poddalagoda were arrested but the former was able to escape and later caught again due to the spies posted among the people who worked against their own.
The Colebrooke Commission understood the uprising by the Buddhist monks was due to the lack of freedom to take the Tooth Relic in the annual procession as related to culture and by rule of law they were to protect Buddhism, temples and the monks. The efforts made by the British to convert people into their own faith caused much concern.
Later the British realized the importance of protecting Buddhism which was the religion the majority practiced in Sri Lanka and permission was granted for some bhikkus to participate in the procession of the Tooth Relic. After many uprisings and negotiations Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948." | 872 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) was a prominent English poet and playwright, commonly regarded as the greatest English language writer and the world's most preeminent dramatist (Bevington: 1–3). Shakespeare wrote ten tragic plays and four of them are set in ancient Rome: Titus Andronicus, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Julius Caesar.
Julius Caesar is considered to be an example of “male-dominated” play as even superficial analysis of the play, reveals the fact that women appear very episodically, and all of the main characters and majority of the secondary characters are men. There are over 30 characters in the play, with only two women: Calpurnia, wife of Caesar, and Portia, wife of Brutus. While Antony and Cassius appear in the play each for 8 times and Brutus – 12 times, Calpurnia and Portia appear only 2 times. Moreover, from play’s 16 soliloquies, which is instrument to reveal inner thoughts of the character, only one belong to woman, Portia (Bag: 1).
Buy The Role of Women in Ancient Rome and in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar essay paper online
While role of the woman in history and in different literary works, including Shakespeare’s masterpieces, are common subject for gender research, this paper attempts to tie together these two subjects by comparing roles given to women in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar and in real-world ancient Roman society.
The primary source for Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar was Plutarch Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, translated into English in 1579 by Thomas North. The events presented in the play actually continued for several years, however Shakespeare condensed them into six days. Shakespeare, following Plutarch, dramatizes Caesar's physical weaknesses. However, unlike Plutarch, Shakespeare omits incidents characterizing Caesar as a dictatorial person, depicting him as arrogant, but clearly a great personality, a World’s conqueror, respected by virtually all.
Julius Caesar is male-dominated play, written by male dramatist, with vast majority of male characters and with male characters being principle to the play. Moreover, at the time of Shakespeare there were no female actors and therefore woman roles were played by boys or young men.
When looking at the sources of information regarding life of Roman women and their role in society, two things become quickly evident. First is that most of the sources deal with the aristocracy and do not reflect the life of all classes of society. However, for the purposes of this analysis, this fact may be neglected as both woman characters belong to the aristocracy. Second is that all these sources are secondary to women, as they were written by men about women, while no personal diaries or journals written by Roman women are available. This fact resembles what we can see in Shakespeare’s play – we see women, their role and their thoughts, only as they were seen from the perspective of an ancient Roman man and can not understand what were their hopes and dreams, or even if they had any.
Only the men from the upper classes in ancient Rome received descent education and being on the leading positions in society could in their leisure time to reflect on their world and write about it. Unsurprisingly, they wrote predominantly about their own thoughts and experiences, as well as addressing thoughts and actions of their opponents and allies in social and political life. As women in ancient Rome were not allowed to participate actively in politics, which was a major subject for writing by the man of that time, they have never been in focus. Only occasionally, women who have been writers’ relatives and wives were depicted on paper.
At the same time woman received only a basic education, if any at all. In most cases it was just informal education performed by the parents and was limited to basic reading and writing. It was considered to be inappropriate for women to become “too educated”, as can be seen in writings of Juvenal. Juvenal mocked at the women who expressed their opinions on grammar, ethics or literature, implying that, by trying to be knowledgeable, these women have forgotten their place in society (Juvenal: 434-456). Taking into account such level of education, no wonder that there are almost no writings of ancient Roman woman, which could give insight into ancient Rome society and women role from the perspective of a woman herself.
Unlike ancient Egypt, in ancient Rome (both in the Republic and in the Empire) women were not considered to be equal to men before the law. And although, they were considered citizens, they could not vote or participate in government procedures. Women in Rome were subject to the men authority: father’s authority before marriage and husband authority after marriage (Cross: 1).
Women, or more correctly, girls, in most cases, were married by the time they were 12 years old. Women did not have a choice between having children or not, moreover, women in aristocratic (i.e. wealthy) families were expected to give birth to as many babies as they could. Because of the high mortality levels among infants, families wanted to ensure that at least some of their children would reach maturity and husbands expected their wives to be perpetually pregnant. Families preferred male children, as they were to carry on the family name and lineage. At the same time, if a newborn was a girl or a weak boy, father could be decide to be expose such child and mother could not overrule such decision. Infertility was legitimate ground for the divorce at that time; moreover women would often offer a divorce to give their husbands an opportunity to have children with someone else.
Besides child-bearing role, women in ancient Rome played an important role in raising their children, unlike in the Athenian tradition were boys had to be raised exclusively by men. Especially, women in the ancient Roman were encouraged to teach Roman culture to their children, one of the few subjects they’ve learned themselves.
The Romans did not put very strong restrictions towards women, like in some Eastern cultures or Greek cultures, e.g. keeping them in designated places and prohibiting dining or attending thermas with men. Women did have some personal freedoms, but they had only small chance for personal choice and retaining their individuality. Roman women were under the constant supervision of their male relatives, predominantly fathers, and husbands. Although some of them were allowed by their fathers or husbands more freedom than others, there was always a limit to which woman could act independently. Rare cases of women independence were wealthy widows, who were not subject to man’s authority and wealthy women, who choose to become priestesses, of which the most important were the Vestal Virgins.
Nevertheless, no matter how wealthy a woman could be, she could not have an important formal role in public, as she could not vote or stand for office. However, it should be noted that, wives or close female relatives of powerful men could have indirect political influence and exert real, though informal, power. But in public women were expected to play traditional role in the household and to know their place. They were expected to remain modest, loyal and emotionally, physically, and financially obedient to their families. They had certain prescribed roles to play within Roman society like daughter, wife, child bearer, and mother.
In ancient Rome, woman had very limited role in public life, restrained by patriarchal tradition, despite their talents and virtues. Similarly in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, there are only two woman characters, Portia and Calpurnia, which play episodic roles in this play and remain rather sketchy. Nevertheless, it is clear that these women had certain degree of influence on their powerful husbands and even could change denouement of the story if their husbands did not fail to listen to them.
Considering provided information of woman role in ancient Rome, it appears that Shakespeare did not intentionally devalued or enhanced the role of women in society. In public and political life Roman woman could not have active position, they could only perform function of “wife”, in traditional Roman understanding, and attempt to influence their husbands, which is exactly the case in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.
Related Free World Literature Essays
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:09ef6667-9ba8-4c39-8789-99a0f16d377a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/world-literature/the-role-of-women-in-ancient-rome-and-in.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.98045 | 1,840 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.146326169371... | 1 | William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) was a prominent English poet and playwright, commonly regarded as the greatest English language writer and the world's most preeminent dramatist (Bevington: 1–3). Shakespeare wrote ten tragic plays and four of them are set in ancient Rome: Titus Andronicus, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Julius Caesar.
Julius Caesar is considered to be an example of “male-dominated” play as even superficial analysis of the play, reveals the fact that women appear very episodically, and all of the main characters and majority of the secondary characters are men. There are over 30 characters in the play, with only two women: Calpurnia, wife of Caesar, and Portia, wife of Brutus. While Antony and Cassius appear in the play each for 8 times and Brutus – 12 times, Calpurnia and Portia appear only 2 times. Moreover, from play’s 16 soliloquies, which is instrument to reveal inner thoughts of the character, only one belong to woman, Portia (Bag: 1).
Buy The Role of Women in Ancient Rome and in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar essay paper online
While role of the woman in history and in different literary works, including Shakespeare’s masterpieces, are common subject for gender research, this paper attempts to tie together these two subjects by comparing roles given to women in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar and in real-world ancient Roman society.
The primary source for Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar was Plutarch Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, translated into English in 1579 by Thomas North. The events presented in the play actually continued for several years, however Shakespeare condensed them into six days. Shakespeare, following Plutarch, dramatizes Caesar's physical weaknesses. However, unlike Plutarch, Shakespeare omits incidents characterizing Caesar as a dictatorial person, depicting him as arrogant, but clearly a great personality, a World’s conqueror, respected by virtually all.
Julius Caesar is male-dominated play, written by male dramatist, with vast majority of male characters and with male characters being principle to the play. Moreover, at the time of Shakespeare there were no female actors and therefore woman roles were played by boys or young men.
When looking at the sources of information regarding life of Roman women and their role in society, two things become quickly evident. First is that most of the sources deal with the aristocracy and do not reflect the life of all classes of society. However, for the purposes of this analysis, this fact may be neglected as both woman characters belong to the aristocracy. Second is that all these sources are secondary to women, as they were written by men about women, while no personal diaries or journals written by Roman women are available. This fact resembles what we can see in Shakespeare’s play – we see women, their role and their thoughts, only as they were seen from the perspective of an ancient Roman man and can not understand what were their hopes and dreams, or even if they had any.
Only the men from the upper classes in ancient Rome received descent education and being on the leading positions in society could in their leisure time to reflect on their world and write about it. Unsurprisingly, they wrote predominantly about their own thoughts and experiences, as well as addressing thoughts and actions of their opponents and allies in social and political life. As women in ancient Rome were not allowed to participate actively in politics, which was a major subject for writing by the man of that time, they have never been in focus. Only occasionally, women who have been writers’ relatives and wives were depicted on paper.
At the same time woman received only a basic education, if any at all. In most cases it was just informal education performed by the parents and was limited to basic reading and writing. It was considered to be inappropriate for women to become “too educated”, as can be seen in writings of Juvenal. Juvenal mocked at the women who expressed their opinions on grammar, ethics or literature, implying that, by trying to be knowledgeable, these women have forgotten their place in society (Juvenal: 434-456). Taking into account such level of education, no wonder that there are almost no writings of ancient Roman woman, which could give insight into ancient Rome society and women role from the perspective of a woman herself.
Unlike ancient Egypt, in ancient Rome (both in the Republic and in the Empire) women were not considered to be equal to men before the law. And although, they were considered citizens, they could not vote or participate in government procedures. Women in Rome were subject to the men authority: father’s authority before marriage and husband authority after marriage (Cross: 1).
Women, or more correctly, girls, in most cases, were married by the time they were 12 years old. Women did not have a choice between having children or not, moreover, women in aristocratic (i.e. wealthy) families were expected to give birth to as many babies as they could. Because of the high mortality levels among infants, families wanted to ensure that at least some of their children would reach maturity and husbands expected their wives to be perpetually pregnant. Families preferred male children, as they were to carry on the family name and lineage. At the same time, if a newborn was a girl or a weak boy, father could be decide to be expose such child and mother could not overrule such decision. Infertility was legitimate ground for the divorce at that time; moreover women would often offer a divorce to give their husbands an opportunity to have children with someone else.
Besides child-bearing role, women in ancient Rome played an important role in raising their children, unlike in the Athenian tradition were boys had to be raised exclusively by men. Especially, women in the ancient Roman were encouraged to teach Roman culture to their children, one of the few subjects they’ve learned themselves.
The Romans did not put very strong restrictions towards women, like in some Eastern cultures or Greek cultures, e.g. keeping them in designated places and prohibiting dining or attending thermas with men. Women did have some personal freedoms, but they had only small chance for personal choice and retaining their individuality. Roman women were under the constant supervision of their male relatives, predominantly fathers, and husbands. Although some of them were allowed by their fathers or husbands more freedom than others, there was always a limit to which woman could act independently. Rare cases of women independence were wealthy widows, who were not subject to man’s authority and wealthy women, who choose to become priestesses, of which the most important were the Vestal Virgins.
Nevertheless, no matter how wealthy a woman could be, she could not have an important formal role in public, as she could not vote or stand for office. However, it should be noted that, wives or close female relatives of powerful men could have indirect political influence and exert real, though informal, power. But in public women were expected to play traditional role in the household and to know their place. They were expected to remain modest, loyal and emotionally, physically, and financially obedient to their families. They had certain prescribed roles to play within Roman society like daughter, wife, child bearer, and mother.
In ancient Rome, woman had very limited role in public life, restrained by patriarchal tradition, despite their talents and virtues. Similarly in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, there are only two woman characters, Portia and Calpurnia, which play episodic roles in this play and remain rather sketchy. Nevertheless, it is clear that these women had certain degree of influence on their powerful husbands and even could change denouement of the story if their husbands did not fail to listen to them.
Considering provided information of woman role in ancient Rome, it appears that Shakespeare did not intentionally devalued or enhanced the role of women in society. In public and political life Roman woman could not have active position, they could only perform function of “wife”, in traditional Roman understanding, and attempt to influence their husbands, which is exactly the case in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.
Related Free World Literature Essays
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- Death Be Not Proud by John Donne
- Fire Imagery and Symbolism in the Ash Garden Novel by Dennis Bock
- George Orwell’s Characterization of Poverty in Down and Out in Paris and London
- Good Writing
- The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Chapter 18
- The Concept of History in David Bradley’s Novel the Chaneysville Incident
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- How Chopin Characterizes the Two Female Characters in the Short Story "Ripe Figs"
Most popular orders | 1,818 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gustave Doré was born on January 6, 1832 in Strasbourg, France. He was the most prolific and successful French illustrator of his age. Initially, he was drawn to caricature, spurred on by the encouragement of noted cartoonist Charles Philipon. As a teenager, Doré visited Philipon’s Paris shop and was briefly employed by him. Doré also began producing humorous drawings for Le Journal pour Rire. These precocious skills proved invaluable, when, following the death of his father in 1849 he became the family’s main breadwinner.
Doré soon progressed to book illustrations. During the 1860s, his wood engravings for Dante’s Inferno and Cervantes’ Don Quixote made him famous. Stylistically, he owed much to the Romantics, excelling at depictions of the exotic and the macabre. This is particularly evident from his strange, glacial landscapes in the Rime of the Ancient Mariner and the grotesque beasts in the Inferno.
Yet, Doré could also be brutally realistic. His unflinching portrayal of the London slums attracted widespread praise and captured the imagination of the young Vincent Van Gogh. In later life, Doré produced some paintings and sculpture, but these are less highly regarded. His most successful venture in this field was the monument to his friend, the novelist Alexandre Dumas. He died on January 23, 1883. | <urn:uuid:ff2d3716-9691-4b95-bb20-92b45c0ad294> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://onequalitythefinest.com/2020/01/06/gustave-dore/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.983246 | 294 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.23143681883811... | 6 | Gustave Doré was born on January 6, 1832 in Strasbourg, France. He was the most prolific and successful French illustrator of his age. Initially, he was drawn to caricature, spurred on by the encouragement of noted cartoonist Charles Philipon. As a teenager, Doré visited Philipon’s Paris shop and was briefly employed by him. Doré also began producing humorous drawings for Le Journal pour Rire. These precocious skills proved invaluable, when, following the death of his father in 1849 he became the family’s main breadwinner.
Doré soon progressed to book illustrations. During the 1860s, his wood engravings for Dante’s Inferno and Cervantes’ Don Quixote made him famous. Stylistically, he owed much to the Romantics, excelling at depictions of the exotic and the macabre. This is particularly evident from his strange, glacial landscapes in the Rime of the Ancient Mariner and the grotesque beasts in the Inferno.
Yet, Doré could also be brutally realistic. His unflinching portrayal of the London slums attracted widespread praise and captured the imagination of the young Vincent Van Gogh. In later life, Doré produced some paintings and sculpture, but these are less highly regarded. His most successful venture in this field was the monument to his friend, the novelist Alexandre Dumas. He died on January 23, 1883. | 307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE HISTORY OF THE OLD GAOL
Emily Allen – Custodian at Ely Museum
It was in January 1728 that Nathaniel Alvine became “Keeper of His Majesties Gaole and House of Correction at Ely”. Ely Gaol, which was established on its current site by Bishop Peter Gunning in 1679, often found itself in a poor state of repair. Due to a chronic lack of funding, the gaol fell further into disrepair, while often also being overcrowded and rife with disease.
Alvine noted the poor state in which he found the Bishops Gaol, stating that there were “no irons nor locks for the felons” upon their incarceration, and that “neither the gates are of sufficient strength to keep any Prisoner within the yard” As a result of this lack of security in the building, prisoners continually broke free and made their bids for freedom across the Fens! Alvine even tells of a prisoner who escaped “through the wall that held him from sweet liberty and disguising himself as a woman, got clear away down the river!” – several reports over the following years report similar incidents, and it appears that this was a common problem at Ely Gaol!
In addition to the awful conditions endured by the prisoners, life for Nathaniel Alvine, who also lived in the filthy, freezing gaol, would have been difficult too. Despite having his own family to support, Alvine laments that “neither my father or my predecessor have been paid the legal pension to the great detriment of both our families”
With a string of poorly, if at all, paid gaolers and a building in desperate need of repair, it is easy to see how by 1770 the gaol was considered to be in a “poor, if not ruinous condition”.
Eventually, by 1836 the gaol was permanently closed and prisoners moved on to Cambridge County Prison. This gaol building eventually became Ely Museum in 1997
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0.308705806732... | 1 | THE HISTORY OF THE OLD GAOL
Emily Allen – Custodian at Ely Museum
It was in January 1728 that Nathaniel Alvine became “Keeper of His Majesties Gaole and House of Correction at Ely”. Ely Gaol, which was established on its current site by Bishop Peter Gunning in 1679, often found itself in a poor state of repair. Due to a chronic lack of funding, the gaol fell further into disrepair, while often also being overcrowded and rife with disease.
Alvine noted the poor state in which he found the Bishops Gaol, stating that there were “no irons nor locks for the felons” upon their incarceration, and that “neither the gates are of sufficient strength to keep any Prisoner within the yard” As a result of this lack of security in the building, prisoners continually broke free and made their bids for freedom across the Fens! Alvine even tells of a prisoner who escaped “through the wall that held him from sweet liberty and disguising himself as a woman, got clear away down the river!” – several reports over the following years report similar incidents, and it appears that this was a common problem at Ely Gaol!
In addition to the awful conditions endured by the prisoners, life for Nathaniel Alvine, who also lived in the filthy, freezing gaol, would have been difficult too. Despite having his own family to support, Alvine laments that “neither my father or my predecessor have been paid the legal pension to the great detriment of both our families”
With a string of poorly, if at all, paid gaolers and a building in desperate need of repair, it is easy to see how by 1770 the gaol was considered to be in a “poor, if not ruinous condition”.
Eventually, by 1836 the gaol was permanently closed and prisoners moved on to Cambridge County Prison. This gaol building eventually became Ely Museum in 1997
email@example.com Tel: 01353 666655 | 438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spisy ludności na ziemiach polskich w latach 1789-1939
MetadataShow full item record
Censuses are the most important source of statistic information about people. The first ones were led in ancient Egypt. In ancient Rome regular censuses took place and they were just called censuses at that time. The first national censuses in Poland appeared in the second half of the 18th century. It depended on the growth of interest concerning population problems in the Age of Enlightenment. In 1777 there was a city census, which was repeated several times later. In 1787 there was a one-day census in Warsaw. There was the first country census while the nobles’ Polish Republic was on the decline. It was voted by The Four Years’ Seymon the 22nd.06.1789. It was carried in the years 1789-1790. Although the census did not include any privilegedstates, it became a base for estimating of population at the final period ofThe Polish Republic. It was a sumaric census that presented the population amount in cities which were in the area of The Polish Republic at that time. In 1790 there was a personal census run there too. Other general censuses took place in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw in 1808 and in 1810. The first one has lasted for a year. It was a sumaric census and it presented data on population amount of the country, its departments and administrative districts, social and professional structure of the society, its belief. It also shown variety of age, sex and marital status of the inhabitans. Unfortunately the census in 1808 did not include about 1/3 of the population in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Two years ago there was another census there. Probably it was legally based on the Decree from 25th.05.1809, which considered military fee imposed on the society. It began at the end of 1809 in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw in order to contain the territory incorporated in 1809. It was in the first half of 1810. The census was continued in 1811. From a technical point of view it was a better census than the one in 1808. The decree on population registers was issued in the 18th.01.1810. It was the effect of Napoleonic Code wchich was introduced to the country at that time. They were run right from the start of The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. In 1897 there was the first general census both in The Russian Empire and in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. It was the only one census that was led in Russia then. It gave information on state and population structure of Polish land gained by The Russian Empire. On the territory taken by Austria, the first censuses were led at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1808 there was a military census in Galicia. It was legally based on the patent of the emperor Francis II (25th.10.1804) on military censuses of population in Austria. The officialcounting was supposed to be done in 1805. But because of the war against France it was delayed up to 1808. Due to it lots of facts on the state of population in eastern and western Galicia were gained. In the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century there were general censuses in the area of Hapsburg monarchy. They were made in the years 1857, 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910. Censuses in Prussia have been repeated every three years since 1816. The first general census was made in Prussia in 1840. It is necessarily to say that a registry of population in Prussia in the first half of the 19th century was criticallyjudged by then statisticians. It did not include all the people who lived in Prussia at that time. After the uniflcation of Germany, censuses have been made every five years since 1871. The national statistics of population on Polish territory was not run correctly while the annexation. Therefore the records do not present the real population status there, especially when we mean Russian annexation. The first census in the reborn Polish Republic was made on the 30th.09.1921. The census did not include the area which was fmaly incorporated to Poland after 1921 (Upper Silesia and Middle Lithuania).The census also concerned flats, houses, animals, farms, garden trucks and forests. The second census was organised on the 9th.12.1931. The subject of which was the same as the previous one. It was the last census in The Second Polish Republic. | <urn:uuid:63e67aea-c2bd-4f75-978f-3a81f58c9a2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://dspace.uni.lodz.pl:8080/xmlui/handle/11089/19690 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.986083 | 964 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.32590639591217... | 2 | Spisy ludności na ziemiach polskich w latach 1789-1939
MetadataShow full item record
Censuses are the most important source of statistic information about people. The first ones were led in ancient Egypt. In ancient Rome regular censuses took place and they were just called censuses at that time. The first national censuses in Poland appeared in the second half of the 18th century. It depended on the growth of interest concerning population problems in the Age of Enlightenment. In 1777 there was a city census, which was repeated several times later. In 1787 there was a one-day census in Warsaw. There was the first country census while the nobles’ Polish Republic was on the decline. It was voted by The Four Years’ Seymon the 22nd.06.1789. It was carried in the years 1789-1790. Although the census did not include any privilegedstates, it became a base for estimating of population at the final period ofThe Polish Republic. It was a sumaric census that presented the population amount in cities which were in the area of The Polish Republic at that time. In 1790 there was a personal census run there too. Other general censuses took place in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw in 1808 and in 1810. The first one has lasted for a year. It was a sumaric census and it presented data on population amount of the country, its departments and administrative districts, social and professional structure of the society, its belief. It also shown variety of age, sex and marital status of the inhabitans. Unfortunately the census in 1808 did not include about 1/3 of the population in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Two years ago there was another census there. Probably it was legally based on the Decree from 25th.05.1809, which considered military fee imposed on the society. It began at the end of 1809 in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw in order to contain the territory incorporated in 1809. It was in the first half of 1810. The census was continued in 1811. From a technical point of view it was a better census than the one in 1808. The decree on population registers was issued in the 18th.01.1810. It was the effect of Napoleonic Code wchich was introduced to the country at that time. They were run right from the start of The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. In 1897 there was the first general census both in The Russian Empire and in The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. It was the only one census that was led in Russia then. It gave information on state and population structure of Polish land gained by The Russian Empire. On the territory taken by Austria, the first censuses were led at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1808 there was a military census in Galicia. It was legally based on the patent of the emperor Francis II (25th.10.1804) on military censuses of population in Austria. The officialcounting was supposed to be done in 1805. But because of the war against France it was delayed up to 1808. Due to it lots of facts on the state of population in eastern and western Galicia were gained. In the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century there were general censuses in the area of Hapsburg monarchy. They were made in the years 1857, 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910. Censuses in Prussia have been repeated every three years since 1816. The first general census was made in Prussia in 1840. It is necessarily to say that a registry of population in Prussia in the first half of the 19th century was criticallyjudged by then statisticians. It did not include all the people who lived in Prussia at that time. After the uniflcation of Germany, censuses have been made every five years since 1871. The national statistics of population on Polish territory was not run correctly while the annexation. Therefore the records do not present the real population status there, especially when we mean Russian annexation. The first census in the reborn Polish Republic was made on the 30th.09.1921. The census did not include the area which was fmaly incorporated to Poland after 1921 (Upper Silesia and Middle Lithuania).The census also concerned flats, houses, animals, farms, garden trucks and forests. The second census was organised on the 9th.12.1931. The subject of which was the same as the previous one. It was the last census in The Second Polish Republic. | 1,091 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 1 2019 - 2020
Miss Parkin and Mrs Pauc
In Maths this term we have consolidated numbers to 10. In particular we have focussed on number bonds to and addition within 10. We have represented calculations in various ways which include, part whole models, tens frames, bar modelling and pictoral representations, as well as writing number sentences. We have also been counting forwards and backwards in 1’s, 2’s, 5’s and 10’s and are continuing to do this to become more secure and confident.
This term we have enjoyed sharing traditional tales including Jack and the Beanstalk. Some literacy groups have also covered Little Red Riding Hood and others The Three Billy Goats Gruff. From these stories, we have all joined in with repetitive refrains ‘fi, fi, fo, fum being one of our year group favourites! We have been very enthusiastic and have extremely enjoyed acting out these stories with our friends. We have also sequenced pictures correctly, drawn and labelled story maps... and finally... we have all written in full sentences using capital letters, finger spaces and full stops. How amazing are we?
We have really enjoyed science so far this term... we began learning about many different animals (including humans). We identified and then classified them by their key features. We grouped them into, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish. We were so good at this we then classified them by their food groups of carnivores, herbivores and omnivores.
We were amazed to learn that humans are mammals and we know that they give birth to live young. We then learnt the names for some of our body parts... we had a great time labelling and drawing parts of the human body, can you tell by from our photographs?
Next we learnt about the five senses. We now know which parts of our bodies are linked to which sense. We also went on a sensory walk around the school grounds to see what we could see, hear, touch, smell and taste, we produced some lovely illustrations to demonstrate our findings. We then enjoyed using our sense of smell to explore various items that are found in the kitchen. Can you tell from our photographs what we do and don’t like the smell of?
In R.E. this term we have revisited the Christmas story. We have particularly focussed on the three wise men and the gifts they gave to Jesus. We know that they gave Jesus gold to show that he is king, frankinsense to show that he is a gift from God and myrrh to show that Jesus will suffer one day. Christians believe that Jesus was a gift from God and that is why we give gifts at Christmas time.
In art we have focussed on two key artists. The first artist we looked at was Pablo Picasso. Picasso was Spanish and mainly painted portraits. Some were real representations of people and others were abstract. He also painted some pictures where facial features were not in the correct places… we loved these pictures as they made us laugh! We had a great time making our own abstract portraits!
The second artist we focussed on was Piet Mondrian who was a Dutch painter and was best known for his abstract paintings and use of primary colours. First we explored the primary colours. We know that primary colours cannot be made my mixing any colours together. Next we mixed the primary colours together and discovered that we could make secondary colours. After that we looked at Mondrian’s abstract pictures ‘Trafalgar Square’ and ‘Broadwalk Boogie Woogie’. We made our own representations of Mondrian’s work by sketching, painting and collage. We then made our own abstract pictures of the school.
In Design Technology this term we have designed and made our Christmas cards and calendars. To make our Christmas cards we used a felt tipped pen and drew around a stocking or bauble template twice onto felt. Next we very carefully used a sharp pair of scissors to cut the felt. Then we used a needle and thread to sew the outside of the felt together. It was a little bit tricky, but we did a great job! We then used glue to stick decorations onto our decoration to make it look nice. After that we chose a coloured piece of card and folded it in half. We punched five or six holes into the card using a hole punch and choose our favourite coloured ribbon. Next we threaded the ribbon and wove it in and out of the holes. We then wrote the card insert and stuck it to the inside of our cards using glue. Finally I attached my sewing to the card… We hope you like them as much as we do.
In Science we learned about pets. We looked at what a pet is and how we need to take care of them. We were so lucky to have a visit from Betsy, Mrs McIntosh’s dog. We learnt how to look after her, how much exercise she needs and what we should feed her to keep her happy and healthy. We made a pictograph showing all the different pets we had in our class and wrote about our findings. We have also had a visit from the PDSA who talked to us about many different pets and how we can look after them properly. | <urn:uuid:b58d549f-ea5f-4686-a181-9e2a08ea962c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hettonlyonsprimaryschool.co.uk/class/year-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.980887 | 1,079 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.378313064575195... | 3 | Year 1 2019 - 2020
Miss Parkin and Mrs Pauc
In Maths this term we have consolidated numbers to 10. In particular we have focussed on number bonds to and addition within 10. We have represented calculations in various ways which include, part whole models, tens frames, bar modelling and pictoral representations, as well as writing number sentences. We have also been counting forwards and backwards in 1’s, 2’s, 5’s and 10’s and are continuing to do this to become more secure and confident.
This term we have enjoyed sharing traditional tales including Jack and the Beanstalk. Some literacy groups have also covered Little Red Riding Hood and others The Three Billy Goats Gruff. From these stories, we have all joined in with repetitive refrains ‘fi, fi, fo, fum being one of our year group favourites! We have been very enthusiastic and have extremely enjoyed acting out these stories with our friends. We have also sequenced pictures correctly, drawn and labelled story maps... and finally... we have all written in full sentences using capital letters, finger spaces and full stops. How amazing are we?
We have really enjoyed science so far this term... we began learning about many different animals (including humans). We identified and then classified them by their key features. We grouped them into, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish. We were so good at this we then classified them by their food groups of carnivores, herbivores and omnivores.
We were amazed to learn that humans are mammals and we know that they give birth to live young. We then learnt the names for some of our body parts... we had a great time labelling and drawing parts of the human body, can you tell by from our photographs?
Next we learnt about the five senses. We now know which parts of our bodies are linked to which sense. We also went on a sensory walk around the school grounds to see what we could see, hear, touch, smell and taste, we produced some lovely illustrations to demonstrate our findings. We then enjoyed using our sense of smell to explore various items that are found in the kitchen. Can you tell from our photographs what we do and don’t like the smell of?
In R.E. this term we have revisited the Christmas story. We have particularly focussed on the three wise men and the gifts they gave to Jesus. We know that they gave Jesus gold to show that he is king, frankinsense to show that he is a gift from God and myrrh to show that Jesus will suffer one day. Christians believe that Jesus was a gift from God and that is why we give gifts at Christmas time.
In art we have focussed on two key artists. The first artist we looked at was Pablo Picasso. Picasso was Spanish and mainly painted portraits. Some were real representations of people and others were abstract. He also painted some pictures where facial features were not in the correct places… we loved these pictures as they made us laugh! We had a great time making our own abstract portraits!
The second artist we focussed on was Piet Mondrian who was a Dutch painter and was best known for his abstract paintings and use of primary colours. First we explored the primary colours. We know that primary colours cannot be made my mixing any colours together. Next we mixed the primary colours together and discovered that we could make secondary colours. After that we looked at Mondrian’s abstract pictures ‘Trafalgar Square’ and ‘Broadwalk Boogie Woogie’. We made our own representations of Mondrian’s work by sketching, painting and collage. We then made our own abstract pictures of the school.
In Design Technology this term we have designed and made our Christmas cards and calendars. To make our Christmas cards we used a felt tipped pen and drew around a stocking or bauble template twice onto felt. Next we very carefully used a sharp pair of scissors to cut the felt. Then we used a needle and thread to sew the outside of the felt together. It was a little bit tricky, but we did a great job! We then used glue to stick decorations onto our decoration to make it look nice. After that we chose a coloured piece of card and folded it in half. We punched five or six holes into the card using a hole punch and choose our favourite coloured ribbon. Next we threaded the ribbon and wove it in and out of the holes. We then wrote the card insert and stuck it to the inside of our cards using glue. Finally I attached my sewing to the card… We hope you like them as much as we do.
In Science we learned about pets. We looked at what a pet is and how we need to take care of them. We were so lucky to have a visit from Betsy, Mrs McIntosh’s dog. We learnt how to look after her, how much exercise she needs and what we should feed her to keep her happy and healthy. We made a pictograph showing all the different pets we had in our class and wrote about our findings. We have also had a visit from the PDSA who talked to us about many different pets and how we can look after them properly. | 1,062 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquis of Argyll, 8th Earl of Argyll
Chief of Clan Campbell. Known in his early life as Lord Lorne.
Archibald was the prominent politician in Scotland during the time of Cromwell. He was a major figure in the Covenanter movement that fought for the Presbyterian religion and he was the arch-enemy of the royalist general James Graham, 1st Marques of Montrose. Although Archibald was initially for the restoration of Charles II he later switched sides and backed Cromwell. When Charles II was restored in 1660 Archibald was accused of treason and was found guilty. He was executed shortly afterwards.
(George Marsh) (Diary of George Marsh) | <urn:uuid:7861312a-a6ed-4af3-9b42-9d2342604e47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jjhc.info/MarshGeorge1800MarquisArgyll | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.987614 | 154 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.259852141141891... | 3 | Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquis of Argyll, 8th Earl of Argyll
Chief of Clan Campbell. Known in his early life as Lord Lorne.
Archibald was the prominent politician in Scotland during the time of Cromwell. He was a major figure in the Covenanter movement that fought for the Presbyterian religion and he was the arch-enemy of the royalist general James Graham, 1st Marques of Montrose. Although Archibald was initially for the restoration of Charles II he later switched sides and backed Cromwell. When Charles II was restored in 1660 Archibald was accused of treason and was found guilty. He was executed shortly afterwards.
(George Marsh) (Diary of George Marsh) | 158 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Criminal justice in USSR in the post war period was performed by "People's Courts" (they existed in 1937-1989). They consisted of judges and "people's jury". The judges were elected by popular vote for the term of 5 years. The jurors were elected for 2 years by meetings of "labor collectives" (factories an other enterprises). All elections in Soviet Union were strictly controlled by the Communist party, so usually 99.9% voted for a single candidate proposed by CPSU.
There was no such notion as "independent court", even in theory. The system of justice was "a branch of the government". In addition to this, aspects of life, all institutions in USSR, including the government and justice were strictly controlled by CPSU, and this was written into the constitution.
Superficially, the process looked as in democratic courts: there was an accuser and a defender, the judge presided and the jurors made decision by vote. In some cases the jurors were not used and the judge made the decision him/her self.
There was also a variety of other courts, "Camarade's courts", tribunals, etc.
But the usual criminal cases were handled by the People's courts.
In the period immediately after WWII, enormous number of people were imprisoned in camps or exiled without any court hearings, for alleged "collaboration with enemy", or waging war against Soviet power. (Whole nations were deported, and
other nations decimated). In most cases, the armed resistance against Soviet power was qualified simply as "banditism", but it was not handled by any courts.
Most of the camps population in the late 40s consisted of these people, though the ordinary crime rates were also very high.
Torture was not officially permitted after WWII, but in fact it was widely used.
Even in 1980s, beating by police was a routine "investigation procedure". Very few people dared to complain.
Death penalty was abolished in 1947, but in 1950 it was re-introduced for "spying and high treason". 10 years later people were sentenced to death for
"illegal currency transactions". So the state did not respect its own laws. But in any case, death penalty was very rare in comparison with 1930s.
See, for example, http://lawbook.online/gosudarstva-prava/organyi-yustitsii-sud-prokuratura-29805.html
Sorry, in Russian. | <urn:uuid:6d702f80-2ee9-4b56-9606-6cc0e142adbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/38491/how-did-a-criminal-trial-in-the-soviet-union-work-after-world-war-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.989406 | 518 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.336248457431793... | 5 | Criminal justice in USSR in the post war period was performed by "People's Courts" (they existed in 1937-1989). They consisted of judges and "people's jury". The judges were elected by popular vote for the term of 5 years. The jurors were elected for 2 years by meetings of "labor collectives" (factories an other enterprises). All elections in Soviet Union were strictly controlled by the Communist party, so usually 99.9% voted for a single candidate proposed by CPSU.
There was no such notion as "independent court", even in theory. The system of justice was "a branch of the government". In addition to this, aspects of life, all institutions in USSR, including the government and justice were strictly controlled by CPSU, and this was written into the constitution.
Superficially, the process looked as in democratic courts: there was an accuser and a defender, the judge presided and the jurors made decision by vote. In some cases the jurors were not used and the judge made the decision him/her self.
There was also a variety of other courts, "Camarade's courts", tribunals, etc.
But the usual criminal cases were handled by the People's courts.
In the period immediately after WWII, enormous number of people were imprisoned in camps or exiled without any court hearings, for alleged "collaboration with enemy", or waging war against Soviet power. (Whole nations were deported, and
other nations decimated). In most cases, the armed resistance against Soviet power was qualified simply as "banditism", but it was not handled by any courts.
Most of the camps population in the late 40s consisted of these people, though the ordinary crime rates were also very high.
Torture was not officially permitted after WWII, but in fact it was widely used.
Even in 1980s, beating by police was a routine "investigation procedure". Very few people dared to complain.
Death penalty was abolished in 1947, but in 1950 it was re-introduced for "spying and high treason". 10 years later people were sentenced to death for
"illegal currency transactions". So the state did not respect its own laws. But in any case, death penalty was very rare in comparison with 1930s.
See, for example, http://lawbook.online/gosudarstva-prava/organyi-yustitsii-sud-prokuratura-29805.html
Sorry, in Russian. | 535 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An American astronaut selected by NASA to fly on the first Apollo manned mission. Unfortunately, Chaffee never got the chance. He died on January 27, 1967, along with crewmates Gus Grissom and Edward White, during a launch pad test at the Kennedy Space Center. Chaffee received a B.S. in aeronautical engineering from Purdue University in 1957 and immediately joined the Navy. Photographs taken while he piloted a U-2 spy plane in 1963 proved conclusively that the Soviet Union had installed offensive missiles in Cuba and were displayed by President Kennedy during a televised address. That same month, Chaffee was selected by NASA as a member of its third group of astronauts. He was assigned with Grissom and White to fly the first Apollo capsule on an 11-day mission in Earth orbit. However, a month before their scheduled launch, all three were killed aboard their capsule during a countdown rehearsal, when a flash fire raced through their cabin.
Was this article helpful?
Although we usually tend to think of the digital camera as the best thing since sliced bread, there are both pros and cons with its use. Nothing is available on the market that does not have both a good and a bad side, but the key is to weigh the good against the bad in order to come up with the best of both worlds. | <urn:uuid:64b89757-c20a-4022-9cec-927f5164bfbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.astronomyclub.xyz/cape-canaveral/chaffee-roger-bruce-19351967.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.98807 | 269 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.68449455499649... | 1 | An American astronaut selected by NASA to fly on the first Apollo manned mission. Unfortunately, Chaffee never got the chance. He died on January 27, 1967, along with crewmates Gus Grissom and Edward White, during a launch pad test at the Kennedy Space Center. Chaffee received a B.S. in aeronautical engineering from Purdue University in 1957 and immediately joined the Navy. Photographs taken while he piloted a U-2 spy plane in 1963 proved conclusively that the Soviet Union had installed offensive missiles in Cuba and were displayed by President Kennedy during a televised address. That same month, Chaffee was selected by NASA as a member of its third group of astronauts. He was assigned with Grissom and White to fly the first Apollo capsule on an 11-day mission in Earth orbit. However, a month before their scheduled launch, all three were killed aboard their capsule during a countdown rehearsal, when a flash fire raced through their cabin.
Was this article helpful?
Although we usually tend to think of the digital camera as the best thing since sliced bread, there are both pros and cons with its use. Nothing is available on the market that does not have both a good and a bad side, but the key is to weigh the good against the bad in order to come up with the best of both worlds. | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agaves prove important to Native Americans
The late Cahuilla elder Katherine Saubel once told me agaves were one of the most important plant groups to Native Americans.
Not only were agaves important as a food resource, they also provided one of the best sources of fiber. In addition, because many tribes lacked access to the plants, agave products were also valuable trade items. Only the yuccas, due to their greater numbers and extensive geographic range, were more important.
Most parts of the agave could be eaten including the leaves, flower stalks, blossoms, and seeds. The flower stalks were harvested in spring and summer. The leaves were juiciest from November to May and provided fresh food at a time of year when other fresh foods were unavailable.
Agave harvesting often required much strength and thus for many tribes it was a male activity. In some areas hundreds of stalks were gathered in a single day. It is not an exaggeration to say that a man’s worth was determined, in part, by his ability to find, harvest, and properly cook agave leaves and stalks.
Leaves were collected by prying the entire plant out of the soil. Both the leaves and stalks were roasted in large pits to be eaten or pounded into cakes and dried in the sun for later consumption. The leaf mass was eaten like a giant artichoke, and when the charred outer leaves were discarded a brown juicy mass was revealed that tasted like molasses.
Flowers of the agave were boiled to remove bitterness and could either be eaten immediately or sun-dried. If not harvested, the flowers produced seeds that were gathered and ground into flour. Some Apache Indian groups extracted the juice from young flower stalks to make an intoxicating drink known as pulque. (Distilled, pulque is the main ingredient of tequila.)
Agave fibers were used to make bowstrings, brushes, cradles, nets, shoes, skirts, mats, rope, baskets, and snares. The leaves were soaked and pounded to release the fibers that were dried and separated by combing.
Eight species of agave are found in the Southwest and all are characterized by their succulent, spine-tipped leaves and single, towering flower stalk. Agaves are found on coarse soils below 5,000 feet in elevation. In our area agaves are abundant above 2,000 feet on Highway 74, the Palm to Pines Highway.
Cornett is a desert ecologist and author of Indian Uses of Desert Plants. | <urn:uuid:c72b99be-c909-4828-af97-b0fc7b8fa721> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/home-garden/james-cornett/2016/07/22/agaves-prove-important-deserts-native-americans/87232418/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.986919 | 523 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.190368726... | 1 | Agaves prove important to Native Americans
The late Cahuilla elder Katherine Saubel once told me agaves were one of the most important plant groups to Native Americans.
Not only were agaves important as a food resource, they also provided one of the best sources of fiber. In addition, because many tribes lacked access to the plants, agave products were also valuable trade items. Only the yuccas, due to their greater numbers and extensive geographic range, were more important.
Most parts of the agave could be eaten including the leaves, flower stalks, blossoms, and seeds. The flower stalks were harvested in spring and summer. The leaves were juiciest from November to May and provided fresh food at a time of year when other fresh foods were unavailable.
Agave harvesting often required much strength and thus for many tribes it was a male activity. In some areas hundreds of stalks were gathered in a single day. It is not an exaggeration to say that a man’s worth was determined, in part, by his ability to find, harvest, and properly cook agave leaves and stalks.
Leaves were collected by prying the entire plant out of the soil. Both the leaves and stalks were roasted in large pits to be eaten or pounded into cakes and dried in the sun for later consumption. The leaf mass was eaten like a giant artichoke, and when the charred outer leaves were discarded a brown juicy mass was revealed that tasted like molasses.
Flowers of the agave were boiled to remove bitterness and could either be eaten immediately or sun-dried. If not harvested, the flowers produced seeds that were gathered and ground into flour. Some Apache Indian groups extracted the juice from young flower stalks to make an intoxicating drink known as pulque. (Distilled, pulque is the main ingredient of tequila.)
Agave fibers were used to make bowstrings, brushes, cradles, nets, shoes, skirts, mats, rope, baskets, and snares. The leaves were soaked and pounded to release the fibers that were dried and separated by combing.
Eight species of agave are found in the Southwest and all are characterized by their succulent, spine-tipped leaves and single, towering flower stalk. Agaves are found on coarse soils below 5,000 feet in elevation. In our area agaves are abundant above 2,000 feet on Highway 74, the Palm to Pines Highway.
Cornett is a desert ecologist and author of Indian Uses of Desert Plants. | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The body of St. Mark the Evangelist was smuggled out of Alexandria by Venetian merchants in search of an impressive patron saint.
Nine hundred years ago, when Venice really got going as a trading superpower, St. Mark was an irresistible magnet for visitors. Pilgrims would travel enormous distances to be near his mortal remains. How the Evangelist got to be there was not discussed much then, or now. Venetians instead revel in the Piazza San Marco, the Basilica of San Marco and the winged lion of the saint, which has become the city’s symbol. St. Mark probably never visited Venice while he was alive. He spent time in Rome with St. Peter and is thought to have been the first of the four Evangelists to give us a Gospel. Most of his adult life was spent in Alexandria, Egypt, the second largest city in the ancient world. He became the first bishop there, founding Christian churches that have continued until today. Even after his martyrdom in AD 68 he was busy performing miracles.
Eight centuries after his death, the Venetian ruling class of merchants decided that a more impressive patron saint was required for their increasing powerful city state. St. Mark of Alexandria was a big enough name to add a spiritual sheen to their economic success. The Christian faithful clung to their relics in those days, which meant the best way forward for Venice was theft. Some enterprising merchants put the plan into action in 828. First, they had to trick the Christian keepers of his tomb. Then they had to smuggle the body out of Egypt, which by then was very much under Muslim control. It might be assumed that the Muslims wouldn’t have cared much about the remains of a Christian saint, but it seems that export controls were tight. The solution for the canny smugglers was to place St. Mark under a pile of pork and vegetables. It may not have been very respectful to the Evangelist, but it worked well with the customs officials. Cries of “khinzir” (the Arabic word for pig) — considered unclean for Muslims as for Jews — cleared the decks.
All was not smooth sailing after this. A mighty storm arose as the grave robbers left Alexandria en route to Venice. An apparition of St. Mark came to the rescue, guiding the Venetians through the tempest. The miracles were piling up even before the saint’s remains made it to their new home – minus the head, which seems to have stayed in Alexandria. Once the remains reached Venice they were initially kept in a more low-key manner than might be expected of such a trophy. Having received the body of St. Mark, Doge Giustiniano kept it quietly in his palace. On his death, the doge’s widow was instructed to build a church in which to house the saint. This was the first version of what later became the Basilica di San Marco. For almost a thousand years it remained the chapel of the doge’s palace; only in 1807 did the chapel become a cathedral fully under the control of a bishop rather than a doge. This was Napoleon’s decree, along with taking the four famous “horses of St. Mark” back to Paris. He didn’t try to loot the saint’s remains, though.
Fear of the precious relics being purloined again was always with the Venetians. According to a travelling French monk in 870: “The body of St. Mark is said to be deposited in the Doge’s stately rich chapel in a secret place, that it may not be stolen, under one of the great pillars.” There was considerable concern when the chapel was rebuilt in 1063 and no sign of the saint could be found. It wasn’t until 30 years later that, according to legend, St. Mark’s arm emerged from one of the old pillars, indicating where the rest of his remains were hidden.
After this, the body was joyously placed in a sarcophagus in the crypt below the high altar. It has been a place of pilgrimage ever since. One of the most frequent visitors is the writer of the latest book on the life St. Mark. British pilgrim extraordinaire Serena Fass is now 80 years old and one of the greatest authorities on La Serenissima – the nickname for Venice the author shares. This book, like all her other publications, is exceptional for bringing together the Catholic Church and its Middle Eastern counterparts, much as Venice did for many centuries. It is available only through Aid to the Church in Need, one of the Catholic charities most active in assisting with the plight of persecuted Christians throughout the world.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | <urn:uuid:2d8c3903-3e4a-4a7b-bcf8-bf4904c8ebba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aleteia.org/2019/07/10/grave-robbers-in-gondolas-how-the-remains-of-saint-mark-came-to-be-in-venice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.982795 | 1,124 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.308584809303... | 2 | The body of St. Mark the Evangelist was smuggled out of Alexandria by Venetian merchants in search of an impressive patron saint.
Nine hundred years ago, when Venice really got going as a trading superpower, St. Mark was an irresistible magnet for visitors. Pilgrims would travel enormous distances to be near his mortal remains. How the Evangelist got to be there was not discussed much then, or now. Venetians instead revel in the Piazza San Marco, the Basilica of San Marco and the winged lion of the saint, which has become the city’s symbol. St. Mark probably never visited Venice while he was alive. He spent time in Rome with St. Peter and is thought to have been the first of the four Evangelists to give us a Gospel. Most of his adult life was spent in Alexandria, Egypt, the second largest city in the ancient world. He became the first bishop there, founding Christian churches that have continued until today. Even after his martyrdom in AD 68 he was busy performing miracles.
Eight centuries after his death, the Venetian ruling class of merchants decided that a more impressive patron saint was required for their increasing powerful city state. St. Mark of Alexandria was a big enough name to add a spiritual sheen to their economic success. The Christian faithful clung to their relics in those days, which meant the best way forward for Venice was theft. Some enterprising merchants put the plan into action in 828. First, they had to trick the Christian keepers of his tomb. Then they had to smuggle the body out of Egypt, which by then was very much under Muslim control. It might be assumed that the Muslims wouldn’t have cared much about the remains of a Christian saint, but it seems that export controls were tight. The solution for the canny smugglers was to place St. Mark under a pile of pork and vegetables. It may not have been very respectful to the Evangelist, but it worked well with the customs officials. Cries of “khinzir” (the Arabic word for pig) — considered unclean for Muslims as for Jews — cleared the decks.
All was not smooth sailing after this. A mighty storm arose as the grave robbers left Alexandria en route to Venice. An apparition of St. Mark came to the rescue, guiding the Venetians through the tempest. The miracles were piling up even before the saint’s remains made it to their new home – minus the head, which seems to have stayed in Alexandria. Once the remains reached Venice they were initially kept in a more low-key manner than might be expected of such a trophy. Having received the body of St. Mark, Doge Giustiniano kept it quietly in his palace. On his death, the doge’s widow was instructed to build a church in which to house the saint. This was the first version of what later became the Basilica di San Marco. For almost a thousand years it remained the chapel of the doge’s palace; only in 1807 did the chapel become a cathedral fully under the control of a bishop rather than a doge. This was Napoleon’s decree, along with taking the four famous “horses of St. Mark” back to Paris. He didn’t try to loot the saint’s remains, though.
Fear of the precious relics being purloined again was always with the Venetians. According to a travelling French monk in 870: “The body of St. Mark is said to be deposited in the Doge’s stately rich chapel in a secret place, that it may not be stolen, under one of the great pillars.” There was considerable concern when the chapel was rebuilt in 1063 and no sign of the saint could be found. It wasn’t until 30 years later that, according to legend, St. Mark’s arm emerged from one of the old pillars, indicating where the rest of his remains were hidden.
After this, the body was joyously placed in a sarcophagus in the crypt below the high altar. It has been a place of pilgrimage ever since. One of the most frequent visitors is the writer of the latest book on the life St. Mark. British pilgrim extraordinaire Serena Fass is now 80 years old and one of the greatest authorities on La Serenissima – the nickname for Venice the author shares. This book, like all her other publications, is exceptional for bringing together the Catholic Church and its Middle Eastern counterparts, much as Venice did for many centuries. It is available only through Aid to the Church in Need, one of the Catholic charities most active in assisting with the plight of persecuted Christians throughout the world.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | 1,096 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the summer, Lapp goats accompanied the Sami and their grazing reindeer and provided milk. In the winter they were kept in barns.
It is robust and slightly smaller than normal goats, with shorter legs. The head is wider and not so long. Both sexes have horns. They are usually pure white but can be black, piebald, or partly black or grey.
Withers height: 70 cm
The goats were well suited to the mountains and ran free during the day. At night they were kept in special shelters made from turf. Skins from the goats were used as bags, hats and furs, and the horns for storing gunpowder.
The Lapp is one of three peasant goat breeds; the others are the Jämtland and southern Swedish Göinge. | <urn:uuid:bb6037fa-3ef8-418b-8277-11a737c4683f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.nordensark.se/animals/native-breeds/lapp-goats/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.98695 | 165 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | During the summer, Lapp goats accompanied the Sami and their grazing reindeer and provided milk. In the winter they were kept in barns.
It is robust and slightly smaller than normal goats, with shorter legs. The head is wider and not so long. Both sexes have horns. They are usually pure white but can be black, piebald, or partly black or grey.
Withers height: 70 cm
The goats were well suited to the mountains and ran free during the day. At night they were kept in special shelters made from turf. Skins from the goats were used as bags, hats and furs, and the horns for storing gunpowder.
The Lapp is one of three peasant goat breeds; the others are the Jämtland and southern Swedish Göinge. | 163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What was the most important cause of the Second World War? Obviously there was the Treaty of Versailles which played a significant part; the War Guilt Clause, Reparations, Disarmament and territorial clauses, etc. But, what about Hitler's actions? The failure of appeasement and the failure of the League of Nations?
The most important cause of WW2 (as of WW1) was imperialism.
By that, I mean a specific development of capitalism that features concentration of capital which has enough influence in state affairs to dictate expansionist policies in its favour.
As a result, nations struggle to expand their spheres of interest, i.e. access to markets and resources, which will lead to war as soon as there are no ‘free’ markets left (cf Boxer war – unity amongst European powers to open a fresh market) and opposing power blocs have formed (various European crises in the early 20th century did not result in a war because involved great powers were not sure enough their allies would support them in a war, power blocs were not formed).
Not surprisingly it was Germany who stroke first to challenge its rivals (1914) – after all, France and Britain had established their colonial empires long before Germany was united and became Europe’s strongest industrial power, however with limited access to markets and resources compared to UK and F. However, WWI failed to resolve the tensions. Germany was beaten, but after the economic crises in the early 20th century her economy still proved to be superior in comparison to her direct competitors. Furthermore, due to the revolutions, Germany was also not occupied or disarmed. So it is no surprise, that with the economic power base and imperialist ambitions still in place, German imperialism would surface again to challenge the unprivileged position in the international system imposed by the Versailles treaty.
In my eyes it is wrong to reduce Germany’s war ambitions to revanchism due to Versailles. After all, the other main challenger of the status quo, Japan, was never disadvantaged in any comparable way. Japan started the war due to imperialist motives – to conquer China and Oceania for their resources and manpower.
Neither the treaty of Versailles nor the failure of the League of Nations are causes for the Second Word war. These events are just consequences of imperialistic brinkmanship.
Suggested reading: Mandel, The Meaning of the Second World War
I think the cause was the same as of the WW I: German militarism and expansionism. Since Kaiser Wilhelm gained power in Germany, it has been pursuing an aggressive foreign policy (e.g. the Morocco crisis) and launched an arms race with Great Britain. It resulted in one world war, which did not prove conclusively to Germans that militarism doesn't work, so they launched another one 21 years later.
Read the book "Dreadnought" by R.K. Massie. It describes the German sentiments in great detail. You'll see that Hitler's rhetoric was nothing new in German politics, at least qualitatively. (except for the genocide part, but even that just barely) He was more rabid than, say, Bulow, but the substance was the same.
I'd argue that the biggest reason the war began is that other nations did not do enough, if anything, to prevent it. The Allies of course were not ready economically or militarily for conflict, until they finally took action after Poland. The League of Nations, while a good idea on paper, was also ineffectual against Germany in Europe and Italy in Africa.
Surely the Allies/LN could have seen what was happening and where events would lead. There were attempts by insiders to warn outside powers of what was coming, but to no avail. Hitler's rise to power in Germany could not have been missed. It seems like the Allies were just really, really hoping that nothing bad would happen.
Yes, I agree with all of your reasons, but I'd say that the Treaty of Versailles was the biggest cause. If you listen to Hitlers speeches, they are all about how evil the other nations are for making Germany this weak. (along with some racist statements) I've heard it argued that Hitler just wanted power and used public opinion to his advantage, but I'd argue that he truly believed in what he said because even when the Nazi party was being destroyed by larger parties, he stayed with the Nazis. Hope that helped. | <urn:uuid:223fbdf6-3c28-4fd7-b5f7-b8d15b695c49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/1678/what-was-the-most-important-cause-of-the-second-world-war?noredirect=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.982486 | 916 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.6662803888320... | 8 | What was the most important cause of the Second World War? Obviously there was the Treaty of Versailles which played a significant part; the War Guilt Clause, Reparations, Disarmament and territorial clauses, etc. But, what about Hitler's actions? The failure of appeasement and the failure of the League of Nations?
The most important cause of WW2 (as of WW1) was imperialism.
By that, I mean a specific development of capitalism that features concentration of capital which has enough influence in state affairs to dictate expansionist policies in its favour.
As a result, nations struggle to expand their spheres of interest, i.e. access to markets and resources, which will lead to war as soon as there are no ‘free’ markets left (cf Boxer war – unity amongst European powers to open a fresh market) and opposing power blocs have formed (various European crises in the early 20th century did not result in a war because involved great powers were not sure enough their allies would support them in a war, power blocs were not formed).
Not surprisingly it was Germany who stroke first to challenge its rivals (1914) – after all, France and Britain had established their colonial empires long before Germany was united and became Europe’s strongest industrial power, however with limited access to markets and resources compared to UK and F. However, WWI failed to resolve the tensions. Germany was beaten, but after the economic crises in the early 20th century her economy still proved to be superior in comparison to her direct competitors. Furthermore, due to the revolutions, Germany was also not occupied or disarmed. So it is no surprise, that with the economic power base and imperialist ambitions still in place, German imperialism would surface again to challenge the unprivileged position in the international system imposed by the Versailles treaty.
In my eyes it is wrong to reduce Germany’s war ambitions to revanchism due to Versailles. After all, the other main challenger of the status quo, Japan, was never disadvantaged in any comparable way. Japan started the war due to imperialist motives – to conquer China and Oceania for their resources and manpower.
Neither the treaty of Versailles nor the failure of the League of Nations are causes for the Second Word war. These events are just consequences of imperialistic brinkmanship.
Suggested reading: Mandel, The Meaning of the Second World War
I think the cause was the same as of the WW I: German militarism and expansionism. Since Kaiser Wilhelm gained power in Germany, it has been pursuing an aggressive foreign policy (e.g. the Morocco crisis) and launched an arms race with Great Britain. It resulted in one world war, which did not prove conclusively to Germans that militarism doesn't work, so they launched another one 21 years later.
Read the book "Dreadnought" by R.K. Massie. It describes the German sentiments in great detail. You'll see that Hitler's rhetoric was nothing new in German politics, at least qualitatively. (except for the genocide part, but even that just barely) He was more rabid than, say, Bulow, but the substance was the same.
I'd argue that the biggest reason the war began is that other nations did not do enough, if anything, to prevent it. The Allies of course were not ready economically or militarily for conflict, until they finally took action after Poland. The League of Nations, while a good idea on paper, was also ineffectual against Germany in Europe and Italy in Africa.
Surely the Allies/LN could have seen what was happening and where events would lead. There were attempts by insiders to warn outside powers of what was coming, but to no avail. Hitler's rise to power in Germany could not have been missed. It seems like the Allies were just really, really hoping that nothing bad would happen.
Yes, I agree with all of your reasons, but I'd say that the Treaty of Versailles was the biggest cause. If you listen to Hitlers speeches, they are all about how evil the other nations are for making Germany this weak. (along with some racist statements) I've heard it argued that Hitler just wanted power and used public opinion to his advantage, but I'd argue that he truly believed in what he said because even when the Nazi party was being destroyed by larger parties, he stayed with the Nazis. Hope that helped. | 903 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1850s, what did people belive about sin, morality illegitimacy, guilt, punishment, crime, evil, forgiveness, revenge, and justice? How does this apply to The Scarlet Letter?
One of the things that is important to remember is that publicly, there was far more of a taboo on an illegitimate child, on sex outside of marriage, etc., but these things happened quite frequently. People just didn't discuss them openly and they also were more likely to feel that there were real consequences in the form of damnation, etc., that would be applied to those who flaunted the religious and moral rules of the time.
But Hawthorne and other authors of the time were interested in challenging some of these mores and some of these taboos. So bringing out the story of Hester Prynne and the reactions of the town and the hypocrisy of many of the so called leaders is an important commentary on the social fabric of the time and challenging some aspects of it.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:5b67013f-cdae-4a82-a956-638ed05044b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/1850s-what-did-people-belive-about-sin-morality-504 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.981044 | 210 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.07039280980... | 1 | In the 1850s, what did people belive about sin, morality illegitimacy, guilt, punishment, crime, evil, forgiveness, revenge, and justice? How does this apply to The Scarlet Letter?
One of the things that is important to remember is that publicly, there was far more of a taboo on an illegitimate child, on sex outside of marriage, etc., but these things happened quite frequently. People just didn't discuss them openly and they also were more likely to feel that there were real consequences in the form of damnation, etc., that would be applied to those who flaunted the religious and moral rules of the time.
But Hawthorne and other authors of the time were interested in challenging some of these mores and some of these taboos. So bringing out the story of Hester Prynne and the reactions of the town and the hypocrisy of many of the so called leaders is an important commentary on the social fabric of the time and challenging some aspects of it.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Constructing the "Death Railway": The real story behind the Bridge Over the River Kwai, in Findmypast's POW records
During the Second World War, an estimated 140,000 Allied military personnel were captured by Japanese Imperial Forces and held in a network of camps stretching from Rangoon (Burma-Myanmar) down through Malaya, Singapore, Sumatra and across Indonesia.
The details of many of these brave man can now be uncovered using our new Prisoner of War 1939-1945 collection; over 1 million fascinating records relating to allied POW's held by Japanese, German and Italian forces in Asia, Europe and Africa.
Despite being a valuable source of manpower, Far Eastern POWs were often treated horrifically and the Japanese became renowned for their shocking cruelty towards prisoners. According to the findings of the 1946 Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate of Western POWs in Japanese camps was an incredible 27.1%, seven times higher than that of servicemen held by German and Italian forces.
Uncover your ancestors' story with a trial membership
Allied personnel who were unfortunate enough to be captured by the Japanese were frequently murdered, kept in squalid conditions and subjected to frequent beatings, summary punishments, forced labour, medical experimentation, starvation rations and poor medical treatment.
The majority of prisoners were put to work in mines, fields, shipyards and factories, usually for over 12 hours a day while surviving on a diet of little over 600 calories. The largest project involving forced labour and perhaps one of the most enduring images of the ordeals faced by Far Eastern POWs, was the construction of the Burma–Siam Railway; a 258 mile stretch of track connecting Ban Pong in Thailand and Thanbyuzayat in Burma.
Often referred to as the'Death Railway' due to the incredible number of lives lost during it's construction, the railroad was essential in order to support the Japanese Imperial Army's forces in Burma.
More than 180,000 Asian civilian labourers and over 60,000 Allied POWs were forced to live and work in some of the worst conditions imaginable. The Japanese began moving POWs northward from the infamous Changi prison in Singapore and other prison camps in Southeast Asia in May 1942.
By October, the first prisoners (3,000 Australians) had begun constructing airfields and other essential infrastructure. In June 3,000 British soldiers (the first prisoners of war to work in Thailand) arrived at the southern terminus of the railway at Ban Pong.
The project was an ambitious one and, as the Japanese military's demand for supplies increased, more and more prisoners had to be imported from Singapore and the Dutch East Indies. 'Construction camps' housing at least 1,000 workers each were established every five to 10 miles of the route to house the growing numbers of slave labourers. These camps were usually named after the kilometre in which they were located and allowed workers to be moved up and down the line as needed.
Camps consisted of open-sided barracks built using bamboo poles with thatched roofs that were roughly 60 meters in length. Their raised sleeping platforms housed two hundred men each, providing each man with a two-foot wide space in which to both live and sleep. Working conditions were incredibly harsh as Japanese and Korean overseers expected prisoners to work extraordinarily hard while battling severe maltreatment, sickness, disease and starvation.
As the majority of the work took place in Jungle conditions, humidity was constantly high and temperatures could reach 40 degrees C (104 F) at midday. White lice and other insects also added up to the misery the monsoon rains created thick sludge, through which heavy tree trunks had to be dragged.
The construction of the railway has been the subject of numerous memoirs, novels and films including the 'The Railway Man', Australian Author, Richard Flanagan's award winning novel 'The Narrow Road to the Deep North' and the celebrated 1957 film, 'The 'Bridge on the River Kwai''. Bridge 277, as it was known by the Japanese, was built over a stretch of the Mae Kong River and is probably the most infamous section of the line.
Over 16,000 Allied prisoners lost their lives on the Death Railway. It has been estimated that over 29% of British, 31% of Australian, 23% of American and 19% of Dutch prisoners did not survive while and incredible 90% of the Asiatic labourers perished on the tracks and in the construction camps. Many were beaten, shot or stabbed to death for minor transgressions while even more fell victim to ulcers, malaria, cholera, dysentery, starvation, and exhaustion.
The Japanese deadline for the Railway's completion was December 1943. Between April and August 1943 that year, workers were forced to up their pace during the deadly 'speedo' period that saw casualty figures climb even higher. Many of those who died during this period were killed at Hellfire Pass, a rocky and isolated section in the Tenasserim Hills. Sixty-nine men were beaten to death in the twelve weeks it took cut through the rock, and many more died from disease.
The railway was completed ahead of schedule on 17 October 1943 but those who survived still had to endure a further two years in captivity before liberation. After the war ended, 111 Japanese and Koreans were tried for war crimes committed during the construction of the railway. 32 were sentenced to death. | <urn:uuid:91c9d91c-908d-4972-b8a6-d33c7daebf05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.findmypast.com/blog/history/constructing-the-death-railway-the-real-story-behind-the-bridge-over-t | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.982868 | 1,098 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.849259376... | 8 | Constructing the "Death Railway": The real story behind the Bridge Over the River Kwai, in Findmypast's POW records
During the Second World War, an estimated 140,000 Allied military personnel were captured by Japanese Imperial Forces and held in a network of camps stretching from Rangoon (Burma-Myanmar) down through Malaya, Singapore, Sumatra and across Indonesia.
The details of many of these brave man can now be uncovered using our new Prisoner of War 1939-1945 collection; over 1 million fascinating records relating to allied POW's held by Japanese, German and Italian forces in Asia, Europe and Africa.
Despite being a valuable source of manpower, Far Eastern POWs were often treated horrifically and the Japanese became renowned for their shocking cruelty towards prisoners. According to the findings of the 1946 Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate of Western POWs in Japanese camps was an incredible 27.1%, seven times higher than that of servicemen held by German and Italian forces.
Uncover your ancestors' story with a trial membership
Allied personnel who were unfortunate enough to be captured by the Japanese were frequently murdered, kept in squalid conditions and subjected to frequent beatings, summary punishments, forced labour, medical experimentation, starvation rations and poor medical treatment.
The majority of prisoners were put to work in mines, fields, shipyards and factories, usually for over 12 hours a day while surviving on a diet of little over 600 calories. The largest project involving forced labour and perhaps one of the most enduring images of the ordeals faced by Far Eastern POWs, was the construction of the Burma–Siam Railway; a 258 mile stretch of track connecting Ban Pong in Thailand and Thanbyuzayat in Burma.
Often referred to as the'Death Railway' due to the incredible number of lives lost during it's construction, the railroad was essential in order to support the Japanese Imperial Army's forces in Burma.
More than 180,000 Asian civilian labourers and over 60,000 Allied POWs were forced to live and work in some of the worst conditions imaginable. The Japanese began moving POWs northward from the infamous Changi prison in Singapore and other prison camps in Southeast Asia in May 1942.
By October, the first prisoners (3,000 Australians) had begun constructing airfields and other essential infrastructure. In June 3,000 British soldiers (the first prisoners of war to work in Thailand) arrived at the southern terminus of the railway at Ban Pong.
The project was an ambitious one and, as the Japanese military's demand for supplies increased, more and more prisoners had to be imported from Singapore and the Dutch East Indies. 'Construction camps' housing at least 1,000 workers each were established every five to 10 miles of the route to house the growing numbers of slave labourers. These camps were usually named after the kilometre in which they were located and allowed workers to be moved up and down the line as needed.
Camps consisted of open-sided barracks built using bamboo poles with thatched roofs that were roughly 60 meters in length. Their raised sleeping platforms housed two hundred men each, providing each man with a two-foot wide space in which to both live and sleep. Working conditions were incredibly harsh as Japanese and Korean overseers expected prisoners to work extraordinarily hard while battling severe maltreatment, sickness, disease and starvation.
As the majority of the work took place in Jungle conditions, humidity was constantly high and temperatures could reach 40 degrees C (104 F) at midday. White lice and other insects also added up to the misery the monsoon rains created thick sludge, through which heavy tree trunks had to be dragged.
The construction of the railway has been the subject of numerous memoirs, novels and films including the 'The Railway Man', Australian Author, Richard Flanagan's award winning novel 'The Narrow Road to the Deep North' and the celebrated 1957 film, 'The 'Bridge on the River Kwai''. Bridge 277, as it was known by the Japanese, was built over a stretch of the Mae Kong River and is probably the most infamous section of the line.
Over 16,000 Allied prisoners lost their lives on the Death Railway. It has been estimated that over 29% of British, 31% of Australian, 23% of American and 19% of Dutch prisoners did not survive while and incredible 90% of the Asiatic labourers perished on the tracks and in the construction camps. Many were beaten, shot or stabbed to death for minor transgressions while even more fell victim to ulcers, malaria, cholera, dysentery, starvation, and exhaustion.
The Japanese deadline for the Railway's completion was December 1943. Between April and August 1943 that year, workers were forced to up their pace during the deadly 'speedo' period that saw casualty figures climb even higher. Many of those who died during this period were killed at Hellfire Pass, a rocky and isolated section in the Tenasserim Hills. Sixty-nine men were beaten to death in the twelve weeks it took cut through the rock, and many more died from disease.
The railway was completed ahead of schedule on 17 October 1943 but those who survived still had to endure a further two years in captivity before liberation. After the war ended, 111 Japanese and Koreans were tried for war crimes committed during the construction of the railway. 32 were sentenced to death. | 1,180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Medici Fortress of Piombino was designed by Giovanni Camerini and constructed between 1552 and 1557 for Cosimo I de’ Medici. It has an elongated star-shaped design with bastions at the corners, typical of the fortifications of the 15th century; a similar construction can be found across the water in Portoferraio on the island of Elba. An older castle with a centralized ground plan dating to the second half of the 15th century originally stood on the site, but was incorporated into the new fortress. During his sojourn in Piombino in 1504 Leonardo da Vinci studied its architecture, which inspired him to design his own circular tower, as can be seen in the Codex Madrid II.
The fortress complex served both as an observation post and a bulwark to defend the town from attack by sea or from the coast. It was important for Piombino to defend its position, which was vital to its commercial activities, in particular the transport of goods and iron ore between the mainland and the island of Elba. This activity dwindled when in the middle of the 19th century the castle was commandeered for use as a state prison. The building was completely renovated for this purpose, and served as a penal institution until the middle of the 20th century. It has since been restored and opened to the public, who can now see what it must have looked like during the past periods in its history.
Another portion of the town’s defences have been restored and now house the Museo del Castello e della Città, where permanent and temporary exhibitions can be seen. A collection of ancient artefacts including ceramics and metal objects allow the visitor to study the most important chapters in the history of the castle and the surrounding territory. | <urn:uuid:4d13ddfc-18d2-4b44-8c5a-c7752d859c72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.latoscanadileonardo.it/en/places/province-of-livorno/municipality-of-piombino/the-medici-fortress-of-piombino.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.981336 | 368 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.553583085536956... | 12 | The Medici Fortress of Piombino was designed by Giovanni Camerini and constructed between 1552 and 1557 for Cosimo I de’ Medici. It has an elongated star-shaped design with bastions at the corners, typical of the fortifications of the 15th century; a similar construction can be found across the water in Portoferraio on the island of Elba. An older castle with a centralized ground plan dating to the second half of the 15th century originally stood on the site, but was incorporated into the new fortress. During his sojourn in Piombino in 1504 Leonardo da Vinci studied its architecture, which inspired him to design his own circular tower, as can be seen in the Codex Madrid II.
The fortress complex served both as an observation post and a bulwark to defend the town from attack by sea or from the coast. It was important for Piombino to defend its position, which was vital to its commercial activities, in particular the transport of goods and iron ore between the mainland and the island of Elba. This activity dwindled when in the middle of the 19th century the castle was commandeered for use as a state prison. The building was completely renovated for this purpose, and served as a penal institution until the middle of the 20th century. It has since been restored and opened to the public, who can now see what it must have looked like during the past periods in its history.
Another portion of the town’s defences have been restored and now house the Museo del Castello e della Città, where permanent and temporary exhibitions can be seen. A collection of ancient artefacts including ceramics and metal objects allow the visitor to study the most important chapters in the history of the castle and the surrounding territory. | 378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In The Founding Fortunes, historian Tom Shachtman reveals the ways in which a dozen notable Revolutionaries deeply affected the finances and birth of the new country while making and losing their fortunes.
In times of war, the rich usually do get richer and the poor are still poor, yet free. Somewhat. This well-researched telling of the well known and not so well known who put their money into biting the very hand that was feeding them. In order to have control over what they grew and who they sold to this young country and its leaders were far from perfect and often put their own interests above the country.
The British wanted total control and the John Hancocks and George Washingtons of the time wanted the opposite. To control their own taxes, representations, to settle their own disputes and have free trade. We also meet a lot of people who were less well-known but never the less played significant roles in this time period.
Several things struck me reading this book. One, these guys did not have, as a rule, long lives. So what they accomplished as very young men was astounding. They were determined to define their own destiny in this new world. They had left England for a reason and that was the freedom to determine their own fate.
Excellent research and a much-needed history lesson for the times!
NetGalley/ January 21st, 2020 by St. Martin’s Press | <urn:uuid:db13cd37-373e-41d1-979a-8101a39ad3cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://piratepatty.com/2020/01/09/the-founding-fortunes-how-the-wealthy-paid-for-and-profited-from-americas-revolution-by-tom-shachtman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.988433 | 294 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.33488431572914124,
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-0.048032063990831375,
0.16933295130729675,
0.26538360118865967,
0.1514824628829956,
-0.1104151234... | 12 | In The Founding Fortunes, historian Tom Shachtman reveals the ways in which a dozen notable Revolutionaries deeply affected the finances and birth of the new country while making and losing their fortunes.
In times of war, the rich usually do get richer and the poor are still poor, yet free. Somewhat. This well-researched telling of the well known and not so well known who put their money into biting the very hand that was feeding them. In order to have control over what they grew and who they sold to this young country and its leaders were far from perfect and often put their own interests above the country.
The British wanted total control and the John Hancocks and George Washingtons of the time wanted the opposite. To control their own taxes, representations, to settle their own disputes and have free trade. We also meet a lot of people who were less well-known but never the less played significant roles in this time period.
Several things struck me reading this book. One, these guys did not have, as a rule, long lives. So what they accomplished as very young men was astounding. They were determined to define their own destiny in this new world. They had left England for a reason and that was the freedom to determine their own fate.
Excellent research and a much-needed history lesson for the times!
NetGalley/ January 21st, 2020 by St. Martin’s Press | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buy custom The Lewis and Clark Expedition essay
Lewis and Clark began an expedition of Western parts of America upon Thomas Jefferson’s request. The journey lasted for an approximate period of two years, from 1804 to 1806. It was intended to explore, as well as map, the Western half that was under American territory. There was fear that Britain as well as other major European powers could claim it. The mission intended to explore the ethnographic features of the populace and consequently their culture and their way of life would be changed. It was simply “the beginning of an end of the way of life of the Indian cultures.” Their lives were about to be altered completely and forever. Furthermore, it signified the beginning of interrelationship between soldiers, fur traders, and missionaries. The contact was expected to impact gradual changes to the way of the lives of indigenous people. During the wake of the Lewis and Clark expenditure, missionaries, soldiers and fur traders would consequently alter the lives of the Native Americans although the change was gradual.
The explorers were supposed to create diplomatic ties with the Native Americans. During the expedition, there were several activities that were carried out. They promised the hosts the creation of trade ties, held talks with the Indian representatives, handed out peace medals, and agitated for inter-tribal peace. Indian representatives were invited to travel to Washington. Jefferson believed that reaching there first was essential, given that knowing the region well would assist to block other countries from accessing it since it was vital to the growth of the young country.
There was a desire to shift the trading exercises from the dominant French, Spanish, English and Russian societies for the benefit of the Americans. Lewis and Clark wanted to establish long-term trading ventures while the Indians wanted immediate exchanges. At last, the Native American, Indian culture, would be changed completely after the contact with the expedition.
The explorers came into contact with over fifty Native American tribes. Most of the tribes welcomed the visitors and agreed to trading opportunities. In return, they gave out assistance through food, shelter, entertainment, knowledge and guides. However, there were numerous challenges faced by the explorers mostly because they were not conversant with the geographical location of the area they were exploring. Thomas Jefferson had sent the group led by Lewis and Clark to explore the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The expedition became the major historical event in America. Jefferson sent the soldiers to make ambassadorial contact with the Indians, explore Missouri river, locate the northward region of the pacific and facilitate the expansion of fur trade. The mission had its fair share of challenges.
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Indians from Oto and Missouri were some of the first groups of Native Americans whom Lewis and Clark met in their voyage. Lakota, a group they encountered in South Dakota, had British commercial ties and was not ready to welcome them because they viewed it as strengthening the competitive advantage of an enemy5. They did not view the American competition as favorable. The continuation of the expedition nearly turned violent at this point but Chief Black Buffalo prevented the occurrence of violence through his diplomacy.
Some of the groups such as Mandans were very friendly to them. They even went ahead and showed them the route they would use to advance heading west towards Pacific Ocean. The Frenchmen who lived among the Mandans also served as translators and guides. A woman names Sacajawea of the group of Shoshone played a key role in the success of the expedition. This was attributed to her language skills and knowledge of the west. The first tribe they met was the Sioux group, the Yankton Sioux. It was a peaceful encounter6. The meeting with Teton Sioux was not peaceful because the group asked for a boat so that the soldiers could pass but after they refused conflict erupted but ceased before it escalated to dangerous levels.
At one point in their journey, they met the Nez Perce group. At that time, they were very exhausted and hungry. These people assisted the corps with food and a place they could rest and build up their strength. The group, Arikara Indians, received the corps very warmly and they even stayed in their village for five days. The group took the directives from the corps and even the leaders agreed to make peace with their neighbors especially the Mandans. They agreed to trade with them and pay a special visit to them.
The Assiniboin Indians at one point threatened the ‘Corps of Discovery’ who also challenged the Mandan because they had made trade treaties and friendship with the expedition. There was a confrontation between the Blackfeet Indians and the Corps of Discovery in a night that they attempted to steal their guns. Chinook Indians were very friendly to the visitors except for some very few instances of tension which was calmed later on. Clatsop Indians seemed to have been the friendliest group to the Corps according to Lewis of any other group in the new exploration.
Hidatsa group created tension at first but later emerged helpful to the expedition, as they were able to direct the expedition towards the route they could use. Tillamook Indians were friendly to the team and traded with them. Walla Walla Indians were also friendly to the exploring team and even convinced them to spend an extra night when the team was in their region. They gave them presents like horses, canoes and food and directed them on their next destination. Wishram Indians were friendly to the corps and dried fish for them as food during winter. Although the trading discussions with the Yankton Sioux had at first failed, the group agreed to negotiate with the visitors and even to visit America for more talks with Jefferson in Washington.
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[SAMPLE] Book reportDownload this sample
[SAMPLE] Term paperDownload this sample | <urn:uuid:7ac76c13-2407-4a25-8eab-300a9ce0307f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marvelousessay.org/essays/history/the-lewis-and-clark-expedition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.983866 | 1,241 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.0971123725175... | 1 | Buy custom The Lewis and Clark Expedition essay
Lewis and Clark began an expedition of Western parts of America upon Thomas Jefferson’s request. The journey lasted for an approximate period of two years, from 1804 to 1806. It was intended to explore, as well as map, the Western half that was under American territory. There was fear that Britain as well as other major European powers could claim it. The mission intended to explore the ethnographic features of the populace and consequently their culture and their way of life would be changed. It was simply “the beginning of an end of the way of life of the Indian cultures.” Their lives were about to be altered completely and forever. Furthermore, it signified the beginning of interrelationship between soldiers, fur traders, and missionaries. The contact was expected to impact gradual changes to the way of the lives of indigenous people. During the wake of the Lewis and Clark expenditure, missionaries, soldiers and fur traders would consequently alter the lives of the Native Americans although the change was gradual.
The explorers were supposed to create diplomatic ties with the Native Americans. During the expedition, there were several activities that were carried out. They promised the hosts the creation of trade ties, held talks with the Indian representatives, handed out peace medals, and agitated for inter-tribal peace. Indian representatives were invited to travel to Washington. Jefferson believed that reaching there first was essential, given that knowing the region well would assist to block other countries from accessing it since it was vital to the growth of the young country.
There was a desire to shift the trading exercises from the dominant French, Spanish, English and Russian societies for the benefit of the Americans. Lewis and Clark wanted to establish long-term trading ventures while the Indians wanted immediate exchanges. At last, the Native American, Indian culture, would be changed completely after the contact with the expedition.
The explorers came into contact with over fifty Native American tribes. Most of the tribes welcomed the visitors and agreed to trading opportunities. In return, they gave out assistance through food, shelter, entertainment, knowledge and guides. However, there were numerous challenges faced by the explorers mostly because they were not conversant with the geographical location of the area they were exploring. Thomas Jefferson had sent the group led by Lewis and Clark to explore the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The expedition became the major historical event in America. Jefferson sent the soldiers to make ambassadorial contact with the Indians, explore Missouri river, locate the northward region of the pacific and facilitate the expansion of fur trade. The mission had its fair share of challenges.
Buy The Lewis and Clark Expedition essay paper onlineBecome our VIP client
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
Indians from Oto and Missouri were some of the first groups of Native Americans whom Lewis and Clark met in their voyage. Lakota, a group they encountered in South Dakota, had British commercial ties and was not ready to welcome them because they viewed it as strengthening the competitive advantage of an enemy5. They did not view the American competition as favorable. The continuation of the expedition nearly turned violent at this point but Chief Black Buffalo prevented the occurrence of violence through his diplomacy.
Some of the groups such as Mandans were very friendly to them. They even went ahead and showed them the route they would use to advance heading west towards Pacific Ocean. The Frenchmen who lived among the Mandans also served as translators and guides. A woman names Sacajawea of the group of Shoshone played a key role in the success of the expedition. This was attributed to her language skills and knowledge of the west. The first tribe they met was the Sioux group, the Yankton Sioux. It was a peaceful encounter6. The meeting with Teton Sioux was not peaceful because the group asked for a boat so that the soldiers could pass but after they refused conflict erupted but ceased before it escalated to dangerous levels.
At one point in their journey, they met the Nez Perce group. At that time, they were very exhausted and hungry. These people assisted the corps with food and a place they could rest and build up their strength. The group, Arikara Indians, received the corps very warmly and they even stayed in their village for five days. The group took the directives from the corps and even the leaders agreed to make peace with their neighbors especially the Mandans. They agreed to trade with them and pay a special visit to them.
The Assiniboin Indians at one point threatened the ‘Corps of Discovery’ who also challenged the Mandan because they had made trade treaties and friendship with the expedition. There was a confrontation between the Blackfeet Indians and the Corps of Discovery in a night that they attempted to steal their guns. Chinook Indians were very friendly to the visitors except for some very few instances of tension which was calmed later on. Clatsop Indians seemed to have been the friendliest group to the Corps according to Lewis of any other group in the new exploration.
Hidatsa group created tension at first but later emerged helpful to the expedition, as they were able to direct the expedition towards the route they could use. Tillamook Indians were friendly to the team and traded with them. Walla Walla Indians were also friendly to the exploring team and even convinced them to spend an extra night when the team was in their region. They gave them presents like horses, canoes and food and directed them on their next destination. Wishram Indians were friendly to the corps and dried fish for them as food during winter. Although the trading discussions with the Yankton Sioux had at first failed, the group agreed to negotiate with the visitors and even to visit America for more talks with Jefferson in Washington.
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Related Free History Essays
[SAMPLE] Book reportDownload this sample
[SAMPLE] Term paperDownload this sample | 1,223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The primary reason that asbestos was used in building products was as a binder or filler material. It was cheap and easily available. It is stringy and resilient, and thus made a good binder. Its resilience also reduced the breakage of the products between the factory and the worksite. In pipe covering and other materials, asbestos created air pockets which provided heat resistance.
Asbestos was marketed for its "fire resistant" qualities. In reality, at approximately 1200 degrees, asbestos transforms into an inert mineral. Other materials were available, even in the 1930's and thereafter, that could have been used (and, in fact, were used) as substitutes for asbestos without any sacrifice in product integrity or heat resistance. The asbestos industry peddled asbestos as a "magic mineral," creating a demand for the material, without advising of the dangers of asbestos. As a result, thousands of American workers were injured and killed. It was unnecessary and could have been avoided. | <urn:uuid:a8cc7dbb-4c8b-48cc-a916-108d602802ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://veterans-for-change.org/faqs?view=faq&catid=32&tmpl=component&faqid=367 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.983033 | 193 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.26395747065544... | 3 | The primary reason that asbestos was used in building products was as a binder or filler material. It was cheap and easily available. It is stringy and resilient, and thus made a good binder. Its resilience also reduced the breakage of the products between the factory and the worksite. In pipe covering and other materials, asbestos created air pockets which provided heat resistance.
Asbestos was marketed for its "fire resistant" qualities. In reality, at approximately 1200 degrees, asbestos transforms into an inert mineral. Other materials were available, even in the 1930's and thereafter, that could have been used (and, in fact, were used) as substitutes for asbestos without any sacrifice in product integrity or heat resistance. The asbestos industry peddled asbestos as a "magic mineral," creating a demand for the material, without advising of the dangers of asbestos. As a result, thousands of American workers were injured and killed. It was unnecessary and could have been avoided. | 199 | ENGLISH | 1 |
39. President Tyler, Born in 1790, Has Grandsons Living in 2019
As American presidents go, John Tyler (1790 – 1862) was nothing special. Elected as vice president on the 1840 Whig ticket, he became head honcho when the head of the ticket, William Henry Harrison, caught pneumonia while giving his inaugural speech, and died after a mere 31 days in office.
As president, Tyler turned out to be a mediocrity. Infuriating both his own Whig Party and the opposition Democrats, he muddled through to the end of a forgettable single term, failing to get re-nominated by his party. To the extent he is known to many today, it might be as one of the names in The Simpsons song, Mediocre Presidents. However, there is one extraordinary thing about Tyler: although he was born in the eighteenth century, in 1790, he has grandsons still living at the time of this writing (2019) in the twenty first century. How did that come about? | <urn:uuid:31722405-0336-4802-af19-ecca9c9e59cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/cleopatra-lived-closer-to-the-computer-age-than-to-the-pyramids-and-other-atypical-history-facts/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.983709 | 213 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.458340793848037... | 2 | 39. President Tyler, Born in 1790, Has Grandsons Living in 2019
As American presidents go, John Tyler (1790 – 1862) was nothing special. Elected as vice president on the 1840 Whig ticket, he became head honcho when the head of the ticket, William Henry Harrison, caught pneumonia while giving his inaugural speech, and died after a mere 31 days in office.
As president, Tyler turned out to be a mediocrity. Infuriating both his own Whig Party and the opposition Democrats, he muddled through to the end of a forgettable single term, failing to get re-nominated by his party. To the extent he is known to many today, it might be as one of the names in The Simpsons song, Mediocre Presidents. However, there is one extraordinary thing about Tyler: although he was born in the eighteenth century, in 1790, he has grandsons still living at the time of this writing (2019) in the twenty first century. How did that come about? | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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