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The Scream is one of the most famous paintings in the world. The Scream was created by a Norwegian artist known as Edvard Munch and was painted at the end of the 19th century; a time that was characterized by a unique transitional period in the history of art. At the time, artists were often judged by their technical skill, so most artists opted to paint their subjects objectively. However, the likes of Munch who represented a century of brave artists began using art to express their inner emotions, thoughts, and feelings instead. Munch often created his paintings by using simple shapes and exaggerated bright colors as he did on The Scream. The Scream features a figure holding two elongated hands on either side of his hairless head which appears to be skull-like. The figure seems to be in emotional and psychological torment as depicted by its agonized expression. There is a blazing skyline behind the figure with two other figures at a distance. The type of art that Munch created was highly influenced by painful events in his life. At an early age of five, death robbed Munch of his mother who died of tuberculosis. Almost a decade later, Johanne Sophie who was Munch's favorite sister also died of tuberculosis. These two significant losses were also accompanied by the emotional unavailability of Munch's father who was suffering from psychotic depression, abject poverty, and constant illnesses. Edvard Munch never married but used to refer to his paintings as his children. For the last 27 years of his life, Evdard Munch became increasingly isolated and revered, living alone on his estate outside Oslo before he died at the age of 80. After that, numerous paintings, lithographs, woodcut blocks, drawings, lithographic stones, photographs, woodcuts etchings, and copperplates were recovered on the second floor of his estate behind locked doors. Edvard Munch created four versions of The Scream, two paintings in 1893 and 1910 and two in pastels in 1893 and 1895. Several lithographs of the piece also exist created in 1895 and after. The Scream is considered to be one of the world's most recognizable paintings. The piece has been widely interpreted as one that represents the modern man's universal anxiety. Employing a high view point, The Scream reduces the figure in the painting which appears to be in agony to an adorned skull in the turmoil of an emotional crisis. Through his painting, Munch was able to define how human beings view our age wracked with uncertainty and anxiety. Edvard Munch gave birth to a style of art that was later known as Expressionism. Painting Location and WorthA pastel version of the piece created in 1895 was sold on May 2, 2012 at auction for 119,922,500 US dollars which was inclusive of commission. This pastel piece was the most colorful of the four versions and the only one not held by a Norwegian Museum. The version of the painting was displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York between October 2012 and April 2013. The 1983 and 1910 versions were independently stolen in 1994 and 2004 respectively but were later recovered. Where Does the Scream Hang? A pastel version of the piece created in 1895 was sold on May 2, 2012 at auction for 119,922,500 US dollars which was inclusive of commission. This pastel piece was the most colorful of the four versions and the only one not held by a Norwegian Museum. The version of the painting was displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York between October 2012 and April 2013. The 1983 and 1910 versions were independently stolen in 1994 and 2004 respectively but were later recovered. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:3e065aa8-2bce-4e0f-bb60-5accf3a89d31>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/famous-artwork-the-scream.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00153.warc.gz	en	0.986851	802	3.5	4	[ 0.14206235110759735, 0.10694862902164459, 0.2318139672279358, 0.43199145793914795, -0.11933346092700958, 0.06527123600244522, 0.4225040674209595, -0.035813018679618835, 0.0982469916343689, -0.24684077501296997, 0.2506410479545593, -0.3921811580657959, -0.08007951080799103, 0.40059411525726...	2	The Scream is one of the most famous paintings in the world. The Scream was created by a Norwegian artist known as Edvard Munch and was painted at the end of the 19th century; a time that was characterized by a unique transitional period in the history of art. At the time, artists were often judged by their technical skill, so most artists opted to paint their subjects objectively. However, the likes of Munch who represented a century of brave artists began using art to express their inner emotions, thoughts, and feelings instead. Munch often created his paintings by using simple shapes and exaggerated bright colors as he did on The Scream. The Scream features a figure holding two elongated hands on either side of his hairless head which appears to be skull-like. The figure seems to be in emotional and psychological torment as depicted by its agonized expression. There is a blazing skyline behind the figure with two other figures at a distance. The type of art that Munch created was highly influenced by painful events in his life. At an early age of five, death robbed Munch of his mother who died of tuberculosis. Almost a decade later, Johanne Sophie who was Munch's favorite sister also died of tuberculosis. These two significant losses were also accompanied by the emotional unavailability of Munch's father who was suffering from psychotic depression, abject poverty, and constant illnesses. Edvard Munch never married but used to refer to his paintings as his children. For the last 27 years of his life, Evdard Munch became increasingly isolated and revered, living alone on his estate outside Oslo before he died at the age of 80. After that, numerous paintings, lithographs, woodcut blocks, drawings, lithographic stones, photographs, woodcuts etchings, and copperplates were recovered on the second floor of his estate behind locked doors. Edvard Munch created four versions of The Scream, two paintings in 1893 and 1910 and two in pastels in 1893 and 1895. Several lithographs of the piece also exist created in 1895 and after. The Scream is considered to be one of the world's most recognizable paintings. The piece has been widely interpreted as one that represents the modern man's universal anxiety. Employing a high view point, The Scream reduces the figure in the painting which appears to be in agony to an adorned skull in the turmoil of an emotional crisis. Through his painting, Munch was able to define how human beings view our age wracked with uncertainty and anxiety. Edvard Munch gave birth to a style of art that was later known as Expressionism. Painting Location and WorthA pastel version of the piece created in 1895 was sold on May 2, 2012 at auction for 119,922,500 US dollars which was inclusive of commission. This pastel piece was the most colorful of the four versions and the only one not held by a Norwegian Museum. The version of the painting was displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York between October 2012 and April 2013. The 1983 and 1910 versions were independently stolen in 1994 and 2004 respectively but were later recovered. Where Does the Scream Hang? A pastel version of the piece created in 1895 was sold on May 2, 2012 at auction for 119,922,500 US dollars which was inclusive of commission. This pastel piece was the most colorful of the four versions and the only one not held by a Norwegian Museum. The version of the painting was displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York between October 2012 and April 2013. The 1983 and 1910 versions were independently stolen in 1994 and 2004 respectively but were later recovered. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	903	ENGLISH	1
Scientists have confirmed a long-held theory of locals in Gaspé, Que., that the human remains of 21 individuals, unearthed over a five-year period, are from an 1847 Carricks shipwreck. The ship left Sligo, Ireland, carrying 180 passengers fleeing the Potato Famine, also known as the Great Hunger. It sank off the coast of Cap-des-Rosiers in Gaspé, killing as many as 150 people. The bones of three children washed up on the shore in 2011 after a harsh storm, and the remains of another 18 individuals were unearthed in 2016 before a beach restoration. The remains were sent to Parks Canada offices in Ottawa, and then to researchers at the Montreal University for analysis. "This is like the end of the story for people who were interested in this," said Mathieu Côté, a resource conservation manager at Forillon National Park. "We were suspicious of where [the remains] were from, and we had a good idea where they were from, but now we have evidence that those people were from Ireland." Côté started with Parks Canada about a year before the first remains were found. He called the last eight years a "great project" that's shed light on an important part of Canada's history. "They were old bones, and they were very fragile," Côté said, adding that 160 years of saltwater exposure worsened their condition. Determining diet key to confirmation Scientists used samples of the bones to determine their chemical composition and identify their origins. "We did our best because the remains were very fragmentary," said Isabelle Ribot, an associate professor of bioarcheology at Montreal University, who was involved with the analysis. "They were extremely fragile," she said. "As soon as you touched, them they would start to crumble." The analysis showed that the bones belonged to people whose diets were characteristic of a rural population dependent on agriculture — specifically potatoes — as was typical of the Irish population at the time. "Our skeletons reflect what we eat," Ribot said, explaining that scientists are able to determine whether a person had a protein- or vegetable-rich diet based on their bones. She said chronic health problems like malnutrition are also evident in the bones. The remains found at Cap-des-Rosiers showed that the shipwrecked people had a diet low in protein, and that they were under nutritional stress, likely caused by the famine in Ireland. Most of the bones belonged to women and children. "Knowing the context and knowing there are descendants of the people who survived, it is very emotional and very sensitive," Ribot said "We are very blessed to have been able to analyze them and extract as much information as we can." Ribot said she would have liked to do ancient DNA analysis on the bones, but it was impossible because of their condition. The archeologists were also only able to collect about one per cent of some skeletons. "They probably literally melted because of the context of preservation," Ribot said. Locals believe beach is a cemetery Côté said the discovery is in line with the oral history of the area — that there is a mass grave of shipwreck victims on the beach. "We weren't sure if there was one, but that's what the locals were saying," he said. Most of the wreck's survivors continued on to Quebec City and Montreal, but some stayed in the area. "The tragic events of the Carricks shipwreck are a startling reminder of just how difficult the journey was for the travellers and that not everybody was lucky enough to reach their new home," said Diane Lebouthillier, MP for Gaspésie–Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine, in a statement. "Today's announcement is very significant for Irish families whose ancestors were Carricks passengers," she said. "This shipwreck reflects an important part of Canadian history." The remains will be taken to Forillon National Park in the coming weeks and a funeral service will be held. They will be buried near the Irish Memorial on Cap-des-Rosiers Beach, which was erected in 1900 in memory of those who died after the ship sank. Forty-eight people survived the shipwreck, and 87 bodies have been found of the estimated 120 to 150 dead.	<urn:uuid:a1255c28-d43d-48b9-8fa9-06630c20d47c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ca.news.yahoo.com/human-remains-found-gasp-1847-174540917.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00258.warc.gz	en	0.988501	905	3.53125	4	[ -0.2073059231042862, 0.39806562662124634, 0.23769137263298035, -0.23303885757923126, 0.36187317967414856, -0.25866129994392395, 0.06869646161794662, -0.07966921478509903, -0.3198224902153015, -0.2623594403266907, 0.38824647665023804, -0.4671398401260376, 0.06683634221553802, 0.263780057430...	3	Scientists have confirmed a long-held theory of locals in Gaspé, Que., that the human remains of 21 individuals, unearthed over a five-year period, are from an 1847 Carricks shipwreck. The ship left Sligo, Ireland, carrying 180 passengers fleeing the Potato Famine, also known as the Great Hunger. It sank off the coast of Cap-des-Rosiers in Gaspé, killing as many as 150 people. The bones of three children washed up on the shore in 2011 after a harsh storm, and the remains of another 18 individuals were unearthed in 2016 before a beach restoration. The remains were sent to Parks Canada offices in Ottawa, and then to researchers at the Montreal University for analysis. "This is like the end of the story for people who were interested in this," said Mathieu Côté, a resource conservation manager at Forillon National Park. "We were suspicious of where [the remains] were from, and we had a good idea where they were from, but now we have evidence that those people were from Ireland." Côté started with Parks Canada about a year before the first remains were found. He called the last eight years a "great project" that's shed light on an important part of Canada's history. "They were old bones, and they were very fragile," Côté said, adding that 160 years of saltwater exposure worsened their condition. Determining diet key to confirmation Scientists used samples of the bones to determine their chemical composition and identify their origins. "We did our best because the remains were very fragmentary," said Isabelle Ribot, an associate professor of bioarcheology at Montreal University, who was involved with the analysis. "They were extremely fragile," she said. "As soon as you touched, them they would start to crumble." The analysis showed that the bones belonged to people whose diets were characteristic of a rural population dependent on agriculture — specifically potatoes — as was typical of the Irish population at the time. "Our skeletons reflect what we eat," Ribot said, explaining that scientists are able to determine whether a person had a protein- or vegetable-rich diet based on their bones. She said chronic health problems like malnutrition are also evident in the bones. The remains found at Cap-des-Rosiers showed that the shipwrecked people had a diet low in protein, and that they were under nutritional stress, likely caused by the famine in Ireland. Most of the bones belonged to women and children. "Knowing the context and knowing there are descendants of the people who survived, it is very emotional and very sensitive," Ribot said "We are very blessed to have been able to analyze them and extract as much information as we can." Ribot said she would have liked to do ancient DNA analysis on the bones, but it was impossible because of their condition. The archeologists were also only able to collect about one per cent of some skeletons. "They probably literally melted because of the context of preservation," Ribot said. Locals believe beach is a cemetery Côté said the discovery is in line with the oral history of the area — that there is a mass grave of shipwreck victims on the beach. "We weren't sure if there was one, but that's what the locals were saying," he said. Most of the wreck's survivors continued on to Quebec City and Montreal, but some stayed in the area. "The tragic events of the Carricks shipwreck are a startling reminder of just how difficult the journey was for the travellers and that not everybody was lucky enough to reach their new home," said Diane Lebouthillier, MP for Gaspésie–Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine, in a statement. "Today's announcement is very significant for Irish families whose ancestors were Carricks passengers," she said. "This shipwreck reflects an important part of Canadian history." The remains will be taken to Forillon National Park in the coming weeks and a funeral service will be held. They will be buried near the Irish Memorial on Cap-des-Rosiers Beach, which was erected in 1900 in memory of those who died after the ship sank. Forty-eight people survived the shipwreck, and 87 bodies have been found of the estimated 120 to 150 dead.	900	ENGLISH	1
Book Review Essay Iliad by Homer In Homer’s book the “Iliad”, the story follows the fighting between the Greeks and the Trojans. The battles are not always with the enemies though but also within the characters themselves and the idea of shame. Shame is defined as one feeling humiliated by one's action or actions. Shame often influences one's behavior as it leads to anger in oneself. The two main heroes, Hector and Achilles, both endure moments of shame which causes them to act in irrational and or unthoughtful ways that would lead to unforeseen consequences that would not have happened if they were not ashamed. The start of this can be seen in the beginning of the story when conflicts emerge between Agamemnon and Achilles regarding a prize that was acquired after a won battle. Achilles calls out Agamemnon on returning his prize so the gods will not continue to be upset with them and in the end Agamemnon is forced to return Chryseis to her father (Homer 1.116-128). In return for giving up his prize Agamemnon ends up taking Achilles prize to prove how much stronger he was than him. This caused Achilles to go into a fit of rage and led him to nearly draw his sword to strike and kill Agamemnon (1.199-206). The reason for Achilles to act in this manner is the way he was treated by Agamemnon. The prize that Agamemnon was taking was given to Achilles out of respect for him from the army. He was a valiant warrior and was loved by the entire army and and for that reason he obtained this gift. Agamemnon completely humiliates Achilles by taking away his prize and the shame that comes with it is what puts him into his fit of rage that nearly causes him to kill Agamemnon. As a result of this Achilles goes on “strike” because Agamemnon “failed to honor the best Greek of all” (1.259). Later as Achilles continues to sit out the war and denying any attempt to persuade him to return to the battle his best friend ends up getting killed by Hector (9.320-321) (16.895-896). Achilles was distraught at hearing about this event. He believed that he was the cause of Patroclus’s death as he was waiting out the war and not fighting with him and the Greeks in battle. The shame that emerged from this was so immense that he wished to return to battle and avenge his best friend. At this point, Achilles knows the fate that he is to die at a young age and going out to kill Hector will ultimately mean the death of him (18.122-129). He completely ignores this and continues to his own downfall. The actions that Achilles took throughout the “Iliad” proved to be a direct response to the shame that he felt due to the circumstances. Whether or not his actions were justified or not they were still influenced by the idea of shame. In the beginning his main fit of rage was due to Agamemnon dishonoring and shaming him by taking away his prize. Achilles considered himself to be the greatest warrior and the treatment he was getting from Agamemnon humiliated him. This in forth caused him to sit out the fighting with the Trojans leading to the death of his best friend. He believed that it was all his fault for not protecting Patroclus and was ashamed of himself. The shame and guilt that came with that led him to rejoin the war efforts and decide on fighting and killing Hector the Prince of Troy. These such events could have been avoided if Achilles would not have felt ashamed for these events. If Achilles never sat out the war due to Agamemnon insults and the taking of his prize the events such as Patroclus dying and the death of all the other Greeks that died due to the restraint of Achilles aid. Achilles would have been able to protect Patroclus and end the war much quicker if he stayed fighting the Trojans. Hector the greatest of all the Trojans and the Prince of Troy also has to deal with influences of shame when it comes to how he takes action during the war. He has to deal with the realization that he can potentially die out in battle and how it will affect his family. He believes that he has to stay out and fight with the men as he would feel like a coward if he stayed back (6.464-469). Although if he died Troy would be completely defenseless and would not have a military leader, he still refuses to stay behind the walls and continuously throws himself into battle all because of shame. Later in a faceoff between Achilles and Hector his parents advise him to get inside of the walls to fight another day (22.66-96). He continued to ignore what they are saying as he “destroyed half the army through [his] recklessness” (22.118-119). He was devastated after the battle which led to the death of a good majority of the army and he could not go back and face the city after that. Hector was so ashamed after what happened that he would rather die fighting Achilles then face them. When they both finally faced off against each other Hector tried to get Achilles to come to an agreement that they would not defile each other corpses but instead return them to each other's families. But, Achilles refused to as he is still furious and ashamed about the death of his dearest friend (22.287-299). In the end, Hector was defeated by Achilles all due to him not wanting to face the people of the city because he was ashamed. Hectors actions were all related to honor and how he never wanted to be considered a coward and shamed. He would have rathered died that be considered anything else but honorable and glorious. Knowing that he could die any time he went into battle and leaving his city without their best fighter showed a lot of how shame plays into his character and decisions. Also in the events such as the fight between him and Achilles shows how he would have died before being ashamed. Hector easily could have walked back inside the city allowing himself another day to fight but the shame was too great for him to handle that he would have rather stayed and fight. In the end both Hector and Achilles made costly mistakes ending in unforeseen consequences that would have been avoided if they were not shameful about certain actions and events. Achilles actions such as sitting out of the war led to the death of his best friend and many Greeks that would have been avoided if he was not shamed by Agamemnon. He would have been able to protect his friend and end the war earlier. The same goes with Hectors actions. If the shame of running away into the city did not get in the way of him he would have retreated and survived.	<urn:uuid:51f7d634-7924-4be4-8fa5-33c70bdaba80>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://wisteriaminihorseranch.com/book-review-essay-iliad-by-homer.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00241.warc.gz	en	0.991813	1,411	3.71875	4	[ -0.10758575797080994, 0.48199400305747986, 0.10466345399618149, 0.3798871636390686, -0.41283321380615234, -0.41066858172416687, -0.05564454570412636, 0.558417797088623, 0.15901415050029755, 0.04610057920217514, -0.14131994545459747, -0.38011983036994934, -0.019475894048810005, 0.5932056903...	4	Book Review Essay Iliad by Homer In Homer’s book the “Iliad”, the story follows the fighting between the Greeks and the Trojans. The battles are not always with the enemies though but also within the characters themselves and the idea of shame. Shame is defined as one feeling humiliated by one's action or actions. Shame often influences one's behavior as it leads to anger in oneself. The two main heroes, Hector and Achilles, both endure moments of shame which causes them to act in irrational and or unthoughtful ways that would lead to unforeseen consequences that would not have happened if they were not ashamed. The start of this can be seen in the beginning of the story when conflicts emerge between Agamemnon and Achilles regarding a prize that was acquired after a won battle. Achilles calls out Agamemnon on returning his prize so the gods will not continue to be upset with them and in the end Agamemnon is forced to return Chryseis to her father (Homer 1.116-128). In return for giving up his prize Agamemnon ends up taking Achilles prize to prove how much stronger he was than him. This caused Achilles to go into a fit of rage and led him to nearly draw his sword to strike and kill Agamemnon (1.199-206). The reason for Achilles to act in this manner is the way he was treated by Agamemnon. The prize that Agamemnon was taking was given to Achilles out of respect for him from the army. He was a valiant warrior and was loved by the entire army and and for that reason he obtained this gift. Agamemnon completely humiliates Achilles by taking away his prize and the shame that comes with it is what puts him into his fit of rage that nearly causes him to kill Agamemnon. As a result of this Achilles goes on “strike” because Agamemnon “failed to honor the best Greek of all” (1.259). Later as Achilles continues to sit out the war and denying any attempt to persuade him to return to the battle his best friend ends up getting killed by Hector (9.320-321) (16.895-896). Achilles was distraught at hearing about this event. He believed that he was the cause of Patroclus’s death as he was waiting out the war and not fighting with him and the Greeks in battle. The shame that emerged from this was so immense that he wished to return to battle and avenge his best friend. At this point, Achilles knows the fate that he is to die at a young age and going out to kill Hector will ultimately mean the death of him (18.122-129). He completely ignores this and continues to his own downfall. The actions that Achilles took throughout the “Iliad” proved to be a direct response to the shame that he felt due to the circumstances. Whether or not his actions were justified or not they were still influenced by the idea of shame. In the beginning his main fit of rage was due to Agamemnon dishonoring and shaming him by taking away his prize. Achilles considered himself to be the greatest warrior and the treatment he was getting from Agamemnon humiliated him. This in forth caused him to sit out the fighting with the Trojans leading to the death of his best friend. He believed that it was all his fault for not protecting Patroclus and was ashamed of himself. The shame and guilt that came with that led him to rejoin the war efforts and decide on fighting and killing Hector the Prince of Troy. These such events could have been avoided if Achilles would not have felt ashamed for these events. If Achilles never sat out the war due to Agamemnon insults and the taking of his prize the events such as Patroclus dying and the death of all the other Greeks that died due to the restraint of Achilles aid. Achilles would have been able to protect Patroclus and end the war much quicker if he stayed fighting the Trojans. Hector the greatest of all the Trojans and the Prince of Troy also has to deal with influences of shame when it comes to how he takes action during the war. He has to deal with the realization that he can potentially die out in battle and how it will affect his family. He believes that he has to stay out and fight with the men as he would feel like a coward if he stayed back (6.464-469). Although if he died Troy would be completely defenseless and would not have a military leader, he still refuses to stay behind the walls and continuously throws himself into battle all because of shame. Later in a faceoff between Achilles and Hector his parents advise him to get inside of the walls to fight another day (22.66-96). He continued to ignore what they are saying as he “destroyed half the army through [his] recklessness” (22.118-119). He was devastated after the battle which led to the death of a good majority of the army and he could not go back and face the city after that. Hector was so ashamed after what happened that he would rather die fighting Achilles then face them. When they both finally faced off against each other Hector tried to get Achilles to come to an agreement that they would not defile each other corpses but instead return them to each other's families. But, Achilles refused to as he is still furious and ashamed about the death of his dearest friend (22.287-299). In the end, Hector was defeated by Achilles all due to him not wanting to face the people of the city because he was ashamed. Hectors actions were all related to honor and how he never wanted to be considered a coward and shamed. He would have rathered died that be considered anything else but honorable and glorious. Knowing that he could die any time he went into battle and leaving his city without their best fighter showed a lot of how shame plays into his character and decisions. Also in the events such as the fight between him and Achilles shows how he would have died before being ashamed. Hector easily could have walked back inside the city allowing himself another day to fight but the shame was too great for him to handle that he would have rather stayed and fight. In the end both Hector and Achilles made costly mistakes ending in unforeseen consequences that would have been avoided if they were not shameful about certain actions and events. Achilles actions such as sitting out of the war led to the death of his best friend and many Greeks that would have been avoided if he was not shamed by Agamemnon. He would have been able to protect his friend and end the war earlier. The same goes with Hectors actions. If the shame of running away into the city did not get in the way of him he would have retreated and survived.	1,434	ENGLISH	1
When some of the Southern states succeeded from the union of states and officially formed the Confederate States of American, raised an army and navy, men who became members of the southern military and were members of the Confederate Army or Confederate Navy. The states who remained in the Union of the United States of America would, in my opinion, be properly referred to a members of the UNION forces since they represented the army of the remaining states or the residue of UNION of the United States of America. Therefore, from the 1st shot fired at Fort Sumter by the Confederate forces,(I realize at this precise time there was no Confederate States of America), but there existed a civil uprising against the residue of states consisting of the United States of America. Once the opposing forces were organized into two separate governments, there was a Union Army (residue of the United States of America) and a Confederate Army (Rebel Army) who clashed for four years. Once the surrender of Confederate forces to the Union forces was completed there once again was a United States of America (after the Confederate States had completed the requirement to reenter the union of the original United States of America). At this point, the veterans of the Civil War who fought on the Union side (residue of the United States) would be known as veterans of the UNION Army. Those that choose to become members of the Confederate States of America would, in my opinion, be referred to as Veterans of the Confederate Army or Rebel Army. Any former Confederate Soldiers who joined the army after the Confederate States had been readmitted to the union of the United States of America would then be referred as veterans of the United States of America. I am sure other posters would not require as many words as I to state they opinion, but I do not focus on "just the facts, Ma'am" as well as I did when I was younger.	<urn:uuid:d0a5ec5d-2bd9-4c66-8076-f334cc0d2b40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs62x/nvcwmb/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=67850	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00301.warc.gz	en	0.982497	387	3.328125	3	[ -0.44057324528694153, 0.020988009870052338, 0.5272125005722046, -0.043924521654844284, 0.0027084527537226677, 0.2362656593322754, 0.08172434568405151, 0.05745236203074455, 0.05335770547389984, 0.07901234924793243, 0.3738129734992981, -0.202078178524971, 0.15922926366329193, 0.1128647997975...	2	When some of the Southern states succeeded from the union of states and officially formed the Confederate States of American, raised an army and navy, men who became members of the southern military and were members of the Confederate Army or Confederate Navy. The states who remained in the Union of the United States of America would, in my opinion, be properly referred to a members of the UNION forces since they represented the army of the remaining states or the residue of UNION of the United States of America. Therefore, from the 1st shot fired at Fort Sumter by the Confederate forces,(I realize at this precise time there was no Confederate States of America), but there existed a civil uprising against the residue of states consisting of the United States of America. Once the opposing forces were organized into two separate governments, there was a Union Army (residue of the United States of America) and a Confederate Army (Rebel Army) who clashed for four years. Once the surrender of Confederate forces to the Union forces was completed there once again was a United States of America (after the Confederate States had completed the requirement to reenter the union of the original United States of America). At this point, the veterans of the Civil War who fought on the Union side (residue of the United States) would be known as veterans of the UNION Army. Those that choose to become members of the Confederate States of America would, in my opinion, be referred to as Veterans of the Confederate Army or Rebel Army. Any former Confederate Soldiers who joined the army after the Confederate States had been readmitted to the union of the United States of America would then be referred as veterans of the United States of America. I am sure other posters would not require as many words as I to state they opinion, but I do not focus on "just the facts, Ma'am" as well as I did when I was younger.	376	ENGLISH	1
5. Early Life Andrew Johnson was born on December 29th, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, to a family of English and Scottish descent. His family was very poor, and he was apprenticed to a tailor when he was only ten. Because of this apprenticeship, he did not attend regular school. The only education he received came from listening to people who came to the tailor shop and reading. Unhappy with his situation at the tailor shop, he ran away after five years of work, first to South Carolina, then to Tennessee. He settled in Greenville, Tennessee, established a successful tailoring business for himself, and became rich. He became very interested in politics, and would often partake in political debates with his customers. 4. Rise to Power Gradually, Johnson's tailor shop became a hotbed for political discussion, and he soon became politically active. He gained the support of local working class people, and became their advocate. In the following years, he was elected to a series of government positions. First, he was elected alderman in 1829 and five years later, as the Mayor of Greenville. The next year, he joined the Tennessee state legislature. In 1843, he was elected as a Tennessee member of the US House of Representatives, and later served as Governor of Tennessee. In 1856, he became a Senator. His fervent pro-Union stance irritated his fellow Southerners, but gained him notice from President-to-be Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln appointed Johnson to be the Military Governor of Tennessee during the Civil War, and then to serve as his own Vice President. After Lincoln was shot in 1865, just as the Union was securing its final victories over the Confederacy, Johnson was sworn in as the 17th President of the United States. Johnson pushed through his own post-war Reconstruction agenda in the South starting from the very beginning of his Presidency. He quickly issued amnesty to rebels who would take an oath of allegiance, which allowed many former Confederates and supporters of slavery to be elected to office in Southern states. They instituted "black codes", which in fact maintained systematic oppression of African Americans despite the abolishment of slavery. Under his reign, Johnson facilitated the purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was until then a Russian colony, and expanded US territory. He also pressured France to withdraw its troops from Mexico, in order to maintain US hegemony in the area across its southern borders. When Johnson became the US President, the bloody Civil War was just ending, and the South urgently needed reconstruction of its infrastructure and reconciliation with the rest of the nation. He pushed along his own Reconstruction policies, which in fact maintained racial inequality and prevented African Americans in the South from gaining equal rights. These policies enraged members of Congress, and Johnson intensified their rage by vetoing important civil rights bills and laws passed by the Congress, including the Civil Rights Act, the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, and the 14th Amendment, all of which meant to increase the equal rights and protection afforded to African Americans. As a result, Johnson lost the support of Congress, and the public increasingly grew enraged at his stubbornness. In 1868, the House voted to impeach him, making him the first US President to be impeached. Although he was acquitted by one vote in the upper house, his credibility and reputation had already been ruined. He did not run for reelection. 1. Death and Legacy Johnson died on July 31st, 1875, in his home at Elizabethton, Tennessee, at the age of 66. He had suffered from a series of massive strokes. A state funeral was held for him on August 3rd, 1875 in Greenville, Tennessee. As the first ever US president to be impeached, Johnson is viewed by many historians as one of the worst candidates who could have become President at the time following the Civil War. His policies are at times seen as having pushed the country further apart rather than closer together, and his failure to push for equal rights in the Southern states would contribute to the severe racial injustices that would last for generations. His lack of political skills and his stubbornness alienated him from both Congress and the public, drawing disdain from many in both parties. When Was Andrew Jackson President? Andrew Jackson was President of the United States between 1829 and 1837. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:411302e6-b0f4-4853-a57f-010bfb8288aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/andrew-johnson-us-presidents-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00530.warc.gz	en	0.989457	912	3.546875	4	[ -0.24768000841140747, 0.3061819076538086, 0.8157396912574768, -0.1111941933631897, -0.11054231971502304, 0.2408372163772583, 0.18815159797668457, 0.35518598556518555, -0.3298366665840149, -0.050252363085746765, 0.08397696167230606, 0.4694790244102478, 0.08680196106433868, 0.532306551933288...	1	5. Early Life Andrew Johnson was born on December 29th, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, to a family of English and Scottish descent. His family was very poor, and he was apprenticed to a tailor when he was only ten. Because of this apprenticeship, he did not attend regular school. The only education he received came from listening to people who came to the tailor shop and reading. Unhappy with his situation at the tailor shop, he ran away after five years of work, first to South Carolina, then to Tennessee. He settled in Greenville, Tennessee, established a successful tailoring business for himself, and became rich. He became very interested in politics, and would often partake in political debates with his customers. 4. Rise to Power Gradually, Johnson's tailor shop became a hotbed for political discussion, and he soon became politically active. He gained the support of local working class people, and became their advocate. In the following years, he was elected to a series of government positions. First, he was elected alderman in 1829 and five years later, as the Mayor of Greenville. The next year, he joined the Tennessee state legislature. In 1843, he was elected as a Tennessee member of the US House of Representatives, and later served as Governor of Tennessee. In 1856, he became a Senator. His fervent pro-Union stance irritated his fellow Southerners, but gained him notice from President-to-be Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln appointed Johnson to be the Military Governor of Tennessee during the Civil War, and then to serve as his own Vice President. After Lincoln was shot in 1865, just as the Union was securing its final victories over the Confederacy, Johnson was sworn in as the 17th President of the United States. Johnson pushed through his own post-war Reconstruction agenda in the South starting from the very beginning of his Presidency. He quickly issued amnesty to rebels who would take an oath of allegiance, which allowed many former Confederates and supporters of slavery to be elected to office in Southern states. They instituted "black codes", which in fact maintained systematic oppression of African Americans despite the abolishment of slavery. Under his reign, Johnson facilitated the purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was until then a Russian colony, and expanded US territory. He also pressured France to withdraw its troops from Mexico, in order to maintain US hegemony in the area across its southern borders. When Johnson became the US President, the bloody Civil War was just ending, and the South urgently needed reconstruction of its infrastructure and reconciliation with the rest of the nation. He pushed along his own Reconstruction policies, which in fact maintained racial inequality and prevented African Americans in the South from gaining equal rights. These policies enraged members of Congress, and Johnson intensified their rage by vetoing important civil rights bills and laws passed by the Congress, including the Civil Rights Act, the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, and the 14th Amendment, all of which meant to increase the equal rights and protection afforded to African Americans. As a result, Johnson lost the support of Congress, and the public increasingly grew enraged at his stubbornness. In 1868, the House voted to impeach him, making him the first US President to be impeached. Although he was acquitted by one vote in the upper house, his credibility and reputation had already been ruined. He did not run for reelection. 1. Death and Legacy Johnson died on July 31st, 1875, in his home at Elizabethton, Tennessee, at the age of 66. He had suffered from a series of massive strokes. A state funeral was held for him on August 3rd, 1875 in Greenville, Tennessee. As the first ever US president to be impeached, Johnson is viewed by many historians as one of the worst candidates who could have become President at the time following the Civil War. His policies are at times seen as having pushed the country further apart rather than closer together, and his failure to push for equal rights in the Southern states would contribute to the severe racial injustices that would last for generations. His lack of political skills and his stubbornness alienated him from both Congress and the public, drawing disdain from many in both parties. When Was Andrew Jackson President? Andrew Jackson was President of the United States between 1829 and 1837. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	944	ENGLISH	1
As our first tuning in activity for our new unit we were given pictures of emotion face masks which had been all cut up. We worked together as a group to put the puzzles together and then label each mask with what emotion we thought it was displaying. This was the start of our emotions vocabulary building. Our second tuning in activity was done through our senses. We took part in different tasting, smelling, touching, listening and looking experiences and said how we felt before and after each experience. Again this helped us build our vocabulary, become more aware of our emotions and also prompted us to think of several questions related to our emotions. We discovered that some of us felt different emotions even though the experiences were all the same. We were all great Risk Takers too. We've had a fun few days catching up with old friends and making new friends. Our focus for inquiry this week was in our year long ‘Who We Are’ unit with the central idea ‘Communities can be diverse’. We focused on the line of inquiry ‘how communities evolve’. Our class community has evolved over the holidays, we said goodbye to two friends and have now welcomed two new friends. To build our community we placed the game ‘find someone who’ and learned some interesting facts about each other. We also began work on some self portraits to form a new display of all the members of our class community. We were given 5 colours of paints and had to mix them to make our correct skin tone. We enjoyed experimenting with different tints to achieve a close match. Grade 1 is in charge of the school wide celebration of Christmas at ISS this year. We decided to make kindness action advent calendars for each class to use on school days in the month of December. On each day we wrote ideas for an act of kindness. These included smiling to people, making a new friend and bringing a donation for the food bank. We have been learning about landforms in Science. Ms Hima suggested the children could make some on the sandpit. The children took this idea and spent their playtimes this week creating many different landforms as a surprise for Ms Hima. Here are some photos of their hard work and cooperation. This is an excellent example of student agency which we promote at ISS through the PYP curriculum. Learning through play and extending their ideas beyond the classroom is so important. Well done Grade 1 students! Rei told us about carnivorous plants that eat flies and other insects. They trap the insects and then digest them. We wondered if they plants smell bad and how big they are. Takumi told us about swordfish and showed us pictures of them in one his books. There are many different species of swordfish. We learned that fish eggs are called spawn. Tyler explained about salt water crocodiles. We learned that it takes 9 years for their eggs to hatch and once the baby crocodiles do hatch the mother carries them in her mouth to the water. Reika made a collage to explain the lifecycle of an apple tree. We were interested in if the roots or stem grow first. Then we had a discussion about where the first apple or apple seed in the world came from. We have some philosophical thinkers in Grade One! Una shared an e-book she had made on book creator all about monitor lizards. We talked a lot about all the different foods they eat. Some of us wondered what they use their tails for. We talked about how the monitor lizard can move well on land and in the water so it needs its tail for balance and also for swimming.	<urn:uuid:1c72f5eb-c034-4322-9c81-81e739878b43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://issg1-1.weebly.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00540.warc.gz	en	0.981316	736	3.3125	3	[ 0.06613561511039734, -0.11147670447826385, 0.5221847295761108, -0.20133817195892334, -0.36606401205062866, 0.2192109227180481, 0.2186235785484314, 0.0028758132830262184, -0.09635991603136063, -0.1709296852350235, 0.45699870586395264, -0.39673879742622375, 0.0046818191185593605, 0.230814009...	1	As our first tuning in activity for our new unit we were given pictures of emotion face masks which had been all cut up. We worked together as a group to put the puzzles together and then label each mask with what emotion we thought it was displaying. This was the start of our emotions vocabulary building. Our second tuning in activity was done through our senses. We took part in different tasting, smelling, touching, listening and looking experiences and said how we felt before and after each experience. Again this helped us build our vocabulary, become more aware of our emotions and also prompted us to think of several questions related to our emotions. We discovered that some of us felt different emotions even though the experiences were all the same. We were all great Risk Takers too. We've had a fun few days catching up with old friends and making new friends. Our focus for inquiry this week was in our year long ‘Who We Are’ unit with the central idea ‘Communities can be diverse’. We focused on the line of inquiry ‘how communities evolve’. Our class community has evolved over the holidays, we said goodbye to two friends and have now welcomed two new friends. To build our community we placed the game ‘find someone who’ and learned some interesting facts about each other. We also began work on some self portraits to form a new display of all the members of our class community. We were given 5 colours of paints and had to mix them to make our correct skin tone. We enjoyed experimenting with different tints to achieve a close match. Grade 1 is in charge of the school wide celebration of Christmas at ISS this year. We decided to make kindness action advent calendars for each class to use on school days in the month of December. On each day we wrote ideas for an act of kindness. These included smiling to people, making a new friend and bringing a donation for the food bank. We have been learning about landforms in Science. Ms Hima suggested the children could make some on the sandpit. The children took this idea and spent their playtimes this week creating many different landforms as a surprise for Ms Hima. Here are some photos of their hard work and cooperation. This is an excellent example of student agency which we promote at ISS through the PYP curriculum. Learning through play and extending their ideas beyond the classroom is so important. Well done Grade 1 students! Rei told us about carnivorous plants that eat flies and other insects. They trap the insects and then digest them. We wondered if they plants smell bad and how big they are. Takumi told us about swordfish and showed us pictures of them in one his books. There are many different species of swordfish. We learned that fish eggs are called spawn. Tyler explained about salt water crocodiles. We learned that it takes 9 years for their eggs to hatch and once the baby crocodiles do hatch the mother carries them in her mouth to the water. Reika made a collage to explain the lifecycle of an apple tree. We were interested in if the roots or stem grow first. Then we had a discussion about where the first apple or apple seed in the world came from. We have some philosophical thinkers in Grade One! Una shared an e-book she had made on book creator all about monitor lizards. We talked a lot about all the different foods they eat. Some of us wondered what they use their tails for. We talked about how the monitor lizard can move well on land and in the water so it needs its tail for balance and also for swimming.	718	ENGLISH	1
TIGHTER BRITISH CONTROL LED TO A REVOLUTION IN COLONIAL AMERICA INTRODUCTIONImagine you are holding a water balloon named Collin. You have to squeeze it a little to hold it as all the forces of water inside are pushing to get out and stretching that balloon. Then your cousin Stan comes up and starts to squeeze Collin with you. Then your friend Quinn comes over and squeezes the water balloon with all of you. Then your neighbor Massimo shows up and also joins you all in squeezing Collin. Finally, when Patty gets her hands on Collin it becomes too much and the water balloon bursts. In the same way as mounting pressure from your, Stan’s, Quinn’s, Massimo’s, and Patty’s squeezing caused Collin to burst, tighter British control led to a revolution in colonial America. The Stamp Act, Quartering Act, Boston Massacre, and Boston Tea Party all contributed to the American colonies feeling fed up and bursting into a revolution to gain independence from the British rule. The colonies were already under pressure to send their products and pay taxes the introduction of new acts and colonial resistance have served as the final set of straws that led the colonists to an uprising. Stan: The Stamp Act, March 22, 1765The Stamp Act was a taxation on the colonies and required that many documents printed in the American colonies be printed on paper stamped with the British revenue stamp and produced in London. This meant that American colonists would have to pay a tax to the British for every printed piece of paper such as newspapers, pamphlets, magazines, ship papers, even playing cards, and legal documents. This aggravated the colonists because they had to pay taxes on paper to a distant King and be ruled by laws of Parliament which they did not elect. The majority of the colonists thought that the Stamp Act violated their rights because they could not vote for any act in the British Parliament. Their slogan was “No taxation without representation.” The colonists were upset by the Stamp Act that they formed coalitions and had a meeting in New York to come up with ways to oppose it. The meeting became known as Stamp Act Congress and was a first instance when American colonists came together to join forces and oppose British action. They even petitioned the King and Parliament. This opposition coalition was very large stretching from New England to Maryland. The Stamp Act was made to raise money for the protection of American territory on the Appalachian Mountains after the British won French and Indian War. The money raised through the tax were supposed to pay for keeping British troops for colonists safety. Although the colonists did not see it like that. The colonists said they could always defend themselves from Indians. What they did not want was to have to pay for British soldiers to stay in the colonies. Colonists also believed that just like all of the other taxations were to regulate trade and they did not see the Stamp Act as any different. The group called Sons of Liberty instigated many violent protests across different colonies. In the end, the distributors of stamp tax were so scared that they resigned and the taxes were not collected in the way the Stamp Act was intended.The Stamp Act was repealed in March 18, 1766, because of the American colonial opposition and opposition from other British colonies. British went on to issue other acts and impose other taxes but the opposition to the Stamp Act is seen as the first coordinated opposition of American colonies to the British rule. Quinn: Quartering Act of May 15, 1765Quartering Act of 1765 stated that American colonists needed to provide housing and food for nearby soldier’s if there is not enough space for the troops in their barracks. This created frustration in the colonies resulting in further progress of the American revolution. Originally, the Act was to help support the troops left over from the French and Indian War. During the war, the colonists were required to house and provide food to soldiers under a different act, the Mutiny Act. However, after the French and Indian War was over, the colonists started refusing housing to soldiers. The British Parliament’s answer to that was the Quartering Act.Under the Quartering Act of 1765, the colonies were to provide housing and liquor. If there was still not enough housing, then all empty houses and barns were to be given to troops. The colonists were also required to provide food for all the troops they were housing. This made many colonists angry and most colonies found ways to refuse housing and not abide by the Act. As an example, in 1766, 1500 British soldiers came to New York City, they were refused housing. The troops had to stay on ships and that caused a lot fights on the streets between soldiers and colonists. The colonists did agree with the fact that there was military always present on their territories even though the war was over. The Quartering Act of 1765 expired in 1776. By then, some colonies agreed to set money aside to build barracks for soldiers to not have to abide by the Act. Finally, in 1774 the British Parliament enacted a new Quartering Act which allowed British troops live and eat in colonists’ homes without getting permission from them. This all contributed to the colonists wanting to get out from the British rule and helped bring about American Revolution. Massimo: The Boston Massacre, March 5, 1770The Boston Massacre also played an important role in the revolution in colonial America. The Boston Massacre refers to an incident were five colonists were killed by British soldiers. It was a culmination of building up frustration on the colonists side against British taxation. The Townshend Acts were taxes on goods that were made in Britain and imported into the American colonies, through import tariffs. The Massachusetts House of Representatives wrote a letter to the King asking to repeal the Acts. They also wrote letters to other colonies’ representatives to do write the same letter to the King. The British Parliament was very upset and worried for the safety of the British appointed officials in the colonies. Also, Boston’s chief customs officer asked for military protection because of the amount of opposition. Britain responded by sending troops to be stationed in Boston.On March 5th, 1770, a group of colonists were verbally offending the British Soldiers and throwing snowballs and rocks at them, as well. This ignited into the soldiers firing into the crowd without command leaving people dead and wounded. Two people were killed there and three died later from wounds. The mass killing was publicized by Sam Adams and Paul Revere. Their intentions were to publicly announce the incident to get as many colonists on their side to help revolt against the British. The Boston Massacre shows that already by 1770 the colonists were getting really anxious about all the British rule over them and that things were getting violent. Patty: Boston Tea Party, December 16, 1773 One of the main reasons why tighter British control led to a revolution in colonial America is because of the Boston Tea Party. The Boston Tea Party was a protest against the Tea Act of May 10, 1773. The protest was not technically against taxation as the tea prices were lowered by it. The protest was against several notions. First, that the Tea Act gave the East India Company monopoly over tea imports. This threatened to put other legitimate tea importers out of business. Colonies also feared that the tea monopoly created by the government would extend to other goods and with that increase British rule over colonial trade. Many believed that even though the Tea Act did not increase tax on tea, because it was a British monopoly it functioned as tax. This continued to fuel “no taxation without representation” colonial complaint about being levied taxes by British parliament to which the American colonies did not elect any representatives. Even smugglers of Dutch tea secretly joined the rebellion as they were going to go out of business as their prices were going to be higher now.Sons of Liberty attacked British merchant ships at night and dumped 342 crates of tea into the Boston harbor. Although Tea Act was not intended to raise expenses for the colonists, it was trying to keep the East India Company out of financial ruins, it ignited the revolutionary fire. The events of the Boston Tea Party were publicized by Adams as not a random act of vandalism, hooliganism, and disobedience. Rather, Samuel Adams wrote about it as a civilized, concerted, political protest against British oppression. This single event represented many different ideas to different groups of people. It brought together various groups under the same umbrella. CONCLUSIONTighter British control over American colonies increased already rising pressure of colonial resistance and resulted in the American Revolution. Through increased taxation and imposition on the property rights of colonists by the Stamp Act and the Quartering Acts, British added to the colonial resentment that was already there. The acts also highlighted to the colonists that the British will not stop. The violent acts and acts of defiance of the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party showed that the colonies were on edge and that they were willing to take violent action against the British rule. The Boston Tea Party signified a combined dissatisfaction with the British rule and brought many different interest groups together to act for the same cause.	<urn:uuid:5ecba30a-b2e0-4e88-a666-c55b324445f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://michiganboergoat.org/tighter-no-taxation-without-representation-the-colonists-were-upset/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00169.warc.gz	en	0.986997	1,842	3.953125	4	[ -0.26802319288253784, -0.0861249789595604, 0.395553320646286, 0.17510458827018738, -0.050229109823703766, 0.04878150671720505, 0.3255442678928375, 0.23171064257621765, -0.17736677825450897, 0.2784213423728943, 0.030009914189577103, -0.07580247521400452, -0.10011018067598343, -0.22977769374...	2	TIGHTER BRITISH CONTROL LED TO A REVOLUTION IN COLONIAL AMERICA INTRODUCTIONImagine you are holding a water balloon named Collin. You have to squeeze it a little to hold it as all the forces of water inside are pushing to get out and stretching that balloon. Then your cousin Stan comes up and starts to squeeze Collin with you. Then your friend Quinn comes over and squeezes the water balloon with all of you. Then your neighbor Massimo shows up and also joins you all in squeezing Collin. Finally, when Patty gets her hands on Collin it becomes too much and the water balloon bursts. In the same way as mounting pressure from your, Stan’s, Quinn’s, Massimo’s, and Patty’s squeezing caused Collin to burst, tighter British control led to a revolution in colonial America. The Stamp Act, Quartering Act, Boston Massacre, and Boston Tea Party all contributed to the American colonies feeling fed up and bursting into a revolution to gain independence from the British rule. The colonies were already under pressure to send their products and pay taxes the introduction of new acts and colonial resistance have served as the final set of straws that led the colonists to an uprising. Stan: The Stamp Act, March 22, 1765The Stamp Act was a taxation on the colonies and required that many documents printed in the American colonies be printed on paper stamped with the British revenue stamp and produced in London. This meant that American colonists would have to pay a tax to the British for every printed piece of paper such as newspapers, pamphlets, magazines, ship papers, even playing cards, and legal documents. This aggravated the colonists because they had to pay taxes on paper to a distant King and be ruled by laws of Parliament which they did not elect. The majority of the colonists thought that the Stamp Act violated their rights because they could not vote for any act in the British Parliament. Their slogan was “No taxation without representation.” The colonists were upset by the Stamp Act that they formed coalitions and had a meeting in New York to come up with ways to oppose it. The meeting became known as Stamp Act Congress and was a first instance when American colonists came together to join forces and oppose British action. They even petitioned the King and Parliament. This opposition coalition was very large stretching from New England to Maryland. The Stamp Act was made to raise money for the protection of American territory on the Appalachian Mountains after the British won French and Indian War. The money raised through the tax were supposed to pay for keeping British troops for colonists safety. Although the colonists did not see it like that. The colonists said they could always defend themselves from Indians. What they did not want was to have to pay for British soldiers to stay in the colonies. Colonists also believed that just like all of the other taxations were to regulate trade and they did not see the Stamp Act as any different. The group called Sons of Liberty instigated many violent protests across different colonies. In the end, the distributors of stamp tax were so scared that they resigned and the taxes were not collected in the way the Stamp Act was intended.The Stamp Act was repealed in March 18, 1766, because of the American colonial opposition and opposition from other British colonies. British went on to issue other acts and impose other taxes but the opposition to the Stamp Act is seen as the first coordinated opposition of American colonies to the British rule. Quinn: Quartering Act of May 15, 1765Quartering Act of 1765 stated that American colonists needed to provide housing and food for nearby soldier’s if there is not enough space for the troops in their barracks. This created frustration in the colonies resulting in further progress of the American revolution. Originally, the Act was to help support the troops left over from the French and Indian War. During the war, the colonists were required to house and provide food to soldiers under a different act, the Mutiny Act. However, after the French and Indian War was over, the colonists started refusing housing to soldiers. The British Parliament’s answer to that was the Quartering Act.Under the Quartering Act of 1765, the colonies were to provide housing and liquor. If there was still not enough housing, then all empty houses and barns were to be given to troops. The colonists were also required to provide food for all the troops they were housing. This made many colonists angry and most colonies found ways to refuse housing and not abide by the Act. As an example, in 1766, 1500 British soldiers came to New York City, they were refused housing. The troops had to stay on ships and that caused a lot fights on the streets between soldiers and colonists. The colonists did agree with the fact that there was military always present on their territories even though the war was over. The Quartering Act of 1765 expired in 1776. By then, some colonies agreed to set money aside to build barracks for soldiers to not have to abide by the Act. Finally, in 1774 the British Parliament enacted a new Quartering Act which allowed British troops live and eat in colonists’ homes without getting permission from them. This all contributed to the colonists wanting to get out from the British rule and helped bring about American Revolution. Massimo: The Boston Massacre, March 5, 1770The Boston Massacre also played an important role in the revolution in colonial America. The Boston Massacre refers to an incident were five colonists were killed by British soldiers. It was a culmination of building up frustration on the colonists side against British taxation. The Townshend Acts were taxes on goods that were made in Britain and imported into the American colonies, through import tariffs. The Massachusetts House of Representatives wrote a letter to the King asking to repeal the Acts. They also wrote letters to other colonies’ representatives to do write the same letter to the King. The British Parliament was very upset and worried for the safety of the British appointed officials in the colonies. Also, Boston’s chief customs officer asked for military protection because of the amount of opposition. Britain responded by sending troops to be stationed in Boston.On March 5th, 1770, a group of colonists were verbally offending the British Soldiers and throwing snowballs and rocks at them, as well. This ignited into the soldiers firing into the crowd without command leaving people dead and wounded. Two people were killed there and three died later from wounds. The mass killing was publicized by Sam Adams and Paul Revere. Their intentions were to publicly announce the incident to get as many colonists on their side to help revolt against the British. The Boston Massacre shows that already by 1770 the colonists were getting really anxious about all the British rule over them and that things were getting violent. Patty: Boston Tea Party, December 16, 1773 One of the main reasons why tighter British control led to a revolution in colonial America is because of the Boston Tea Party. The Boston Tea Party was a protest against the Tea Act of May 10, 1773. The protest was not technically against taxation as the tea prices were lowered by it. The protest was against several notions. First, that the Tea Act gave the East India Company monopoly over tea imports. This threatened to put other legitimate tea importers out of business. Colonies also feared that the tea monopoly created by the government would extend to other goods and with that increase British rule over colonial trade. Many believed that even though the Tea Act did not increase tax on tea, because it was a British monopoly it functioned as tax. This continued to fuel “no taxation without representation” colonial complaint about being levied taxes by British parliament to which the American colonies did not elect any representatives. Even smugglers of Dutch tea secretly joined the rebellion as they were going to go out of business as their prices were going to be higher now.Sons of Liberty attacked British merchant ships at night and dumped 342 crates of tea into the Boston harbor. Although Tea Act was not intended to raise expenses for the colonists, it was trying to keep the East India Company out of financial ruins, it ignited the revolutionary fire. The events of the Boston Tea Party were publicized by Adams as not a random act of vandalism, hooliganism, and disobedience. Rather, Samuel Adams wrote about it as a civilized, concerted, political protest against British oppression. This single event represented many different ideas to different groups of people. It brought together various groups under the same umbrella. CONCLUSIONTighter British control over American colonies increased already rising pressure of colonial resistance and resulted in the American Revolution. Through increased taxation and imposition on the property rights of colonists by the Stamp Act and the Quartering Acts, British added to the colonial resentment that was already there. The acts also highlighted to the colonists that the British will not stop. The violent acts and acts of defiance of the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party showed that the colonies were on edge and that they were willing to take violent action against the British rule. The Boston Tea Party signified a combined dissatisfaction with the British rule and brought many different interest groups together to act for the same cause.	1,912	ENGLISH	1
Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin ( - 1615): Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin (or in an anglicised form, Cuconnacht O’Keenan) was involved in the 1615 plot, known as the “Natives’ Rebellion”, which led to him becoming the first person in Ireland known to have been judicially tortured on the rack. The year 1614 was in the midst of the Ulster Plantation, which involved key lands throughout the province (except Counties Antrim and Down in the east) being settled by individuals loyal to the London government, most from England and Scotland though some were “native” Irish. In May some native Irish who wished to resist this plantation met in an alehouse (pub) at Macosquin, on the River Bann and made plans, not well thought through, to attack and seize several principal towns in north-west Ulster. They planned to achieve this, moreover, with a notable paucity of weapons. Ó Cianáin was a brother of Taghdh O’Keenan, who was a close associate of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, the Earls whose famous flight from Ireland in 1607 was a key event in the Ulster Plantation, to say the least. When in 1615, Sir Arthur Chichester, the Lord Deputy, or the King’s representative in Ireland, was pursuing those he suspected (with some justification) of plotting against the Government during the Ulster Plantation, he decided to employ judicial torture in order to obtain information about plot and plotters, and Ó Cianáin was selected; it seems, because of his connection. Contemporary opinion was rather divided as to the seriousness of the plot. Sir Robert Jacob, Solicitor-General, was not inclined to alarm; Chichester on the other hand, pointed out that there had for some months been a high level of murders of planters. There was also the shadow of the Earl of Tyrone, whom many thought could imminently invade Ireland with Spanish Army troops (some Irish); he certainly wished to and was constantly pressing King Philip III of Spain to this end. But the Spanish king, and the Pope, were anxious not to provoke London, not least as they were hoping to have the Spanish Infanta married to the British King James’s son Charles (this proposed marriage deal was known as the “Spanish Match”, was organised in part by the clever Spanish envoy to London, Gondomar, and immortalised in drama by Thomas Middleton in his play A Game at Chess). Among modern historians, one theory is that Chichester, whatever he saw as real dangers, made use of the plot to force through the Parliament a request for increased government revenue, pleading that the threat to security in the province warranted this. In July, seventeen plotters were tried before the two assize judges for County Londonderry and a jury which included two native Irish. Eleven were acquitted for lack of evidence; six were convicted, and sentenced to be dragged through the streets of the city, then hanged, drawn and quartered. Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin was one of these, Brian Crossagh O’Neill another. However, whereas sentence was carried out on O’Neill almost at once, the others sentenced to death had to wait. This was a concern for Chichester, who in September wrote to the King of his worry that the remaining convicted might escape or be rescued. However, a prison roll some time later recorded against Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin’s name the simple entry “ss” – a Latin abbreviation for suspensus, - hanged. Raymond Gillespie: Conspiracy: Ulster Plots and Plotters in 1615; Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies, Ulster Association for Irish Historical Studies, 1987; Jonathan Bardon: The Plantation of Ulster, Dublin 2011 © 2020 Ulster History Circle	<urn:uuid:045dd5ae-0432-4fec-92ce-c189b1167039>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.newulsterbiography.co.uk/index.php/home/viewPerson/1979	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00433.warc.gz	en	0.981568	842	3.421875	3	[ 0.23354390263557434, 0.08603262156248093, 0.06329499185085297, -0.004878750070929527, 0.3989991545677185, -0.0905858725309372, 0.33497434854507446, -0.24055036902427673, -0.22495129704475403, -0.1846151053905487, -0.19484490156173706, -0.49343419075012207, -0.06844788789749146, 0.382408052...	5	Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin ( - 1615): Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin (or in an anglicised form, Cuconnacht O’Keenan) was involved in the 1615 plot, known as the “Natives’ Rebellion”, which led to him becoming the first person in Ireland known to have been judicially tortured on the rack. The year 1614 was in the midst of the Ulster Plantation, which involved key lands throughout the province (except Counties Antrim and Down in the east) being settled by individuals loyal to the London government, most from England and Scotland though some were “native” Irish. In May some native Irish who wished to resist this plantation met in an alehouse (pub) at Macosquin, on the River Bann and made plans, not well thought through, to attack and seize several principal towns in north-west Ulster. They planned to achieve this, moreover, with a notable paucity of weapons. Ó Cianáin was a brother of Taghdh O’Keenan, who was a close associate of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, the Earls whose famous flight from Ireland in 1607 was a key event in the Ulster Plantation, to say the least. When in 1615, Sir Arthur Chichester, the Lord Deputy, or the King’s representative in Ireland, was pursuing those he suspected (with some justification) of plotting against the Government during the Ulster Plantation, he decided to employ judicial torture in order to obtain information about plot and plotters, and Ó Cianáin was selected; it seems, because of his connection. Contemporary opinion was rather divided as to the seriousness of the plot. Sir Robert Jacob, Solicitor-General, was not inclined to alarm; Chichester on the other hand, pointed out that there had for some months been a high level of murders of planters. There was also the shadow of the Earl of Tyrone, whom many thought could imminently invade Ireland with Spanish Army troops (some Irish); he certainly wished to and was constantly pressing King Philip III of Spain to this end. But the Spanish king, and the Pope, were anxious not to provoke London, not least as they were hoping to have the Spanish Infanta married to the British King James’s son Charles (this proposed marriage deal was known as the “Spanish Match”, was organised in part by the clever Spanish envoy to London, Gondomar, and immortalised in drama by Thomas Middleton in his play A Game at Chess). Among modern historians, one theory is that Chichester, whatever he saw as real dangers, made use of the plot to force through the Parliament a request for increased government revenue, pleading that the threat to security in the province warranted this. In July, seventeen plotters were tried before the two assize judges for County Londonderry and a jury which included two native Irish. Eleven were acquitted for lack of evidence; six were convicted, and sentenced to be dragged through the streets of the city, then hanged, drawn and quartered. Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin was one of these, Brian Crossagh O’Neill another. However, whereas sentence was carried out on O’Neill almost at once, the others sentenced to death had to wait. This was a concern for Chichester, who in September wrote to the King of his worry that the remaining convicted might escape or be rescued. However, a prison roll some time later recorded against Cú Chonnacht Ó Cianáin’s name the simple entry “ss” – a Latin abbreviation for suspensus, - hanged. Raymond Gillespie: Conspiracy: Ulster Plots and Plotters in 1615; Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies, Ulster Association for Irish Historical Studies, 1987; Jonathan Bardon: The Plantation of Ulster, Dublin 2011 © 2020 Ulster History Circle	844	ENGLISH	1
In the end, repentance, not love, has come to symbolise Cranmer himself, his life’s work being interpreted by his last days. In the eyes of his critics, Cranmer’s recantations prove that at best he was weak and vacillating. In the hearts of his admirers, however, Cranmer’s last-minute renunciation of his recantations proved his true commitment to the Protestant faith. But what of Cranmer himself, how did he interpret his last days and the meaning they gave to his life? According to a contemporary account, having previously been distraught, Cranmer came to the stake with a cheerful countenance and willing mind. Fire being now put to him, he stretched out his right Hand, and thrust it into the Flame, and held it there a good space, before the Fire came to any other Part of his Body; where his Hand was seen of every Man sensibly burning, crying with a loud Voice, This Hand hath offended. As soon as the Fire got up, he was very soon Dead, never stirring or crying all the while. His Catholic executioners surely thought Cranmer was making satisfaction to his Protestant God. Yet his doctrine of repentance would have taught him otherwise, for the God he served saved the unworthy.	<urn:uuid:3bb784c5-bb94-40e2-aff4-c7d76058a5aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://kendallharmon.net/?p=48947	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00249.warc.gz	en	0.992041	265	3.640625	4	[ -0.34125226736068726, 0.48773348331451416, 0.043031517416238785, -0.18745049834251404, -0.2859954535961151, -0.06534610688686371, 0.5994532704353333, 0.2413080781698227, -0.07247236371040344, -0.36575719714164734, 0.041037894785404205, -0.26193419098854065, 0.1176147311925888, 0.2198419421...	4	In the end, repentance, not love, has come to symbolise Cranmer himself, his life’s work being interpreted by his last days. In the eyes of his critics, Cranmer’s recantations prove that at best he was weak and vacillating. In the hearts of his admirers, however, Cranmer’s last-minute renunciation of his recantations proved his true commitment to the Protestant faith. But what of Cranmer himself, how did he interpret his last days and the meaning they gave to his life? According to a contemporary account, having previously been distraught, Cranmer came to the stake with a cheerful countenance and willing mind. Fire being now put to him, he stretched out his right Hand, and thrust it into the Flame, and held it there a good space, before the Fire came to any other Part of his Body; where his Hand was seen of every Man sensibly burning, crying with a loud Voice, This Hand hath offended. As soon as the Fire got up, he was very soon Dead, never stirring or crying all the while. His Catholic executioners surely thought Cranmer was making satisfaction to his Protestant God. Yet his doctrine of repentance would have taught him otherwise, for the God he served saved the unworthy.	260	ENGLISH	1
Iqbal is known for his immense success and accomplishments. Born in Sialkot in 1877, he had a keen interest in languages namely Urdu, Arabic, and Persian. In college, he took philosophy and even taught it for a few years. Apart from this, he had a degree in metaphysics, Barat law, and an arts degree. He even worked as a barrister in an inn. Eventually, he got his Ph.D. from Europe in 1905. He has written Tarana e Hind “Sare Jahan Se Accha ” which is still played widely in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. “Lab Pe Aati Hai Dua” which he wrote in 1902 for children. His poetry career came in later years where he espoused the theory of self-realization. His poems depicted the spiritual beliefs and theological concepts of Islam and he gained an immediate rise to popularity. Soon, he became a renowned poet. He was a strong political voice and took part in all conferences like round table ones in England. He was also awarded knighthood in the year 1922 by then British sovereign King George V, for his craft and skill. He rallied for raising the levels of education in Indian Muslims and called for the social transformation of the beleaguered minorities. His poems and worked sparked a renaissance among the Muslims to learn about their faith. Among his literary works are Koh i Himala (first poem), Armaghan-e-Hijaz, jawab-e-shikwa, Bal-e-Jibrael etc. He was invited to hold lectures at prestigious institutions like Aligarh and Bombay. His lectures would eventually be penned as a book titled, “The reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”. He died in 1938 and was buried in Lahore.	<urn:uuid:f0d09573-082d-4f11-92a8-2c02a3e085ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://englishsummary.com/essay-on-allama-iqbal/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00459.warc.gz	en	0.989642	381	3.28125	3	[ -0.2025800198316574, 0.5743811726570129, 0.04162532463669777, -0.1210276409983635, -0.2827642858028412, 0.10210689902305603, 0.74456787109375, 0.21486909687519073, 0.10503840446472168, -0.1532154530286789, 0.21636076271533966, -0.4797421991825104, 0.20198895037174225, 0.17326636612415314, ...	12	Iqbal is known for his immense success and accomplishments. Born in Sialkot in 1877, he had a keen interest in languages namely Urdu, Arabic, and Persian. In college, he took philosophy and even taught it for a few years. Apart from this, he had a degree in metaphysics, Barat law, and an arts degree. He even worked as a barrister in an inn. Eventually, he got his Ph.D. from Europe in 1905. He has written Tarana e Hind “Sare Jahan Se Accha ” which is still played widely in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. “Lab Pe Aati Hai Dua” which he wrote in 1902 for children. His poetry career came in later years where he espoused the theory of self-realization. His poems depicted the spiritual beliefs and theological concepts of Islam and he gained an immediate rise to popularity. Soon, he became a renowned poet. He was a strong political voice and took part in all conferences like round table ones in England. He was also awarded knighthood in the year 1922 by then British sovereign King George V, for his craft and skill. He rallied for raising the levels of education in Indian Muslims and called for the social transformation of the beleaguered minorities. His poems and worked sparked a renaissance among the Muslims to learn about their faith. Among his literary works are Koh i Himala (first poem), Armaghan-e-Hijaz, jawab-e-shikwa, Bal-e-Jibrael etc. He was invited to hold lectures at prestigious institutions like Aligarh and Bombay. His lectures would eventually be penned as a book titled, “The reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”. He died in 1938 and was buried in Lahore.	378	ENGLISH	1
The Most Expensive Wars in U. History By Alexander Kent May 21, 2: December 6, Since its inception inthe United States of America has experienced wartime relations throughout almost its entire lifespan. Some of these wars were short, some were long, some were victories, and some were losses. Some of these wars cost the United States a whole lot of money. Here are the ten most expensive wars the United States have been involved in. The numbers provided have been adjusted for inflation. The war was fought It was the result of the annexation of Texas, in which the country of Texas became a state within the United States. This changed through the s and led to the start of the war. The ensuing result was the American Revolution. Painting of American soldiers during the Battle of Long Island. Just 13 months later, the United States would sign the Declaration of Independence declaring their freedom from the British. The war waged on,with over 50, casualties on the United States side alone. The overall cost of the war to the United States? Originally, the Spanish were at war with Cuba, who had declared independence from them in The United States had been getting pressure to get involved in the war to help Cuba, and that pressure came to a boiling point when then USS Maine randomly exploded in a harbor outside of Havana, Cuba and so the United States decided to declare war on Spain. There was also a Pacific theater involving the Philippines and Guam. When the United States declared war, they did so in all regards. Thus, following their victory they acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Civil War President Abraham Lincoln. Slavery was one of the leading causes of the American Civil War. Lincoln ran on a platform of ending slavery, which led to the Confederate South seceding from the United States, creating the Confederate States of America, a group of slave states who shared the common interest of maintaining slavery. It also resulted in the death of overtroops. The war began in August of with Operation Desert Shield. This operation saw almost no actual combat and was the build up of the war. In total, over 34 countries joined in on the war which was started due to Iraq invading Kuwait and annexing the country. The combat lasted just 42 days, ending in February of World War 1 American soldiers seen in combat during World War 1. North Korea invaded South Korea in in an attempt to make the land one country again. The United States moved into the South around the same time, and this led to a stalemate until The war never technically ended; rather, it ended in an armistice agreement and the two countries have technically been at war since. War began when the communist North invaded the South. This time, things were different, as the United States was unable to help South Vietnam achieve victory, and the country fell to the North with the fall of Saigon in The price tag for the United States? The war has changed over the years on who the United States was fighting as well as where the fight was raging. The war has yet to end. The United States did pull troops out of the area during Operation New Dawn inbut troops have since been placed back in the region. World War II U. The country suffered not only a huge loss of cash, but also a huge loss of troops. United States involvement began in the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and lasted until the end of the war in May 24, · Fought between and the start of , the Mexican War cost the United States $ billion, the 10th-most expensive war in U.S. history. The Korean War, often referred to as "The Forgotten War," was fought from June 25, , to July 27, This website is dedicated to thanking and honoring all the veterans of the Korean War. The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in Florida between the Seminole, a Native American tribe that formed in Florida in the early 18th century, and the United States attheheels.com together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive (both in human and monetary terms) of the Indian Wars in United States history. Ironic it is that the best weapon of America's premier land force is an aircraft. But given the conflicts the U.S. military has recently fought and is likely to fight, airpower is the most. The Vietnam War is the third most expensive war the United States has ever fought in. War began when the communist North invaded the South. Much like the Korean War, the North was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while the South was supported by the United States. Click here to see the most expensive wars in U.S. history. Many early wars in U.S. history resulted in the acquisition of land. The Mexican-American War in the s yielded much of the territory.	<urn:uuid:8641c6c0-795e-41a9-9dbd-2124000beda1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hehuryxanycaf.attheheels.com/the-most-expensive-war-fought-by-the-united-states-5349cw.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00352.warc.gz	en	0.981682	1,003	3.265625	3	[ -0.11691611260175705, -0.17659813165664673, 0.4354921579360962, -0.19108715653419495, 0.2888680696487427, -0.3049537241458893, -0.0915556475520134, 0.08656607568264008, -0.07266835868358612, 0.12258358299732208, 0.18097397685050964, 0.17551617324352264, -0.03143599256873131, 0.645755231380...	1	The Most Expensive Wars in U. History By Alexander Kent May 21, 2: December 6, Since its inception inthe United States of America has experienced wartime relations throughout almost its entire lifespan. Some of these wars were short, some were long, some were victories, and some were losses. Some of these wars cost the United States a whole lot of money. Here are the ten most expensive wars the United States have been involved in. The numbers provided have been adjusted for inflation. The war was fought It was the result of the annexation of Texas, in which the country of Texas became a state within the United States. This changed through the s and led to the start of the war. The ensuing result was the American Revolution. Painting of American soldiers during the Battle of Long Island. Just 13 months later, the United States would sign the Declaration of Independence declaring their freedom from the British. The war waged on,with over 50, casualties on the United States side alone. The overall cost of the war to the United States? Originally, the Spanish were at war with Cuba, who had declared independence from them in The United States had been getting pressure to get involved in the war to help Cuba, and that pressure came to a boiling point when then USS Maine randomly exploded in a harbor outside of Havana, Cuba and so the United States decided to declare war on Spain. There was also a Pacific theater involving the Philippines and Guam. When the United States declared war, they did so in all regards. Thus, following their victory they acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Civil War President Abraham Lincoln. Slavery was one of the leading causes of the American Civil War. Lincoln ran on a platform of ending slavery, which led to the Confederate South seceding from the United States, creating the Confederate States of America, a group of slave states who shared the common interest of maintaining slavery. It also resulted in the death of overtroops. The war began in August of with Operation Desert Shield. This operation saw almost no actual combat and was the build up of the war. In total, over 34 countries joined in on the war which was started due to Iraq invading Kuwait and annexing the country. The combat lasted just 42 days, ending in February of World War 1 American soldiers seen in combat during World War 1. North Korea invaded South Korea in in an attempt to make the land one country again. The United States moved into the South around the same time, and this led to a stalemate until The war never technically ended; rather, it ended in an armistice agreement and the two countries have technically been at war since. War began when the communist North invaded the South. This time, things were different, as the United States was unable to help South Vietnam achieve victory, and the country fell to the North with the fall of Saigon in The price tag for the United States? The war has changed over the years on who the United States was fighting as well as where the fight was raging. The war has yet to end. The United States did pull troops out of the area during Operation New Dawn inbut troops have since been placed back in the region. World War II U. The country suffered not only a huge loss of cash, but also a huge loss of troops. United States involvement began in the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and lasted until the end of the war in May 24, · Fought between and the start of , the Mexican War cost the United States $ billion, the 10th-most expensive war in U.S. history. The Korean War, often referred to as "The Forgotten War," was fought from June 25, , to July 27, This website is dedicated to thanking and honoring all the veterans of the Korean War. The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in Florida between the Seminole, a Native American tribe that formed in Florida in the early 18th century, and the United States attheheels.com together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive (both in human and monetary terms) of the Indian Wars in United States history. Ironic it is that the best weapon of America's premier land force is an aircraft. But given the conflicts the U.S. military has recently fought and is likely to fight, airpower is the most. The Vietnam War is the third most expensive war the United States has ever fought in. War began when the communist North invaded the South. Much like the Korean War, the North was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while the South was supported by the United States. Click here to see the most expensive wars in U.S. history. Many early wars in U.S. history resulted in the acquisition of land. The Mexican-American War in the s yielded much of the territory.	1,002	ENGLISH	1
Essay about the industrial revolution in england Also, new machines invented, for example spinning jenny. The middle class was now able to afford things that the wealthy only had acess to, such as servants. It was the first time workers could make demands of their employers. One was the fact that the country had Parliament. The reason Great Britain was able to go into the industrial revolution was because of its country high abundance of natural resources. Why did the industrial revolution began in england essay However, the evolvement of new technology during the industrial revolution was more then just the loss of privacy and quality education, but the loss of jobs that many blue collared workers relied on Industrial revolution was a very very important social event, it changed and improved the world and there are some important terms, peoples and matters which were the main building blocks such as coal, spinning jenny and steam engine. Britain was the first to experience it and it later spread throughout Europe and the United States. There were major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining and technology which had a significant effect on the economy and culture of England. The revolution changed the culture of Britain, manufacturing was no longer a task done in the home but now became centralized in the factory. It led to the growth of cities across the world, including London, Manchester, and Boston. The Industrial Revolution witnesses a huge growth in the size of British cities. There were several factors that played a role in why the industrial revolution began in England. The Industrial Revolution was the general name given to a time period that marked the transition from hand-made products to machine-made products, leading to a booming economy and an abundance of jobs for unskille Women worked on their houses and occasionally helped men work together. England's cities lacked decent housing, sanitary codes, education, and police protection. Prior to the Industrial Revolution many people worked on the land and worked at a pace that was applicable for them with no one looking over their shoulder to make sure work was being done. It enfranchised them and gave them rights to upset the status quo and force employers to view their workers as human beings like them. The Revolution was mainly took place in the northern states but southern states still saw limited success in certain areas The birth of factories brought child labor, dense living conditions, urbanization, and changes in economy, but the factories were not just the whole part of the revolution Yet certain individuals became skeptical of the consequences of such rapid development. Also, because Great Britain had a lot of coal and iron. Children also worked for their families, but mostly by performing small jobs such as farming and herding animals. There is one man who really got the Industrial Revolution started his name was Sir Richard Arkwright Industrial revolution essay conclusion Prior to the Industrial Revolution many people worked on the land and worked at a pace that was applicable for them with no one looking over their shoulder to make sure work was being done. Other social movements, including communism, a form of complete socialism where all means of production would be owned by the people leaving a small number of manufacturers to control wealth, which was proposed by Karl Marx, and utilitarianism, which judged ideas, institutions, and actions based on their utility and beleived government actions should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people, was introduced by Jeremy Bentham but led by John Stuart Mill. What happened to living standards during the Industrial Revolution? This maintained a strong government with more rights that were given to the citizens than other countries at the time. Although, the growing success of Britain had a fatal price. Transportation was also reformed with inventions of the steam engine by James Watt ,the building of the 1st railroad track , and a locomotive called the Rocket built by George Stephenson and his son It was marked by significant advances in technology and industry that had broad and enduring impacts. The technological changes cannot be denied, but it is arguable to what extent these advancements were to the benefit of society or at what cost they came. based on 100 review	<urn:uuid:fded0776-cbe9-4148-b264-e434074f4b79>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pylenabeqifazy.dellrichards.com/essay-about-the-industrial-revolution-in-england383393591pq.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00306.warc.gz	en	0.987678	819	3.515625	4	[ -0.27802902460098267, 0.04917266219854355, 0.37337082624435425, -0.10811260342597961, 0.0004468499682843685, 0.4110781252384186, -0.09988972544670105, 0.46544837951660156, -0.40382057428359985, -0.21223905682563782, -0.12362581491470337, 0.2050454169511795, 0.010688172653317451, -0.1645563...	2	Essay about the industrial revolution in england Also, new machines invented, for example spinning jenny. The middle class was now able to afford things that the wealthy only had acess to, such as servants. It was the first time workers could make demands of their employers. One was the fact that the country had Parliament. The reason Great Britain was able to go into the industrial revolution was because of its country high abundance of natural resources. Why did the industrial revolution began in england essay However, the evolvement of new technology during the industrial revolution was more then just the loss of privacy and quality education, but the loss of jobs that many blue collared workers relied on Industrial revolution was a very very important social event, it changed and improved the world and there are some important terms, peoples and matters which were the main building blocks such as coal, spinning jenny and steam engine. Britain was the first to experience it and it later spread throughout Europe and the United States. There were major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining and technology which had a significant effect on the economy and culture of England. The revolution changed the culture of Britain, manufacturing was no longer a task done in the home but now became centralized in the factory. It led to the growth of cities across the world, including London, Manchester, and Boston. The Industrial Revolution witnesses a huge growth in the size of British cities. There were several factors that played a role in why the industrial revolution began in England. The Industrial Revolution was the general name given to a time period that marked the transition from hand-made products to machine-made products, leading to a booming economy and an abundance of jobs for unskille Women worked on their houses and occasionally helped men work together. England's cities lacked decent housing, sanitary codes, education, and police protection. Prior to the Industrial Revolution many people worked on the land and worked at a pace that was applicable for them with no one looking over their shoulder to make sure work was being done. It enfranchised them and gave them rights to upset the status quo and force employers to view their workers as human beings like them. The Revolution was mainly took place in the northern states but southern states still saw limited success in certain areas The birth of factories brought child labor, dense living conditions, urbanization, and changes in economy, but the factories were not just the whole part of the revolution Yet certain individuals became skeptical of the consequences of such rapid development. Also, because Great Britain had a lot of coal and iron. Children also worked for their families, but mostly by performing small jobs such as farming and herding animals. There is one man who really got the Industrial Revolution started his name was Sir Richard Arkwright Industrial revolution essay conclusion Prior to the Industrial Revolution many people worked on the land and worked at a pace that was applicable for them with no one looking over their shoulder to make sure work was being done. Other social movements, including communism, a form of complete socialism where all means of production would be owned by the people leaving a small number of manufacturers to control wealth, which was proposed by Karl Marx, and utilitarianism, which judged ideas, institutions, and actions based on their utility and beleived government actions should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people, was introduced by Jeremy Bentham but led by John Stuart Mill. What happened to living standards during the Industrial Revolution? This maintained a strong government with more rights that were given to the citizens than other countries at the time. Although, the growing success of Britain had a fatal price. Transportation was also reformed with inventions of the steam engine by James Watt ,the building of the 1st railroad track , and a locomotive called the Rocket built by George Stephenson and his son It was marked by significant advances in technology and industry that had broad and enduring impacts. The technological changes cannot be denied, but it is arguable to what extent these advancements were to the benefit of society or at what cost they came. based on 100 review	813	ENGLISH	1
According to the Oxford Dictionary, the word ‘Technology’ is described as “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry”. In layman’s terms, it means to say that technology is something in which ideas and knowledge creates things and ways which makes human day to day life easier. Since prehistoric times, technology has played an immense role in advancing human life. For example, the idea of controlling fire, the way of hunting by using rocks as tools and most importantly, the invention of the wheel has helped to advance the human race and has made it different from all the other organisms living on the earth. It led humans to discover what metals are, how to grow plants which are fit for consumption and made them settlers instead of being nomads. It has also led to rise and fall of kingdoms and empires and several battles, but the most important thing technology has led to is the Industrial Revolution. Now many people have the question, “What is Industrial Revolution”. In simple terms, Industrial Revolution refers to the collective ideas and applications which led to the shift from small-scale hand-made production and manufacturing to large-scale machine based manufacturing. It caused a boom in the production of goods, which led to creation of a large number of jobs and an overall increase in living as well as economic standards. Industrial Revolution is said to be a revolution which was powered by technology, unlike any other revolution, which has been powered by blood and soldiers. Technology has also led to Computer Revolution, which has changed human life forever by solving complex calculations which was unsolvable before. Since then, in every field, be it education, be it agriculture, be it war, all have implemented technology to their advantage. Technology has led to rapid transportation, has led to electrification which in turn has led to people working 24*7, increasing productivity. Technology has also led to invention of medicines and provided cures for many diseases which was not possible before. It has led to space travel and discovery of planets light years away from the Earth. But, even though technology has provided innumerable benefits, it has also caused many side-effects too. For starters, the biggest side effect of technological advancement is pollution, which refers to dirtying of air, water or soil due to human activities. It has changed the landform of the earth permanently and has made it filthier and dirtier, a far cry from the greener and cleaner it was at the start of life. It has also led to humans becoming too much reliant on technology, which have made them lazier than before. It is also said that technology will ultimately produce machines which will remove humans from every field of life as well as their jobs. Technology has also led to the creation of several things, which have been used to destroy human life, notably the nuclear bomb and various chemical weapons.	<urn:uuid:08a69ca4-8eef-4301-8a31-622709270ec1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/according-led-to-computer-revolution-which-has-changed-human/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00431.warc.gz	en	0.984959	580	3.28125	3	[ -0.23760630190372467, 0.3864647150039673, 0.2210167944431305, 0.00708945095539093, 0.09140844643115997, -0.056594137102365494, 0.5554842352867126, 0.3843845725059509, -0.41311413049697876, -0.007019343785941601, 0.038825273513793945, 0.03580416738986969, 0.07210563868284225, -0.05259842053...	1	According to the Oxford Dictionary, the word ‘Technology’ is described as “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry”. In layman’s terms, it means to say that technology is something in which ideas and knowledge creates things and ways which makes human day to day life easier. Since prehistoric times, technology has played an immense role in advancing human life. For example, the idea of controlling fire, the way of hunting by using rocks as tools and most importantly, the invention of the wheel has helped to advance the human race and has made it different from all the other organisms living on the earth. It led humans to discover what metals are, how to grow plants which are fit for consumption and made them settlers instead of being nomads. It has also led to rise and fall of kingdoms and empires and several battles, but the most important thing technology has led to is the Industrial Revolution. Now many people have the question, “What is Industrial Revolution”. In simple terms, Industrial Revolution refers to the collective ideas and applications which led to the shift from small-scale hand-made production and manufacturing to large-scale machine based manufacturing. It caused a boom in the production of goods, which led to creation of a large number of jobs and an overall increase in living as well as economic standards. Industrial Revolution is said to be a revolution which was powered by technology, unlike any other revolution, which has been powered by blood and soldiers. Technology has also led to Computer Revolution, which has changed human life forever by solving complex calculations which was unsolvable before. Since then, in every field, be it education, be it agriculture, be it war, all have implemented technology to their advantage. Technology has led to rapid transportation, has led to electrification which in turn has led to people working 24*7, increasing productivity. Technology has also led to invention of medicines and provided cures for many diseases which was not possible before. It has led to space travel and discovery of planets light years away from the Earth. But, even though technology has provided innumerable benefits, it has also caused many side-effects too. For starters, the biggest side effect of technological advancement is pollution, which refers to dirtying of air, water or soil due to human activities. It has changed the landform of the earth permanently and has made it filthier and dirtier, a far cry from the greener and cleaner it was at the start of life. It has also led to humans becoming too much reliant on technology, which have made them lazier than before. It is also said that technology will ultimately produce machines which will remove humans from every field of life as well as their jobs. Technology has also led to the creation of several things, which have been used to destroy human life, notably the nuclear bomb and various chemical weapons.	572	ENGLISH	1
To appreciate is to recognize something or someone’s good did as valuable or excellent, to be grateful for something done for by someone. It’s an ability to understand the worth, quality, or importance of something or somebody. The story in the book of Luke 17:11-19. It is a clear example of what it means to appreciate one who did something good for you. Jesus on his way to Jerusalem traveled along the border between Samaria and Galilee. As He was about entering into a village. Ten men who had leprosy met him. They stood at a distance in verse 13 and called out in a loud voice. Jesus, the Master, have pity on us! And when he saw them he had pity on them. And he said, “Go and show yourselves to the priests. As they went, they were cleansed. In verse 15 One of them, when he saw he was healed. Came back, praising God in a loud voice. He threw himself at the feet of Jesus and thanked him. He was a Samaritan. In verse 17 Jesus asked, “Were not all ten cleansed? Where are the other nine? No one has returned to give praise to God except this foreigner? After that he asked him to rise up and go; your faith has made you well. In the Jewish tradition, it is only the priest that can announce to the hearing of the people that a leper is cleansed and they will obey and accept the pronouncement. That was why Jesus, after healing the lepers told them to go and show themselves to the priest according to verse 14. One of them returned to give thanks when he saw that he was healed, instead of going back home as others did. He turned back towards Jesus who was the author of his cure and gave Him thanks. He was very hearty and affectionate in his Thanksgivings. With a loud voice, he glorified God, acknowledging it to come originally from him. and he lifted up his voice in his praises. Those that have received mercy from God should tell others, that they may praise God too. And maybe encouraged by their testimonies and experiences to trust in God. He fell down at His feet; put himself into the most humble reverent attitude he could, and gave Him thanks. We ought to give thanks for the kindnesses and breakthroughs Christ bestows upon us all these years, particularly for recoveries from sickness. For the gift of life, for the victory, He gave us over our enemies, for meeting our needs, for saving our lives and soul, etc. We should be very humble in our Thanksgivings, as well as in our prayers. Christ took notice of the one that had thus distinguished himself from his friends. He could not allow where he came from to hinder him from appreciating one that has delivered him from his infirmities. The Samaritans where separatist from the Jewish Church, and had not the pure knowledge and worship of God as the Jews had then. Yet it was one of them that turned back and glorified God. The big question here is, What really happens to the nine? Where were they? Why didn’t they return to give thanks? Is it that they forgot? Or that they deliberately refused to appreciate he that made them whole, and equally gave them hope? Ingratitude is a very common sin that many people commit and feel less concern about it. Of the many that received mercy from God. There are only but few, very few that returned to give thanks in the right manner. (Scarcely one in ten) that render according to the benefit done to them. Christ was so passionate about doing good, Were there not ten cleansed? There is an abundance of healing and cleansing virtue in the blood of Christ. Sufficient for all His patients, Though ever so many. Here are ten at a time cleansed, we shall have never the less grace for others sharing it. CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING Or, when the parent gave them one gift or the other. Not to talk of any other fellow who did them one favor or another. We equally have parents who never appreciate the effort of their children or wards. Neither do they appreciate others? It is also possible to have husbands and wives who never appreciate one another’s efforts. Rather they are after each other’s mistakes and wrongdoings. We have masters and mistresses who see it as an insult to there personality by appreciating the efforts of their housemaids and servants. We also have in our church members who never appreciate the works of their pastors and leaders in the church. Even people who were once living from hand to mouth. And were helped by someone to be out of such a situation. They never care to appreciate those who helped them. We all should remember where and how we started. Where God picked and dusted us, and have brought us this far. He really deserves our appreciation. Don’t be carried away by over-excitement. The initial excitement you had when you are blessed. Should not make you forget to appreciate God and those through whom you were blessed like the ten lepers. Because when we fail to show appreciation, to people that have added value to our lives. We may lose lots of opportunities. Do not allow familiarity to make you forget to acknowledge the efforts and contributions of people in your life.	<urn:uuid:425e5392-f9f2-4dbe-93ab-ae060f349a43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://giftedmouth.com/2018/11/the-importance-of-appreciation.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00252.warc.gz	en	0.988904	1,137	3.5	4	[ -0.42241907119750977, 0.249861478805542, 0.27605897188186646, -0.41930556297302246, -0.26966792345046997, -0.22298099100589752, 1.0943716764450073, 0.4225206971168518, -0.03857991844415665, -0.21035504341125488, 0.032623011618852615, -0.19725584983825684, -0.11522097885608673, 0.0101345069...	3	To appreciate is to recognize something or someone’s good did as valuable or excellent, to be grateful for something done for by someone. It’s an ability to understand the worth, quality, or importance of something or somebody. The story in the book of Luke 17:11-19. It is a clear example of what it means to appreciate one who did something good for you. Jesus on his way to Jerusalem traveled along the border between Samaria and Galilee. As He was about entering into a village. Ten men who had leprosy met him. They stood at a distance in verse 13 and called out in a loud voice. Jesus, the Master, have pity on us! And when he saw them he had pity on them. And he said, “Go and show yourselves to the priests. As they went, they were cleansed. In verse 15 One of them, when he saw he was healed. Came back, praising God in a loud voice. He threw himself at the feet of Jesus and thanked him. He was a Samaritan. In verse 17 Jesus asked, “Were not all ten cleansed? Where are the other nine? No one has returned to give praise to God except this foreigner? After that he asked him to rise up and go; your faith has made you well. In the Jewish tradition, it is only the priest that can announce to the hearing of the people that a leper is cleansed and they will obey and accept the pronouncement. That was why Jesus, after healing the lepers told them to go and show themselves to the priest according to verse 14. One of them returned to give thanks when he saw that he was healed, instead of going back home as others did. He turned back towards Jesus who was the author of his cure and gave Him thanks. He was very hearty and affectionate in his Thanksgivings. With a loud voice, he glorified God, acknowledging it to come originally from him. and he lifted up his voice in his praises. Those that have received mercy from God should tell others, that they may praise God too. And maybe encouraged by their testimonies and experiences to trust in God. He fell down at His feet; put himself into the most humble reverent attitude he could, and gave Him thanks. We ought to give thanks for the kindnesses and breakthroughs Christ bestows upon us all these years, particularly for recoveries from sickness. For the gift of life, for the victory, He gave us over our enemies, for meeting our needs, for saving our lives and soul, etc. We should be very humble in our Thanksgivings, as well as in our prayers. Christ took notice of the one that had thus distinguished himself from his friends. He could not allow where he came from to hinder him from appreciating one that has delivered him from his infirmities. The Samaritans where separatist from the Jewish Church, and had not the pure knowledge and worship of God as the Jews had then. Yet it was one of them that turned back and glorified God. The big question here is, What really happens to the nine? Where were they? Why didn’t they return to give thanks? Is it that they forgot? Or that they deliberately refused to appreciate he that made them whole, and equally gave them hope? Ingratitude is a very common sin that many people commit and feel less concern about it. Of the many that received mercy from God. There are only but few, very few that returned to give thanks in the right manner. (Scarcely one in ten) that render according to the benefit done to them. Christ was so passionate about doing good, Were there not ten cleansed? There is an abundance of healing and cleansing virtue in the blood of Christ. Sufficient for all His patients, Though ever so many. Here are ten at a time cleansed, we shall have never the less grace for others sharing it. CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING Or, when the parent gave them one gift or the other. Not to talk of any other fellow who did them one favor or another. We equally have parents who never appreciate the effort of their children or wards. Neither do they appreciate others? It is also possible to have husbands and wives who never appreciate one another’s efforts. Rather they are after each other’s mistakes and wrongdoings. We have masters and mistresses who see it as an insult to there personality by appreciating the efforts of their housemaids and servants. We also have in our church members who never appreciate the works of their pastors and leaders in the church. Even people who were once living from hand to mouth. And were helped by someone to be out of such a situation. They never care to appreciate those who helped them. We all should remember where and how we started. Where God picked and dusted us, and have brought us this far. He really deserves our appreciation. Don’t be carried away by over-excitement. The initial excitement you had when you are blessed. Should not make you forget to appreciate God and those through whom you were blessed like the ten lepers. Because when we fail to show appreciation, to people that have added value to our lives. We may lose lots of opportunities. Do not allow familiarity to make you forget to acknowledge the efforts and contributions of people in your life.	1,101	ENGLISH	1
Jane Loevinger’s Stages Of Ego Eevelopment Jane Loevinger’s stages of ego development is composed of nine phases: pre-social, impulsive, self-protective, conformist, self-aware, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous, and integrated. These stages are based on Erikson’s psychosocial development; hence, they follow a sequential pattern. During the pre-social stage, babies are generally focused on satisfying their immediate needs. Loevinger theorized that infants do not yet have egos as they tend to view themselves and their caregivers as one. For instance, they still think that the reflection they see in the mirror is another individual. In the impulsive stage, children are already aware of their self vs their non-self. They are also preoccupied with aggressive impulses. For example, when the mother will not give what the child wants, the child retaliates by throwing a tantrum. Self-protective stage is often manifested from early to middle childhood. In this phase, children are more aware of the cause and effect relationship and they may tend to be opportunistic, be manipulative, blame others for their faults, and highly motivated by rewards. For instance, a 7-year-old accidentally broke a vase then he blamed his baby brother. In the conformist stage, children and adolescents tend to assess others based on external factors such as looks, norms, and stereotypes. For instance, a teenager thinks that someone is cool if he is wearing trendy clothes. Self-aware phase is often manifested by adults; this is when they are more conscious of their uniqueness and the discrepancy between their actual and their ideal selves. For instance, a 21-year-old has a clear career path and is considering his family’s opinions regarding his choices. Conscientious Stage is characterized by self-evaluation, motivation to achieve, and frequently experiencing guilt when hurting others. For example, a 25-year-old is motivated to succeed and is doing his best to advance his career. He is also cautious that in attaining his goals, he would not hurt others. In the individualistic stage, the person is mature enough to tolerate differences. There is also a deeper sense of self-understanding which leads to healthy self-expression and realization of inner conflict. During the autonomous stage, self-fulfillment becomes a common goal and self-acceptance goes deeper. For instance, a middle-aged-woman is well-travelled and is taking meditation classes. She is genuinely comfortable with who she is and is well aware of her potentials as well as her limitations. Lastly, in the integrated stage, the ego has reached its full sense of identity and is characterized by wisdom, peace, and empathy. For instance, a 50-year-old imparts sound advices, genuinely cares for the next generations, and embodies tranquility.	<urn:uuid:72efbf44-fadb-476f-b3c1-a1db5f92c16a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jane+Loevinger%E2%80%99s+Stages+Of+Ego+Eevelopment	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00318.warc.gz	en	0.980482	606	3.515625	4	[ 0.06898267567157745, -0.08810114115476608, 0.2509945034980774, -0.47175997495651245, -0.4966183602809906, 0.45421499013900757, 0.43343034386634827, 0.0031158607453107834, 0.19465142488479614, -0.3260062336921692, 0.6459647417068481, -0.25141358375549316, 0.14219167828559875, 0.195555463433...	2	Jane Loevinger’s Stages Of Ego Eevelopment Jane Loevinger’s stages of ego development is composed of nine phases: pre-social, impulsive, self-protective, conformist, self-aware, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous, and integrated. These stages are based on Erikson’s psychosocial development; hence, they follow a sequential pattern. During the pre-social stage, babies are generally focused on satisfying their immediate needs. Loevinger theorized that infants do not yet have egos as they tend to view themselves and their caregivers as one. For instance, they still think that the reflection they see in the mirror is another individual. In the impulsive stage, children are already aware of their self vs their non-self. They are also preoccupied with aggressive impulses. For example, when the mother will not give what the child wants, the child retaliates by throwing a tantrum. Self-protective stage is often manifested from early to middle childhood. In this phase, children are more aware of the cause and effect relationship and they may tend to be opportunistic, be manipulative, blame others for their faults, and highly motivated by rewards. For instance, a 7-year-old accidentally broke a vase then he blamed his baby brother. In the conformist stage, children and adolescents tend to assess others based on external factors such as looks, norms, and stereotypes. For instance, a teenager thinks that someone is cool if he is wearing trendy clothes. Self-aware phase is often manifested by adults; this is when they are more conscious of their uniqueness and the discrepancy between their actual and their ideal selves. For instance, a 21-year-old has a clear career path and is considering his family’s opinions regarding his choices. Conscientious Stage is characterized by self-evaluation, motivation to achieve, and frequently experiencing guilt when hurting others. For example, a 25-year-old is motivated to succeed and is doing his best to advance his career. He is also cautious that in attaining his goals, he would not hurt others. In the individualistic stage, the person is mature enough to tolerate differences. There is also a deeper sense of self-understanding which leads to healthy self-expression and realization of inner conflict. During the autonomous stage, self-fulfillment becomes a common goal and self-acceptance goes deeper. For instance, a middle-aged-woman is well-travelled and is taking meditation classes. She is genuinely comfortable with who she is and is well aware of her potentials as well as her limitations. Lastly, in the integrated stage, the ego has reached its full sense of identity and is characterized by wisdom, peace, and empathy. For instance, a 50-year-old imparts sound advices, genuinely cares for the next generations, and embodies tranquility.	577	ENGLISH	1
Indeed, the black man contributed the most towards the building of America. Black people made America great by their works and labour, sweat, and inge Indeed, the black man contributed the most towards the building of America. Black people made America great by their works and labour, sweat, and ingenuity. Since the American and world educational system has refused to recognize these contributions, it behoves us to teach the architectural, social and scientific achievements of these men. One of such men whose achievements have been underplayed is In Stevie Wonder’s song titled “Black Man,” the Motown star sings of Benjamin Banneker: “first clock to be made in America was created by a black man.” The song is a fitting salute to a great inventor and African Americans as a whole. It spoke about the genius of Benjamin Banneker and the many hats he wore. Benjamin Banneker was a farmer, mathematician, astronomer, author, and land surveyor. Like a lot of inventors at the time, Benjamin Banneker was self-taught. Benjamin worked daily on the family tobacco farm and for some time, he received early education from a Quaker school. However, he acquired most of his advanced knowledge from reading. At age 15, Benjamin took over the farm and came up with an irrigation system to direct the flow of water to the crops from nearby springs. As a result of his smart innovation, the farm flourished – even during times of drought. However, it was his clock invention that really propelled his reputation. Sometime in the early 1750s, Benjamin borrowed a pocket watch from a wealthy friend. Then, he took the watch apart and studied its components. After returning the watch, Benjamin then created a fully functioning clock of his own. Most surprising was the fact that he made the clock entirely out of carved wooden pieces. Surprisingly, the clock was accurate and would keep on ticking for decades. As a result of the attention Benjamin’s home-made clock received, he was able to set up his own business, where he repaired watches. Benjamin Banneker’s accomplishments did not end as a clock maker. Deciding to learn further, he borrowed books on mathematics and astronomy from a friend. And from then, he engorged himself in the subjects. Putting his knowledge to use, Banneker accurately predicted a solar eclipse in 1789. Early in the 1790s, Benjamin Banneker again added another skill to his resume as he became an author. Benjamin published his Almanac and Ephemeris of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. He published the journal every year for over a decade. Even more, he sent a copy to the secretary of state Thomas Jefferson. Alongside the copy of the journal he sent to Thomas Jefferson was a letter urging the abolition of slavery. Impressed by his abilities, Jefferson recommended Benjamin Banneker to be part of a surveying team that was to lay out Washington, D.C. Having been appointed to the three-man team by president George Washington, Benjamin Banneker ended up saving the project when the lead architect suddenly quit and took all the plans with him. With the aid of his meticulous memory, Benjamin Banneker was able to recreate the plans off-hand. Benjamin Banneker wielded knowledge like a sword and was many things ranging from an inventor, to an author, and then to a scientist, and an anti-slavery proponent. Hence, his legacy lives on to this day.	<urn:uuid:6835bf8c-a30d-4fe8-9b60-4695c48ead33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://africhroyale.com/meet-the-black-man-who-designed-washington-dc-and-invented-the-clock/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00543.warc.gz	en	0.982079	725	3.3125	3	[ -0.08607469499111176, 0.6105791926383972, -0.08587081730365753, 0.09218549728393555, -0.2629983127117157, -0.19469106197357178, 0.43760210275650024, 0.0642818734049797, -0.16735109686851501, -0.08820268511772156, 0.10232534259557724, -0.14454662799835205, -0.1633600890636444, 0.39082342386...	3	Indeed, the black man contributed the most towards the building of America. Black people made America great by their works and labour, sweat, and inge Indeed, the black man contributed the most towards the building of America. Black people made America great by their works and labour, sweat, and ingenuity. Since the American and world educational system has refused to recognize these contributions, it behoves us to teach the architectural, social and scientific achievements of these men. One of such men whose achievements have been underplayed is In Stevie Wonder’s song titled “Black Man,” the Motown star sings of Benjamin Banneker: “first clock to be made in America was created by a black man.” The song is a fitting salute to a great inventor and African Americans as a whole. It spoke about the genius of Benjamin Banneker and the many hats he wore. Benjamin Banneker was a farmer, mathematician, astronomer, author, and land surveyor. Like a lot of inventors at the time, Benjamin Banneker was self-taught. Benjamin worked daily on the family tobacco farm and for some time, he received early education from a Quaker school. However, he acquired most of his advanced knowledge from reading. At age 15, Benjamin took over the farm and came up with an irrigation system to direct the flow of water to the crops from nearby springs. As a result of his smart innovation, the farm flourished – even during times of drought. However, it was his clock invention that really propelled his reputation. Sometime in the early 1750s, Benjamin borrowed a pocket watch from a wealthy friend. Then, he took the watch apart and studied its components. After returning the watch, Benjamin then created a fully functioning clock of his own. Most surprising was the fact that he made the clock entirely out of carved wooden pieces. Surprisingly, the clock was accurate and would keep on ticking for decades. As a result of the attention Benjamin’s home-made clock received, he was able to set up his own business, where he repaired watches. Benjamin Banneker’s accomplishments did not end as a clock maker. Deciding to learn further, he borrowed books on mathematics and astronomy from a friend. And from then, he engorged himself in the subjects. Putting his knowledge to use, Banneker accurately predicted a solar eclipse in 1789. Early in the 1790s, Benjamin Banneker again added another skill to his resume as he became an author. Benjamin published his Almanac and Ephemeris of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. He published the journal every year for over a decade. Even more, he sent a copy to the secretary of state Thomas Jefferson. Alongside the copy of the journal he sent to Thomas Jefferson was a letter urging the abolition of slavery. Impressed by his abilities, Jefferson recommended Benjamin Banneker to be part of a surveying team that was to lay out Washington, D.C. Having been appointed to the three-man team by president George Washington, Benjamin Banneker ended up saving the project when the lead architect suddenly quit and took all the plans with him. With the aid of his meticulous memory, Benjamin Banneker was able to recreate the plans off-hand. Benjamin Banneker wielded knowledge like a sword and was many things ranging from an inventor, to an author, and then to a scientist, and an anti-slavery proponent. Hence, his legacy lives on to this day.	717	ENGLISH	1
On a cold winter morning in February 1919, the “Prison Special” pulled into the Union Place train station. Departing from a passenger car were twenty-five women from all walks of life who had one thing in common-they had all been thrown in jail for demonstrating in front of the White House in support of women’s right to vote. The suffragists riding the Prison Special traveled from city to city to rally the public in support of their cause. In Hartford, they spoke first at the Municipal Building and were welcomed by Katherine Houghton Hepburn, the chair of the state’s National Women’s Party. The group included 75-year old Mary Nolan and young Lucy Burns who had been arrested six times in front of Woodrow Wilson’s home. Local women had also been among those arrested in acts of civil disobedience. Edna Purtell of Hartford was one of the youngest of the hundreds of suffragists who took part in the actions. According to Purtell, a cop broke two of her fingers when she refused to give up her suffragist sash. Such activity was upsetting to opponents of women’s right to vote. Grace Markham, head of Connecticut’s anti-suffrage movement, warned that the “suffs” were allied with Reds and were trying to incite class and race hatred. Others predicted “racial decadence” if suffrage was passed. The suffrage movement began in the 1840’s with Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. By 1914, eleven states had granted full voting rights to women. Connecticut had defeated suffrage in 1917, and was still debating the pros and cons of the vote when the Prison Special arrived in the city. Dressed in prisoner garb or in the clothes from countries where women had the franchise, the Prison Brigade walked to the Allyn House for a fundraising breakfast organized by local sponsors. They were greeted by 250 supporters, including a wide range of Hartford women: “colored sympathizers, women munitions workers, Bolshevists and Socialist sympathizers” as one newspaper account put it. The women raised $500 (over $7,000 in today’s dollars) that day. The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was finally adopted by Congress in 1920. Edna Purtell died in 1985 at the age of 86.	<urn:uuid:d4ce7ae8-2e62-47a0-8b17-b0728103a944>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shoeleatherhistoryproject.com/2013/04/21/63/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00215.warc.gz	en	0.984785	496	3.359375	3	[ -0.44373106956481934, -0.004561278037726879, 0.2864311635494232, 0.09600894153118134, -0.0913214161992073, 0.5026804208755493, -0.03576449304819107, -0.026710035279393196, -0.1758234053850174, 0.09400108456611633, 0.06821396201848984, 0.5565703511238098, 0.30171623826026917, 0.121729098260...	13	On a cold winter morning in February 1919, the “Prison Special” pulled into the Union Place train station. Departing from a passenger car were twenty-five women from all walks of life who had one thing in common-they had all been thrown in jail for demonstrating in front of the White House in support of women’s right to vote. The suffragists riding the Prison Special traveled from city to city to rally the public in support of their cause. In Hartford, they spoke first at the Municipal Building and were welcomed by Katherine Houghton Hepburn, the chair of the state’s National Women’s Party. The group included 75-year old Mary Nolan and young Lucy Burns who had been arrested six times in front of Woodrow Wilson’s home. Local women had also been among those arrested in acts of civil disobedience. Edna Purtell of Hartford was one of the youngest of the hundreds of suffragists who took part in the actions. According to Purtell, a cop broke two of her fingers when she refused to give up her suffragist sash. Such activity was upsetting to opponents of women’s right to vote. Grace Markham, head of Connecticut’s anti-suffrage movement, warned that the “suffs” were allied with Reds and were trying to incite class and race hatred. Others predicted “racial decadence” if suffrage was passed. The suffrage movement began in the 1840’s with Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. By 1914, eleven states had granted full voting rights to women. Connecticut had defeated suffrage in 1917, and was still debating the pros and cons of the vote when the Prison Special arrived in the city. Dressed in prisoner garb or in the clothes from countries where women had the franchise, the Prison Brigade walked to the Allyn House for a fundraising breakfast organized by local sponsors. They were greeted by 250 supporters, including a wide range of Hartford women: “colored sympathizers, women munitions workers, Bolshevists and Socialist sympathizers” as one newspaper account put it. The women raised $500 (over $7,000 in today’s dollars) that day. The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was finally adopted by Congress in 1920. Edna Purtell died in 1985 at the age of 86.	506	ENGLISH	1
Many people, secular and religious, of different cultures and worldviews, have attempted to calculate the age of the world. There is no agreement between them simply because it is an impossible task. Christians, Muslims, and Jews have tried to do the calculation based on a literal reading of the Bible and have come up with different times. The following shows the impossibility by focusing on the widely used Jewish version. We do not know when it was that a Jew first thought to calculate years from creation. We do know that the talmudic rabbis knew nothing of this calendar, called anno mundi, “year (of the) world,” and that they used the Greek calendar. Scholars, such as Azariah de’ Rossi, in his The Light of the Eyes, speculate that the anno mundi may have originated at this time, around the sixth century, after the talmudic period. While this seems to be the date of its origin, it was not until fairly recently that Jews began to use it. Maimonides, for example, dated his documents with the Greek calendar in the thirteenth century. Jews adopted it recently simply because many forgot about its origin and thought it is a divine revelation to the Israelites at Mount Sinai. Other Jews accepted it because it is a “tradition, and one doesn’t question traditions.” Jewry had good reasons for originally rejecting this calendar. There are theological, practical, and logical reasons why it is clear that the anno mundi calculation is incorrect. The anno mundi inventor calculated the years since creation by taking biblical numbers literally. He relied on imaginative non-factual midrashic speculations of dates when the Bible is unclear. He accepted traditions about time periods which were developed to teach homiletical lessons and not historical facts. Many Jews feel that biblical time frames and dating were never meant to be taken literally. The Bible is not a history book. It is designed to teach about the existence of God and proper behavior. The world may have been created over a very long period of time, humans may not have appeared on earth until millions of years had passed, and the average life span before the flood may not have been hundreds of years as seem to be indicated by a literal reading of the Bible. When the Torah states that Adam lived for 930 years, it may have been referring to years that lasted from one lunar cycle to the next, about 29 ½ days. If the 930 “years” are divided by twelve (months), the result is 77.5 currently-calculated years, which is about the length of lives today. Even if the world was created in a single day, Adam did not die in the year 930, but 77. The anno mundi calculation is based on Midrashim. For example, scripture states that Noah bore three sons when he was 500 years old, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. A midrash states that they were not all born in the same year, Shem was not the oldest son as the text seems to state, and he was born when his father was 502 years old. The numbering in the anno mundi is based on this midrashic birth day of Shem, which is contrary to the plain reading of the biblical text. Another problem with using the anno mundi is that some of the time periods listed by the Bible are questionable. For example, it is possible to date the judges in the book of Judges one after the other, as the book implies, and insist, as does the anno mundi, that the period of the judges lasted over 500 years. However, it is more reasonable to suppose that some judges must have overlapped since they served in different tribes, we are unable to determine by how much, and scholars state the period was only about 200 years. Similarly, when the Bible says that a king ruled for a certain number of years, it is unclear, even as the Talmud recognizes, whether the first and last years are full years of twelve months or parts of a calendar year (in the latter case, two kings would have ruled in the same year). Additionally, most post-biblical events are based on questionable traditions. Tradition states that the second temple stood for 420 years, while scholars count the second temple period as over 580 years, from 516 BCE to 70 CE. The anno mundi calculation also assigns dates for people that are not even hinted at in Scripture; for instance, we have no idea how long King Saul reigned. In short, there were and are people who do not accept the basic assumptions used by the anno mundi calculations. There were and are people who take the Bible literally but nevertheless develop different calculations of the time periods mentioned because they interpret the events differently. Nevertheless, as previously stated, many Jews are convinced that it is a religious duty to use this calendar and feel good when they date their correspondence with the anno mundi year. The most famous Christian version was not invented until 525 AD (After Death of Jesus—many use CE today, Common Era). It includes a calculation of the years since the birth of Jesus, believing he was born in the year 1. The author of this calendar made mistakes. A careful reading of the New Testament shows that Jesus was born sometime between 6 and 4 BC (Before Christ—many use BCE today, Before the Common Era). When Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, starts in September 2017, the Jewish anno mundi year will be 5778 since creation. This widely-used calendar dates the patriarch Abraham’s birth as 1948, the same year that the State of Israel was reestablished according to the currently-used secular calendar. It dates the giving of the Ten Commandments as 2448, which would be 3330 years before September 2017. The same time the Christian calendar was invented. It is possible that after the flood, the calculation of years changed and people considered the difference from a warm to a cold season as a year, so that two biblical years during this period equal to one year today. While the Bible states that Abraham lived 175 years, Isaac 180, Joseph 110, and Moses 120, they would have died at ages 87, 90, 55 and 60, respectively. This midrash is not based on anything in the Bible text and is contrary to what is stated. I Kings 6:1 seems to say the period lasted 360 years from the entry of the Israelites into Canaan until the onset of King Saul’s reign.	<urn:uuid:e703dc57-24d9-44e5-ad81-9886d12ae9cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-truth-about-the-untrue-since-creation-calendar/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00294.warc.gz	en	0.980886	1,355	3.296875	3	[ -0.11291447281837463, 0.2970813512802124, 0.04715822637081146, -0.11009064316749573, -0.3354078531265259, -0.07024805247783661, -0.07109539210796356, 0.12184612452983856, 0.03306923806667328, 0.18089249730110168, 0.09284453094005585, 0.1285904049873352, 0.08957929164171219, 0.4609276652336...	3	Many people, secular and religious, of different cultures and worldviews, have attempted to calculate the age of the world. There is no agreement between them simply because it is an impossible task. Christians, Muslims, and Jews have tried to do the calculation based on a literal reading of the Bible and have come up with different times. The following shows the impossibility by focusing on the widely used Jewish version. We do not know when it was that a Jew first thought to calculate years from creation. We do know that the talmudic rabbis knew nothing of this calendar, called anno mundi, “year (of the) world,” and that they used the Greek calendar. Scholars, such as Azariah de’ Rossi, in his The Light of the Eyes, speculate that the anno mundi may have originated at this time, around the sixth century, after the talmudic period. While this seems to be the date of its origin, it was not until fairly recently that Jews began to use it. Maimonides, for example, dated his documents with the Greek calendar in the thirteenth century. Jews adopted it recently simply because many forgot about its origin and thought it is a divine revelation to the Israelites at Mount Sinai. Other Jews accepted it because it is a “tradition, and one doesn’t question traditions.” Jewry had good reasons for originally rejecting this calendar. There are theological, practical, and logical reasons why it is clear that the anno mundi calculation is incorrect. The anno mundi inventor calculated the years since creation by taking biblical numbers literally. He relied on imaginative non-factual midrashic speculations of dates when the Bible is unclear. He accepted traditions about time periods which were developed to teach homiletical lessons and not historical facts. Many Jews feel that biblical time frames and dating were never meant to be taken literally. The Bible is not a history book. It is designed to teach about the existence of God and proper behavior. The world may have been created over a very long period of time, humans may not have appeared on earth until millions of years had passed, and the average life span before the flood may not have been hundreds of years as seem to be indicated by a literal reading of the Bible. When the Torah states that Adam lived for 930 years, it may have been referring to years that lasted from one lunar cycle to the next, about 29 ½ days. If the 930 “years” are divided by twelve (months), the result is 77.5 currently-calculated years, which is about the length of lives today. Even if the world was created in a single day, Adam did not die in the year 930, but 77. The anno mundi calculation is based on Midrashim. For example, scripture states that Noah bore three sons when he was 500 years old, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. A midrash states that they were not all born in the same year, Shem was not the oldest son as the text seems to state, and he was born when his father was 502 years old. The numbering in the anno mundi is based on this midrashic birth day of Shem, which is contrary to the plain reading of the biblical text. Another problem with using the anno mundi is that some of the time periods listed by the Bible are questionable. For example, it is possible to date the judges in the book of Judges one after the other, as the book implies, and insist, as does the anno mundi, that the period of the judges lasted over 500 years. However, it is more reasonable to suppose that some judges must have overlapped since they served in different tribes, we are unable to determine by how much, and scholars state the period was only about 200 years. Similarly, when the Bible says that a king ruled for a certain number of years, it is unclear, even as the Talmud recognizes, whether the first and last years are full years of twelve months or parts of a calendar year (in the latter case, two kings would have ruled in the same year). Additionally, most post-biblical events are based on questionable traditions. Tradition states that the second temple stood for 420 years, while scholars count the second temple period as over 580 years, from 516 BCE to 70 CE. The anno mundi calculation also assigns dates for people that are not even hinted at in Scripture; for instance, we have no idea how long King Saul reigned. In short, there were and are people who do not accept the basic assumptions used by the anno mundi calculations. There were and are people who take the Bible literally but nevertheless develop different calculations of the time periods mentioned because they interpret the events differently. Nevertheless, as previously stated, many Jews are convinced that it is a religious duty to use this calendar and feel good when they date their correspondence with the anno mundi year. The most famous Christian version was not invented until 525 AD (After Death of Jesus—many use CE today, Common Era). It includes a calculation of the years since the birth of Jesus, believing he was born in the year 1. The author of this calendar made mistakes. A careful reading of the New Testament shows that Jesus was born sometime between 6 and 4 BC (Before Christ—many use BCE today, Before the Common Era). When Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, starts in September 2017, the Jewish anno mundi year will be 5778 since creation. This widely-used calendar dates the patriarch Abraham’s birth as 1948, the same year that the State of Israel was reestablished according to the currently-used secular calendar. It dates the giving of the Ten Commandments as 2448, which would be 3330 years before September 2017. The same time the Christian calendar was invented. It is possible that after the flood, the calculation of years changed and people considered the difference from a warm to a cold season as a year, so that two biblical years during this period equal to one year today. While the Bible states that Abraham lived 175 years, Isaac 180, Joseph 110, and Moses 120, they would have died at ages 87, 90, 55 and 60, respectively. This midrash is not based on anything in the Bible text and is contrary to what is stated. I Kings 6:1 seems to say the period lasted 360 years from the entry of the Israelites into Canaan until the onset of King Saul’s reign.	1,403	ENGLISH	1
In 1980 the Supreme Court awarded the Sioux tribe 106 million dollars as compensation for land that was taken from them. The Sioux refused to accept the payment, and the money remains in the US Treasury to this day, accruing interest. In 1980 the Sioux Nation tribe won their case claiming the Black Hills of South Dakota were wrongfully taken and required compensation. The tribe refused the $106 million award and continues to do so even though the award with interest is now $1.2 billion. In 1911 a lone man emerged from the wilderness in California, the last member of his tribe and also “the last wild Indian”. With the help of university professors he was able to preserve parts of his language and culture. Johnny Cash released a whole album called “Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian” because Cash had been convinced that his ancestry was Cherokee, even by members of the Cherokee tribe. Later he found it he was not Cherokee at all, but Scottish, English and Scots-Irish. Zoos save feathers that come off many of their birds and have them distributed to Native American tribes for their religious ceremonies. Joseph Medicine Crow, a Native American of the Crow tribe, served in World War II and completed all the requirements to become a war chief while at war, making him the last Crow member to do so. Many Native American tribes recognized as many as four genders, and people who would be considered homosexuals by modern standards were revered and respected for carrying “two spirits”. In 1847 during the Irish potato famine, the Choctaw Nation of Native Americans donated $147 to assist with famine relief. The Irish have just completed a monument of appreciation. Some Native American people intentionally bent trees to mark trails and many remain today as hidden monuments. Disney was planning on making a short film featuring Mickey Mouse as Christopher Columbus discovering America. It got cancelled because the animation team was unsure how to animate the native people Mickey would have to encounter in a non-offensive way.	<urn:uuid:8c013d05-cab9-4bf4-a816-a9174b11955a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://crazyfacts.com/tag/native-americans/page/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00389.warc.gz	en	0.983494	411	3.390625	3	[ -0.36049678921699524, 0.44855642318725586, 0.1052209883928299, -0.053864698857069016, -0.06238534674048424, -0.10804152488708496, 0.3483208119869232, -0.357181191444397, -0.38493284583091736, 0.08597878366708755, 0.4198291003704071, 0.030588436871767044, 0.000789414276368916, 0.11008688807...	1	In 1980 the Supreme Court awarded the Sioux tribe 106 million dollars as compensation for land that was taken from them. The Sioux refused to accept the payment, and the money remains in the US Treasury to this day, accruing interest. In 1980 the Sioux Nation tribe won their case claiming the Black Hills of South Dakota were wrongfully taken and required compensation. The tribe refused the $106 million award and continues to do so even though the award with interest is now $1.2 billion. In 1911 a lone man emerged from the wilderness in California, the last member of his tribe and also “the last wild Indian”. With the help of university professors he was able to preserve parts of his language and culture. Johnny Cash released a whole album called “Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian” because Cash had been convinced that his ancestry was Cherokee, even by members of the Cherokee tribe. Later he found it he was not Cherokee at all, but Scottish, English and Scots-Irish. Zoos save feathers that come off many of their birds and have them distributed to Native American tribes for their religious ceremonies. Joseph Medicine Crow, a Native American of the Crow tribe, served in World War II and completed all the requirements to become a war chief while at war, making him the last Crow member to do so. Many Native American tribes recognized as many as four genders, and people who would be considered homosexuals by modern standards were revered and respected for carrying “two spirits”. In 1847 during the Irish potato famine, the Choctaw Nation of Native Americans donated $147 to assist with famine relief. The Irish have just completed a monument of appreciation. Some Native American people intentionally bent trees to mark trails and many remain today as hidden monuments. Disney was planning on making a short film featuring Mickey Mouse as Christopher Columbus discovering America. It got cancelled because the animation team was unsure how to animate the native people Mickey would have to encounter in a non-offensive way.	417	ENGLISH	1
The Transatlantic Slave Trade started in in the 15th century and ended in the 19th century. The slave trade greatly affected Africa’s economic performance. In the beginning of the slave trade, the people of Africa were against their people being taken away and used for manual labor. It is horrible to think that the majority of people in Africa were okay with their own people being sold as slaves. Some African countries were not okay with it but unfortunately most looked the other way because they were making money. They would take the weak and poor people and sell them to the English that were traveling to the “New World” to expand the British Empire. The Africans did not care because even though most of Northern Africa was taken over by the British, they were making money. Africa was made up of mostly poor people but with the money they were making through the slave trade, they were making lots of profit and becoming rich. This soon turned to be just like every civilization, where there were upper class rich people who had all the power besides the King and the middle class and the poor. The British would dock on the coast of Africa and they would come with goods and money and the Africans would have people locked up that they would then exchange. The British did this with numerous African tribes and even though some tried to defy the slave trade, most of them went along with it, to give the British extra slaves if they paid more. Circa 1400 and 1900, all of Africa was going through many different slave trades. They were trading to the new colonies and to South America/Middle America. The most well known part of the slave trade took place in West Africa most of the trades were shipped from. There were many other slave trades like the trans-Saharan slave trade, the Red Sea slave trade and the Indian Ocean slave trade. These dated back much farther than the Transatlantic slave trade. Africa’s Slave trade was much different than the other slave trades because of many reason. The number of slaves that were traded was innumerable. There were around 12 million slaves traded from Africa around the world. If it were to keep going, that would have torn up the population of Africa. It would soon have been just the rich people that sold the slaves and the middle class would have been gone as well. There were another six million slaves that were traded in the Indian, Red Sea, and Saharan slave trades. One horrible fact was that there were hundreds of thousand slaves that were killed while being shipped across the Atlantic ocean and in raids from people trying to steal riches. “According to calculations by Patrick Manning, was that by 1850 Africa’s population was only half of what it would have been had the slave trades not taken place. Africa’s slave trades were also unique because, unlike previous slave trades, individuals of the same or similar ethnicities enslaved one another. This had particularly detrimental consequences, including social and ethnic fragmentation, political instability and a weakening of states, and the corruption of judicial institutions. The most common manner in which slaves were taken was through villages or states raiding one another. Where groups of villages had previously developed into larger-scale village federations, relations between the villages tended to turn hostile. As a result, ties between villages were weakened, which in turn impeded the formation of larger communities and broader ethnic identities.”. This is from Patrick Manning who makes a important statement about how half of the African Population was taken away because of the Slave Trade. It talks about how many African Villages that were peaceful turned into hostile ones because they wanted to protect their people. There were big villages that would go and capture people from other villages and take them to sell for the slave trade. Kusimba (2004, p. 66) writes that “insecurity confined people within ethnic boundaries constructing spheres of interaction.”. The terrible and vicious cycle was that there was disorder, violence and insecurity in Africa. This resulted in the people wanting weapons to fight. They were able to get weapons from the British and were able to buy them by trading away slaves. They were able to get these slaves through kidnapping them and forcing them to labor. “Historians have named this vicious cycle the “gun–slave cycle” or the “iron–slave cycle””. It was easier to trade slaves from West Africa because it was closer to the “New Land” so that is where they acquired a majority of their slaves. “the consequence of internal conflict was increased political instability and in many cases the collapse of preexisting forms of government (Lovejoy 2000, pp. 68–70). In sixteenthcentury northern Senegambia, the Portuguese slave trade was a key factor leading to the eventual disintegration of the Joloff Confederation, the Gweno kingdom, and the Pare states in East Africa’s Pangani valley. The most dramatic example may be the Kongo kingdom of West-Central Africa–For many of the other Bantu-speaking ethnicities, stable states also existed in earlier periods, but by the time the slave trades were brought to an end, few ancient states remained.”. This led to be one reason of Africa’s underdevelopment; they sold off most of their people and their country fell short of people. There are many examples of how America came to be as a developed and modern country but in fact though it is not something that many would like to agree with, it was because of slavery. In the “New World”, slaves were used for everything and they did all the labor while others had ideas and new inventions. Back in Africa, there was a lack for inventions because of the absence of labor. Before the people were sold off to be Slaves, they lived normal lives. When it came to the British wanting more slaves, that is when they took them. They had people that worked and did manual labor but after some time, they were all gone. They had been sold off to the British and soon there was very few people left to do all that work. “Slavery was corruption: it involved theft, bribery, and exercise of brute force as well as ruses. Slavery thus may be seen as one source of pre colonial origins for modern corruption.” This was written by Patrick Manning who again makes a very important point about how slavery was to blame for everything. Even though just about every country that had slavery, wouldn’t be where they are today without it. People know how bad it really was and use it as an excuse to why modern day civilization is as “corrupt” as it is, though there are many people who do agree that slavery is not an excuse for anything and morally that is correct. “Head to a village in northern Ghana or indeed many villages in West Africa and at times you might wonder what century you are in. Even though Ghana has achieved impressive growth rates in recent years, the scene in many rural areas appears to have changed little with grass thatched mud walled huts. There is often no electricity and yes, the water is collected in plastic containers these days but it is still quite an effort to fetch it.” This is an article written by the BBC, speaking about how because of the slave trade, there are countries that are so underdeveloped that they are in living conditions that people lived in hundred of year ago.The Slave Trade affected Africa’s economy significantly, thus shaping Africa to be greatly impoverished. Through improvisation and forced labor the Atlantic Slave Trade negatively affected Africa and it caused many future problems.	<urn:uuid:484ccbc8-17ba-4707-b166-70a33339a57b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shakespearecomputer.com/the-africa-and-they-would-come-with-goods/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00166.warc.gz	en	0.992234	1,546	4.125	4	[ -0.4154241681098938, 0.4183228611946106, 0.26118654012680054, 0.06113903224468231, 0.025285258889198303, -0.3195057809352875, -0.07296101003885269, -0.4452294707298279, -0.20571395754814148, 0.29437047243118286, 0.7410603761672974, -0.16348779201507568, -0.35383790731430054, 0.210052877664...	3	The Transatlantic Slave Trade started in in the 15th century and ended in the 19th century. The slave trade greatly affected Africa’s economic performance. In the beginning of the slave trade, the people of Africa were against their people being taken away and used for manual labor. It is horrible to think that the majority of people in Africa were okay with their own people being sold as slaves. Some African countries were not okay with it but unfortunately most looked the other way because they were making money. They would take the weak and poor people and sell them to the English that were traveling to the “New World” to expand the British Empire. The Africans did not care because even though most of Northern Africa was taken over by the British, they were making money. Africa was made up of mostly poor people but with the money they were making through the slave trade, they were making lots of profit and becoming rich. This soon turned to be just like every civilization, where there were upper class rich people who had all the power besides the King and the middle class and the poor. The British would dock on the coast of Africa and they would come with goods and money and the Africans would have people locked up that they would then exchange. The British did this with numerous African tribes and even though some tried to defy the slave trade, most of them went along with it, to give the British extra slaves if they paid more. Circa 1400 and 1900, all of Africa was going through many different slave trades. They were trading to the new colonies and to South America/Middle America. The most well known part of the slave trade took place in West Africa most of the trades were shipped from. There were many other slave trades like the trans-Saharan slave trade, the Red Sea slave trade and the Indian Ocean slave trade. These dated back much farther than the Transatlantic slave trade. Africa’s Slave trade was much different than the other slave trades because of many reason. The number of slaves that were traded was innumerable. There were around 12 million slaves traded from Africa around the world. If it were to keep going, that would have torn up the population of Africa. It would soon have been just the rich people that sold the slaves and the middle class would have been gone as well. There were another six million slaves that were traded in the Indian, Red Sea, and Saharan slave trades. One horrible fact was that there were hundreds of thousand slaves that were killed while being shipped across the Atlantic ocean and in raids from people trying to steal riches. “According to calculations by Patrick Manning, was that by 1850 Africa’s population was only half of what it would have been had the slave trades not taken place. Africa’s slave trades were also unique because, unlike previous slave trades, individuals of the same or similar ethnicities enslaved one another. This had particularly detrimental consequences, including social and ethnic fragmentation, political instability and a weakening of states, and the corruption of judicial institutions. The most common manner in which slaves were taken was through villages or states raiding one another. Where groups of villages had previously developed into larger-scale village federations, relations between the villages tended to turn hostile. As a result, ties between villages were weakened, which in turn impeded the formation of larger communities and broader ethnic identities.”. This is from Patrick Manning who makes a important statement about how half of the African Population was taken away because of the Slave Trade. It talks about how many African Villages that were peaceful turned into hostile ones because they wanted to protect their people. There were big villages that would go and capture people from other villages and take them to sell for the slave trade. Kusimba (2004, p. 66) writes that “insecurity confined people within ethnic boundaries constructing spheres of interaction.”. The terrible and vicious cycle was that there was disorder, violence and insecurity in Africa. This resulted in the people wanting weapons to fight. They were able to get weapons from the British and were able to buy them by trading away slaves. They were able to get these slaves through kidnapping them and forcing them to labor. “Historians have named this vicious cycle the “gun–slave cycle” or the “iron–slave cycle””. It was easier to trade slaves from West Africa because it was closer to the “New Land” so that is where they acquired a majority of their slaves. “the consequence of internal conflict was increased political instability and in many cases the collapse of preexisting forms of government (Lovejoy 2000, pp. 68–70). In sixteenthcentury northern Senegambia, the Portuguese slave trade was a key factor leading to the eventual disintegration of the Joloff Confederation, the Gweno kingdom, and the Pare states in East Africa’s Pangani valley. The most dramatic example may be the Kongo kingdom of West-Central Africa–For many of the other Bantu-speaking ethnicities, stable states also existed in earlier periods, but by the time the slave trades were brought to an end, few ancient states remained.”. This led to be one reason of Africa’s underdevelopment; they sold off most of their people and their country fell short of people. There are many examples of how America came to be as a developed and modern country but in fact though it is not something that many would like to agree with, it was because of slavery. In the “New World”, slaves were used for everything and they did all the labor while others had ideas and new inventions. Back in Africa, there was a lack for inventions because of the absence of labor. Before the people were sold off to be Slaves, they lived normal lives. When it came to the British wanting more slaves, that is when they took them. They had people that worked and did manual labor but after some time, they were all gone. They had been sold off to the British and soon there was very few people left to do all that work. “Slavery was corruption: it involved theft, bribery, and exercise of brute force as well as ruses. Slavery thus may be seen as one source of pre colonial origins for modern corruption.” This was written by Patrick Manning who again makes a very important point about how slavery was to blame for everything. Even though just about every country that had slavery, wouldn’t be where they are today without it. People know how bad it really was and use it as an excuse to why modern day civilization is as “corrupt” as it is, though there are many people who do agree that slavery is not an excuse for anything and morally that is correct. “Head to a village in northern Ghana or indeed many villages in West Africa and at times you might wonder what century you are in. Even though Ghana has achieved impressive growth rates in recent years, the scene in many rural areas appears to have changed little with grass thatched mud walled huts. There is often no electricity and yes, the water is collected in plastic containers these days but it is still quite an effort to fetch it.” This is an article written by the BBC, speaking about how because of the slave trade, there are countries that are so underdeveloped that they are in living conditions that people lived in hundred of year ago.The Slave Trade affected Africa’s economy significantly, thus shaping Africa to be greatly impoverished. Through improvisation and forced labor the Atlantic Slave Trade negatively affected Africa and it caused many future problems.	1,529	ENGLISH	1
Langston Hughes was an author in the Harlem Renaissance, a movement where African American authors were able to prove themselves as intelligent writers and tell others what they believed in. He was a lead poet in this movement and had the platform to encourage and give advice to other authors. Not only did Hughes use his own writings to share his belief in equal rights, but he was able to have a large influence in the lives of other African American writers and encourage all Americans to stop racial oppression. Essay due? We'll write it for you! Often times, when fighting for their freedom, black writers would try to make themselves look perfect in order to measure up to every other American. Though this is understandable, Langston Hughes asks them to simply be themselves, both through their actions and writings. It was important that they embraced their culture and background, not hide it to “fit in.” While some people listened to him or at least attempted to do so, many continued to do the same thing they had always done because they believed that it would help the fight for freedom. Hughes kept encouraging them, saying, “Perhaps the mission of an artist is to interpret beauty to people – the beauty within themselves.” (Hughes, Life According to Langston Hughes) It is important that people view these writers by their true beauty, not by them trying to be someone they are not. In all of Hughes’ works, he was careful to display his feelings while encouraging others. In his poem I, Too, Hughes set the story in a dining room. Because of his skin color, he is not allowed to sit at the dinner table when company comes, but he continues to have hope that someday, this will change. Summing up the story, Hughes says, “They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed—I, too, am America.” (Hughes, I, Too) This one quote encompasses everything he believes in. In this short excerpt, Hughes is saying that when there are finally equal rights, white people will realize the value African Americans bring – not only to writing, but to life. Mother to Son, by Langston Hughes, is a poem written that addresses everyone fighting for their freedom. Written from a mother to her son, it is said, “Don’t you set down on the steps ‘Cause you finds it’s kinder harder. Don’t you fall now – For I’se still goin’, honey, I’se still climbin’, And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.” (Hughes, Mother to Son) In the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes played the role of the mother from this poem. He was the one who encouraged other writers to continue to fight for what they believe. Though it may be hard, he knows that it would be worth it in the end. Black rights were important to him, which caused him to not only write about it himself, but to encourage others to do the same. Langston Hughes knew the importance of telling others about his struggles as an African American. Often times, people of different races, religions, and socioeconomics are oppressed simply because other people do not understand what it is like to live in their shoes. They do not know how they were raised nor the hardships their differences bring. This is why informing others, whether through voice, writing, or any other type of art, is vital. In the days of Hughes, white people didn’t understand everything African Americans had to go through or why their fight for freedom was so important to them. But through Hughes and other writers, they were exposed to the lives of African Americans. They were able to hear their thoughts, struggles at school and home, and their desire to have the opportunity to live like the rest of America. Without people speaking up for what they believe in, there would be little change in our world today. Langston Hughes played a large role in creating equal rights for African Americans and due to his boldness, he was able to convince others to speak up for change, as well. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	<urn:uuid:6c05b1c5-7ad7-4c75-b644-26c466facc1c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/a-large-role-of-langston-hughes-in-creating-equal-rights-for-african-americans/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00008.warc.gz	en	0.980511	958	3.890625	4	[ -0.4134775698184967, 0.2604318857192993, 0.04147476702928543, 0.39265039563179016, -0.2590697407722473, 0.28997480869293213, 0.5073603391647339, -0.21924006938934326, -0.21679840981960297, 0.15763317048549652, -0.08366713672876358, 0.24417808651924133, -0.18400079011917114, 0.1712780594825...	1	Langston Hughes was an author in the Harlem Renaissance, a movement where African American authors were able to prove themselves as intelligent writers and tell others what they believed in. He was a lead poet in this movement and had the platform to encourage and give advice to other authors. Not only did Hughes use his own writings to share his belief in equal rights, but he was able to have a large influence in the lives of other African American writers and encourage all Americans to stop racial oppression. Essay due? We'll write it for you! Often times, when fighting for their freedom, black writers would try to make themselves look perfect in order to measure up to every other American. Though this is understandable, Langston Hughes asks them to simply be themselves, both through their actions and writings. It was important that they embraced their culture and background, not hide it to “fit in.” While some people listened to him or at least attempted to do so, many continued to do the same thing they had always done because they believed that it would help the fight for freedom. Hughes kept encouraging them, saying, “Perhaps the mission of an artist is to interpret beauty to people – the beauty within themselves.” (Hughes, Life According to Langston Hughes) It is important that people view these writers by their true beauty, not by them trying to be someone they are not. In all of Hughes’ works, he was careful to display his feelings while encouraging others. In his poem I, Too, Hughes set the story in a dining room. Because of his skin color, he is not allowed to sit at the dinner table when company comes, but he continues to have hope that someday, this will change. Summing up the story, Hughes says, “They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed—I, too, am America.” (Hughes, I, Too) This one quote encompasses everything he believes in. In this short excerpt, Hughes is saying that when there are finally equal rights, white people will realize the value African Americans bring – not only to writing, but to life. Mother to Son, by Langston Hughes, is a poem written that addresses everyone fighting for their freedom. Written from a mother to her son, it is said, “Don’t you set down on the steps ‘Cause you finds it’s kinder harder. Don’t you fall now – For I’se still goin’, honey, I’se still climbin’, And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.” (Hughes, Mother to Son) In the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes played the role of the mother from this poem. He was the one who encouraged other writers to continue to fight for what they believe. Though it may be hard, he knows that it would be worth it in the end. Black rights were important to him, which caused him to not only write about it himself, but to encourage others to do the same. Langston Hughes knew the importance of telling others about his struggles as an African American. Often times, people of different races, religions, and socioeconomics are oppressed simply because other people do not understand what it is like to live in their shoes. They do not know how they were raised nor the hardships their differences bring. This is why informing others, whether through voice, writing, or any other type of art, is vital. In the days of Hughes, white people didn’t understand everything African Americans had to go through or why their fight for freedom was so important to them. But through Hughes and other writers, they were exposed to the lives of African Americans. They were able to hear their thoughts, struggles at school and home, and their desire to have the opportunity to live like the rest of America. Without people speaking up for what they believe in, there would be little change in our world today. Langston Hughes played a large role in creating equal rights for African Americans and due to his boldness, he was able to convince others to speak up for change, as well. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	910	ENGLISH	1
Gender Equality in Sports Scholarships Gender equality in scholarship funding has caused some of the most heated debates in collegiate sports. Women have been fighting for equality in college sports for decades, because of sexism and other social issues. With the passage of Title IX and the inception of the Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association (WIAA), later absorbed by the NCAA, great strides have been made. However, colleges in the U.S. still struggle to meet demands of gender equality. History of Women's Athletics Restrictions on female athletic participation were originally put in place by female physical education instructors. During the first two decades of the 20th century, opportunities for women to participate in collegiate sports were continually diminished, according to the Women's Sports Foundation 13. By the early 1920s women were only allowed to participate in sports via recreational sports days, because it was thought that too much physical exertion was unhealthy for the female body and would result in masculinization. Competition and exertion were downplayed during these friendly sports days, and socialization was the central theme. During the Great Depression, more and more women went to work to support their families. Working in occupations that were once traditionally men's jobs, such as factories, provided opportunities for women to join industrial athletic leagues and it became more socially acceptable for women to participate in sports. In fact, female physical educators began to concede that sports participation improved, rather than harmed, the health of college women, as they had insisted in the years leading up to the Depression. They began allowing more girls to participate. Wars and Sports During both World War II and the Vietnam War, significant portions of the male population were sent to support the war effort. With fewer men available to participate in sports in the U.S., opportunities for women to participate increased exponentially. Female university students were able to take advantage of a growing opportunity to compete with girls from other schools and began to organize female athletic leagues. This movement coincided with the beginning of the feminist movement, and the notion that women should be represented equally in collegiate sports was advanced. The Passage of Title IX By the end of the 1960s, it was clear that female collegiate athletics were grossly underfunded. Public figures such as Billy Jean King began to speak out about the inequality between men and women in higher education. Amid growing demand, congress, spearheaded by Representative Edith Green of Ohio, began holding hearings concerning gender equality in publicly funded colleges in 1970, according to Iram Valentin, a Research Fellow for the Education Development Center. As a result of the hearings, Title IX was passed two years later. It requires equal funding by law for male and female athletes, including scholarship distribution. Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association With the passage of Title IX came the inception of the Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The WIAA was the governing body for all female intercollegiate athletics from 1972 to 1982. The organization fought to keep female athletics separate from male athletics to ensure equal funding for equipment and scholarships, while athletes and coaches were beginning to feel that the organization was holding them back. By isolating female athletics, the WIAA inadvertently caused male and female athletics to be viewed as unequal, much to the chagrin of participants. Eventually, after a rally by coaches and athletes, the WIAA was absorbed by the NCAA, which was charged with the task of keeping athletic scholarships equal between men and women. Today, many still work to equalize the genders in collegiate athletics, but great progress has been made in the right direction. - Athletics are close finishing after the run image by Ivonne Wierink from Fotolia.com	<urn:uuid:6df7ec5a-1673-407a-960a-d97817e3e3e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://howtoadult.com/262813-gender-equality-in-sports-scholarships.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00551.warc.gz	en	0.982727	747	3.515625	4	[ 0.03484434634447098, 0.16160845756530762, -0.05279975384473801, -0.1066882312297821, -0.20536410808563232, 0.5086954832077026, -0.26567840576171875, 0.17446133494377136, 0.15126773715019226, 0.00858335755765438, -0.11039240658283234, -0.4458993971347809, 0.03903757035732269, -0.12114065140...	2	Gender Equality in Sports Scholarships Gender equality in scholarship funding has caused some of the most heated debates in collegiate sports. Women have been fighting for equality in college sports for decades, because of sexism and other social issues. With the passage of Title IX and the inception of the Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association (WIAA), later absorbed by the NCAA, great strides have been made. However, colleges in the U.S. still struggle to meet demands of gender equality. History of Women's Athletics Restrictions on female athletic participation were originally put in place by female physical education instructors. During the first two decades of the 20th century, opportunities for women to participate in collegiate sports were continually diminished, according to the Women's Sports Foundation 13. By the early 1920s women were only allowed to participate in sports via recreational sports days, because it was thought that too much physical exertion was unhealthy for the female body and would result in masculinization. Competition and exertion were downplayed during these friendly sports days, and socialization was the central theme. During the Great Depression, more and more women went to work to support their families. Working in occupations that were once traditionally men's jobs, such as factories, provided opportunities for women to join industrial athletic leagues and it became more socially acceptable for women to participate in sports. In fact, female physical educators began to concede that sports participation improved, rather than harmed, the health of college women, as they had insisted in the years leading up to the Depression. They began allowing more girls to participate. Wars and Sports During both World War II and the Vietnam War, significant portions of the male population were sent to support the war effort. With fewer men available to participate in sports in the U.S., opportunities for women to participate increased exponentially. Female university students were able to take advantage of a growing opportunity to compete with girls from other schools and began to organize female athletic leagues. This movement coincided with the beginning of the feminist movement, and the notion that women should be represented equally in collegiate sports was advanced. The Passage of Title IX By the end of the 1960s, it was clear that female collegiate athletics were grossly underfunded. Public figures such as Billy Jean King began to speak out about the inequality between men and women in higher education. Amid growing demand, congress, spearheaded by Representative Edith Green of Ohio, began holding hearings concerning gender equality in publicly funded colleges in 1970, according to Iram Valentin, a Research Fellow for the Education Development Center. As a result of the hearings, Title IX was passed two years later. It requires equal funding by law for male and female athletes, including scholarship distribution. Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association With the passage of Title IX came the inception of the Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The WIAA was the governing body for all female intercollegiate athletics from 1972 to 1982. The organization fought to keep female athletics separate from male athletics to ensure equal funding for equipment and scholarships, while athletes and coaches were beginning to feel that the organization was holding them back. By isolating female athletics, the WIAA inadvertently caused male and female athletics to be viewed as unequal, much to the chagrin of participants. Eventually, after a rally by coaches and athletes, the WIAA was absorbed by the NCAA, which was charged with the task of keeping athletic scholarships equal between men and women. Today, many still work to equalize the genders in collegiate athletics, but great progress has been made in the right direction. - Athletics are close finishing after the run image by Ivonne Wierink from Fotolia.com	764	ENGLISH	1
Autumn 2 - Scots and Saxons Y4 Blog: Autumn 2 Saxons and Scots This half term has been a whirlwind of adventure as we have explored the time of Saxons and Scots in England. The children got stuck in straight away looking at artefacts that Mr LeFevre found in his attic over the holidays and making historical guesses for what they might have been used for. This led to researching the lives of Saxons and Scots and deciding who was better. We used our time travel machine for this and transported a Saxon and a Scot to Pilgrims’ Cross to find out their opinions but the machine broke and they were let loose on the school! Luckily, they managed to find Ash and Beech class so that the children were able to ask their historical questions and make an informed decision about who was best (they decided it was the Scots!). On Wednesday afternoons the children had the opportunity to practise their artistic skills with Mr. Richie and created some fantastic Scots portraits which we are hoping to display on our section of the corridor in the new year. The children loved getting involved the paints and seeing what they were able to create with their new skills. In science we learnt about the animals in Scotland now and the animals that were around in the Scots time. The children were fascinated that bears, wolves and even beavers used to roam wild in the Scottish Highlands and were quick to think up suggestions to help these animals become re-introduced. They used their ideas and science knowledge to create safe habitats for the animals that allowed them to roam free whilst also protecting the humans who live there. Another highlight, although not linked to our Saxons and Scots, was the Year 4 Christingle service. We were really proud of their singing, especially when they faced their audience and couldn’t see the words on the screen. The service was beautiful and the children were incredibly sensible with their lit Christingles and everyone safely made it through! We hope you have an incredible Christmas holiday with your children – they have more than earnt the break! We look forward to having them all back in January to embark on our new adventure into Africa! The Wild Coast Firstly, we would like to say a huge thank you to the Year4 children for an amazing first half term back! They engaged enthusiastically with all the learning and astounded us with their knowledge. We started out Wild Coast adventure by looking closer to home at Picket Twenty applying our geography learning of physical and human features to see how we could make our estate a better place to live. The children were creative with the ideas they wrote in their non-chronological reports to the local MP with suggestions such as a local climbing wall to help increase the exercise of local residents and a possible petting zoo up on the park! The children then found it fascinating when we headed to the coast on our school trip at Stubbington Study Centre at the similarities and differences between a country town and a coastal one. The children were beautifully behaved and made all the Pilgrims’ Cross staff proud at their level of involvement in all activities even when a mini hail storm arrived. It was amazing to see how the sea creatures they had placed in their DIY rock pools had made little passages through the sand during the morning. Maths was also a great success over the half term and the children enjoyed using their multiplication and division skills to help Finn save the dolphins from the plastic pollution. They were able to practise their times tables rapid recall on Times Table Rockstars throughout the mini adventure and they worked hard in the year group battle – congratulations to Ash class who won this time! In science we looked into the water cycle and it’s different stages so that the children could create informational posters to explain the science behind the book: Rhythm of the Rain. The children really enjoyed learning about evaporation and condensation and the rap was going round and round our heads for days! We ended the half term with a writing competition based on the book Town is by the Sea. All the children wrote descriptive and engaging stories full of action! We have attached a few snippets from some of the stories that we were blown away with for you to read below. We hope all of you have had the chance to relax over the half term reading for our new adventure and of course, Christmas celebrations!	<urn:uuid:6925b490-897e-4a14-ae5c-be6855a1610c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pilgrimscross.co.uk/year-4-ash-and-beech/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00433.warc.gz	en	0.982203	886	3.265625	3	[ -0.11629686504602432, -0.055755503475666046, 0.1930767297744751, 0.0006132746348157525, 0.133510023355484, -0.10734996199607849, -0.34751302003860474, 0.010833123698830605, -0.02959819883108139, -0.12004704773426056, -0.12227421253919601, -0.49547824263572693, 0.2003566026687622, 0.0881228...	1	Autumn 2 - Scots and Saxons Y4 Blog: Autumn 2 Saxons and Scots This half term has been a whirlwind of adventure as we have explored the time of Saxons and Scots in England. The children got stuck in straight away looking at artefacts that Mr LeFevre found in his attic over the holidays and making historical guesses for what they might have been used for. This led to researching the lives of Saxons and Scots and deciding who was better. We used our time travel machine for this and transported a Saxon and a Scot to Pilgrims’ Cross to find out their opinions but the machine broke and they were let loose on the school! Luckily, they managed to find Ash and Beech class so that the children were able to ask their historical questions and make an informed decision about who was best (they decided it was the Scots!). On Wednesday afternoons the children had the opportunity to practise their artistic skills with Mr. Richie and created some fantastic Scots portraits which we are hoping to display on our section of the corridor in the new year. The children loved getting involved the paints and seeing what they were able to create with their new skills. In science we learnt about the animals in Scotland now and the animals that were around in the Scots time. The children were fascinated that bears, wolves and even beavers used to roam wild in the Scottish Highlands and were quick to think up suggestions to help these animals become re-introduced. They used their ideas and science knowledge to create safe habitats for the animals that allowed them to roam free whilst also protecting the humans who live there. Another highlight, although not linked to our Saxons and Scots, was the Year 4 Christingle service. We were really proud of their singing, especially when they faced their audience and couldn’t see the words on the screen. The service was beautiful and the children were incredibly sensible with their lit Christingles and everyone safely made it through! We hope you have an incredible Christmas holiday with your children – they have more than earnt the break! We look forward to having them all back in January to embark on our new adventure into Africa! The Wild Coast Firstly, we would like to say a huge thank you to the Year4 children for an amazing first half term back! They engaged enthusiastically with all the learning and astounded us with their knowledge. We started out Wild Coast adventure by looking closer to home at Picket Twenty applying our geography learning of physical and human features to see how we could make our estate a better place to live. The children were creative with the ideas they wrote in their non-chronological reports to the local MP with suggestions such as a local climbing wall to help increase the exercise of local residents and a possible petting zoo up on the park! The children then found it fascinating when we headed to the coast on our school trip at Stubbington Study Centre at the similarities and differences between a country town and a coastal one. The children were beautifully behaved and made all the Pilgrims’ Cross staff proud at their level of involvement in all activities even when a mini hail storm arrived. It was amazing to see how the sea creatures they had placed in their DIY rock pools had made little passages through the sand during the morning. Maths was also a great success over the half term and the children enjoyed using their multiplication and division skills to help Finn save the dolphins from the plastic pollution. They were able to practise their times tables rapid recall on Times Table Rockstars throughout the mini adventure and they worked hard in the year group battle – congratulations to Ash class who won this time! In science we looked into the water cycle and it’s different stages so that the children could create informational posters to explain the science behind the book: Rhythm of the Rain. The children really enjoyed learning about evaporation and condensation and the rap was going round and round our heads for days! We ended the half term with a writing competition based on the book Town is by the Sea. All the children wrote descriptive and engaging stories full of action! We have attached a few snippets from some of the stories that we were blown away with for you to read below. We hope all of you have had the chance to relax over the half term reading for our new adventure and of course, Christmas celebrations!	873	ENGLISH	1
The American civil war (1861–1865) – the problem of slavery; Black people had been brought from Africa and worked as slaves in cotton fields. Americans disagreed about their fate. The northerners wanted them to be freed whereas the southerners wanted them to work for them as slaves. – the problem of the states' rights. Should the US Federal Government be more powerful than the governments of individual states? The North and the South were very different in character. The economy of the South was based on agriculture. The North was more industrial, with a larger population and greater wealth. Slavery, and opposition to it, had existed since before independence (1776) but, in the 19th century, the abolitionists gradually increased in number. The South's attitude was that each state had the right to make any law it wanted, and if southern states wanted slavery, the US government could not prevent it. Many southerners became secessionists. It means they were for the partition between the northern and the southern states. Abraham Lincoln (who was elected President in 1860) and his party (the Republicans) were against slavery, but said that they would not end it. The southern States did not believe them and began to leave the Union. In 1860 there were only 34 States in the US. Eleven of them had left the Union (seceded) to form the Confederate States of America (The Confederacy). In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, in which all the slaves were declared free. In the South especially, people suffered greatly from the war and had little to eat. On 9 April 1865, when the South could fight no more, General Lee surrendered to General Grant. A total of 620.000 people had been killed and many more wounded. The war was over but the feeling of hostility against the North remained strong. On April 14th, 1865, President Lincoln was murdered in Washington. The South had been beaten, but its people had not changed their opinions about slavery and states' rights. Between 1865 and 1870 the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were passed: they made Black people citizens of the United States and of the state they lived in. They were also theorically given the same rights as "White Americans". Des profs en ligne Des profs en ligne Des ressources riches Des outils ludiques Des tableaux de bord	<urn:uuid:ce4d96db-a496-4c5d-9bac-9f6a86382034>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.maxicours.com/se/cours/the-american-civil-war-1861-1865/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00026.warc.gz	en	0.987486	524	4.09375	4	[ -0.2532877027988434, 0.10763917118310928, 0.09121927618980408, 0.05282672867178917, -0.09317482262849808, 0.17578552663326263, -0.15462738275527954, -0.248631089925766, -0.27578121423721313, 0.21074369549751282, 0.39622023701667786, 0.24662205576896667, -0.12554006278514862, 0.424606651067...	5	The American civil war (1861–1865) – the problem of slavery; Black people had been brought from Africa and worked as slaves in cotton fields. Americans disagreed about their fate. The northerners wanted them to be freed whereas the southerners wanted them to work for them as slaves. – the problem of the states' rights. Should the US Federal Government be more powerful than the governments of individual states? The North and the South were very different in character. The economy of the South was based on agriculture. The North was more industrial, with a larger population and greater wealth. Slavery, and opposition to it, had existed since before independence (1776) but, in the 19th century, the abolitionists gradually increased in number. The South's attitude was that each state had the right to make any law it wanted, and if southern states wanted slavery, the US government could not prevent it. Many southerners became secessionists. It means they were for the partition between the northern and the southern states. Abraham Lincoln (who was elected President in 1860) and his party (the Republicans) were against slavery, but said that they would not end it. The southern States did not believe them and began to leave the Union. In 1860 there were only 34 States in the US. Eleven of them had left the Union (seceded) to form the Confederate States of America (The Confederacy). In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, in which all the slaves were declared free. In the South especially, people suffered greatly from the war and had little to eat. On 9 April 1865, when the South could fight no more, General Lee surrendered to General Grant. A total of 620.000 people had been killed and many more wounded. The war was over but the feeling of hostility against the North remained strong. On April 14th, 1865, President Lincoln was murdered in Washington. The South had been beaten, but its people had not changed their opinions about slavery and states' rights. Between 1865 and 1870 the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were passed: they made Black people citizens of the United States and of the state they lived in. They were also theorically given the same rights as "White Americans". Des profs en ligne Des profs en ligne Des ressources riches Des outils ludiques Des tableaux de bord	553	ENGLISH	1
Born: c. 1709, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA. Died: December 10, 1779, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA. Member of the Colonial Assembly: Philadelphia City, 1750-1751; Philadelphia County, 1753-1771. Affiliation: Quaker, Anti-Proprietary Joseph Fox was likely born in late 1709 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was apprentice to a carpenter named James Portues, who left Fox with a large inheritance upon his death. Fox took possession and used that inheritance to become involved in real estate investments, from which he derived a great deal of his wealth. In 1746 Fox married the former Elizabeth Mickle, and together the couple had 13 children, 6 of whom lived to adulthood: Thomasine Mickle (Roberts), Hannah, Joseph Mickle, George, Samuel Mickle, and Elizabeth Hill (Norris). Fox won election to the Colonial Assembly in 1750 as a representative of the city of Philadelphia, but lost re-election at the end of his first term in office. He returned to the Assembly in 1753, this time to represent the County of Philadelphia, a position he would hold until 1771. Fox was actively involved in promoting the defense of Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War by supporting bills to provide funds and armaments for the defense of Pennsylvania. He was appointed to a commission to handle the distribution of war funds, which led to the Quakers formally disowning him in 1756. Fox was part of the delegation that negotiated peace terms with Native Americans in 1756, 1757, 1758, 1761, 1762, and 1763. In the early 1760s Fox aligned himself with Benjamin Franklin, who at the time was seeking to have the Penn proprietorship replaced in favor of a direct Royal government. The change to a Royal Colony would have put Pennsylvania under the direct rule of the British monarch. Fox was unanimously elected as the 26th Speaker of the Assembly on October 24, 1764, after Isaac Norris II resigned the position. Fox was re-elected Speaker on October 14, 1765, but began to distance himself from the avid supporters of Royal government. He became steadfastly opposed to the controversial Stamp Act, which taxed paper documents and other paper goods in the Colonies. He was re-elected to the Assembly for the 1766 term, but was succeeded as Speaker by avid loyalist Joseph Galloway. Fox returned to the Speaker’s chair on May 22, 1769, when Galloway briefly resigned due to ill health. Laws enacted during Fox’s Speakership include an infrastructure investment law, a law to provide relief for debtors, and a law regarding overcrowding on immigration ships. He lost re-election to the Assembly in 1772. Joseph Fox died on December 10, 1779, in the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is interred at the Friends Arch Street Meeting House Burial Ground in the city of Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania.	<urn:uuid:a7f40169-c29f-4e4c-8394-01bf569a706a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/legis/SpeakerBios/SpeakerBio.cfm?id=88	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00295.warc.gz	en	0.980391	610	3.296875	3	[ -0.27066537737846375, 0.11146233975887299, 0.19680622220039368, -0.189439594745636, -0.2762885093688965, 0.18416285514831543, 0.06902224570512772, 0.4126517176628113, -0.41159144043922424, 0.039266400039196014, 0.18632785975933075, 0.03767036646604538, -0.007593558169901371, 0.537155270576...	2	Born: c. 1709, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA. Died: December 10, 1779, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA. Member of the Colonial Assembly: Philadelphia City, 1750-1751; Philadelphia County, 1753-1771. Affiliation: Quaker, Anti-Proprietary Joseph Fox was likely born in late 1709 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was apprentice to a carpenter named James Portues, who left Fox with a large inheritance upon his death. Fox took possession and used that inheritance to become involved in real estate investments, from which he derived a great deal of his wealth. In 1746 Fox married the former Elizabeth Mickle, and together the couple had 13 children, 6 of whom lived to adulthood: Thomasine Mickle (Roberts), Hannah, Joseph Mickle, George, Samuel Mickle, and Elizabeth Hill (Norris). Fox won election to the Colonial Assembly in 1750 as a representative of the city of Philadelphia, but lost re-election at the end of his first term in office. He returned to the Assembly in 1753, this time to represent the County of Philadelphia, a position he would hold until 1771. Fox was actively involved in promoting the defense of Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War by supporting bills to provide funds and armaments for the defense of Pennsylvania. He was appointed to a commission to handle the distribution of war funds, which led to the Quakers formally disowning him in 1756. Fox was part of the delegation that negotiated peace terms with Native Americans in 1756, 1757, 1758, 1761, 1762, and 1763. In the early 1760s Fox aligned himself with Benjamin Franklin, who at the time was seeking to have the Penn proprietorship replaced in favor of a direct Royal government. The change to a Royal Colony would have put Pennsylvania under the direct rule of the British monarch. Fox was unanimously elected as the 26th Speaker of the Assembly on October 24, 1764, after Isaac Norris II resigned the position. Fox was re-elected Speaker on October 14, 1765, but began to distance himself from the avid supporters of Royal government. He became steadfastly opposed to the controversial Stamp Act, which taxed paper documents and other paper goods in the Colonies. He was re-elected to the Assembly for the 1766 term, but was succeeded as Speaker by avid loyalist Joseph Galloway. Fox returned to the Speaker’s chair on May 22, 1769, when Galloway briefly resigned due to ill health. Laws enacted during Fox’s Speakership include an infrastructure investment law, a law to provide relief for debtors, and a law regarding overcrowding on immigration ships. He lost re-election to the Assembly in 1772. Joseph Fox died on December 10, 1779, in the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is interred at the Friends Arch Street Meeting House Burial Ground in the city of Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania.	689	ENGLISH	1
The sweating illness was one of the most horrifying diseases of the 15th and 16th centuries and even more mysterious than the Black Death. It seemed to come from out of nowhere and yet death came mercilessly fast. It started with a feeling of being freezing cold, the body convulsing in uncontrollable shivering, with severe prostration, heart palpitations, extreme aches in the neck, dizziness, dehydration and headaches, often with a vesicular rash. Then came the worst part — violent, drenching sweating, along with delirium, and a rapid pulse. Between 30-50 per cent of victims were dead just three to 18 hours later. And yet, if you were lucky enough to last 24 hours, you had a good chance of a full recovery. The strange illness still fascinates scientists today because nobody knows for sure how the disease managed to rip through Europe several times during the tumultuous Tudor period. The epidemic’s origins and even the identity of the disease are still unknown, apart from the fact that the patient literally sweated to death. It was 534 years ago that the sweating illness, known as “The Sweat” tore through England, leaving thousands of people healthy one day and dead the next. SWEATING TO DEATH So much about the Sweat was puzzling, including the notion that surviving the disease didn’t make you immune from another attack; it was common for patients to be struck by the frightening disease several times. English physician Dr John Caius (also known as Johannes Caius) was working in Shrewsbury, England in 1551 when an outbreak of the sweating sickness had a stranglehold over the terrified townsfolk. Caius became something of a celebrity when he wrote an account of the disease which is the main historical source of knowledge of the sickness. While nobody knew exactly what caused the Sweat, Caius believed it was linked to dirt and, because the illness broke out in late spring or summer, that it was also linked to insects. Caius was treating many wealthy patients and his manuscript details his observations of the symptoms, as well as ideas for prevention and cure. While advising people to avoid “evil mists and rotten fruit” might sound odd today, it’s a reflection on where medical knowledge was in 16th Century. Caius wrote: “This disease is not a Sweat only (as it is thought and called), but a fever … in the spirits by putrefaction venomous. First by the pain in the back or shoulder, pain in the extreme parts, as arm, or leg. Secondly by the grief in the liver and stomach. Thirdly by the pain in the head, & madness. Fourthly by the passion of the heart. “Whereupon also follows a heaviness, (the fifth token of this disease), and a desire to sleep, never contented, the senses in all parts being as they were bound or closed up. Last follows the short abidings, a certain token of the disease.” He also advised people to exercise frequently and that, in the early stages of the illness, one must drink herbal mixtures and avoid being outside. WHERE DID THE SWEAT COME FROM? It’s not clear who first contracted sweating sickness, but there’s a theory held by some historians that the disease came to England via a group of French soldiers King Henry VII’s father had hired to secure the throne for him and his son in 1487 and end the Wars of the Roses. Whether the mercenaries actually brought sweating sickness to England will never be known but one theory is that the illness was first heard of at the Battle of Bosworth, and then followed the King’s men back to London where 15,000 people died from the disease in six weeks. There were five known epidemics of the Sweat — in 1485, 1508, 1517, 1528, and 1551. While the disease was mostly contained in England, the outbreak in 1528 managed to kill 2,000 in London before the sickness travelled via passengers on a ship to Hamburg, Germany, where more than a thousand deaths occurred in four weeks. A further 3,000 people died in Danzig and Lübeck before the illness spread to Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia. The disease managed to totally bypass Italy and most of France (apart from Calais in the north.) King Henry’s printer Richard Grafton referred to the sweating sickness as a new kind of sickness. Grafton wrote of the illness: “So sore, so painful, and sharp, that the like was never heard of to any man’s remembrance before that time.” It says a lot about the severity of the Sweat when you consider that the people who’ve written about how horrendous it was, were people that had also seen the horrors of the Black Death. But while the Sweat was undoubtedly frightening, it wasn’t quite as devastating as the Black Death, in terms of mortality rates. The bubonic plague swept across England between 1346 and 1353, killing more than 20 million people (about 60 per cent of the population). One factor that set the Sweat apart from the Black Death was that the former was puzzling from beginning to end while the mystery of the bubonic plague was solved when it was discovered to be spread by infected fleas from small animals, such as rats. KING HENRY VIII WAS PARANOID ABOUT CATCHING THE SWEAT According to author Alison Weir, King Henry VIII was said to be terrified of the Sweat and he demanded to be moved around England in a bid to escape the spread of the disease. The King had good reason to be scared, as the disease was spreading like wildfire and seemed to be favouring the well-to-do. Weir writes that King Henry fled London with his Queen and a group of people, including his mistress Anne Boleyn. “In June 1528 the sweating sickness returned to plague London and, later on, the rest of the country. This was a particularly virulent outbreak and the King, learning with horror that some members of his household had succumbed to the disease fled to another house and then another after that, until he was sleeping in a different place each night.” THE WORST EPIDEMIC In 1485 physician Thomas Forrestier wrote several accounts of the Sweat after witnessing his patients succumb to the illness and also this account of simply being out in the streets at the time of the epidemic. “We saw two priests standing together and speaking together, and saw both of them die suddenly. Also we saw the wife of a tailor suddenly die. Another young man walking by the street fell down suddenly. Also another gentleman riding out of the city died. Also many other which were to rehearse we have known that have died suddenly.” The jury is still out on what caused the Sweat. Some modern researchers have proposed that it was caused by the hantavirus infection which is transmitted by certain mice, rats, and voles. The symptoms of the Sweat are said to be similar to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Other scientists believe anthrax might have been the cause: during the bioterrorism attacks of 2001 that resulted in five deaths, one of the major symptoms was copious sweating. Others believe the Sweat might have been a version of the flu or a sickness known as ‘relapsing fever’. Whatever its origins, the Sweat carried the same kind of terror that the Ebola virus carried today. Henry Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, died during the Sweat epidemic of 1551 — his body was buried in a cemetery that still exists. While it’s possible to exhume his remains and search for hantavirus, scientists say it’s unlikely the genetic material has survived and so there are no immediate plans to disturb the Duke’s remains. THE END OF THE SCOURGE In 1551 the Sweat stopped as suddenly as it began. A similar illness known as the “Picardy Sweat” occurred 150 years later in France, but that sickness came and went very quickly, making it virtually impossible for scientists to compare the two ‘sweaty’ diseases. Also, thanks to slack record keeping, nobody really knows exactly how many people died from the Sweat although clearly thousands lost their lives. All historians have to rely on is scattered, vague health records and personal diaries. And while Anne Boleyn didn’t manage to survive her marriage to King Henry VIII, she was rumoured to have contracted the dreaded sweating sickness and come out of the scourge alive. LJ Charleston is a freelance historical writer. Comtinue the conversation @LJCharleston	<urn:uuid:d5df5c4d-15f1-4384-b08f-56811d7e1e32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/true-stories/the-deadly-sweating-sickness-that-terrified-king-henry-viii/news-story/4b875cfa82459f477d9d0d45b4c22b2e	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00514.warc.gz	en	0.980437	1,847	3.421875	3	[ -0.1112242192029953, 0.4184395670890808, 0.7507675886154175, 0.6359509825706482, 0.31928813457489014, -0.23544836044311523, 0.7983736395835876, -0.19117340445518494, 0.374569296836853, -0.46767348051071167, 0.13706645369529724, -0.33857157826423645, 0.30036038160324097, 0.17576861381530762...	3	The sweating illness was one of the most horrifying diseases of the 15th and 16th centuries and even more mysterious than the Black Death. It seemed to come from out of nowhere and yet death came mercilessly fast. It started with a feeling of being freezing cold, the body convulsing in uncontrollable shivering, with severe prostration, heart palpitations, extreme aches in the neck, dizziness, dehydration and headaches, often with a vesicular rash. Then came the worst part — violent, drenching sweating, along with delirium, and a rapid pulse. Between 30-50 per cent of victims were dead just three to 18 hours later. And yet, if you were lucky enough to last 24 hours, you had a good chance of a full recovery. The strange illness still fascinates scientists today because nobody knows for sure how the disease managed to rip through Europe several times during the tumultuous Tudor period. The epidemic’s origins and even the identity of the disease are still unknown, apart from the fact that the patient literally sweated to death. It was 534 years ago that the sweating illness, known as “The Sweat” tore through England, leaving thousands of people healthy one day and dead the next. SWEATING TO DEATH So much about the Sweat was puzzling, including the notion that surviving the disease didn’t make you immune from another attack; it was common for patients to be struck by the frightening disease several times. English physician Dr John Caius (also known as Johannes Caius) was working in Shrewsbury, England in 1551 when an outbreak of the sweating sickness had a stranglehold over the terrified townsfolk. Caius became something of a celebrity when he wrote an account of the disease which is the main historical source of knowledge of the sickness. While nobody knew exactly what caused the Sweat, Caius believed it was linked to dirt and, because the illness broke out in late spring or summer, that it was also linked to insects. Caius was treating many wealthy patients and his manuscript details his observations of the symptoms, as well as ideas for prevention and cure. While advising people to avoid “evil mists and rotten fruit” might sound odd today, it’s a reflection on where medical knowledge was in 16th Century. Caius wrote: “This disease is not a Sweat only (as it is thought and called), but a fever … in the spirits by putrefaction venomous. First by the pain in the back or shoulder, pain in the extreme parts, as arm, or leg. Secondly by the grief in the liver and stomach. Thirdly by the pain in the head, & madness. Fourthly by the passion of the heart. “Whereupon also follows a heaviness, (the fifth token of this disease), and a desire to sleep, never contented, the senses in all parts being as they were bound or closed up. Last follows the short abidings, a certain token of the disease.” He also advised people to exercise frequently and that, in the early stages of the illness, one must drink herbal mixtures and avoid being outside. WHERE DID THE SWEAT COME FROM? It’s not clear who first contracted sweating sickness, but there’s a theory held by some historians that the disease came to England via a group of French soldiers King Henry VII’s father had hired to secure the throne for him and his son in 1487 and end the Wars of the Roses. Whether the mercenaries actually brought sweating sickness to England will never be known but one theory is that the illness was first heard of at the Battle of Bosworth, and then followed the King’s men back to London where 15,000 people died from the disease in six weeks. There were five known epidemics of the Sweat — in 1485, 1508, 1517, 1528, and 1551. While the disease was mostly contained in England, the outbreak in 1528 managed to kill 2,000 in London before the sickness travelled via passengers on a ship to Hamburg, Germany, where more than a thousand deaths occurred in four weeks. A further 3,000 people died in Danzig and Lübeck before the illness spread to Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia. The disease managed to totally bypass Italy and most of France (apart from Calais in the north.) King Henry’s printer Richard Grafton referred to the sweating sickness as a new kind of sickness. Grafton wrote of the illness: “So sore, so painful, and sharp, that the like was never heard of to any man’s remembrance before that time.” It says a lot about the severity of the Sweat when you consider that the people who’ve written about how horrendous it was, were people that had also seen the horrors of the Black Death. But while the Sweat was undoubtedly frightening, it wasn’t quite as devastating as the Black Death, in terms of mortality rates. The bubonic plague swept across England between 1346 and 1353, killing more than 20 million people (about 60 per cent of the population). One factor that set the Sweat apart from the Black Death was that the former was puzzling from beginning to end while the mystery of the bubonic plague was solved when it was discovered to be spread by infected fleas from small animals, such as rats. KING HENRY VIII WAS PARANOID ABOUT CATCHING THE SWEAT According to author Alison Weir, King Henry VIII was said to be terrified of the Sweat and he demanded to be moved around England in a bid to escape the spread of the disease. The King had good reason to be scared, as the disease was spreading like wildfire and seemed to be favouring the well-to-do. Weir writes that King Henry fled London with his Queen and a group of people, including his mistress Anne Boleyn. “In June 1528 the sweating sickness returned to plague London and, later on, the rest of the country. This was a particularly virulent outbreak and the King, learning with horror that some members of his household had succumbed to the disease fled to another house and then another after that, until he was sleeping in a different place each night.” THE WORST EPIDEMIC In 1485 physician Thomas Forrestier wrote several accounts of the Sweat after witnessing his patients succumb to the illness and also this account of simply being out in the streets at the time of the epidemic. “We saw two priests standing together and speaking together, and saw both of them die suddenly. Also we saw the wife of a tailor suddenly die. Another young man walking by the street fell down suddenly. Also another gentleman riding out of the city died. Also many other which were to rehearse we have known that have died suddenly.” The jury is still out on what caused the Sweat. Some modern researchers have proposed that it was caused by the hantavirus infection which is transmitted by certain mice, rats, and voles. The symptoms of the Sweat are said to be similar to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Other scientists believe anthrax might have been the cause: during the bioterrorism attacks of 2001 that resulted in five deaths, one of the major symptoms was copious sweating. Others believe the Sweat might have been a version of the flu or a sickness known as ‘relapsing fever’. Whatever its origins, the Sweat carried the same kind of terror that the Ebola virus carried today. Henry Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, died during the Sweat epidemic of 1551 — his body was buried in a cemetery that still exists. While it’s possible to exhume his remains and search for hantavirus, scientists say it’s unlikely the genetic material has survived and so there are no immediate plans to disturb the Duke’s remains. THE END OF THE SCOURGE In 1551 the Sweat stopped as suddenly as it began. A similar illness known as the “Picardy Sweat” occurred 150 years later in France, but that sickness came and went very quickly, making it virtually impossible for scientists to compare the two ‘sweaty’ diseases. Also, thanks to slack record keeping, nobody really knows exactly how many people died from the Sweat although clearly thousands lost their lives. All historians have to rely on is scattered, vague health records and personal diaries. And while Anne Boleyn didn’t manage to survive her marriage to King Henry VIII, she was rumoured to have contracted the dreaded sweating sickness and come out of the scourge alive. LJ Charleston is a freelance historical writer. Comtinue the conversation @LJCharleston	1,820	ENGLISH	1
Darwin was not the first to suggest that there was a relationship between man and other species. Nor was he the first to suggest that the earth and the creatures inhabiting it had changed, and were continuing to change, over eons of time. In 1844 a seminal work, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, was published in England, proposing the idea of the transmutation of species. The book was speculative in nature and written in a manner which made it easily read by those with no scientific training. It became popular within London society, though its content was attacked by conservatives within the Anglican Church, which at the time controlled the seats of higher learning in Great Britain. Darwin was the first to propose the idea of the transmutation of species through the process of natural selection, presenting creation as an ongoing process. His theory was presented from observations made during the voyage of Beagle and subsequent experimentation, influenced by earlier works. With the publication of On the Origin of Species, Darwin generated a debate within the scientific and religious communities which continues to the present day. He was and remains reviled by some and lauded by others. Genesis or Darwin in school curricula remains a heated argument, which began shortly after Darwin’s work appeared. Here are some of the events following the publication of On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection. 1. The early reaction to Darwin’s work was muted Darwin’s seminal work on evolution was released to the public on November 22, 1859, in Great Britain. The initial print run sold out, and Darwin began work on a second run almost immediately, with corrections and amendments to the text. He also added comments he received from an Anglican rector and novelist, Charles Kingsley, to the last chapter of the second edition. Kingsley had praised the original work, writing to Darwin, “if you be right I must give up much of what I had believed”. He added, regarding the act of creation, that it was, “…just as noble conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development”. It was in the critical literary reviews that the subject of men descending from apes appeared, a theory which was not presented within Darwin’s work, though the inference could be clearly drawn. At the time, it was customary for literary reviews to appear anonymously, and behind that blanket many reviewers were scathing. The debate over Darwinism, as his theories were labeled by those opposing them, was in Britain part of the ongoing debate over separating the teaching of all branches of science from the control of the Anglican Church at the great seats of learning. A wholly different reaction occurred in the United States.	<urn:uuid:ae51e66f-ab79-4946-b285-41aa067a94e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/the-reaction-to-charles-darwins-on-the-origin-of-species/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00065.warc.gz	en	0.988383	555	3.625	4	[ -0.09475447982549667, 0.4587922692298889, 0.16294459998607635, 0.23255819082260132, -0.2163403183221817, -0.03741215169429779, -0.047709885984659195, 0.3504619598388672, 0.29257142543792725, 0.16935719549655914, -0.19224558770656586, -0.3658660054206848, 0.2618272006511688, 0.2152137458324...	3	Darwin was not the first to suggest that there was a relationship between man and other species. Nor was he the first to suggest that the earth and the creatures inhabiting it had changed, and were continuing to change, over eons of time. In 1844 a seminal work, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, was published in England, proposing the idea of the transmutation of species. The book was speculative in nature and written in a manner which made it easily read by those with no scientific training. It became popular within London society, though its content was attacked by conservatives within the Anglican Church, which at the time controlled the seats of higher learning in Great Britain. Darwin was the first to propose the idea of the transmutation of species through the process of natural selection, presenting creation as an ongoing process. His theory was presented from observations made during the voyage of Beagle and subsequent experimentation, influenced by earlier works. With the publication of On the Origin of Species, Darwin generated a debate within the scientific and religious communities which continues to the present day. He was and remains reviled by some and lauded by others. Genesis or Darwin in school curricula remains a heated argument, which began shortly after Darwin’s work appeared. Here are some of the events following the publication of On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection. 1. The early reaction to Darwin’s work was muted Darwin’s seminal work on evolution was released to the public on November 22, 1859, in Great Britain. The initial print run sold out, and Darwin began work on a second run almost immediately, with corrections and amendments to the text. He also added comments he received from an Anglican rector and novelist, Charles Kingsley, to the last chapter of the second edition. Kingsley had praised the original work, writing to Darwin, “if you be right I must give up much of what I had believed”. He added, regarding the act of creation, that it was, “…just as noble conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development”. It was in the critical literary reviews that the subject of men descending from apes appeared, a theory which was not presented within Darwin’s work, though the inference could be clearly drawn. At the time, it was customary for literary reviews to appear anonymously, and behind that blanket many reviewers were scathing. The debate over Darwinism, as his theories were labeled by those opposing them, was in Britain part of the ongoing debate over separating the teaching of all branches of science from the control of the Anglican Church at the great seats of learning. A wholly different reaction occurred in the United States.	549	ENGLISH	1
Statue of Peter Stuyvesant, St. Marks-Church-In-The-Bowery. Before there was New York, there was New Amsterdam. Founded by the Dutch in 1614, New Amsterdam occupied much of the tip of lower Manhattan, with today’s Wall Street taking its name from the outer walls of the settlement. New Amsterdam was a company town, ran by the Dutch West Indies company. The main source of income was originally furs, which the Dutch gained in trade with the Native Americans, and then shipped back to Europe. But New Amsterdam quickly became a thriving center of trade, drawing a wide variety of ethnic stock to its muddy streets. The Dutch believed in tolerance, both in religion and of people whose skin might be a different color, and thus was born the melting pot which became New York City. As much of the population at any given time was sailors, New Amsterdam could be a rowdy place, known for drink, prostitutes and brawls. The Dutch West Indies Company decided a firm hand was needed to keep the population in line, and so sent what was to be the last Dutch Director General of the settlement, Pieter or Peter Stuyvesant. Peter was a company man running a company town. The son of a minister, he was the director of the Dutch West India colony of Curacao, where he led an ill-fated attack on the Spanish-ran island of Saint Martin. A cannon ball smashed into Peter’s right leg, and the leg lost. He gained the name of Old Sliver Leg because he wrapped his wooden leg in silver bands for extra stability. Peter rolled into town on May 11, 1647, to a generally icy reception from the citizens of New Amsterdam, and he never really warmed to the place. Not did it warm to him, despite many improvements he accomplished, such as the erection of the wall, and the digging of a canal which eventually became Broadway. To some extent he was able to get the drinking and other vices in order by wielding an iron fist. His life became a political nightmare, and he was almost driven from the post by those who thought the colony would thrive under self-rule, rather than Peter’s scowl. Stuyvesant also clamped down on religious tolerance, which didn’t do much to help with his popularity. He ordered the torture of Robert Hodgson, an influential Quaker, which eventually irritated the populace so much that they demanded his release, and a gave birth to a written protest known as the Flushing Remonstrance, which is thought to be the precursor of the freedom of religion clause in today’s Bill of Rights. He also fought, and lost the fight to keep the Jewish population of New Amsterdam from growing larger. Then in 1664, England claimed all of New Netherlands, including New Amsterdam, and four warships with nearly 500 soldiers bore down on New Amsterdam. There was no way that Stuyvesant could hold back so large a force, and so New Amsterdam quietly and without violence, became New York. But before ceding power, he managed to get in writing the Articles of Capitulation, which gave the Dutch population civil rights and freedom of religion, rather than being forced like all other British colonies to convert to the Anglican church. Peter returned to Holland to report on his term, then sailed back to Manhattan to live out his life on his estate, 62 acres which he referred to as the Great Bouwerie, which stretched all the way to Harlem, which at the time was nothing but woods and swamps. In 1672 at the age of 80, he died, seemingly content with his place in the world. His home lasted until 1777 when it burned to the ground. A pear tree which he brought back from Holland stood at Thirteenth Street and Third Avenue before giving up the ghost. He was interred in the floor of his private chapel, in what is now the Bowery. It was replaced in 1799 by St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery. Before the fire that destroyed his home, Stuyvesant’s servants reported seeing their master’s ghost roaming his estate. The morning after fire swept through the former governor’s mansion, bystanders claimed to see a peg-legged figure inspecting the mess in the mist. Disturbances to Peter’s mausoleum seemed to rankle the old governor. In the mid 1800’s, when workers ran Second Avenue through the church yard, they reported hearing loud noises coming from Stuyvesant’s resting place. This kept up as his estate was divided up and sold off. Then when Second Avenue was widened around the turn of the twentieth century, the bell began ringing, pulled by invisible hands. After his chapel was replaced by St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery, in 1865 the sexton of the church heard a figure approaching him in the church. At first he could see no one, and creeped out, began withdrawing from the building. When he turned to look behind him, he saw a menacing figure walking towards him with the aid of a cane. Noticing the peg-leg and period clothes, realizing it was Old Silver Leg himself, he took to flight, screaming as he ran from the church. His screams were loud enough to arouse the interest of neighbors, who came out to see what the commotion was about. Â While the sexton related his story, the bell began tolling, and some of the bravest among them went to investigate. What they found was a shortened rope hanging from the bell, too short for human hands to reach. The rest of the rope was found on Peter’s crypt. In 1995, church services were disrupted by the sound of a voice counting out an inventory of rum, and when people went to investigate, they reported seeing a man in early Dutch costume disappearing into the wall. Peter also disrupted services in 1884 by singing Calvinist hymns in Dutch, apparently irritated by the the English Episcopal hymns. Peter was also reported to be sitting in the congregation in full Dutch regalia, sitting next to a woman in colonial costume in the 1930s. According to a young man who sat near them, they exchanged gossip about the preacher, and only occasionally paid attention to the sermon. It was thought that with the death of his last direct descendent, Peter might finally find some rest. Six generations from Stuyvesant, and buried in the family crypt, the fellow gave instructions to have the vault permanently sealed with concrete. During the ceremony, a number of people heard Peter’s peg leg hobbling along the stone floor. Apparently though, concrete can’t keep Peter in his final resting place. As late as 2002, Peter Stuyvesant has been heard tapping his way through the church. Nor is Peter the only ghostly occupant of St. Mark’s. In the nave, the apparition of a woman has appeared in the center aisle. Another ghostly lady, in wide skirts no less is known to take up her position near the rear entrance, and a third in the balcony next to the organ. Peter still evidently wanders his old estate as well. He’s been spotted walking with a cane on the sidewalks of the Bowery, and most often clip clopping down Stuyvesant Street toward Cooper Square. It’s hard to walk the streets of Manhattan and imagine the wild countryside of Stuyvesant’s day. Fire and time has taken nearly all signs of the early Dutch colony. And yet it’s still there, buried under tons of concrete, asphalt and steel. Today, you find New Amsterdam in a scattering of architectural remains, and in street names. The house he built for his daughter remains, though that was when New Amsterdam had become once and for all New York. But in St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery, when you find yourself there alone, or perhaps at night in the courtyard, next to the entrance to Peter’s crypt, it might still be possible to come into contact with one last relic of the old colony. In the city that never sleeps, Peter Stuyvesant seems to have taken that adage to heart, even in death. Gothic Travel Rating: Alas, this is New York City, and it’s hard to find a time when it’s quiet enough to get the adrenaline pumping, unless you count fear of mugging. I’ll give it an extra crypt if you visit at night, but you’re not going to get much satisfaction except for sitting on the steps outside the gate. An essential stop on a tour of haunted New York City or of old New Amsterdam, but more memorable for what it was, than what it is.	<urn:uuid:5d410c2d-a4d9-4d75-a601-5054a6cd2a99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gothichorrorstories.com/true-ghost-stories/peter-stuyvesant-a-citizen-of-old-new-amsterdam-carrying-on-nearly-400-years-later-in-new-york-city/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00334.warc.gz	en	0.981154	1,844	3.359375	3	[ 0.2967054843902588, 0.17204633355140686, 0.10813486576080322, 0.05534234642982483, 0.22756265103816986, -0.0014610298676416278, 0.27427032589912415, 0.09620261192321777, -0.3207119107246399, -0.19413404166698456, 0.07866376638412476, 0.0008840789087116718, -0.49998682737350464, 0.414432913...	2	Statue of Peter Stuyvesant, St. Marks-Church-In-The-Bowery. Before there was New York, there was New Amsterdam. Founded by the Dutch in 1614, New Amsterdam occupied much of the tip of lower Manhattan, with today’s Wall Street taking its name from the outer walls of the settlement. New Amsterdam was a company town, ran by the Dutch West Indies company. The main source of income was originally furs, which the Dutch gained in trade with the Native Americans, and then shipped back to Europe. But New Amsterdam quickly became a thriving center of trade, drawing a wide variety of ethnic stock to its muddy streets. The Dutch believed in tolerance, both in religion and of people whose skin might be a different color, and thus was born the melting pot which became New York City. As much of the population at any given time was sailors, New Amsterdam could be a rowdy place, known for drink, prostitutes and brawls. The Dutch West Indies Company decided a firm hand was needed to keep the population in line, and so sent what was to be the last Dutch Director General of the settlement, Pieter or Peter Stuyvesant. Peter was a company man running a company town. The son of a minister, he was the director of the Dutch West India colony of Curacao, where he led an ill-fated attack on the Spanish-ran island of Saint Martin. A cannon ball smashed into Peter’s right leg, and the leg lost. He gained the name of Old Sliver Leg because he wrapped his wooden leg in silver bands for extra stability. Peter rolled into town on May 11, 1647, to a generally icy reception from the citizens of New Amsterdam, and he never really warmed to the place. Not did it warm to him, despite many improvements he accomplished, such as the erection of the wall, and the digging of a canal which eventually became Broadway. To some extent he was able to get the drinking and other vices in order by wielding an iron fist. His life became a political nightmare, and he was almost driven from the post by those who thought the colony would thrive under self-rule, rather than Peter’s scowl. Stuyvesant also clamped down on religious tolerance, which didn’t do much to help with his popularity. He ordered the torture of Robert Hodgson, an influential Quaker, which eventually irritated the populace so much that they demanded his release, and a gave birth to a written protest known as the Flushing Remonstrance, which is thought to be the precursor of the freedom of religion clause in today’s Bill of Rights. He also fought, and lost the fight to keep the Jewish population of New Amsterdam from growing larger. Then in 1664, England claimed all of New Netherlands, including New Amsterdam, and four warships with nearly 500 soldiers bore down on New Amsterdam. There was no way that Stuyvesant could hold back so large a force, and so New Amsterdam quietly and without violence, became New York. But before ceding power, he managed to get in writing the Articles of Capitulation, which gave the Dutch population civil rights and freedom of religion, rather than being forced like all other British colonies to convert to the Anglican church. Peter returned to Holland to report on his term, then sailed back to Manhattan to live out his life on his estate, 62 acres which he referred to as the Great Bouwerie, which stretched all the way to Harlem, which at the time was nothing but woods and swamps. In 1672 at the age of 80, he died, seemingly content with his place in the world. His home lasted until 1777 when it burned to the ground. A pear tree which he brought back from Holland stood at Thirteenth Street and Third Avenue before giving up the ghost. He was interred in the floor of his private chapel, in what is now the Bowery. It was replaced in 1799 by St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery. Before the fire that destroyed his home, Stuyvesant’s servants reported seeing their master’s ghost roaming his estate. The morning after fire swept through the former governor’s mansion, bystanders claimed to see a peg-legged figure inspecting the mess in the mist. Disturbances to Peter’s mausoleum seemed to rankle the old governor. In the mid 1800’s, when workers ran Second Avenue through the church yard, they reported hearing loud noises coming from Stuyvesant’s resting place. This kept up as his estate was divided up and sold off. Then when Second Avenue was widened around the turn of the twentieth century, the bell began ringing, pulled by invisible hands. After his chapel was replaced by St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery, in 1865 the sexton of the church heard a figure approaching him in the church. At first he could see no one, and creeped out, began withdrawing from the building. When he turned to look behind him, he saw a menacing figure walking towards him with the aid of a cane. Noticing the peg-leg and period clothes, realizing it was Old Silver Leg himself, he took to flight, screaming as he ran from the church. His screams were loud enough to arouse the interest of neighbors, who came out to see what the commotion was about. Â While the sexton related his story, the bell began tolling, and some of the bravest among them went to investigate. What they found was a shortened rope hanging from the bell, too short for human hands to reach. The rest of the rope was found on Peter’s crypt. In 1995, church services were disrupted by the sound of a voice counting out an inventory of rum, and when people went to investigate, they reported seeing a man in early Dutch costume disappearing into the wall. Peter also disrupted services in 1884 by singing Calvinist hymns in Dutch, apparently irritated by the the English Episcopal hymns. Peter was also reported to be sitting in the congregation in full Dutch regalia, sitting next to a woman in colonial costume in the 1930s. According to a young man who sat near them, they exchanged gossip about the preacher, and only occasionally paid attention to the sermon. It was thought that with the death of his last direct descendent, Peter might finally find some rest. Six generations from Stuyvesant, and buried in the family crypt, the fellow gave instructions to have the vault permanently sealed with concrete. During the ceremony, a number of people heard Peter’s peg leg hobbling along the stone floor. Apparently though, concrete can’t keep Peter in his final resting place. As late as 2002, Peter Stuyvesant has been heard tapping his way through the church. Nor is Peter the only ghostly occupant of St. Mark’s. In the nave, the apparition of a woman has appeared in the center aisle. Another ghostly lady, in wide skirts no less is known to take up her position near the rear entrance, and a third in the balcony next to the organ. Peter still evidently wanders his old estate as well. He’s been spotted walking with a cane on the sidewalks of the Bowery, and most often clip clopping down Stuyvesant Street toward Cooper Square. It’s hard to walk the streets of Manhattan and imagine the wild countryside of Stuyvesant’s day. Fire and time has taken nearly all signs of the early Dutch colony. And yet it’s still there, buried under tons of concrete, asphalt and steel. Today, you find New Amsterdam in a scattering of architectural remains, and in street names. The house he built for his daughter remains, though that was when New Amsterdam had become once and for all New York. But in St. Mark’s Church in-the-Bowery, when you find yourself there alone, or perhaps at night in the courtyard, next to the entrance to Peter’s crypt, it might still be possible to come into contact with one last relic of the old colony. In the city that never sleeps, Peter Stuyvesant seems to have taken that adage to heart, even in death. Gothic Travel Rating: Alas, this is New York City, and it’s hard to find a time when it’s quiet enough to get the adrenaline pumping, unless you count fear of mugging. I’ll give it an extra crypt if you visit at night, but you’re not going to get much satisfaction except for sitting on the steps outside the gate. An essential stop on a tour of haunted New York City or of old New Amsterdam, but more memorable for what it was, than what it is.	1,805	ENGLISH	1
\|india and tn election result\| Elections in India and tn election result Introduction-Elections are the backbone of democracy. A democratic government is of the people, for the people and by the people. People choose persons among themselves who will govern them. They rule according to the wishes of the people and for the welfare of the people. Elections-People choose their representatives through elections. In . democratic countries, elections are contested on the basis of political parties These parties present their policies and programmes to the public. Elections are held and people cast their votes in favour of this or that party. Any citizen aged 1 8 and above can exercise his vote. The party who gets majority forms the government. The Declaration-“The Election Commission declared general elections The dates of elections were fixed. The candidates started canvassing. They started contacting the electors by going door to door. As the election commission imposed a strict limit to election expenses and certain rule of conduct there was an absence of loudspeakers, big public meetings, posters, cutouts and pamphlets. The restriction has also been imposed on a painting of walls of the house With various slogans etc. Campaigning Stopped-As per rule canvassing stopped before 48 hours of the election time. The candidates started contacting the pe0ple from door to door. The public assured their candidates about their support. Election Scene-The day of election arrived, voting was to start at . and close at Election personnel were posted at election booths. At about people started going towards their election booths. Men and women both were eager to exercise their voting right. Especially young persons aged 18 were more enthusiastic as they were casting their votes for the first time. The old and the handicapped people were being helped in their journey to polling booths. There were long queues in front of polling booths. Polling started at There was a big crowd on the streets. Police personnel were there to maintain law and order. Some party workers arranged carriages for the voters, though it was not allowed under election code. Law and Order-The authorities had made enough arrangements for peaceful polls, yet there were some disturbances by the workers of opposition parties. Some of them were trying to threaten voters for casting their votes in their favour. Some tried to capture polling booths. A group of people became violent and started throwing stones against the other group. The police dealt firmly with these disturbing elements, arrested some of them, beat some of them and asked other people to disperse. Thus, peace prevailed. At , the rush became less. Then again from voting increased. At the	<urn:uuid:3ad76790-d89a-44e2-9c5a-32b71ea433b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://smartenglishgrammar.com/2018/05/02/essay-elections-in-india-and-tn-election-result/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00001.warc.gz	en	0.990111	529	3.359375	3	[ -0.32332658767700195, 0.41849005222320557, 0.15195594727993011, -0.21731020510196686, -0.46894586086273193, 0.4888659119606018, 0.377777636051178, 0.22021980583667755, 0.22092178463935852, 0.521677553653717, 0.5840533971786499, 0.08024774491786957, 0.13944868743419647, 0.20657329261302948,...	2	\|india and tn election result\| Elections in India and tn election result Introduction-Elections are the backbone of democracy. A democratic government is of the people, for the people and by the people. People choose persons among themselves who will govern them. They rule according to the wishes of the people and for the welfare of the people. Elections-People choose their representatives through elections. In . democratic countries, elections are contested on the basis of political parties These parties present their policies and programmes to the public. Elections are held and people cast their votes in favour of this or that party. Any citizen aged 1 8 and above can exercise his vote. The party who gets majority forms the government. The Declaration-“The Election Commission declared general elections The dates of elections were fixed. The candidates started canvassing. They started contacting the electors by going door to door. As the election commission imposed a strict limit to election expenses and certain rule of conduct there was an absence of loudspeakers, big public meetings, posters, cutouts and pamphlets. The restriction has also been imposed on a painting of walls of the house With various slogans etc. Campaigning Stopped-As per rule canvassing stopped before 48 hours of the election time. The candidates started contacting the pe0ple from door to door. The public assured their candidates about their support. Election Scene-The day of election arrived, voting was to start at . and close at Election personnel were posted at election booths. At about people started going towards their election booths. Men and women both were eager to exercise their voting right. Especially young persons aged 18 were more enthusiastic as they were casting their votes for the first time. The old and the handicapped people were being helped in their journey to polling booths. There were long queues in front of polling booths. Polling started at There was a big crowd on the streets. Police personnel were there to maintain law and order. Some party workers arranged carriages for the voters, though it was not allowed under election code. Law and Order-The authorities had made enough arrangements for peaceful polls, yet there were some disturbances by the workers of opposition parties. Some of them were trying to threaten voters for casting their votes in their favour. Some tried to capture polling booths. A group of people became violent and started throwing stones against the other group. The police dealt firmly with these disturbing elements, arrested some of them, beat some of them and asked other people to disperse. Thus, peace prevailed. At , the rush became less. Then again from voting increased. At the	527	ENGLISH	1
Daniel Boone was an American pioneer, frontiersman, and hunter. Born in Pennsylvania in 1735, he and his family moved to North Carolina when he was eighteen years old. He made many exploring trips into the wilderness. - In 1769, he headed west to explore what is now the state of Kentucky. During this time, he was captured repeatedly by Native Americans. - He found passageways into the area, opening it up for other settlers. Congress gave him a tract of land for his service. - One time, Daniel Boone was kidnapped by Indians and held captive for several months. A large sum of money was offered for his release, but the Indians refused. They liked his courage and his hunting skill so much that an old chief adopted him. - The Indians watched him carefully so he wouldn’t escape, but treated him kindly. When he went hunting, they counted his bullets before he left and when he returned to see how much powder he’d used. He learned to use half the amount of powder to hunt turkeys, raccoons, and squirrels, saving some of it in case he needed it for a future escape. - He learned that the tribe planned to attack a fort at Boonesborough. He had to find a way to warn the men at the fort. - One morning, he went hunting and ran away, traveling 60 miles on foot in only five days to alert the fort. - After the Revolutionary War, he settled on a farm in Kentucky. One day four Indians came to his farm, intent on capturing him. They found him in a barn drying tobacco. They held him at gunpoint. He asked for a bit more time to finish his work. Suddenly, he threw the tobacco leaves he was holding in their faces. While they were coughing and sputtering, he ran to his cabin to grab his gun and powder. The Indians left, knowing they’d been outwitted. Questions and Answers Question: What happened to Daniel Boone as he got older? Did he have a family? Answer: Daniel Boone lived a quiet, happy life on his farm. He loved spending time in the woods and hunting. He did have a family, including his wife and 10 children, and he was known for his loving, tender manner with them. As he got older, he was honored as a strong and brave pioneer. Watch a video about Daniel Boone’s life. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Daniel Boone - American History For Kids ." American History for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 23 Jan 2020. < https://www.americanhistoryforkids.com/daniel-boone/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Daniel Boone - American History For Kids. American History for Kids. Retrieved from https://www.americanhistoryforkids.com/daniel-boone/	<urn:uuid:68f5a38c-d88e-4153-bc9f-0beb3e052b6d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.americanhistoryforkids.com/daniel-boone/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00369.warc.gz	en	0.984802	628	3.90625	4	[ -0.26270171999931335, 1.091371774673462, 0.5194622278213501, 0.15360209345817566, -0.25993970036506653, -0.4513583481311798, 0.5626711249351501, -0.09755203127861023, -0.5192158818244934, -0.2082730531692505, 0.6324341893196106, -0.07765936106443405, 0.29551059007644653, 0.1038832664489746...	1	Daniel Boone was an American pioneer, frontiersman, and hunter. Born in Pennsylvania in 1735, he and his family moved to North Carolina when he was eighteen years old. He made many exploring trips into the wilderness. - In 1769, he headed west to explore what is now the state of Kentucky. During this time, he was captured repeatedly by Native Americans. - He found passageways into the area, opening it up for other settlers. Congress gave him a tract of land for his service. - One time, Daniel Boone was kidnapped by Indians and held captive for several months. A large sum of money was offered for his release, but the Indians refused. They liked his courage and his hunting skill so much that an old chief adopted him. - The Indians watched him carefully so he wouldn’t escape, but treated him kindly. When he went hunting, they counted his bullets before he left and when he returned to see how much powder he’d used. He learned to use half the amount of powder to hunt turkeys, raccoons, and squirrels, saving some of it in case he needed it for a future escape. - He learned that the tribe planned to attack a fort at Boonesborough. He had to find a way to warn the men at the fort. - One morning, he went hunting and ran away, traveling 60 miles on foot in only five days to alert the fort. - After the Revolutionary War, he settled on a farm in Kentucky. One day four Indians came to his farm, intent on capturing him. They found him in a barn drying tobacco. They held him at gunpoint. He asked for a bit more time to finish his work. Suddenly, he threw the tobacco leaves he was holding in their faces. While they were coughing and sputtering, he ran to his cabin to grab his gun and powder. The Indians left, knowing they’d been outwitted. Questions and Answers Question: What happened to Daniel Boone as he got older? Did he have a family? Answer: Daniel Boone lived a quiet, happy life on his farm. He loved spending time in the woods and hunting. He did have a family, including his wife and 10 children, and he was known for his loving, tender manner with them. As he got older, he was honored as a strong and brave pioneer. Watch a video about Daniel Boone’s life. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Daniel Boone - American History For Kids ." American History for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 23 Jan 2020. < https://www.americanhistoryforkids.com/daniel-boone/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Daniel Boone - American History For Kids. American History for Kids. Retrieved from https://www.americanhistoryforkids.com/daniel-boone/	624	ENGLISH	1
Study and assess yourself by solving following given direct and indirect speech exercise for grade 11. This intermediate level exercise is meant for college students. 1. I said to my neighbor, “Let’s sit together to find a good solution of this issue” - I asked my neighbor that we should sit together to find a good solution of that issue. - I told my neighbor that let’s sit together to find a good solution of that issue. 2. She said to teacher, “Why my son is deficient in studies” - She asked the teacher why her son was deficient in studies - She said to the teacher that why her son was deficient in studies. 3. They said to villagers, “Save money and work hard for a good future” - They advised the villagers to save money and work hard for a good future. - They said to villagers that they should save money and work hard for a good future. 4. I said to them, “Do not lose hope, a good time is coming” - I suggested him not to lose hope as a good time was coming. - I said to him that he should not lose hope as a good time was coming. 5. The students said, “We want to buy a new video game” - The students said that they wanted to buy a new video game. - They students said that we wanted to buy a new video game. 6. I said to my mother, “Is there any good marriage offer for me?” - I asked my mother if there were any good marriage offer for me. - I asked from my mother whether there was any good marriage offer for me. 7. My younger sister said, “I want to study in your school” - My younger sister said that she wanted to study in my school. - My younger sister said that she wants to study in my school. 8. I said to them, “My father is coming to talk with you today” - I told them that my father was coming to talk with them that day. - I told them that my father had been coming to talk with the that day. 9. The lion said, “I am the king of all forest” - The lion said that he was the king of all forest. - The lion said that I am the king of all the forest. 10. She said, “Would that! you were not known to me” - She wished that I were not known to her. - She wished me that I was not known to her. List of All Reported Speech Exercises Find here a complete repository of all narration exercises for all levels and all grades students. Excel in upcoming exam by practicing more and more.	<urn:uuid:272b882f-27d7-47a1-93c2-2d12dc4f9f94>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://directindirectspeech.com/reported-speech-exercise-class-11/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00489.warc.gz	en	0.99191	595	3.390625	3	[ -0.37520140409469604, 0.13747704029083252, 0.3203551471233368, -0.5128077268600464, -0.25669777393341064, -0.1461615264415741, 0.0010077878832817078, 0.21574363112449646, -0.20119300484657288, -0.26303189992904663, 0.06430993974208832, -0.3155369162559509, 0.41992172598838806, 0.1895258426...	5	Study and assess yourself by solving following given direct and indirect speech exercise for grade 11. This intermediate level exercise is meant for college students. 1. I said to my neighbor, “Let’s sit together to find a good solution of this issue” - I asked my neighbor that we should sit together to find a good solution of that issue. - I told my neighbor that let’s sit together to find a good solution of that issue. 2. She said to teacher, “Why my son is deficient in studies” - She asked the teacher why her son was deficient in studies - She said to the teacher that why her son was deficient in studies. 3. They said to villagers, “Save money and work hard for a good future” - They advised the villagers to save money and work hard for a good future. - They said to villagers that they should save money and work hard for a good future. 4. I said to them, “Do not lose hope, a good time is coming” - I suggested him not to lose hope as a good time was coming. - I said to him that he should not lose hope as a good time was coming. 5. The students said, “We want to buy a new video game” - The students said that they wanted to buy a new video game. - They students said that we wanted to buy a new video game. 6. I said to my mother, “Is there any good marriage offer for me?” - I asked my mother if there were any good marriage offer for me. - I asked from my mother whether there was any good marriage offer for me. 7. My younger sister said, “I want to study in your school” - My younger sister said that she wanted to study in my school. - My younger sister said that she wants to study in my school. 8. I said to them, “My father is coming to talk with you today” - I told them that my father was coming to talk with them that day. - I told them that my father had been coming to talk with the that day. 9. The lion said, “I am the king of all forest” - The lion said that he was the king of all forest. - The lion said that I am the king of all the forest. 10. She said, “Would that! you were not known to me” - She wished that I were not known to her. - She wished me that I was not known to her. List of All Reported Speech Exercises Find here a complete repository of all narration exercises for all levels and all grades students. Excel in upcoming exam by practicing more and more.	542	ENGLISH	1
This article contains a free Bible Study resource on the subject of David. It provides facts, a biography and information about this famous Biblical character for bible study. There is also reference to where David is mentioned in the Holy Bible. Bible Dictionary Definition - Who was David? The definition and outline of David is as follows: According to the Old Testament he was the second king of the Israelites. As a young shepherd he fought Goliath (a giant Philistine warrior) and killed him by hitting him in the head with a stone flung from a sling; he united Israel with Jerusalem as its capital; many of the Psalms are attributed to him. Boy David Bible Story David and Goliath Bible Story King Saul and David Bible Story David and the Giant's Sword Bible Story David spares King Saul Bible Story Death of King Saul Bible Story King David Bible Story David at Mount Zion Bible Story Mephibosheth Bible Story David and Bathsheba Bible Story David and the prophet Gad Bible Story Death of David Bible Story Biography of David - His Family The eighth and youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother's name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of 2 Samuel 17:25. As to his personal appearance, we only know that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face (1 Samuel 16:12; 17:42). Biography of David - The Shepherd Boy His early occupation was that of tending his father's sheep on the uplands of Judah. From what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time, when thus engaged, with his shepherd's flute, while he drank in the many lessons taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. His first recorded exploits were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when they came out against his flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his club (1 Samuel 17:34,35). Biography of David - The Chosen one While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction (1 Samuel 16:1-13). There he offered up sacrifice, and called the elders of Israel and Jesse's family to the sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for, and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil. David went back again to his shepherd life, but "the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit of the Lord departed from Saul" (1 Samuel 16:13,14). Biography of David - Goliath Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played before the king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to Bethlehem. But he soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father with provisions for his three brothers, who were then fighting on the side of the king. On his arrival in the camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was made aware of the state of matters when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a stone "out of the brook," which struck the giant's forehead, so that he fell senseless to the ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his head with his own sword (1 Samuel 17). The result was a great victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the gates of Gath and Ekron. Biography of David - King Saul and Jonathan David's popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy (1 Samuel 18:6-16), which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Samuel 1830-30). The deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David "prospered exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul's son, between whom and David a life-long warm friendship was formed. Biography of David - The Fugitive A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Samuel 19:12-18) to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who were there under Samuel's training. It is supposed by some that the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort to bring his father to a better state of mind toward David (1 Samuel 20), who, being made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight to a distance. We accordingly find him first at Nob (21:1-9) and then at Gath, the chief city of the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit him into his service, as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now betook himself to the stronghold of Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chronicles 12:8-18). Here in a short time 400 men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their leader. It was at this time that David, amid the harassment and perils of his position, cried, "Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;" when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed (2 Samuel 23:13-17), but which he would not drink. In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave orders for the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore a linen ephod", to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Compare Psalms 52. Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the Philistines, David with his men relieved it (1 Samuel 23:1-14); and then, for fear of Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Compare Psalms 31. While encamped there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who spoke to him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now parted never to meet again. Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped from him at this time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea (1 Samuel 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued him with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by what David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him, and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he maintained himself by contributions gathered from the district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal and his wife Abigail (1 Samuel 25), whom David married after Nabal's death. Saul again went forth (1 Samuel 26) in pursuit of David, who had hid himself "in the hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing shame and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting his elevation to the throne. Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to place through fear of Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines (1 Samuel 27). He was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. Here David lived among his followers for some time as an independent chief engaged in frequent war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah. Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the lords of the Philistines were suspicious of David's loyalty, and therefore he was sent back to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites, and completely routed them. On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul's death (2Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul's crown and bracelet and laid them at his feet. David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy, the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son" (2 Samuel 1:18-27). It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to be taught to the children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them. "Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.). Biography of David - The King David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine direction (2 Samuel 2:1-4). There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed as king. He was now about thirty years of age. But his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul's only remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took place at the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other encounters, however, between Israel and Judah followed (2 Samuel 3:1,5), but still success was on the side of David. For the space of seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner now sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement; but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39). This was greatly to David's regret. He mourned for the death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth; and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel (4:1-12). David king over all Israel (2 Samuel 5:1-5; 1 Chronicles 11:1-3). The elders of Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his empire. At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the stronghold", on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the Jebusites, and made it Israel's capital, and established here his residence, and afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The Philistines, who had for some time observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He thus delivered Israel from their enemies. Biography of David - The Ark of the Covenant David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital (2 Samuel 6). It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem, where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines had sent it home (1 Samuel 6; 7). In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was a divine ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark, Numbers 4), who had put forth his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three months David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Compare Psalms 24. Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the purpose. About seventy years had passed since it had stood in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now (1 Chronicles 16) carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new religious era began. The service of praise was for the first time introduced into public worship. Zion became henceforth "God's holy hill." Biography of David - The Wars David's wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly extended and strengthened his kingdom (2 Samuel 8). In a few years the whole territory from the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway (2 Samuel 8:3-13; 10). Biography of David - The Fall David's fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a vast empire, and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the sin of adultery (2 Samuel 11:2-27). It has been noted as characteristic of the Bible that while his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore recorded. This crime, in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder. Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the corps of heros (23:39), was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death. Nathan the prophet (2 Samuel 7:1-17; 12:1-23) was sent by God to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual recovery. Biography of David - Bathsheba Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah's death. Her first-born son died, according to the word of the prophet. She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon, and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Samuel 12:24,25). Biography of David - Peace Peace. After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the idea of building a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution, because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan to him with a gracious message (2 Samuel 7:1-16). On receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of the temple was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a man of peace (1 Chronicles 22:9; 28:3). Biography of David - Absalom A cloudy evening. Hitherto David's carrer had been one of great prosperity and success. Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Samuel 13). This was the beginning of the disasters of his later years. After two years Absalom terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This brought sore trouble to David's heart. Absalom, afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when he was brought back through the intrigue of Joab (2 Samuel 14). After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years' famine (2 Samuel 21:1-14). This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a punishment for David's sinful pride in numbering the people (2 Samuel 24), in which no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space of three days. Rebellion of Absalom. The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census, and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the feeling of jealously that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes against David. Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually gained over the people, and at length openly rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne. Ahithophel was Absalom's chief counsellor. The revolt began in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed king. David was now in imminent danger, and he left Jerusalem (2 Samuel 15:13-20), and once more became a fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel. The incidents of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of any other day in Old Testament history. David fled with his followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out. After a few weeks the rival armies were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array at the wood of Ephraim (2 Samuel 18:1-8). Absalom's army was defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab (9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious son filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief. He "went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept" (33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, "Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" Peace was now restored, and David returned to Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose between the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43). Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there put to death, and so the revolt came to an end. Biography of David - Death The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, ten comparatively peaceful years of David's life passed away. During those years he seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor to build (1 Chronicles 22; 28; 29), a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and of glory throughout all countries" (22:5). The exciting and laborious life he had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had left him an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was now drawing to its close. A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be his successor. Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the "Fuller's spring," in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of Adonijah's party failed. Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on his father's throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David's last words are a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious covenant promises (2 Samuel 23:1-7). After a reign of forty years and six months (2 Samuel 5:5; 1 Chronicles 3:4) David died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of David." His tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion. Biography of David - The Legacy Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the Messiah (1 Samuel 16:13). The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the "Psalms of David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor (about eighty psalms) to the collection. "The greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He had lived in harmony with both the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy. The nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of its ancient liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to all (2 Samuel 8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried worth. He had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a half at Hebron (2 Samuel 5:5). Israel at his accession had reached the lowest point of national depression; its new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by the Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solomon was already, before his father's death, owned from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red Sea." We have selected David as one of the most important people and character from the Bible and provided a biography and character outline of this famous person. Much of the information is taken from the classic reference books including Matthew George Easton "Easton's Bible Dictionary" and Ashley S Johnson "Condensed Biblical Cyclopedia". David - A Free Christian Bible Study Resource We hope that this David article will provide useful information and ideas for those following a Bible Study plan. This article about David, together with other tools, activities, aids and materials and are designed to be used by an individual or a Christian Bible study group. This biography of David may prove useful as the basis for fun Sunday School lessons for Christian children and kids other topics will prove a useful asset to teens, youth or adults taking a Bible Study course or Biblical degree. All information on this David page is free to be used as an educational Christian Bible Study resource.	<urn:uuid:4561cb5e-c005-4cb6-bc56-1b0faf4d32f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.learningscriptures.info/bible-people/david.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00047.warc.gz	en	0.985565	5,029	3.46875	3	[ -0.11150864511728287, 0.48492202162742615, 0.1802876591682434, -0.09319812059402466, -0.2524697780609131, -0.3430633544921875, 0.3332236111164093, 0.3333446979522705, 0.02314569801092148, 0.05157983675599098, 0.07515211403369904, -0.429889440536499, 0.3839547634124756, -0.14873287081718445...	2	This article contains a free Bible Study resource on the subject of David. It provides facts, a biography and information about this famous Biblical character for bible study. There is also reference to where David is mentioned in the Holy Bible. Bible Dictionary Definition - Who was David? The definition and outline of David is as follows: According to the Old Testament he was the second king of the Israelites. As a young shepherd he fought Goliath (a giant Philistine warrior) and killed him by hitting him in the head with a stone flung from a sling; he united Israel with Jerusalem as its capital; many of the Psalms are attributed to him. Boy David Bible Story David and Goliath Bible Story King Saul and David Bible Story David and the Giant's Sword Bible Story David spares King Saul Bible Story Death of King Saul Bible Story King David Bible Story David at Mount Zion Bible Story Mephibosheth Bible Story David and Bathsheba Bible Story David and the prophet Gad Bible Story Death of David Bible Story Biography of David - His Family The eighth and youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother's name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of 2 Samuel 17:25. As to his personal appearance, we only know that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face (1 Samuel 16:12; 17:42). Biography of David - The Shepherd Boy His early occupation was that of tending his father's sheep on the uplands of Judah. From what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time, when thus engaged, with his shepherd's flute, while he drank in the many lessons taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. His first recorded exploits were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when they came out against his flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his club (1 Samuel 17:34,35). Biography of David - The Chosen one While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction (1 Samuel 16:1-13). There he offered up sacrifice, and called the elders of Israel and Jesse's family to the sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for, and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil. David went back again to his shepherd life, but "the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit of the Lord departed from Saul" (1 Samuel 16:13,14). Biography of David - Goliath Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played before the king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to Bethlehem. But he soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father with provisions for his three brothers, who were then fighting on the side of the king. On his arrival in the camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was made aware of the state of matters when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a stone "out of the brook," which struck the giant's forehead, so that he fell senseless to the ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his head with his own sword (1 Samuel 17). The result was a great victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the gates of Gath and Ekron. Biography of David - King Saul and Jonathan David's popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy (1 Samuel 18:6-16), which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Samuel 1830-30). The deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David "prospered exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul's son, between whom and David a life-long warm friendship was formed. Biography of David - The Fugitive A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Samuel 19:12-18) to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who were there under Samuel's training. It is supposed by some that the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort to bring his father to a better state of mind toward David (1 Samuel 20), who, being made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight to a distance. We accordingly find him first at Nob (21:1-9) and then at Gath, the chief city of the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit him into his service, as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now betook himself to the stronghold of Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chronicles 12:8-18). Here in a short time 400 men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their leader. It was at this time that David, amid the harassment and perils of his position, cried, "Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;" when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed (2 Samuel 23:13-17), but which he would not drink. In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave orders for the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore a linen ephod", to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Compare Psalms 52. Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the Philistines, David with his men relieved it (1 Samuel 23:1-14); and then, for fear of Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Compare Psalms 31. While encamped there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who spoke to him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now parted never to meet again. Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped from him at this time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea (1 Samuel 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued him with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by what David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him, and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he maintained himself by contributions gathered from the district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal and his wife Abigail (1 Samuel 25), whom David married after Nabal's death. Saul again went forth (1 Samuel 26) in pursuit of David, who had hid himself "in the hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing shame and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting his elevation to the throne. Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to place through fear of Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines (1 Samuel 27). He was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. Here David lived among his followers for some time as an independent chief engaged in frequent war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah. Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the lords of the Philistines were suspicious of David's loyalty, and therefore he was sent back to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites, and completely routed them. On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul's death (2Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul's crown and bracelet and laid them at his feet. David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy, the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son" (2 Samuel 1:18-27). It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to be taught to the children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them. "Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.). Biography of David - The King David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine direction (2 Samuel 2:1-4). There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed as king. He was now about thirty years of age. But his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul's only remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took place at the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other encounters, however, between Israel and Judah followed (2 Samuel 3:1,5), but still success was on the side of David. For the space of seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner now sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement; but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39). This was greatly to David's regret. He mourned for the death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth; and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel (4:1-12). David king over all Israel (2 Samuel 5:1-5; 1 Chronicles 11:1-3). The elders of Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his empire. At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the stronghold", on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the Jebusites, and made it Israel's capital, and established here his residence, and afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The Philistines, who had for some time observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He thus delivered Israel from their enemies. Biography of David - The Ark of the Covenant David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital (2 Samuel 6). It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem, where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines had sent it home (1 Samuel 6; 7). In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was a divine ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark, Numbers 4), who had put forth his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three months David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Compare Psalms 24. Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the purpose. About seventy years had passed since it had stood in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now (1 Chronicles 16) carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new religious era began. The service of praise was for the first time introduced into public worship. Zion became henceforth "God's holy hill." Biography of David - The Wars David's wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly extended and strengthened his kingdom (2 Samuel 8). In a few years the whole territory from the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway (2 Samuel 8:3-13; 10). Biography of David - The Fall David's fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a vast empire, and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the sin of adultery (2 Samuel 11:2-27). It has been noted as characteristic of the Bible that while his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore recorded. This crime, in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder. Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the corps of heros (23:39), was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death. Nathan the prophet (2 Samuel 7:1-17; 12:1-23) was sent by God to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual recovery. Biography of David - Bathsheba Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah's death. Her first-born son died, according to the word of the prophet. She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon, and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Samuel 12:24,25). Biography of David - Peace Peace. After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the idea of building a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution, because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan to him with a gracious message (2 Samuel 7:1-16). On receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of the temple was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a man of peace (1 Chronicles 22:9; 28:3). Biography of David - Absalom A cloudy evening. Hitherto David's carrer had been one of great prosperity and success. Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Samuel 13). This was the beginning of the disasters of his later years. After two years Absalom terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This brought sore trouble to David's heart. Absalom, afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when he was brought back through the intrigue of Joab (2 Samuel 14). After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years' famine (2 Samuel 21:1-14). This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a punishment for David's sinful pride in numbering the people (2 Samuel 24), in which no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space of three days. Rebellion of Absalom. The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census, and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the feeling of jealously that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes against David. Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually gained over the people, and at length openly rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne. Ahithophel was Absalom's chief counsellor. The revolt began in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed king. David was now in imminent danger, and he left Jerusalem (2 Samuel 15:13-20), and once more became a fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel. The incidents of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of any other day in Old Testament history. David fled with his followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out. After a few weeks the rival armies were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array at the wood of Ephraim (2 Samuel 18:1-8). Absalom's army was defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab (9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious son filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief. He "went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept" (33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, "Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" Peace was now restored, and David returned to Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose between the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43). Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there put to death, and so the revolt came to an end. Biography of David - Death The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, ten comparatively peaceful years of David's life passed away. During those years he seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor to build (1 Chronicles 22; 28; 29), a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and of glory throughout all countries" (22:5). The exciting and laborious life he had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had left him an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was now drawing to its close. A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be his successor. Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the "Fuller's spring," in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of Adonijah's party failed. Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on his father's throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David's last words are a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious covenant promises (2 Samuel 23:1-7). After a reign of forty years and six months (2 Samuel 5:5; 1 Chronicles 3:4) David died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of David." His tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion. Biography of David - The Legacy Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the Messiah (1 Samuel 16:13). The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the "Psalms of David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor (about eighty psalms) to the collection. "The greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He had lived in harmony with both the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy. The nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of its ancient liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to all (2 Samuel 8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried worth. He had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a half at Hebron (2 Samuel 5:5). Israel at his accession had reached the lowest point of national depression; its new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by the Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solomon was already, before his father's death, owned from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red Sea." We have selected David as one of the most important people and character from the Bible and provided a biography and character outline of this famous person. Much of the information is taken from the classic reference books including Matthew George Easton "Easton's Bible Dictionary" and Ashley S Johnson "Condensed Biblical Cyclopedia". David - A Free Christian Bible Study Resource We hope that this David article will provide useful information and ideas for those following a Bible Study plan. This article about David, together with other tools, activities, aids and materials and are designed to be used by an individual or a Christian Bible study group. This biography of David may prove useful as the basis for fun Sunday School lessons for Christian children and kids other topics will prove a useful asset to teens, youth or adults taking a Bible Study course or Biblical degree. All information on this David page is free to be used as an educational Christian Bible Study resource.	5,178	ENGLISH	1
Louisa May AlcottLouisa May Alcott (; November 29, 1832March 6, 1888) was an American novelist, short story writer and poet best known as the author of the novel ''Little Women'' (1868) and its sequels ''Little Men'' (1871) and ''Jo's Boys'' (1886). Raised in New England by her transcendentalist parents, Abigail May and Amos Bronson Alcott, she grew up among many of the well-known intellectuals of the day, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Alcott's family suffered from financial difficulties, and while she worked to help support the family from an early age, she also sought an outlet in writing. She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s. Early in her career, she sometimes used the pen name A. M. Barnard, under which she wrote novels for young adults that focused on spies and revenge. Published in 1868, ''Little Women'' is set in the Alcott family home, Orchard House, in Concord, Massachusetts, and is loosely based on Alcott's childhood experiences with her three sisters, Abigail May Alcott Nieriker, Elizabeth Sewall Alcott, and Anna Alcott Pratt. The novel was well-received at the time and is still popular today among both children and adults. It has been adapted many times to the stage, film, and television. Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life. She died from a stroke, two days after her father died, in Boston on March 6, 1888. Provided by Wikipedia	<urn:uuid:66bcb1b7-97cf-43fa-9186-e3fa11c8f95f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ebooks.mpdl.mpg.de/ebooks/Author/Home?author=Alcott%2C+Louisa+May	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00481.warc.gz	en	0.983182	352	3.28125	3	[ 0.20775870978832245, -0.04444580897688866, 0.24320319294929504, -0.07424808293581009, -0.2980234920978546, 0.05926961079239845, -0.33932897448539734, 0.031098395586013794, -0.10717994719743729, -0.023618586361408234, 0.3020409643650055, 0.16768701374530792, 0.2843751311302185, 0.1361509114...	1	Louisa May AlcottLouisa May Alcott (; November 29, 1832March 6, 1888) was an American novelist, short story writer and poet best known as the author of the novel ''Little Women'' (1868) and its sequels ''Little Men'' (1871) and ''Jo's Boys'' (1886). Raised in New England by her transcendentalist parents, Abigail May and Amos Bronson Alcott, she grew up among many of the well-known intellectuals of the day, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Alcott's family suffered from financial difficulties, and while she worked to help support the family from an early age, she also sought an outlet in writing. She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s. Early in her career, she sometimes used the pen name A. M. Barnard, under which she wrote novels for young adults that focused on spies and revenge. Published in 1868, ''Little Women'' is set in the Alcott family home, Orchard House, in Concord, Massachusetts, and is loosely based on Alcott's childhood experiences with her three sisters, Abigail May Alcott Nieriker, Elizabeth Sewall Alcott, and Anna Alcott Pratt. The novel was well-received at the time and is still popular today among both children and adults. It has been adapted many times to the stage, film, and television. Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life. She died from a stroke, two days after her father died, in Boston on March 6, 1888. Provided by Wikipedia	375	ENGLISH	1
During World War II, tens of thousands of Polish soldiers fought to defend and recover their war-ravaged homeland. Their sacrifices are still remembered in Poland, especially the contributions of one particularly hirsute soldier. The fearless and loyal Private Wojtek traveled with the Polish Army from the mountains of Iran to the battlegrounds of Europe, helping his brothers-in-arms achieve a costly but vital Allied victory in Italy. He never set foot on Polish soil during his lifetime, yet statues honoring Wojtek stand in Poland today, despite the fact that the warrior they honor was neither Polish, nor human: Private Wojtek was a 500-pound brown bear. In the spring of 1942, a group of weary Polish soldiers and civilians were making their way across the mountains of Persia, in what is now Iran. The previous few years had not been easy on them: First, the Soviets had invaded and annexed the eastern half of their country, while Hitler’s Germany gobbled up the west. Hundreds of thousands of Polish nationals—including entire families of men, women, and children—had been rounded up and shipped off to labor camps in Siberia. But when the tides of war turned against the USSR, the Polish government-in-exile negotiated the formation of a Polish army on Soviet soil under the command of Polish General Władysław Anders. But the Soviets could barely feed their own troops, let alone Anders’ Army and tens of thousands of Polish civilian deportees. In the summer of 1941, the joint British and Soviet invasion of Iran provided a solution: the Polish soldiers would be transferred to Iran and placed under British command. The Polish civilians would travel with them—by boat and by rail, but mostly on foot. Many died from the cold weather or exhaustion. By early April 1942, the Polish travelers had crossed the Caspian Sea, but were still over a hundred miles from their destination, a civilian camp near Tehran. They stopped for a much-needed rest near the ancient city of Hamadan, where a group of Persian boys caught the eye of a young Polish civilian, 18-year-old Irena Bokiewicz. Irena noticed that the boys were playing with something in a sack—something small, brown, and furry. It was a tiny bear cub that one of the boys had rescued in the mountains after a hunter killed its mother. The animal, only a few months old, was scrawny and underfed, much like the boys themselves. A nearby Polish officer, Lieutenant Anaol Tarnowiecki, noticed Irena’s interest in the cub. Swayed perhaps by the adorable bear, or perhaps by the young woman, he offered the boys a few tins of food, a chocolate bar, and a Swiss army knife in exchange for their pet. Irena brought the cub to the civilian camp near Tehran. The young bear was tiny and struggled to swallow or eat on his own, so Irena and her fellow travellers fed him diluted, condensed milk from an empty vodka bottle. He soon began to grow, as bear cubs tend to do, and eventually Irena realized that she and the other civilians in the camp could no longer care for him. She offered him to the soldiers of Anders’ Army, and the little bear was taken in by the army’s 2nd Transport Company, which later became the 22nd Artillery Supply Company. The soldiers dubbed him Wojtek, the diminutive form of the name Wojciech, a common Polish moniker meaning “joyful warrior.” Sergeant Peter Prendys was appointed as Wojtek’s principal guardian. The quiet 46-year-old sergeant, soon dubbed “Mother Bear” by his soldiers, truly became the cub’s surrogate mother, wrapping the bear in his army coat on chilly evenings and cuddling him to sleep in their shared tent. Soon, Wojtek graduated from condensed milk to fruit, marmalade, honey, and syrup. But his favorite treat was cigarettes, which he preferred to eat rather than smoke. As Anders’ Army headed toward Palestine to meet up with British forces, Wojtek grew up playing with Prendys and his other human friends, who taught him to wrestle and salute. He enjoyed lingering in the camp’s kitchen area, where he would happily eat or drink anything the cooks offered him. When he had been a very good bear, the men would give him a bottle of beer or wine, which he would gulp down before staring mournfully into the empty bottle until one of the soldiers took the hint and tossed him another. Eventually, Anders’ Army reached Palestine and began preparing for a large-scale deployment while they awaited their next assignment. Wojtek was given a large wooden crate to sleep in and allowed free range of the camp, with one exception: the shower tent. The thick-furred bear, born in a temperate mountain climate, was miserable in the heat of the desert, and quickly figured out how to operate the camp’s communal showers to cool himself. All of the water in the camp had to be shipped in, so Wojtek was locked out of the shower tent to keep him from exhausting this precious commodity. One lucky day, during his early morning patrol of the camp, Wojtek discovered the shower tent unlocked and ambled in to enjoy a quick drenching. Inside, he stumbled upon an Arab spy intent on hiding out until he could break into the camp’s ammunition compound. It’s unclear who was more surprised, but in the commotion that followed, the would-be thief was arrested, and Wojtek’s position in the camp climbed from “favorite pet” to “beloved hero.” By 1943, Anders’ Army had traveled through Iran, Iraq, and Palestine under the command of British Middle East Command. Many of these Polish soldiers, and one 2-year-old Persian brown bear, joined the newly created Polish 2nd Corps, which headed west toward Egypt and later to Italy as an independent part of the British Eighth Army. As the Polish Army continued to move across the Middle East and North Africa, Wojtek stayed with his company, first riding in the cab of a truck and later, as his size increased, in the back of one of the recovery trucks, where he could stretch out or, to entertain himself, climb around on the crane. But in Egypt in early 1944, when it came time for the Polish 2nd Corps to cross the Mediterranean into Europe, trouble reared its head in the form of military bureaucracy. British High Command did not permit animals to accompany units into combat, and they were certainly not allowed to board troop transport ships. Wojtek’s company tackled the problem head-on and in triplicate, by enlisting Wojtek as a private in the Polish Army. Armed with a new serial number and a paybook, Private Wojciech “Wojtek” Perski (the surname referring to his Persian origins) boarded the transport ship with his company and sailed for Italy. The Polish Army’s 22nd Artillery Supply Company, including their newest private, joined the Allied efforts in Italy to break through the Axis defenses to reach Rome. In 1944, the Allies’ push forward collided with the German defensive line in the Italian town of Cassino. The focal point of this conflict was a 1,400-year-old Benedictine abbey, Monte Cassino, situated on a hilltop near the town. While the Germans had initially avoided taking up defensive positions in the abbey in an effort to preserve the historical site, Allied leaders became convinced that the Germans were using it as an observation post, and sent in American bombers, flattening the abbey. The Germans had no qualms about occupying the rubble, which provided excellent defensive cover. For four months, the Allies assaulted the German lines in a series of bloody attacks that ultimately left 55,000 Allied and 20,000 German soldiers dead, in addition to civilian casualties. The Polish 2nd Corps, including Wojtek’s company, arrived a few weeks before the fourth and final Allied assault. It began 11 May 1944, with a massive artillery bombardment from more than 1,600 guns. The 22nd Artillery Supply Company was assigned to help supply this artillery with ammunition. This was no easy supply run; the men had to drive their trucks, laden with heavy munitions and supply boxes, up narrow mountain roads with numerous steep, hairpin turns. German artillery was focused on this route, so the drivers had to work at night without headlights, following a soldier who scouted the road on foot ahead of the trucks, wearing a white towel around his shoulders to be seen in the near-pitch black. At the artillery positions, the men of the 22nd Artillery Supply Company unloaded their crates as quickly as possible, then headed down the mountain to start all over again. Several drivers were killed when their trucks slipped off the treacherous path and plunged into the gorges below. Private Wojtek was understandably nervous during his first days at Monte Cassino. Startled by the noise of the constant gunfire and artillery barrages, he hid under cover and clung to his human friends. Soon, however, his curiosity won out, and he climbed a nearby tree in the camp to get a better view of the distant flashes from the enemy lines. Observing his comrades as they moved boxes of ammunition to the trucks, he joined in, standing upright on his hind legs and holding out his front paws. Each box of shells weighed more than 300 pounds and required four men to lift, but Wojtek effortlessly hand-carried box after box to the loading area, even stacking them to make the job easier for the men lifting the boxes onto the trucks. Occasionally, the bear lost interest in this game and wandered off for a nap, but a quick snack slipped to him from one of his friends would soon have him back on his feet. Polish veterans of the Battle of Monte Cassino later proudly reported that Private Wojtek never dropped a single shell. With Wojtek’s help, the 22nd Artillery Supply Company supplied more than 17,000 tons of ammunition to the Allied guns during the battle. For nearly a week, Allied troops threw themselves against the German defenses. At one point, Polish infantry units cut off from their supply line ran out of ammunition. Unwilling to give up the fight, they threw rocks at the Germans instead. When they reached the hilltop, they overwhelmed the Germans in brutal hand-to-hand combat until their enemy finally raised the flag of surrender. Despite suffering enormous losses, the Allied troops succeeded in capturing Monte Cassino on 18 May 1944. Soldiers from the Polish 12th Podolian Cavalry Regiment planted the Polish flag in the ruins, and a cemetery holding the graves of more than 1,000 Polish soldiers can still be seen from the rebuilt Monte Cassino monastery today. After the battle, Wojtek was promoted to corporal due to his valiant service, and the 22nd Artillery Supply Company honored him by adopting a depiction of a bear holding an artillery shell as their official emblem, wearing it proudly on their uniforms, banners, and trucks. As the end of the war drew near, Wojtek- was sent with the rest of his company to Scotland to begin the process of demobilization. In October 1946, Wojtek found himself in the Winfield Camp for Displaced Persons on Sunwick Farm with other members of the Polish 2nd Corps. Once again, he made himself useful lifting logs and fencing materials for the men working the fields. Most importantly, he lifted the spirits of his fellow Polish refugees, many of whom hadn’t seen Poland since it was divided up by the Germans and the Soviets in 1939. He quickly became a celebrity among the local Scots, who would offer eggs, honey, cigarettes, and the occasional piece of candy to the new arrival. He was even made an honorary life member of the Scottish-Polish Society, an event he celebrated with a bottle of beer. Wojtek spent just over a year in Winfield Camp with his Polish comrades, but as 1947 drew to a close, the men began to make decisions about their future. Some returned to Poland, a country ravaged by war and now controlled by the Soviet Union. Others moved elsewhere in Europe or participated in resettlement programs offered by the British government. Wojtek’s brothers-in-arms knew that postwar Poland was no place for their friend, so they arranged a British resettlement of his very own, to the Edinburgh Zoo. Peter Prendys, Wojtek’s original guardian in the 22nd Artillery Supply Company, had survived the war and lived with Wojtek in Winfield Camp for their last year together. He rode with his friend for the two-hour journey to Edinburgh in a truck loaned by a local member of the Scottish-Polish Society. Peter led the trusting bear into his new home without incident, his heart breaking at the idea of saying goodbye, but confident that it was the best choice for his surrogate cub. Wojtek lived for 16 years in Edinburgh. He was most happy when his former comrades would visit, but he also enjoyed interacting with the Scottish crowd, who would throw him cigarettes and call to him in clumsy Polish. He died in 1963 at the age of 22, roughly the average lifespan for his species. Peter Prendys died five years later in London, having been reunited with his wife and one of their children who had survived the occupation of Poland. Wojtek’s legacy lives on in books, films, memorials, monuments, and the hearts of the Polish and Scottish people. Private donors funded a statue of Wojtek in Krakow, Poland in 2014. A year and a half later, another statue of the war hero was unveiled in Edinburgh, this one funded by the Wojtek Memorial Trust. It features a bronze bear beside a Polish soldier, both standing atop a platform of granite excavated from Poland—a country that Wojtek never saw, but whose citizens never forgot his invaluable service to their cause.	<urn:uuid:a5a4164c-2d09-4383-aa45-58d9397fc98d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.damninteresting.com/private-wojteks-right-to-bear-arms/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00011.warc.gz	en	0.982901	2,938	3.515625	4	[ -0.5393807888031006, 0.9124199151992798, 0.07542422413825989, -0.04629652202129364, -0.2546268701553345, -0.10314801335334778, 0.3611300587654114, 0.27626466751098633, -0.45385605096817017, -0.2748187184333801, 0.08966810256242752, 0.09127858281135559, 0.5549163222312927, 0.627578377723693...	15	During World War II, tens of thousands of Polish soldiers fought to defend and recover their war-ravaged homeland. Their sacrifices are still remembered in Poland, especially the contributions of one particularly hirsute soldier. The fearless and loyal Private Wojtek traveled with the Polish Army from the mountains of Iran to the battlegrounds of Europe, helping his brothers-in-arms achieve a costly but vital Allied victory in Italy. He never set foot on Polish soil during his lifetime, yet statues honoring Wojtek stand in Poland today, despite the fact that the warrior they honor was neither Polish, nor human: Private Wojtek was a 500-pound brown bear. In the spring of 1942, a group of weary Polish soldiers and civilians were making their way across the mountains of Persia, in what is now Iran. The previous few years had not been easy on them: First, the Soviets had invaded and annexed the eastern half of their country, while Hitler’s Germany gobbled up the west. Hundreds of thousands of Polish nationals—including entire families of men, women, and children—had been rounded up and shipped off to labor camps in Siberia. But when the tides of war turned against the USSR, the Polish government-in-exile negotiated the formation of a Polish army on Soviet soil under the command of Polish General Władysław Anders. But the Soviets could barely feed their own troops, let alone Anders’ Army and tens of thousands of Polish civilian deportees. In the summer of 1941, the joint British and Soviet invasion of Iran provided a solution: the Polish soldiers would be transferred to Iran and placed under British command. The Polish civilians would travel with them—by boat and by rail, but mostly on foot. Many died from the cold weather or exhaustion. By early April 1942, the Polish travelers had crossed the Caspian Sea, but were still over a hundred miles from their destination, a civilian camp near Tehran. They stopped for a much-needed rest near the ancient city of Hamadan, where a group of Persian boys caught the eye of a young Polish civilian, 18-year-old Irena Bokiewicz. Irena noticed that the boys were playing with something in a sack—something small, brown, and furry. It was a tiny bear cub that one of the boys had rescued in the mountains after a hunter killed its mother. The animal, only a few months old, was scrawny and underfed, much like the boys themselves. A nearby Polish officer, Lieutenant Anaol Tarnowiecki, noticed Irena’s interest in the cub. Swayed perhaps by the adorable bear, or perhaps by the young woman, he offered the boys a few tins of food, a chocolate bar, and a Swiss army knife in exchange for their pet. Irena brought the cub to the civilian camp near Tehran. The young bear was tiny and struggled to swallow or eat on his own, so Irena and her fellow travellers fed him diluted, condensed milk from an empty vodka bottle. He soon began to grow, as bear cubs tend to do, and eventually Irena realized that she and the other civilians in the camp could no longer care for him. She offered him to the soldiers of Anders’ Army, and the little bear was taken in by the army’s 2nd Transport Company, which later became the 22nd Artillery Supply Company. The soldiers dubbed him Wojtek, the diminutive form of the name Wojciech, a common Polish moniker meaning “joyful warrior.” Sergeant Peter Prendys was appointed as Wojtek’s principal guardian. The quiet 46-year-old sergeant, soon dubbed “Mother Bear” by his soldiers, truly became the cub’s surrogate mother, wrapping the bear in his army coat on chilly evenings and cuddling him to sleep in their shared tent. Soon, Wojtek graduated from condensed milk to fruit, marmalade, honey, and syrup. But his favorite treat was cigarettes, which he preferred to eat rather than smoke. As Anders’ Army headed toward Palestine to meet up with British forces, Wojtek grew up playing with Prendys and his other human friends, who taught him to wrestle and salute. He enjoyed lingering in the camp’s kitchen area, where he would happily eat or drink anything the cooks offered him. When he had been a very good bear, the men would give him a bottle of beer or wine, which he would gulp down before staring mournfully into the empty bottle until one of the soldiers took the hint and tossed him another. Eventually, Anders’ Army reached Palestine and began preparing for a large-scale deployment while they awaited their next assignment. Wojtek was given a large wooden crate to sleep in and allowed free range of the camp, with one exception: the shower tent. The thick-furred bear, born in a temperate mountain climate, was miserable in the heat of the desert, and quickly figured out how to operate the camp’s communal showers to cool himself. All of the water in the camp had to be shipped in, so Wojtek was locked out of the shower tent to keep him from exhausting this precious commodity. One lucky day, during his early morning patrol of the camp, Wojtek discovered the shower tent unlocked and ambled in to enjoy a quick drenching. Inside, he stumbled upon an Arab spy intent on hiding out until he could break into the camp’s ammunition compound. It’s unclear who was more surprised, but in the commotion that followed, the would-be thief was arrested, and Wojtek’s position in the camp climbed from “favorite pet” to “beloved hero.” By 1943, Anders’ Army had traveled through Iran, Iraq, and Palestine under the command of British Middle East Command. Many of these Polish soldiers, and one 2-year-old Persian brown bear, joined the newly created Polish 2nd Corps, which headed west toward Egypt and later to Italy as an independent part of the British Eighth Army. As the Polish Army continued to move across the Middle East and North Africa, Wojtek stayed with his company, first riding in the cab of a truck and later, as his size increased, in the back of one of the recovery trucks, where he could stretch out or, to entertain himself, climb around on the crane. But in Egypt in early 1944, when it came time for the Polish 2nd Corps to cross the Mediterranean into Europe, trouble reared its head in the form of military bureaucracy. British High Command did not permit animals to accompany units into combat, and they were certainly not allowed to board troop transport ships. Wojtek’s company tackled the problem head-on and in triplicate, by enlisting Wojtek as a private in the Polish Army. Armed with a new serial number and a paybook, Private Wojciech “Wojtek” Perski (the surname referring to his Persian origins) boarded the transport ship with his company and sailed for Italy. The Polish Army’s 22nd Artillery Supply Company, including their newest private, joined the Allied efforts in Italy to break through the Axis defenses to reach Rome. In 1944, the Allies’ push forward collided with the German defensive line in the Italian town of Cassino. The focal point of this conflict was a 1,400-year-old Benedictine abbey, Monte Cassino, situated on a hilltop near the town. While the Germans had initially avoided taking up defensive positions in the abbey in an effort to preserve the historical site, Allied leaders became convinced that the Germans were using it as an observation post, and sent in American bombers, flattening the abbey. The Germans had no qualms about occupying the rubble, which provided excellent defensive cover. For four months, the Allies assaulted the German lines in a series of bloody attacks that ultimately left 55,000 Allied and 20,000 German soldiers dead, in addition to civilian casualties. The Polish 2nd Corps, including Wojtek’s company, arrived a few weeks before the fourth and final Allied assault. It began 11 May 1944, with a massive artillery bombardment from more than 1,600 guns. The 22nd Artillery Supply Company was assigned to help supply this artillery with ammunition. This was no easy supply run; the men had to drive their trucks, laden with heavy munitions and supply boxes, up narrow mountain roads with numerous steep, hairpin turns. German artillery was focused on this route, so the drivers had to work at night without headlights, following a soldier who scouted the road on foot ahead of the trucks, wearing a white towel around his shoulders to be seen in the near-pitch black. At the artillery positions, the men of the 22nd Artillery Supply Company unloaded their crates as quickly as possible, then headed down the mountain to start all over again. Several drivers were killed when their trucks slipped off the treacherous path and plunged into the gorges below. Private Wojtek was understandably nervous during his first days at Monte Cassino. Startled by the noise of the constant gunfire and artillery barrages, he hid under cover and clung to his human friends. Soon, however, his curiosity won out, and he climbed a nearby tree in the camp to get a better view of the distant flashes from the enemy lines. Observing his comrades as they moved boxes of ammunition to the trucks, he joined in, standing upright on his hind legs and holding out his front paws. Each box of shells weighed more than 300 pounds and required four men to lift, but Wojtek effortlessly hand-carried box after box to the loading area, even stacking them to make the job easier for the men lifting the boxes onto the trucks. Occasionally, the bear lost interest in this game and wandered off for a nap, but a quick snack slipped to him from one of his friends would soon have him back on his feet. Polish veterans of the Battle of Monte Cassino later proudly reported that Private Wojtek never dropped a single shell. With Wojtek’s help, the 22nd Artillery Supply Company supplied more than 17,000 tons of ammunition to the Allied guns during the battle. For nearly a week, Allied troops threw themselves against the German defenses. At one point, Polish infantry units cut off from their supply line ran out of ammunition. Unwilling to give up the fight, they threw rocks at the Germans instead. When they reached the hilltop, they overwhelmed the Germans in brutal hand-to-hand combat until their enemy finally raised the flag of surrender. Despite suffering enormous losses, the Allied troops succeeded in capturing Monte Cassino on 18 May 1944. Soldiers from the Polish 12th Podolian Cavalry Regiment planted the Polish flag in the ruins, and a cemetery holding the graves of more than 1,000 Polish soldiers can still be seen from the rebuilt Monte Cassino monastery today. After the battle, Wojtek was promoted to corporal due to his valiant service, and the 22nd Artillery Supply Company honored him by adopting a depiction of a bear holding an artillery shell as their official emblem, wearing it proudly on their uniforms, banners, and trucks. As the end of the war drew near, Wojtek- was sent with the rest of his company to Scotland to begin the process of demobilization. In October 1946, Wojtek found himself in the Winfield Camp for Displaced Persons on Sunwick Farm with other members of the Polish 2nd Corps. Once again, he made himself useful lifting logs and fencing materials for the men working the fields. Most importantly, he lifted the spirits of his fellow Polish refugees, many of whom hadn’t seen Poland since it was divided up by the Germans and the Soviets in 1939. He quickly became a celebrity among the local Scots, who would offer eggs, honey, cigarettes, and the occasional piece of candy to the new arrival. He was even made an honorary life member of the Scottish-Polish Society, an event he celebrated with a bottle of beer. Wojtek spent just over a year in Winfield Camp with his Polish comrades, but as 1947 drew to a close, the men began to make decisions about their future. Some returned to Poland, a country ravaged by war and now controlled by the Soviet Union. Others moved elsewhere in Europe or participated in resettlement programs offered by the British government. Wojtek’s brothers-in-arms knew that postwar Poland was no place for their friend, so they arranged a British resettlement of his very own, to the Edinburgh Zoo. Peter Prendys, Wojtek’s original guardian in the 22nd Artillery Supply Company, had survived the war and lived with Wojtek in Winfield Camp for their last year together. He rode with his friend for the two-hour journey to Edinburgh in a truck loaned by a local member of the Scottish-Polish Society. Peter led the trusting bear into his new home without incident, his heart breaking at the idea of saying goodbye, but confident that it was the best choice for his surrogate cub. Wojtek lived for 16 years in Edinburgh. He was most happy when his former comrades would visit, but he also enjoyed interacting with the Scottish crowd, who would throw him cigarettes and call to him in clumsy Polish. He died in 1963 at the age of 22, roughly the average lifespan for his species. Peter Prendys died five years later in London, having been reunited with his wife and one of their children who had survived the occupation of Poland. Wojtek’s legacy lives on in books, films, memorials, monuments, and the hearts of the Polish and Scottish people. Private donors funded a statue of Wojtek in Krakow, Poland in 2014. A year and a half later, another statue of the war hero was unveiled in Edinburgh, this one funded by the Wojtek Memorial Trust. It features a bronze bear beside a Polish soldier, both standing atop a platform of granite excavated from Poland—a country that Wojtek never saw, but whose citizens never forgot his invaluable service to their cause.	2,923	ENGLISH	1
24th April 1942: Soviet women eat their breakfast next to a burning pile of rubbish in a Finnish concentration camp in Petrozavodsk, Karelia. The photograph was taken during the Continuation War, during World War Two, when Finland and Nazi Germany fought together against mostly Soviet troops. The 24th of April, 1933 is considered to be the day Nazi Germany began their persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses, as it is the date the Bible Student headquarters in Magdeburg were seized by police. This came only a few months after Adolf Hitler came to power. If Jehovah’s Witnesses were willing to renounce their religion they were promised freedom from persecution. Below is a Nazi renouncement document. From 1935 onwards, many people who kept their religion were sent to concentration camps.	<urn:uuid:180c15d9-4693-44db-aad1-946bb03719ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://intimesgoneby.wordpress.com/tag/concentration-camps/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00028.warc.gz	en	0.988667	164	3.296875	3	[ -0.336066871881485, 0.5938470363616943, -0.053214628249406815, 0.1413821130990982, 0.12751856446266174, -0.0020027889404445887, -0.06768579035997391, 0.2665257453918457, -0.615927517414093, -0.09549100697040558, -0.07254209369421005, -0.3312648832798004, 0.24998526275157928, 0.293650954961...	3	24th April 1942: Soviet women eat their breakfast next to a burning pile of rubbish in a Finnish concentration camp in Petrozavodsk, Karelia. The photograph was taken during the Continuation War, during World War Two, when Finland and Nazi Germany fought together against mostly Soviet troops. The 24th of April, 1933 is considered to be the day Nazi Germany began their persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses, as it is the date the Bible Student headquarters in Magdeburg were seized by police. This came only a few months after Adolf Hitler came to power. If Jehovah’s Witnesses were willing to renounce their religion they were promised freedom from persecution. Below is a Nazi renouncement document. From 1935 onwards, many people who kept their religion were sent to concentration camps.	170	ENGLISH	1
SMELL: What did it smell like? As children are exposed to different smells, they learn more about our environment. They will be able to distinguish between good and bad smells, comfortable and uncomfortable smells. TOUCH : How did it feel? Most touch activities involved the hands. Engaging their hands builds their fine motor skills, helping them learn how to do more for themselves, such as drawing and buttoning their coats.We focused on expanding their vocabulary helping them to describe what their were feeling. SOUND: What noises did you hear? Indoors and outdoors, there are many opportunities for children to engage their listening skills. We played an sound bingo. TASTE: Did you like the taste? Many events in a child’s life involve food. Sense of taste activities teach children that the sense of taste and smell are connected. We offered them 7 different foods to taste and their showed their likes and dislikes mainly with their facial expressions! SIGHT: What is it you saw? Sense of sight activities helps children learn about their eyes as they explore the world around them. We went for a walk to play “I spy” and in our room they experienced how the world looks like through coloured glasses. In creative this week they explored their touch creating some textured collages, they talked about the flowers’ smell colouring a pot and adding flowers to it and at the end of the week they worked about face parts recognition and the sense linked to them. We also have enjoyed exploring the new cars we received this week. It was fun to play with them in the different circuits created with some black paper and chalk… Enjoy your weekend and see you next week with some more fun activities and a lot of role-playing 😉	<urn:uuid:c3009b9d-c478-432a-99e0-3fb79d259b2c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nur2.aceprimary.uk/2019/03/15/five-senses-science-week/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00157.warc.gz	en	0.984833	369	3.734375	4	[ 0.22868870198726654, -0.19205383956432343, 0.5684951543807983, -0.07746392488479614, -0.2976069748401642, 0.35408830642700195, 1.0411845445632935, -0.4080967903137207, -0.39139387011528015, -0.10326027125120163, 0.26867854595184326, -0.22518914937973022, 0.022195952013134956, 0.45673680305...	1	SMELL: What did it smell like? As children are exposed to different smells, they learn more about our environment. They will be able to distinguish between good and bad smells, comfortable and uncomfortable smells. TOUCH : How did it feel? Most touch activities involved the hands. Engaging their hands builds their fine motor skills, helping them learn how to do more for themselves, such as drawing and buttoning their coats.We focused on expanding their vocabulary helping them to describe what their were feeling. SOUND: What noises did you hear? Indoors and outdoors, there are many opportunities for children to engage their listening skills. We played an sound bingo. TASTE: Did you like the taste? Many events in a child’s life involve food. Sense of taste activities teach children that the sense of taste and smell are connected. We offered them 7 different foods to taste and their showed their likes and dislikes mainly with their facial expressions! SIGHT: What is it you saw? Sense of sight activities helps children learn about their eyes as they explore the world around them. We went for a walk to play “I spy” and in our room they experienced how the world looks like through coloured glasses. In creative this week they explored their touch creating some textured collages, they talked about the flowers’ smell colouring a pot and adding flowers to it and at the end of the week they worked about face parts recognition and the sense linked to them. We also have enjoyed exploring the new cars we received this week. It was fun to play with them in the different circuits created with some black paper and chalk… Enjoy your weekend and see you next week with some more fun activities and a lot of role-playing 😉	344	ENGLISH	1
The Khmer Rouge were a Marxist and communist organization in the country of Cambodia that ruled over the country in the 1970s and is widely considered to be responsible for the events of the Cambodian Genocide. The Cambodian Genocide is considered to be a significant example of genocide and crimes against humanity in the 20th century, alongside others, such as: Armenian Genocide, Holodomor, Nanking Massacre, Holocaust, Rwanda Genocide and the Bosnian Genocide. A genocide is defined as a mass killing of a certain group of people based on their religion, ethnicity or cultural background. A crime against humanity is considered to be when a group of people are subjected to humiliation, suffering and death on a mass scale by another group. The Cambodian Genocide occurred in the country of Cambodia between 1975 and 1979. The genocide and crimes against humanity that occurred in the country are considered to be the actions and result of the Khmer Rouge and Pol Pot, who was the leader of the Khmer Rouge. The term ‘Khmer Rouge’ was the commonly used name for the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). In October of 1966, Pol Pot and other Cambodian party leaders established the CPK. Norodom Sihanouk, the Head of State of Cambodia at the time, began referring to the CPK as the ‘Khmer Rouge’ in reference to their communist or ‘red’ principles, which eventually led to the followers of the CPK being referred to as the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge rose to power in Cambodia when they launched an attack against the government forces of the Kingdom of Cambodia, which began the Cambodian Civil War. The Khmer Rouge were supported by the communists in North Vietnam and China, while the government of Cambodia (led by Norodom Sihanouk) were supported by the United States. Pol Pot played an important role in the conflict as he persuaded North Vietnam and others to support and supply the Khmer Rouge. For its part, the United States sought to protect its ally in South Vietnam and stop the spread of communism to Cambodia. This was related to the American policy of containment from the time frame of the Cold War, because at the time, the United States was in the midst of the Vietnam War. Regardless, after five years of brutal fighting between both sides the Khmer Rouge claimed victory in 1975 and established the Democratic Kampuchea in Cambodia. The Democratic Kampuchea was the name of Cambodian from 1976 to 1979 under the control of Pol Pot and was based on Marxist principles of the Khmer Rouge. Since Pol Pot was the leader of the Khmer Rouge, he also became leader of Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge took control of the country. As leader of Cambodia, Pol Pot became known as ‘brother number one’. The major events of the Cambodian Genocide followed. A key feature of any genocide is the focused and mass killing of different groups of people based on their religious or ethnic background. This was especially true in the Cambodian Genocide because the Khmer targeted different groups, including: ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, Christians and Buddhists. As well, educated professionals and members of rival political parties were systematically removed from their positions and forced out of the city-centers. Essentially, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge focused their power against groups of people they did not deem to be ‘desirable’ to Cambodia or who had the intellectual ability to question the authority of the government. Many of the first deaths of the Cambodian Genocide were a result of the forced removals from the cities. For example, anyone that was unwilling to relocate was either forcibly removed or executed. Furthermore, many people died from exhaustion and starvation during the process. However, anyone that survived the transportation to the countryside suffered due to the grueling work that was expected on the collective farms. In fact, the farms were little more than labor camps in which the workers experienced continual abuse, threat of death and exhausting work. Many more died there also from starvation and exhaustion. As time progressed, the survival of a person was determined by the ability to complete work in the labor camps. As a result, many people who could not keep up with the work demands of the Khmer were killed, including: young children, elderly and the sick. When starvation no longer resulted in the deaths of these ‘undesirable’ people, the Khmer Rouge resorted to a method that historians refer to as the ‘Killing Fields’. In general, the term ‘Killing Fields’ refers to sites across Cambodia in which people were taken to be tortured, interrogated and executed for their alleged crimes against the state. Most of the estimated one million victims, were buried in mass graves. The most famous of these sites was called Security Prison 21 (S-21), which was a former high school just outside of the Cambodian capital. The high school was transformed into a detention center in 1975 during the reign of the Khmer Rouge in which ‘enemies’ of the state were tortured and eventually executed. In all, it is estimated that as many as 1.5 million to 3 million people died in the killing fields and as a result of the events of the Cambodian Genocide which occurred between 1975 and 1979. To date, over 23,000 mass graves have been discovered in Cambodia containing the majority of the reported victims. The international community was slow to learn about the genocide and crimes against humanity occurring in the country due to the Khmer Rouge expelling foreigners and reporters. Regardless, news of the genocide leaked out and most foreign countries condemned the actions of the Khmer. However, the regime also enjoyed support from several communist nations including China who is said to have supplied them with money, military supplies and training for soldiers. The reign of the Khmer Rouge and the Cambodian Genocide ultimately ended in 1979 when Vietnamese forces invaded the country and toppled the rule of Pol Pot. The Cambodian dictator fled and lived out much of his remaining years on the Cambodian border with Thailand where he would often move between the two countries. While the Khmer Rouge remained a force in the region throughout the 1980s and 1990s, it lost its power and ability to rule especially with the ‘retirement’ of Pol Pot in 1985. In 2001, the Cambodian government established the Khmer Rouge Tribunals for the purpose of trying leaders of the Khmer Rouge during the Cambodian Genocide. It was a national court established by the Cambodian government but supported by the United Nations with some international lawyers and judges. The full name for the tribunals was ‘Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia’ or ECCC. In general, the perpetrators of the Cambodian Genocide were accused and made to stand trial for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. For example, one of the people tried at the tribunals was Kang Kek Iew. He was a former leader of the Khmer Rouge who was in charge of the prison camp system and oversaw the operation of the notorious S-21 camp. In July of 2010, he was found guilty of crimes against humanity and was ultimately sentenced to life in prison. A major issuing facing the tribunals carried out in the first part of the 21st century was the many of the former Khmer leaders were either dead or had fled the country to other parts of the world. For example, the Khmer Rouge leader responsible for the Cambodian Genocide, Pol Pot, evaded trial for his role. He lived out the remaining years of his life along the western border of Cambodia or in the country of Thailand. He died on April 15th, 1998 from heart failure. In an interview he gave late in his life, Pol Pot, claimed he had no regrets and denied his involvement in mass killings during the genocide. CITE THIS ARTICLE	<urn:uuid:fec1afca-3df6-4e13-8a09-b661c930ecc2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historycrunch.com/khmer-rouge-and-the-cambodian-genocide.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00169.warc.gz	en	0.98158	1,603	3.609375	4	[ -0.11169317364692688, 0.5848627090454102, 0.20831583440303802, -0.17199024558067322, 0.006964760832488537, 0.12031242996454239, 0.5445972681045532, 0.1312776654958725, -0.23617693781852722, 0.5136508345603943, 0.3976691663265228, -0.21569707989692688, 0.08027403056621552, 0.362339437007904...	15	The Khmer Rouge were a Marxist and communist organization in the country of Cambodia that ruled over the country in the 1970s and is widely considered to be responsible for the events of the Cambodian Genocide. The Cambodian Genocide is considered to be a significant example of genocide and crimes against humanity in the 20th century, alongside others, such as: Armenian Genocide, Holodomor, Nanking Massacre, Holocaust, Rwanda Genocide and the Bosnian Genocide. A genocide is defined as a mass killing of a certain group of people based on their religion, ethnicity or cultural background. A crime against humanity is considered to be when a group of people are subjected to humiliation, suffering and death on a mass scale by another group. The Cambodian Genocide occurred in the country of Cambodia between 1975 and 1979. The genocide and crimes against humanity that occurred in the country are considered to be the actions and result of the Khmer Rouge and Pol Pot, who was the leader of the Khmer Rouge. The term ‘Khmer Rouge’ was the commonly used name for the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). In October of 1966, Pol Pot and other Cambodian party leaders established the CPK. Norodom Sihanouk, the Head of State of Cambodia at the time, began referring to the CPK as the ‘Khmer Rouge’ in reference to their communist or ‘red’ principles, which eventually led to the followers of the CPK being referred to as the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge rose to power in Cambodia when they launched an attack against the government forces of the Kingdom of Cambodia, which began the Cambodian Civil War. The Khmer Rouge were supported by the communists in North Vietnam and China, while the government of Cambodia (led by Norodom Sihanouk) were supported by the United States. Pol Pot played an important role in the conflict as he persuaded North Vietnam and others to support and supply the Khmer Rouge. For its part, the United States sought to protect its ally in South Vietnam and stop the spread of communism to Cambodia. This was related to the American policy of containment from the time frame of the Cold War, because at the time, the United States was in the midst of the Vietnam War. Regardless, after five years of brutal fighting between both sides the Khmer Rouge claimed victory in 1975 and established the Democratic Kampuchea in Cambodia. The Democratic Kampuchea was the name of Cambodian from 1976 to 1979 under the control of Pol Pot and was based on Marxist principles of the Khmer Rouge. Since Pol Pot was the leader of the Khmer Rouge, he also became leader of Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge took control of the country. As leader of Cambodia, Pol Pot became known as ‘brother number one’. The major events of the Cambodian Genocide followed. A key feature of any genocide is the focused and mass killing of different groups of people based on their religious or ethnic background. This was especially true in the Cambodian Genocide because the Khmer targeted different groups, including: ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, Christians and Buddhists. As well, educated professionals and members of rival political parties were systematically removed from their positions and forced out of the city-centers. Essentially, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge focused their power against groups of people they did not deem to be ‘desirable’ to Cambodia or who had the intellectual ability to question the authority of the government. Many of the first deaths of the Cambodian Genocide were a result of the forced removals from the cities. For example, anyone that was unwilling to relocate was either forcibly removed or executed. Furthermore, many people died from exhaustion and starvation during the process. However, anyone that survived the transportation to the countryside suffered due to the grueling work that was expected on the collective farms. In fact, the farms were little more than labor camps in which the workers experienced continual abuse, threat of death and exhausting work. Many more died there also from starvation and exhaustion. As time progressed, the survival of a person was determined by the ability to complete work in the labor camps. As a result, many people who could not keep up with the work demands of the Khmer were killed, including: young children, elderly and the sick. When starvation no longer resulted in the deaths of these ‘undesirable’ people, the Khmer Rouge resorted to a method that historians refer to as the ‘Killing Fields’. In general, the term ‘Killing Fields’ refers to sites across Cambodia in which people were taken to be tortured, interrogated and executed for their alleged crimes against the state. Most of the estimated one million victims, were buried in mass graves. The most famous of these sites was called Security Prison 21 (S-21), which was a former high school just outside of the Cambodian capital. The high school was transformed into a detention center in 1975 during the reign of the Khmer Rouge in which ‘enemies’ of the state were tortured and eventually executed. In all, it is estimated that as many as 1.5 million to 3 million people died in the killing fields and as a result of the events of the Cambodian Genocide which occurred between 1975 and 1979. To date, over 23,000 mass graves have been discovered in Cambodia containing the majority of the reported victims. The international community was slow to learn about the genocide and crimes against humanity occurring in the country due to the Khmer Rouge expelling foreigners and reporters. Regardless, news of the genocide leaked out and most foreign countries condemned the actions of the Khmer. However, the regime also enjoyed support from several communist nations including China who is said to have supplied them with money, military supplies and training for soldiers. The reign of the Khmer Rouge and the Cambodian Genocide ultimately ended in 1979 when Vietnamese forces invaded the country and toppled the rule of Pol Pot. The Cambodian dictator fled and lived out much of his remaining years on the Cambodian border with Thailand where he would often move between the two countries. While the Khmer Rouge remained a force in the region throughout the 1980s and 1990s, it lost its power and ability to rule especially with the ‘retirement’ of Pol Pot in 1985. In 2001, the Cambodian government established the Khmer Rouge Tribunals for the purpose of trying leaders of the Khmer Rouge during the Cambodian Genocide. It was a national court established by the Cambodian government but supported by the United Nations with some international lawyers and judges. The full name for the tribunals was ‘Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia’ or ECCC. In general, the perpetrators of the Cambodian Genocide were accused and made to stand trial for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. For example, one of the people tried at the tribunals was Kang Kek Iew. He was a former leader of the Khmer Rouge who was in charge of the prison camp system and oversaw the operation of the notorious S-21 camp. In July of 2010, he was found guilty of crimes against humanity and was ultimately sentenced to life in prison. A major issuing facing the tribunals carried out in the first part of the 21st century was the many of the former Khmer leaders were either dead or had fled the country to other parts of the world. For example, the Khmer Rouge leader responsible for the Cambodian Genocide, Pol Pot, evaded trial for his role. He lived out the remaining years of his life along the western border of Cambodia or in the country of Thailand. He died on April 15th, 1998 from heart failure. In an interview he gave late in his life, Pol Pot, claimed he had no regrets and denied his involvement in mass killings during the genocide. CITE THIS ARTICLE	1,670	ENGLISH	1
While the people of ancient Egypt mostly wore plain white linen clothing of simple design, this did not mean that they had no love of adornment. Two of the most notable items of jewelry worn in ancient Egypt were collars and pectorals, both types of heavily jeweled necklaces. Collars were created with beads made of glass, precious stones, gold, and a glazed pottery called faience. These beads were strung on multiple strings of varying length that were then bound to a ring around the neck to make a wide, semicircular collar that covered the shoulders and chest of the wearer with bright color. Collars were also sometimes made by attaching beads, stones, and precious metals to a semicircle of fabric. The pectoral was usually a large, flat breastplate made of gold or copper, often decorated with symbols and inlaid with precious stones or glass. Pectorals were hung over the chest by a chain around the neck. Both collars and pectorals were worn by men and women alike. Egyptians who could afford it wore brightly colored jewelry to show their rank and importance in society, as well as their love of beauty. Many items of jewelry served a spiritual purpose as well, by carrying images of the gods that protected the wearer. Collars often had symbols of the gods carved into their large metal clasps or into the beads of the collar itself. Pectorals were frequently adorned with symbolic pictures of gods and goddesses or were made in the shape of sacred symbols, such as winged scarab beetles or disks that represented the sun. Pectorals were considered amulets, or good luck charms, and were sometimes awarded to loyal servants of the ruling pharaoh in return for services performed. Elaborate jeweled collars and pectorals have frequently been found in the ruins of Egyptian tombs. FOR MORE INFORMATION Balkwill, Richard. Clothes and Crafts in Ancient Egypt. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens, 2000. Black, J. Anderson, and Madge Garland. Updated and revised by Frances Kennett. A History of Fashion. New York: William Morrow, 1980. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:8a51238b-4d15-404e-90f3-c4c1fa2dcca6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.martelnyc.com/body-decorations/collars-and-pectorals.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00406.warc.gz	en	0.98347	450	3.375	3	[ -0.08100146800279617, 0.6666393280029297, 0.3484162390232086, 0.2643320560455322, -0.621554970741272, -0.18948546051979065, 0.49621060490608215, -0.08465080708265305, -0.1041710153222084, -0.03444831818342209, 0.11152991652488708, -0.3918314278125763, -0.06136046350002289, 0.14037148654460...	2	While the people of ancient Egypt mostly wore plain white linen clothing of simple design, this did not mean that they had no love of adornment. Two of the most notable items of jewelry worn in ancient Egypt were collars and pectorals, both types of heavily jeweled necklaces. Collars were created with beads made of glass, precious stones, gold, and a glazed pottery called faience. These beads were strung on multiple strings of varying length that were then bound to a ring around the neck to make a wide, semicircular collar that covered the shoulders and chest of the wearer with bright color. Collars were also sometimes made by attaching beads, stones, and precious metals to a semicircle of fabric. The pectoral was usually a large, flat breastplate made of gold or copper, often decorated with symbols and inlaid with precious stones or glass. Pectorals were hung over the chest by a chain around the neck. Both collars and pectorals were worn by men and women alike. Egyptians who could afford it wore brightly colored jewelry to show their rank and importance in society, as well as their love of beauty. Many items of jewelry served a spiritual purpose as well, by carrying images of the gods that protected the wearer. Collars often had symbols of the gods carved into their large metal clasps or into the beads of the collar itself. Pectorals were frequently adorned with symbolic pictures of gods and goddesses or were made in the shape of sacred symbols, such as winged scarab beetles or disks that represented the sun. Pectorals were considered amulets, or good luck charms, and were sometimes awarded to loyal servants of the ruling pharaoh in return for services performed. Elaborate jeweled collars and pectorals have frequently been found in the ruins of Egyptian tombs. FOR MORE INFORMATION Balkwill, Richard. Clothes and Crafts in Ancient Egypt. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens, 2000. Black, J. Anderson, and Madge Garland. Updated and revised by Frances Kennett. A History of Fashion. New York: William Morrow, 1980. Was this article helpful?	448	ENGLISH	1
When you think about it for a moment, it shall not be surprising that the submarine has been invented by a Dutchman - after all the Dutch the masters of water. The first navigable submarine we know of was built in 1620 by the Dutch innovater Cornelis Drebbel, who was working for the English Royal Navy in that time. The submarine was made of wood covered with leather. Between 1620 and 1624, Drebbel built two more models, of which the last one was the largest with a capacity of 16 men and 6 oars on each side. The third model was demonstrated to King James I and thousands of London spectators. Drebbels boat travelled beneath the Thames for three subsequent hours and swam from Westminster to Greenwich and back at 4-5 meters depth. Drebbel even took the King on a test dive - making James the first monarch to travel underwater! Ever walked through a Dutch city and noticed that the tall 17th century canal houses are tilting forward? This isn’t because of lacking foundation (which is the reason that the tower in Pisa is leaning, for example). Neither were the architects unqualified. On the contrary: the tilt was designed on purpose! In a country that is surrounded by so much water as the Netherlands is, for canal houses the safest place to store goods was the attic. But Dutch houses from that time were built very tall and tight, and thus had narrow staircases. The stairs were therefore unusable for the transport of larger items. Another solution was soon found. You might have noticed metal hooks on the top of canal houses: a rope was tied to this hook, and so larger items could be pulled up to the upper floors. The slight forward tilt prevented heavy items from drifting and colliding with the facades.	<urn:uuid:41b6c894-a442-47e9-82a3-e6a0298f2cd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.veranijveld.com/history/category/netherlands/2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00328.warc.gz	en	0.981377	367	3.796875	4	[ 0.05542027950286865, 0.2786995470523834, 0.37653297185897827, -0.32624560594558716, -0.13087928295135498, -0.48331063985824585, -0.1881178766489029, 0.21096429228782654, -0.14323078095912933, -0.20110604166984558, -0.039673082530498505, -0.5533484816551208, -0.22480349242687225, 0.24991783...	3	When you think about it for a moment, it shall not be surprising that the submarine has been invented by a Dutchman - after all the Dutch the masters of water. The first navigable submarine we know of was built in 1620 by the Dutch innovater Cornelis Drebbel, who was working for the English Royal Navy in that time. The submarine was made of wood covered with leather. Between 1620 and 1624, Drebbel built two more models, of which the last one was the largest with a capacity of 16 men and 6 oars on each side. The third model was demonstrated to King James I and thousands of London spectators. Drebbels boat travelled beneath the Thames for three subsequent hours and swam from Westminster to Greenwich and back at 4-5 meters depth. Drebbel even took the King on a test dive - making James the first monarch to travel underwater! Ever walked through a Dutch city and noticed that the tall 17th century canal houses are tilting forward? This isn’t because of lacking foundation (which is the reason that the tower in Pisa is leaning, for example). Neither were the architects unqualified. On the contrary: the tilt was designed on purpose! In a country that is surrounded by so much water as the Netherlands is, for canal houses the safest place to store goods was the attic. But Dutch houses from that time were built very tall and tight, and thus had narrow staircases. The stairs were therefore unusable for the transport of larger items. Another solution was soon found. You might have noticed metal hooks on the top of canal houses: a rope was tied to this hook, and so larger items could be pulled up to the upper floors. The slight forward tilt prevented heavy items from drifting and colliding with the facades.	378	ENGLISH	1
Description of Ik The Ik is the spirit of the wind. It is also the second day of the Maya calendar. The Ik is a spirit that is responsible for infusing life into Earth. Its patron is the God of Wind. For the Maya, the wind played an important role. It was believed that wind could enter the human body and cause diseases. However, the wind was also important for rain, which is why it is seen as the symbol of the breath of life. Ik is part of the Maya calendar and it is the second day. General Maya description Mayan symbols have had a rich history across Central America. Spreading across a vast territory that stretched from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras, Mayan symbols and glyphs have been found in a vast array of locations. These symbols are crucial to understanding their religion, everyday life, and even their economic and social structure. The earliest known Mayan symbols have been dated to 250 BC, although some think it could have originated even before that. Mayan hieroglyphics have been found carved on stone and bone, painted on pottery and other methods. Mayans were one of the only ancient civilizations that developed their own complex writing system. Alongside this, they also developed their own comprehensive calendar as well as a zodiac system. Unfortunately, though, many of these elements of the Mayan culture and empire have been destroyed over time, leading to confusion in understanding the true meanings of these symbols. After the Spanish conquering of the Maya empire in the 16th century, the Maya were forced to give up their language and religion. The Spanish forced the population into converting to Christianity and communicating in Spanish. After the Conquest, much of the glyphs disappeared, along with any way to interpret their meanings. Over time, researchers have decoded enough that there are now definitions for at least 90% of the existing glyphs.	<urn:uuid:177bf906-a934-4d48-9d27-b2088ba2991e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://symbolikon.com/downloads/ik-maya/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00335.warc.gz	en	0.980172	385	3.546875	4	[ -0.062062159180641174, 0.40505510568618774, 0.24448011815547943, 0.15109200775623322, -0.17071464657783508, -0.12508077919483185, 0.2946397066116333, -0.06431084126234055, -0.036382272839546204, 0.029651377350091934, 0.1147347092628479, -0.21434077620506287, -0.09587548673152924, -0.179612...	1	Description of Ik The Ik is the spirit of the wind. It is also the second day of the Maya calendar. The Ik is a spirit that is responsible for infusing life into Earth. Its patron is the God of Wind. For the Maya, the wind played an important role. It was believed that wind could enter the human body and cause diseases. However, the wind was also important for rain, which is why it is seen as the symbol of the breath of life. Ik is part of the Maya calendar and it is the second day. General Maya description Mayan symbols have had a rich history across Central America. Spreading across a vast territory that stretched from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras, Mayan symbols and glyphs have been found in a vast array of locations. These symbols are crucial to understanding their religion, everyday life, and even their economic and social structure. The earliest known Mayan symbols have been dated to 250 BC, although some think it could have originated even before that. Mayan hieroglyphics have been found carved on stone and bone, painted on pottery and other methods. Mayans were one of the only ancient civilizations that developed their own complex writing system. Alongside this, they also developed their own comprehensive calendar as well as a zodiac system. Unfortunately, though, many of these elements of the Mayan culture and empire have been destroyed over time, leading to confusion in understanding the true meanings of these symbols. After the Spanish conquering of the Maya empire in the 16th century, the Maya were forced to give up their language and religion. The Spanish forced the population into converting to Christianity and communicating in Spanish. After the Conquest, much of the glyphs disappeared, along with any way to interpret their meanings. Over time, researchers have decoded enough that there are now definitions for at least 90% of the existing glyphs.	385	ENGLISH	1
New Defender's Study Bible Notes 47:9 an hundred and thirty years. Jacob died at 147 (Genesis 47:28), whereas Isaac had lived to 180, Abraham to 175, and Terah to 205. Their distant ancestor Shem lived to age 600. Life-spans were still declining after the traumatic changes of the great Flood and would continue to do so until about the time of Moses. 47:9 days of their pilgrimage. Jacob considered his life on earth to be merely a “pilgrimage,” like that of his fathers. Though not much is said about it, they evidently recognized their eternal home would be with God. “These all died in faith, not having received the promises, but having seen them afar off, and were persuaded of them, and embraced them, and confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on the earth” (Hebrews 11:13). 47:10 Jacob blessed Pharaoh. It is significant that “Jacob blessed Pharaoh,” not the other way around. Even though Pharaoh was probably the greatest king on earth at the time, “without all contradiction the less is blessed of the better” (Hebrews 7:7), and in God’s sight, Jacob was the greatest man of his generation. 47:26 the fifth part. In effect, the people became Pharaoh’s “servants” merely in the sense that Joseph established a “flat tax” of twenty percent of their income that would go to the government. Otherwise, they still had full control over their individual property. The government provided seed for their use, and presumably all the standard government services. Furthermore, these governmental regulations as established by Joseph had literally “saved their lives” (Genesis 47:25). Their enforced savings during the seven years of prosperity had not only enabled them to survive the seven years of famine but also to help other nations as well. “Saving for a rainy day” has always been good policy, for individuals and for nations.	<urn:uuid:9c633ac0-c9f9-42b4-a4ab-4454c83e325d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.icr.org/home/submitsearch/?section=&f_context_any=any&f_keyword_any=genesis%2047&f_constraint=&f_search_type=bible&f_submit=Search	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00176.warc.gz	en	0.984901	423	3.265625	3	[ -0.41012105345726013, 0.4698530435562134, 0.05422050133347511, -0.2931268513202667, -0.023476801812648773, -0.04325462132692337, 0.1005154699087143, 0.0899387076497078, -0.06152293458580971, 0.06627607345581055, -0.23856133222579956, -0.02535080909729004, 0.05737727880477905, 0.00711129186...	3	New Defender's Study Bible Notes 47:9 an hundred and thirty years. Jacob died at 147 (Genesis 47:28), whereas Isaac had lived to 180, Abraham to 175, and Terah to 205. Their distant ancestor Shem lived to age 600. Life-spans were still declining after the traumatic changes of the great Flood and would continue to do so until about the time of Moses. 47:9 days of their pilgrimage. Jacob considered his life on earth to be merely a “pilgrimage,” like that of his fathers. Though not much is said about it, they evidently recognized their eternal home would be with God. “These all died in faith, not having received the promises, but having seen them afar off, and were persuaded of them, and embraced them, and confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on the earth” (Hebrews 11:13). 47:10 Jacob blessed Pharaoh. It is significant that “Jacob blessed Pharaoh,” not the other way around. Even though Pharaoh was probably the greatest king on earth at the time, “without all contradiction the less is blessed of the better” (Hebrews 7:7), and in God’s sight, Jacob was the greatest man of his generation. 47:26 the fifth part. In effect, the people became Pharaoh’s “servants” merely in the sense that Joseph established a “flat tax” of twenty percent of their income that would go to the government. Otherwise, they still had full control over their individual property. The government provided seed for their use, and presumably all the standard government services. Furthermore, these governmental regulations as established by Joseph had literally “saved their lives” (Genesis 47:25). Their enforced savings during the seven years of prosperity had not only enabled them to survive the seven years of famine but also to help other nations as well. “Saving for a rainy day” has always been good policy, for individuals and for nations.	429	ENGLISH	1
Most of the garments depicted in ancient Egyptian art are relatively straightforward to decipher, but there’s a particular wearable article that has baffled archaeologists. In statuary, murals, funerary stelae, coffins and relief sculptures dating between 3,570 and 2,000 years ago, people repeatedly appeared wearing cones on their heads, a bit like party hats. Now, for the first time, archaeologists have actually identified two such cones, crafted out of wax and adorning the heads of skeletons dating back some 3,300 years. The finds were excavated from the cemeteries of the city of Akhetaten, also known as Amarna. This discovery may finally help to resolve several theories about what the head cones mean, and what their function was back in the day. “The excavation of two cones from the Amarna cemeteries confirms that three-dimensional, wax-based head cones were sometimes worn by the dead in ancient Egypt, and that access to these objects was not restricted to the upper elite,” the researchers wrote in their paper. “The Amarna discovery supports the idea that head cones were also worn by the living, although it remains difficult to ascertain how often and why.” Akhetaten itself is a curiosity. The city was set up by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, who famously went religiously rogue, setting up his own cult to the sun-god Aten. He established Akhetaten as his capital city in around 1346 BCE, but his attempt to steer Egypt to a new religion was not popular, and Akhetaten was abandoned not long after the Pharaoh’s death in 1332 BCE. In art discovered in the city, as well as Egypt at large, the head cone makes a not-infrequent appearance. It’s often depicted on the heads of guests at a banquet, or tomb owners participating in funerary rituals or being rewarded by a king. The cones are also found in depictions of people fishing and hunting in the afterlife, and playing music. And the somewhat unusual headgear seems to have a particular association with childbirth, fertility and healing. The two skeletons found wearing the cones at Akhetaten belonged to a woman around 29 years of age, and an individual whose sex has not been determined, aged between 15 and 20 years. The woman, excavated in 2010, was in good condition, still intact as she had been laid to rest. She still retained her hair; tangled up in it was the cone, broken apart and burrowed through by insects, but recognisable. Interestingly, a pattern imprinted on the inside of the cone seemed consistent with fabric weave, as though the interior of the wax structure had been lined. The grave of the second individual, excavated in 2015, had been robbed, leaving the skeleton jumbled together at the foot of the grave. However, it too had retained hair; and in this hair, the researchers identified a second cone. Although these discoveries don’t reveal the purpose of the cones, they do narrow things down a bit. For instance, both burials were simple and uninscribed, from a cemetery interpreted as belonging primarily to labourers. This could mean that, either the head cones were not just for high-status members of society but for everyone; or, as also inferred from a recently discovered burial, that the workers copied what they saw the nobility doing. It also casts some light on hypotheses regarding the purpose of these cones. One idea suggests that the cones were symbolic – like the halos that appear around the heads of Western saints – and not actually a real object. Obviously, this discovery of two actual cones puts that one to bed. Another hypothesis considered the cones to be solid lumps of scented unguent, or filled with scented fat, which would melt and leak down out of the cone, scenting the wearer’s hair and body in a ritual purification practice. Careful analysis of the cones, however, found no traces of either fat or perfume, nor was there any melted stuff in the wearers’ hair. Rather, the cones seemed to have been a hollow shell, shaped around or reinforced by fabric. It is possible that they were “dummy” cones created just for burial purposes, and that hats worn by the living were constructed differently; but it also seems possible that the cones could have been a type of formal ritual hat. “There is no reason to assume .. that hollow – or perhaps textile-lined/-stuffed – cones of wax were not also worn in life. Even if scented, they may not have been intended to melt en masse and moisturise, serving more to mark the wearer as someone who was in a purified, protected or otherwise ‘special’ state,” the researchers write. “In the case of ancient Akhetaten, we can probably interpret head cones as part of a suite of personal accoutrements deemed appropriate for use in a range of celebrations and rituals for, and involving, the living, the dead, the Aten and other deities.” The paper has been published in Antiquity.	<urn:uuid:af3fc835-b532-45df-8cd4-0d2bbc13e196>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://scienceglobalnews.com/humans/it-turns-out-curious-head-cones-in-ancient-egyptian-art-were-actually-real-hats/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00252.warc.gz	en	0.982752	1,067	3.859375	4	[ -0.19200295209884644, 0.5173792839050293, 0.3902447819709778, 0.25240758061408997, -0.5784783363342285, 0.19697843492031097, 0.6275373101234436, -0.28201210498809814, -0.24920599162578583, 0.1368807554244995, 0.11948421597480774, -0.46110594272613525, -0.13226181268692017, 0.25170269608497...	2	Most of the garments depicted in ancient Egyptian art are relatively straightforward to decipher, but there’s a particular wearable article that has baffled archaeologists. In statuary, murals, funerary stelae, coffins and relief sculptures dating between 3,570 and 2,000 years ago, people repeatedly appeared wearing cones on their heads, a bit like party hats. Now, for the first time, archaeologists have actually identified two such cones, crafted out of wax and adorning the heads of skeletons dating back some 3,300 years. The finds were excavated from the cemeteries of the city of Akhetaten, also known as Amarna. This discovery may finally help to resolve several theories about what the head cones mean, and what their function was back in the day. “The excavation of two cones from the Amarna cemeteries confirms that three-dimensional, wax-based head cones were sometimes worn by the dead in ancient Egypt, and that access to these objects was not restricted to the upper elite,” the researchers wrote in their paper. “The Amarna discovery supports the idea that head cones were also worn by the living, although it remains difficult to ascertain how often and why.” Akhetaten itself is a curiosity. The city was set up by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, who famously went religiously rogue, setting up his own cult to the sun-god Aten. He established Akhetaten as his capital city in around 1346 BCE, but his attempt to steer Egypt to a new religion was not popular, and Akhetaten was abandoned not long after the Pharaoh’s death in 1332 BCE. In art discovered in the city, as well as Egypt at large, the head cone makes a not-infrequent appearance. It’s often depicted on the heads of guests at a banquet, or tomb owners participating in funerary rituals or being rewarded by a king. The cones are also found in depictions of people fishing and hunting in the afterlife, and playing music. And the somewhat unusual headgear seems to have a particular association with childbirth, fertility and healing. The two skeletons found wearing the cones at Akhetaten belonged to a woman around 29 years of age, and an individual whose sex has not been determined, aged between 15 and 20 years. The woman, excavated in 2010, was in good condition, still intact as she had been laid to rest. She still retained her hair; tangled up in it was the cone, broken apart and burrowed through by insects, but recognisable. Interestingly, a pattern imprinted on the inside of the cone seemed consistent with fabric weave, as though the interior of the wax structure had been lined. The grave of the second individual, excavated in 2015, had been robbed, leaving the skeleton jumbled together at the foot of the grave. However, it too had retained hair; and in this hair, the researchers identified a second cone. Although these discoveries don’t reveal the purpose of the cones, they do narrow things down a bit. For instance, both burials were simple and uninscribed, from a cemetery interpreted as belonging primarily to labourers. This could mean that, either the head cones were not just for high-status members of society but for everyone; or, as also inferred from a recently discovered burial, that the workers copied what they saw the nobility doing. It also casts some light on hypotheses regarding the purpose of these cones. One idea suggests that the cones were symbolic – like the halos that appear around the heads of Western saints – and not actually a real object. Obviously, this discovery of two actual cones puts that one to bed. Another hypothesis considered the cones to be solid lumps of scented unguent, or filled with scented fat, which would melt and leak down out of the cone, scenting the wearer’s hair and body in a ritual purification practice. Careful analysis of the cones, however, found no traces of either fat or perfume, nor was there any melted stuff in the wearers’ hair. Rather, the cones seemed to have been a hollow shell, shaped around or reinforced by fabric. It is possible that they were “dummy” cones created just for burial purposes, and that hats worn by the living were constructed differently; but it also seems possible that the cones could have been a type of formal ritual hat. “There is no reason to assume .. that hollow – or perhaps textile-lined/-stuffed – cones of wax were not also worn in life. Even if scented, they may not have been intended to melt en masse and moisturise, serving more to mark the wearer as someone who was in a purified, protected or otherwise ‘special’ state,” the researchers write. “In the case of ancient Akhetaten, we can probably interpret head cones as part of a suite of personal accoutrements deemed appropriate for use in a range of celebrations and rituals for, and involving, the living, the dead, the Aten and other deities.” The paper has been published in Antiquity.	1,050	ENGLISH	1
What does Pygmalion mean? Pygmalion is a Greek name. In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a sculpture who carved a statue of a beautiful woman out of ivory. The statue was so beautiful, that Pygmalion fell in love with it. The symbolism in the play has to do with Henry Higgins falling in love with his own creation. Liza Doolittle was an uneducated cockney whom nobody could really understand when she spoke. Higgins, a professor of linguistics, believed he could train her to talk and act like a lady and he then fell in love with his creation. The theme of the play has to do with social status, relations between men and women, the nature of beauty, the nature of reality. You can read about the play here on eNotes. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:7e7042b1-0926-48c1-8c7b-ef91d7ba1255>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-does-pygmalion-mean-195035?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00290.warc.gz	en	0.980591	174	3.359375	3	[ 0.12521351873874664, 0.03046565130352974, 0.6347036361694336, -0.6117716431617737, -0.5557700991630554, -0.3480103015899658, 0.889861524105072, 0.3033285140991211, -0.14754119515419006, 0.30839839577674866, 0.13905607163906097, -0.7396463751792908, -0.38824257254600525, 0.31504037976264954...	3	What does Pygmalion mean? Pygmalion is a Greek name. In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a sculpture who carved a statue of a beautiful woman out of ivory. The statue was so beautiful, that Pygmalion fell in love with it. The symbolism in the play has to do with Henry Higgins falling in love with his own creation. Liza Doolittle was an uneducated cockney whom nobody could really understand when she spoke. Higgins, a professor of linguistics, believed he could train her to talk and act like a lady and he then fell in love with his creation. The theme of the play has to do with social status, relations between men and women, the nature of beauty, the nature of reality. You can read about the play here on eNotes. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	171	ENGLISH	1
\|The Nauvoo Mormon Temple was the second temple constructed by the small but growing Mormon Church. In 1839, the Latter-day Saints were driven from their homes in Missouri by mobs. They sought refuge in Illinois and were given a charter to build a city on the banks of the Mississippi. The land was a swamp, and the people labored to drain the land and build a city. In 1841, the prophet and leader of the Church, Joseph Smith announced that a temple should again be built. He received revelation from the Lord that said “but I command you, all ye my saints, to build a house unto me…And ye shall build it on the place where you have contemplated building it, for that is the spot which I have chosen for you to build it.”1 Through revelation from God Joseph Smith helped establish a pattern where the members of the Church would build a temple wherever they went so that they could carry out the ordinances needed for eternal life.The task of building the temple was daunting; most of the members had lost everything when they were driven from their homes in Missouri. Some donated all of their life savings to the building of the Nauvoo temple; others donated their time to help build it. 1,200 men worked in the stone quarries to cut giant limestone blocks out the ground. The women were asked to donate their pennies to the temple fund as well as time sewing clothing and preparing meals for the men working on the temple. The Twelve Apostles recorded the effort made by the saints to build the temple, “many have volunteered to labor continually, and the brethren generally are giving one-tenth part of their time, or one-tenth part of their income, according to circumstances; while … sisters … are knitting socks and mittens, and preparing garments for the laborers, so that they may be made as comfortable as possible during the coming winter.”Mercy Fielding Thompson told how the sister began donating their pennies, “At one time after seeking earnestly to know from the Lord if there was anything that I could do for the building up of the Kingdom of God, a most pleasant sensation came over me with the following words. Try to get the Sisters to subscribe one cent per week for the purpose of buying glass and nails for the Temple.I went immediately to Brother Joseph. … He told me to go ahead and the Lord would bless me.” More than one million dollars was donated to the temple fund by the time the temple was completed.By 1844, Nauvoo rivaled Chicago as Illinois’ largest city. Neighbors felt threatened by the large numbers of Mormons and began to demand the Saints leave Nauvoo. Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were killed by a mob, and it was obvious that the Saints would not be allowed to stay in Nauvoo. The temple was not completed until May 1846, but by this time many of the Saints had left Nauvoo because of persecution. Individual rooms of the temple were dedicated as they were finished. This allowed nearly five thousand saints to receive sacred temple covenants before they were forced to leave. Only two years after its completion, the temple was almost completely destroyed by arsonists, and in 1850 a tornado toppled most of what remained of the temple. Over time stones were taken from the temple to be used on houses and other buildings.Don L. Searle an editor for the Ensign Church Magazine said, “As Latter-day Saint pioneers left Nauvoo in 1846, many looked back longingly at the temple they left behind. For some, the sight of the temple on the hill above the Mississippi River may have been their last mental picture of their beautiful city. If they could gaze on the same spot today, they would recognize the temple that stands there now. The new Nauvoo Illinois Temple has been made to look like the first one.” The Nauvoo Temple was rebuilt and today signifies the sacrifice that those early saints made to build a beautiful temple to God. 1 Section 124:31, 43. Doctrine and Covenants.	<urn:uuid:f8375b30-7d31-4f49-a2f4-36e238d6b036>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://prophetjosephsmith.org/index/life_joseph_smith/joseph_smith_timeline/1834-1844/joseph_smith_nauvoo_temple	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00320.warc.gz	en	0.987786	836	3.3125	3	[ -0.14500850439071655, 0.34189572930336, -0.15539076924324036, 0.02267635241150856, -0.24765132367610931, 0.19365811347961426, 0.0008271066471934319, 0.0972922146320343, -0.277174174785614, 0.046675585210323334, -0.00807863473892212, -0.14127713441848755, 0.4143223166465759, 0.0892965793609...	3	\|The Nauvoo Mormon Temple was the second temple constructed by the small but growing Mormon Church. In 1839, the Latter-day Saints were driven from their homes in Missouri by mobs. They sought refuge in Illinois and were given a charter to build a city on the banks of the Mississippi. The land was a swamp, and the people labored to drain the land and build a city. In 1841, the prophet and leader of the Church, Joseph Smith announced that a temple should again be built. He received revelation from the Lord that said “but I command you, all ye my saints, to build a house unto me…And ye shall build it on the place where you have contemplated building it, for that is the spot which I have chosen for you to build it.”1 Through revelation from God Joseph Smith helped establish a pattern where the members of the Church would build a temple wherever they went so that they could carry out the ordinances needed for eternal life.The task of building the temple was daunting; most of the members had lost everything when they were driven from their homes in Missouri. Some donated all of their life savings to the building of the Nauvoo temple; others donated their time to help build it. 1,200 men worked in the stone quarries to cut giant limestone blocks out the ground. The women were asked to donate their pennies to the temple fund as well as time sewing clothing and preparing meals for the men working on the temple. The Twelve Apostles recorded the effort made by the saints to build the temple, “many have volunteered to labor continually, and the brethren generally are giving one-tenth part of their time, or one-tenth part of their income, according to circumstances; while … sisters … are knitting socks and mittens, and preparing garments for the laborers, so that they may be made as comfortable as possible during the coming winter.”Mercy Fielding Thompson told how the sister began donating their pennies, “At one time after seeking earnestly to know from the Lord if there was anything that I could do for the building up of the Kingdom of God, a most pleasant sensation came over me with the following words. Try to get the Sisters to subscribe one cent per week for the purpose of buying glass and nails for the Temple.I went immediately to Brother Joseph. … He told me to go ahead and the Lord would bless me.” More than one million dollars was donated to the temple fund by the time the temple was completed.By 1844, Nauvoo rivaled Chicago as Illinois’ largest city. Neighbors felt threatened by the large numbers of Mormons and began to demand the Saints leave Nauvoo. Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were killed by a mob, and it was obvious that the Saints would not be allowed to stay in Nauvoo. The temple was not completed until May 1846, but by this time many of the Saints had left Nauvoo because of persecution. Individual rooms of the temple were dedicated as they were finished. This allowed nearly five thousand saints to receive sacred temple covenants before they were forced to leave. Only two years after its completion, the temple was almost completely destroyed by arsonists, and in 1850 a tornado toppled most of what remained of the temple. Over time stones were taken from the temple to be used on houses and other buildings.Don L. Searle an editor for the Ensign Church Magazine said, “As Latter-day Saint pioneers left Nauvoo in 1846, many looked back longingly at the temple they left behind. For some, the sight of the temple on the hill above the Mississippi River may have been their last mental picture of their beautiful city. If they could gaze on the same spot today, they would recognize the temple that stands there now. The new Nauvoo Illinois Temple has been made to look like the first one.” The Nauvoo Temple was rebuilt and today signifies the sacrifice that those early saints made to build a beautiful temple to God. 1 Section 124:31, 43. Doctrine and Covenants.	857	ENGLISH	1
Born October 17, 1725 Died December 26, 1797 Political leader, writer, publisher John Wilkes was a London radical who favored revolutionary changes in England's political structure. His newspaper articles irritated King George III see entry and British lawmakers (Parliament) so much that he was several times expelled from his seat in Parliament. The public was outraged over this treatment, and the important question was raised—whether Parliament could ignore the will of voters. Wilkes became known as a champion of the common people and a crusader for freedom of the press and the reform of Parliament. American colonists made a hero out of him because of his support for the American Revolution (1775–83). John Wilkes was the second son and one of five children born to Israel Wilkes, a London malt distiller (a maker of alcoholic beverages), and Sarah Heaton Wilkes. The distillery provided a good income, and Israel Wilkes was rich enough to afford his own coach, six horses, and a fine London home. He supported the official Church of England, but his wife was a dissenter, one who did not like the form of worship used by the official church and who opposed government-controlled religion. Israel Wilkes was a tolerant man who respected his wife's dissenting views. The couple frequently entertained educated people in their home. Israel Wilkes had planned that his son John would get only a basic education in reading and writing, but he changed his mind when he saw how bright the boy was. John was then sent to be educated in the classics by a Presbyterian minister (the classics are the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome). London had a large number of well-educated churchmen, and being tutored by one was a common first step before going on to a university. Wilkes's teacher emphasized the importance of expressing oneself freely, a lesson Wilkes took to heart. In 1744 Wilkes went to Leyden University in Holland, where he met Charles Townshend see entry and other rich young Englishmen. During his two years abroad, Wilkes did not study very hard, but he took advantage of every opportunity to travel throughout Europe. He returned home with the reputation of an educated man. In 1749 Wilkes was elected a member of the Royal Society, an exclusive group of rich, educated men who met to discuss scientific and other topics; members also wrote and published papers. Early marriage; unsavory habits In 1749, at his father's urging, Wilkes married Mary Mead, heiress of a wealthy grocer; she was ten years older than he was. In 1750, Mary Wilkes gave birth to a daughter, Mary (called Polly). The couple separated soon after the child's birth, and Wilkes kept custody of the child (it was common in those days for fathers to control their children). It was arranged that Wilkes would receive enough of his wife's property to allow him to live comfortably without working. In 1758, Mary Wilkes had to go to court to stop her husband from pestering her for more money. For several years after his separation from his wife, Wilkes associated with a rich crowd of lazy young men. He did little that was useful, instead indulging in frequent affairs with women, gambling, and playing mean tricks on both his friends and his enemies. Wilkes belonged to a secret organization called the Hell-Fire Club, whose members met occasionally in the ruins of an old church to perform Black Masses (they celebrated the devil in a mockery of the Roman Catholic mass). At one such mass, Wilkes terrified his companions by suddenly releasing a baboon disguised as the devil. Wilkes is described by biographers as extremely unattractive, with an odd squint that gave him an evil appearance. However, he could be charming and witty, and he had a talent for writing. By 1757, he seemed to have grown bored with his life. He embarked on a path that embraced both journalism and politics. However, he did not do it in a quiet way. Enters public life In 1757 Wilkes was elected to Parliament from the district of Aylesbury where, thanks to his wife, he had possession of a large estate. In Parliament, he was a strong supporter of the politician William Pitt see entry. He hoped that Pitt would use his influence to get him a position as ambassador to Constantinople (Turkey) or governor of Quebec (Canada). When neither position was forthcoming, Wilkes blamed Lord Bute (pronounced BOOT), another politician and the special favorite of King George III. He was so angry that he began to attack both Bute and King George in print. Wilkes's nasty articles greatly offended the king and his advisers, but the public was delighted. In 1762 Wilkes and a friend founded their own newspaper, The North Briton (a Briton is a native of Great Britain). Wilkes now had a whole newspaper in which to attack and poke fun at King George and Lord Bute; he didn't stop with them, but made targets of old friends, other politicians, and even children he knew. With the edition of the paper printed on April 23, 1763, Wilkes went too far. In an anonymous article, the king's advisers were attacked as "tools of despotism and corruption." (Despotism is rule by absolute power, not by law.) The article hinted that a peace treaty recently signed with France was dishonorable and dishonest, and the king knew it. As a result of Wilkes's article, the king became very angry. Tossed into Tower of London King George's secretary of state issued a warrant (a legal document) commanding that the authors, printers, and publishers of The North Briton, issue number 45, be arrested. As a result, nearly fifty people were arrested and jailed, including John Wilkes. Wilkes protested that the warrant was illegal, because it did not mention any names. He also claimed that he had special privileges against being arrested, because he was a Member of Parliament. In spite of his protests, Wilkes was imprisoned in the Tower of London and charged with seditious libel. This was a very serious charge; libel is any written, printed, or pictorial statement that damages a person by attacking his good name or exposing him to ridicule, and sedition is conduct or language intended to incite rebellion against the authority of the state. In prison, Wilkes was not allowed to speak to anyone. His house was thoroughly and messily searched, and even his personal papers were seized. At a court hearing, the judge ruled that as a Member of Parliament, Wilkes could not be arrested for libel and was let go. Wilkes was hailed as the hero of the common people of London. Some time later, Wilkes's success led to reforms that protected other people from similar treatment by the government. Wilkes went back to attacking the king and his advisers in print. On November 16, 1763, Wilkes was shot in the stomach by a supporter of King George. The man had challenged Wilkes to a duel, a move that many people believed was a government plot to get rid of Wilkes. The following week, Parliament voted that a member could indeed be arrested for publishing seditious libel. Wilkes fled to Paris, France, rather than be arrested. While he was away, Parliament expelled him for having previously published an "obscene libel" entitled Essay on Woman, and Wilkes was declared an outlaw. Exiled; returns to fight for free press Wilkes had a fine time in Europe. After he recovered from his wound, he took a mistress and traveled through Italy. He began work on a book, History of England, which he never finished. His mistress deserted him and he returned to Paris, but he felt uncomfortable there. His lifestyle was costly, his daughter's education was expensive, his writing earned little money, and he was running out of funds. In early 1768, Wilkes returned to London, hoping to restore his good name and his government position. He wrote to ask for the king's pardon but was ignored. Londoners had not forgotten him, however, and in March 1768, a huge majority elected him a Member of Parliament for the district of Middlesex. Wilkes was still considered an outlaw; after his election he surrendered and was imprisoned. A mob tried to rescue him as he went from court to jail, but he escaped the mob and returned to jail. From his cell he wrote a passionate letter to his supporters, who continued to surround the jail. By May 10, 1768, a crowd of 15,000 had gathered outside the prison, shouting "Wilkes and Liberty," "No Liberty, No King," and "Damn the King! Damn the Government! Damn the Justices!" ("Justice" is another word for judge). British soldiers tried to break up the mob, and seven people were killed. Wilkes was sentenced to a jail term and a fine, and he was again expelled from Parliament. Elections for his Middlesex seat were held in February, March, and April 1769; each time Wilkes was re-elected, and each time, Parliament over-turned the elections. Wilkes declared war on the government, publishing letters attacking the government for its unfair and illegal treatment of him and blaming them for what he called the "massacre" outside the jail. In April 1770 Wilkes was released from prison. He was banned from Parliament, but he could still write articles for the newspapers. He continued to attack what he believed to be a corrupt government. (Benjamin Franklin see entry, who was living in London as a representative of the American colonies, agreed with Wilkes that Parliament was corrupt). When Parliament tried to prevent London newspapers from publishing reports of government debates, Wilkes challenged the decision. Faced with the opposition of Wilkes and a huge crowd outside their doors, Parliament gave up their attempt to suppress the news. Wilkes had struck a blow for freedom of the press. Darling of London mobs, American revolutionaries In 1771 Wilkes was elected sheriff of London and Middlesex. In a time when Great Britain operated under a harsh system of treating prisoners, Wilkes courted popularity by stopping the practice of holding a prisoner in chains during the prisoner's trial. He passed a measure that forbade soldiers to attend executions. Witnessing executions was a form of entertainment in those days, and soldiers were stationed to keep the crowds in order. Without crowd control, the common people loved him; however, people high up in Parliament dismissed him as the darling of the mobs. In 1774 Wilkes was elected Lord Mayor of London and a Member of Parliament from Middlesex. He was obviously a very popular man, and this time, no one opposed his taking his seat in Parliament. Wilkes was just in time to voice his opinion on the Intolerable Acts, the measures adopted by Parliament to punish the city of Boston, Massachusetts, for the Boston Tea Party. For more than ten years, anger had been building in the American colonies over taxes and other measures imposed on them by Parliament. The matter reached a head with the dumping of 342 chests of British tea in Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773. Relations between England and America went downhill from there, and the first shots of the American Revolution rang out at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775. Just nine days before, John Wilkes had presented to King George a protest over British treatment of the colonies. Throughout the American Revolution, Wilkes continued to speak out against his government's conduct, in the process becoming the man King George most disliked. At the same time, he pressed for "just and equal representation of the people of England in parliament." His protests came at a time when industrial cities in England were growing quickly but had fewer representatives in Parliament than older, smaller districts, whose representatives jealously guarded their power. It would be another fifty years before Wilkes's ideal of fair representation was realized. Wilkes's phrase "the rights of Englishmen" was adopted by American rebels as they pleaded their cause to King George and Parliament. To American patriots, Wilkes became a hero. Wilkes was involved in another ugly mob incident in 1780 called the Gordon riots. English Catholics had been persecuted for hundreds of years, and beginning in 1778, some of the punishing laws against them were lifted. In 1780, Catholic-hating mobs reacted angrily to these changes in the laws. Wilkes played a courageous role in the event, reminding the mob of the authority of the law. Wilkes kept his seat in Parliament until 1790. Wilkes was more interested in French and Italian literature and painting than in politics. He continued writing essays, translated some ancient poems from Latin, and wrote some of his own poetry, which he dedicated to his beloved daughter. Wilkes divided his time during the last seven years of his life among his three homes, one on the Isle of Wight and two in London. He died nearly penniless in one of his London homes on the day after Christmas, 1797. He was buried in a London chapel with only a wall tablet to mark the burial spot. It read: "The Remains of John Wilkes, a friend to liberty." He left behind his daughter Mary, who died unmarried in 1802. He also had a son and a daughter by someone other than his wife. Wilkes is summed up in The Dictionary of National Biography this way: "Wilkes had fine manners and an inexhaustible fund of wit and humour which made his society acceptable even to those who … thoroughly distrusted him. In his vices he was by no means [unusual]; and his tender affection for his daughter and the constancy of his friendship … are redeeming traits in his character." For More Information Boatner, Mark M., III. "Wilkes, John." Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1994, pp. 1203-05. Churchhill, Winston S. A History of the English-Speaking Peoples. Volume 3: The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1983, pp. 163-99. "Wilkes, John." [Online] Available http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRwilkes.htm (accessed on October 13, 1999). The John Wilkes Connection Some interesting people are connected in one way or another to John Wilkes. Another British politician who lived at the same time as Wilkes, a man named Isaac Barré, also became famous in America as a champion of freedom. It was Barré who coined the term "sons of liberty" to describe the American rebels; the name was taken up by a radical group formed by Samuel Adams see entry. Today, the town of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, pays homage to Wilkes and Barré. John Wilkes's older brother Israel had a son, Charles Wilkes, who discovered Antarctica in 1840 and later became a hero during the American Civil War (1861–65). A distant relative of John Wilkes, John Wilkes Booth, will always be remembered as the man who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln in 1865. WILKES, JOHN. (1725–1797). British politician. Wilkes was born in Clerkenwell, London, on 17 October 1725, the second son of a malt distiller. Educated at a Hertford school from 1734, in 1744 he entered the University of Leiden. Here he rebelled against his mother's Presbyterianism with endless bouts of womanizing and drinking. His arranged marriage in 1747 to Mary Mead, puritanical and ten years his senior, had no effect on his behavior. However, her dowry, the manor of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, secured Wilkes's status as a landed gentleman. He joined Sir Francis Dashwood's "Monks of Medmenham," a secret society that met at the ruins of Medmenham Abbey to engage in obscene parodies of Roman Catholic ritual. In 1754 he composed an obscene Essay on Woman, a satire on Alexander Pope's Essay on Man; fatefully, he had thirteen copies printed for private circulation. Meanwhile his life as a witty and generous man about town, combined with his first attempts to enter politics, proved enormously expensive. In 1758 he was permanently separated from his wife, to whom he paid £200 a year in return for possession of the manor. In 1757, with the support of his neighbors the Grenvilles—Richard Grenville, first Earl Temple, and his brother, George Grenville (who was the brother-in-law of William Pitt)—he was elected member of Parliament for Aylesbury. However, Wilkes was a poor and infrequent speaker and of little use to the ministry. Consequently his ambitious requests to be appointed to the Board of Trade, ambassador to Constantinople, and governor of Quebec fell on deaf ears. Under Temple's patronage, Wilkes spoke up for Pitt after the latter's resignation in October 1761 but made little impression. He had finally to accept that he was no orator and could not hope to make his way in the House of Commons. Wilkes, funded by Temple, now turned to journalism. The new Lord Bute ministry was negotiating peace on terms unacceptable to Pitt and his allies, and badly needed a pen to counter Bute's journal The Briton, edited by the Scottish novelist Tobias Smollett. After writing a few articles for existing journals, on 6 June 1762 Wilkes founded TheNorth Briton, the title being an ironic reference to the Scot Bute's supposed takeover of English politics. Wilkes reminded readers of the ancient FrancoScots alliance against England and falsely hinted that Bute owed his position to a liaison with the king's mother. The claim rightly angered George III, but it went down very well with the London crowds: a gibbet bearing a top boot and a petticoat became a familiar symbol in popular demonstrations. Although this gutter journalism soon alarmed Pitt and Temple, they were not inclined to stop it, and Wilkes cleverly avoided giving grounds for prosecution. Private victims were less restrained: in 1763 the artist William Hogarth published a savage caricature which has ever since perpetuated an image of Wilkes as surpassingly ugly. Bute, wearied and distressed by such attacks, resigned on 8 April 1763 to be succeeded by George Grenville, who had fallen out with Temple and Pitt in 1761. Grenville ended the parliamentary session with a king's speech praising the peace settlement, and on 23 April Wilkes struck. Number 45 of The North Briton attacked the treaties and suggested that the king had lied on his prime minister's instructions. This was enough to goad ministers into bringing a charge of seditious libel. The problem was that the articles in number 45 were anonymous, and, although everyone knew Wilkes had written them, there was no legal proof of authorship. Lord Halifax, secretary of state for the north, therefore issued a general warrant for the arrest of the unnamed authors, printers, and publishers. Most of those arrested were quickly released, but crucially they provided firm evidence that Wilkes had wielded the offending pen. Halifax could then have issued a warrant naming Wilkes. Instead, he took legal advice as to whether Wilkes could be arrested on the existing general warrant. The reply was that Wilkes's parliamentary privilege protected him from arrest except on charges of treason, felony, or actual breach of the king's peace; number 45 tended to a breach of the peace and for that the general warrant would suffice. Reassured, on 30 April Halifax and his colleagues had Wilkes arrested and his papers seized. This was a disaster. Although there were plenty of precedents for ministers using general warrants, their legality was uncertain and had already been questioned. Moreover, the view that Wilkes was guilty of a breach of the peace was open to question. Temple at once obtained a writ of habeas corpus, and on 6 May Chief Justice Sir Charles Pratt, a supporter of Pitt, heard the case in the Court of Common Pleas. In his defense Wilkes claimed that he was acting for those who had no political voice-and at least some spectators thought he meant it. When he was freed on grounds of parliamentary privilege the crowd in Westminster Hall, thinking he had been acquitted, raised the cry "Wilkes and liberty!" Wilkes and his friends now counterattacked, bringing a series of prosecutions for wrongful arrest and seizure against the ministers, their undersecretaries, and king's messengers who had executed the warrant. Their cause was assisted by the now widespread concern about the principle of general warrants, even among those who despised Wilkes as a man. On 3 December Pratt ruled that general warrants could not be used to authorize searches of unspecified buildings and awarded Wilkes £4,000 in damages against the government. In January 1764 the Commons expelled Wilkes without a vote; but on 17 February the government survived a motion condemning general warrants only by begging to await the courts' decisions. On 18 June 1764 and 8 November 1765, Lord Chief Justice Mansfield ruled that general warrants could not be used against persons. Finally, Pratt (now Lord Camden) found that, except in cases of treason, secretaries of state could not issue warrants for even named persons. In this way Wilkes's scurrilous opportunism produced landmark protection for the liberty of the subject, the freedom of the press, and private property. Wilkes, however, was not there to see the fullness of his triumph: by then he was an exiled outlaw in France. Shortly after the case against Wilkes collapsed, the ministry's agents had obtained one of the printed copies of Essay on Woman, which (the print claimed) had been edited by a bishop. Ribald mirth greeted the earl of Sandwich, secretary of state for the northern department, when he read it to the Lords on 15 November 1763. Nevertheless, the peers promptly declared it blasphemous. On the same day the Commons resolved that number 45 was a seditious libel and that seditious libels were not protected by parliamentary privilege. During this debate Samuel Atkins, the secretary to the treasury, called Wilkes a coward, and in the ensuing pistol duel Wilkes was severely wounded in the stomach. He still had the crowd on his side: when, on 3 December, number 45 was to be ceremonially burned in Cheapside, the crowd attacked the sheriffs, rescued the papers, and burned a top boot in its place. However, it could do him little good. Too ill to attend Parliament or court, and unwilling to face the inevitable prosecutions, Wilkes decamped to France on 25 December 1763. When he repeatedly failed to appear in King's Bench, he was outlawed in November 1764. He remained abroad for four years, writing, traveling in France and Italy, getting robbed by a teenage mistress and by his English agent, and failing to live within his precarious means. In the end his French debts forced him to flee to Leiden, where he enrolled in his old university as a precaution against prosecution. He returned to Britain in 1768, hoping for a pardon and, lacking a patron, for popular election to a seat in Parliament. Promising to surrender when the court of King's Bench next met, he was triumphantly returned as member for Middlesex, where he had attracted hordes of skilled workers pressed by high prices and lack of work. In spite of almost nightly demonstrations in his favor, Wilkes took care not to use the crowd as a weapon. He surrendered to the court and—his outlawry being quashed on a technicality—accepted two years' imprisonment for seditious libel and blasphemy. Now a political martyr, Wilkes lived comfortably in prison and continued his political activity. On 3 February 1769 the Commons voted to expel him, but at the ensuing Middlesex election he was returned unopposed. Once again he was expelled, the House declaring him incapable of election: and once again he was re-elected without a contest. Yet again he was expelled. This time the ministry put up its own candidate, Colonel Luttrell, who, though defeated by a landslide vote, was nevertheless declared elected. This blatant attack on the principle of representation, even though aimed at an obnoxious individual, united the opposition leaders in January 1770. The prime minister, the duke of Grafton, was forced to resign. But Wilkes and the opposition had not triumphed: Lord North's new ministry declined to unseat Luttrell in favor of Wilkes. Wilkes now turned to building up a power base in the City of London, where he had been elected alderman in January 1769. In 1771 he orchestrated a successful City challenge to the ban on parliamentary reporting, advocated annual parliamentary elections, and was elected sheriff. In 1774 he became lord mayor, and Middlesex re-elected him to Parliament. In the House he advocated the parliamentary reform and full civil rights for Dissenters and Catholics. From the beginning of the colonial troubles, Wilkes was opposed to American independence. In 1765 he thought the Stamp Act riots little short of rebellion. However, public adulation in America, he was persuaded, sincerely or otherwise, to exploit the idea of a trans-Atlantic plot to subvert English liberties. By 1767 he was praising the resistance to the Townshend duties, and in 1768 he denounced the deployment of troops against civilians in Boston. From then until 1774 Wilkes had little use for American issues as his Middlesex election and City politics provided plentiful antigovernment ammunition. Although he organized petitions against the Coercive Acts and denounced parliamentary taxation of the colonies, he did not oppose parliamentary supremacy until October 1775. By 1777 he was arguing that the war was bloody and futile and recommended conciliation. On 10 December, after news of Saratoga, he moved for the repeal of the Declaratory Act only as a last-ditch means of persuading the rebels to forgo independence. Not until the failure of the 1778 Carlisle Peace Commission was Wilkes induced to speak for independence, and then only as an expedient to end an unwinnable war. Even this position was so unpopular that his radical power base in City politics wasted away. It was further weakened by his part in suppressing the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in 1780. By the end of the war the once terrible Wilkes had become respectable, and in1790 he abandoned his Middlesex seat without a contest. He died in London on 26 December 1797. Whatever popular legend might say, his espousal of American causes was at best lukewarm and always subservient to his domestic and personal agenda. However, at first for his own ends, later also from reasons of principle, Wilkes had campaigned for traditional liberties for over two decades. His career had seen the demise of general warrants, the establishment of the supremacy of electors over parliamentary privilege, and vindication of the right to report debates. Politics was no longer a closed world, and the way was paved for reform, which followed in the nineteenth century. Above all he had shown how an unsavory personality might be a powerful vehicle for lofty causes. SEE ALSO Bute, John Stuart, Third Earl of; Chatham, William Pitt, First Earl of; Gordon Riots; Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy; Grenville, George; Intolerable (or Coercive) Acts; Sandwich, John Montagu, fourth earl of; Stamp Act; Townshend Acts. Christie, I. R. Wars and Revolutions: Britain 1760–1815. London: Edward Arnold, 1982. Williamson, A. Wilkes. London: Allen and Unwin, 1974. revised by John Oliphant As a focus and spokesman of radical discontent, the English politician John Wilkes (1727-1797) made an important contribution to the movement for parlia mentary reform. John Wilkes was born on Oct. 17, 1727, at Clerkenwell. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1742 and studied for two years (1744-1746) at the University of Leiden. In 1747 he married the daughter of a Buckinghamshire squire, a connection which enabled him to become sheriff of the country in 1754-1755 and to enter Parliament as member for Aylesbury in 1757. On meeting Wilkes in 1762, Edward Gibbon wrote: "I scarcely ever met with a better companion; he has inexhaustible spirits, infinite wit and humour, and a great deal of knowledge; but a thorough profligate in principle as in practice…. He told us himself that in this time of public dissension he was resolved to make his fortune. Upon this noble principle he has connected himself closely with Lord Temple and Mr. Pitt [and] commenced public adversity to Lord Bute, whom he abuses weekly in the North Briton." Wilkes gained little from pursuit of his "principle." The resignation of his friends William Pitt the Elder and Lord Temple spoiled his chance of obtaining office; and a libel published in the North Briton resulted in his arrest on an illegal general warrant and imprisonment in the Tower. Released on a warrant of habeas corpus, he withdrew to France and in January 1764 was expelled from the Commons. His expulsion and the matter of general warrants were taken up by the opposition as political issues; but Wilkes himself they disowned. In 1768, impoverished and frustrated, Wilkes decided to return to England. Defeated as parliamentary candidate for London, he was head of the poll for Middlesex. His imprisonment, expulsion from the Commons, and finally the seating of his defeated rival constituted a small price to pay for the popularity which Wilkes now assumed. His debts were settled by public subscription, and a party under his leadership was formed in the City of London. He became the martyr of the London radicals and the idol of the London mob. Yet he showed no sympathy with their economic grievances and took resolute action against them during the Gordon riots. But he did adopt the radical demands of the urban middle class: shorter Parliaments, exclusion of place-men and pensioners from the Commons, parliamentary reform, and pro-Americanism. However, Edmund Burke, James Boswell, and Gibbon all noted the lack of seriousness in Wilkes's political conduct. In 1774 Wilkes finally secured admittance to the House as member for Middlesex and 5 years later was elected to the lucrative office of chamberlain of the City of London. He never formally discarded his radicalism, but his behavior during the last seven years of his parliamentary career reflected his new respectability. By the time of the 1790 election his popularity in Middlesex had sunk so low that he was forced to decline the poll. He thereupon retired from national politics. Wilkes died at Rouen, France, on Dec. 26, 1797. Modern biographies of Wilkes include R. W. Postgate, That Devil Wilkes (1929; rev. ed. 1956); O. A. Sherrard, A Life of John Wilkes (1930); and Charles Chenevix-Trench, Portrait of a Patriot: A Biography of John Wilkes (1962). Two important works set Wilkes in historical context: lan R. Christie, Wilkes, Wyvill and Reform: The Parliamentary Reform Movement in British Politics, 1760-1785 (1962), and George Rudé, Wilkes and Liberty: A Social Study of 1763 to 1774 (1962). Kronenberger, Louis, The extraordinary Mr. Wilkes: his life and time, Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1974. Thomas, Peter David Garner, John Wilkes, a friend of liberty, New York: Clarendon Press, 1996. Williamson, Audrey, Wilkes, a friend to liberty, New York: Reader's Digest Press: distributed by Dutton, 1974. □ John F. C. Harrison	<urn:uuid:fb796cf2-f352-458a-bb9a-aea3f43db1d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/british-and-irish-history-biographies/john-wilkes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00044.warc.gz	en	0.984852	6,632	3.828125	4	[ -0.17628662288188934, 0.47269368171691895, 0.5506712794303894, -0.0765652060508728, -0.33813202381134033, 0.012083478271961212, 0.13723361492156982, 0.02366700954735279, -0.7018834948539734, 0.30478814244270325, -0.29935839772224426, 0.382260799407959, 0.31114476919174194, 0.05849276483058...	4	Born October 17, 1725 Died December 26, 1797 Political leader, writer, publisher John Wilkes was a London radical who favored revolutionary changes in England's political structure. His newspaper articles irritated King George III see entry and British lawmakers (Parliament) so much that he was several times expelled from his seat in Parliament. The public was outraged over this treatment, and the important question was raised—whether Parliament could ignore the will of voters. Wilkes became known as a champion of the common people and a crusader for freedom of the press and the reform of Parliament. American colonists made a hero out of him because of his support for the American Revolution (1775–83). John Wilkes was the second son and one of five children born to Israel Wilkes, a London malt distiller (a maker of alcoholic beverages), and Sarah Heaton Wilkes. The distillery provided a good income, and Israel Wilkes was rich enough to afford his own coach, six horses, and a fine London home. He supported the official Church of England, but his wife was a dissenter, one who did not like the form of worship used by the official church and who opposed government-controlled religion. Israel Wilkes was a tolerant man who respected his wife's dissenting views. The couple frequently entertained educated people in their home. Israel Wilkes had planned that his son John would get only a basic education in reading and writing, but he changed his mind when he saw how bright the boy was. John was then sent to be educated in the classics by a Presbyterian minister (the classics are the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome). London had a large number of well-educated churchmen, and being tutored by one was a common first step before going on to a university. Wilkes's teacher emphasized the importance of expressing oneself freely, a lesson Wilkes took to heart. In 1744 Wilkes went to Leyden University in Holland, where he met Charles Townshend see entry and other rich young Englishmen. During his two years abroad, Wilkes did not study very hard, but he took advantage of every opportunity to travel throughout Europe. He returned home with the reputation of an educated man. In 1749 Wilkes was elected a member of the Royal Society, an exclusive group of rich, educated men who met to discuss scientific and other topics; members also wrote and published papers. Early marriage; unsavory habits In 1749, at his father's urging, Wilkes married Mary Mead, heiress of a wealthy grocer; she was ten years older than he was. In 1750, Mary Wilkes gave birth to a daughter, Mary (called Polly). The couple separated soon after the child's birth, and Wilkes kept custody of the child (it was common in those days for fathers to control their children). It was arranged that Wilkes would receive enough of his wife's property to allow him to live comfortably without working. In 1758, Mary Wilkes had to go to court to stop her husband from pestering her for more money. For several years after his separation from his wife, Wilkes associated with a rich crowd of lazy young men. He did little that was useful, instead indulging in frequent affairs with women, gambling, and playing mean tricks on both his friends and his enemies. Wilkes belonged to a secret organization called the Hell-Fire Club, whose members met occasionally in the ruins of an old church to perform Black Masses (they celebrated the devil in a mockery of the Roman Catholic mass). At one such mass, Wilkes terrified his companions by suddenly releasing a baboon disguised as the devil. Wilkes is described by biographers as extremely unattractive, with an odd squint that gave him an evil appearance. However, he could be charming and witty, and he had a talent for writing. By 1757, he seemed to have grown bored with his life. He embarked on a path that embraced both journalism and politics. However, he did not do it in a quiet way. Enters public life In 1757 Wilkes was elected to Parliament from the district of Aylesbury where, thanks to his wife, he had possession of a large estate. In Parliament, he was a strong supporter of the politician William Pitt see entry. He hoped that Pitt would use his influence to get him a position as ambassador to Constantinople (Turkey) or governor of Quebec (Canada). When neither position was forthcoming, Wilkes blamed Lord Bute (pronounced BOOT), another politician and the special favorite of King George III. He was so angry that he began to attack both Bute and King George in print. Wilkes's nasty articles greatly offended the king and his advisers, but the public was delighted. In 1762 Wilkes and a friend founded their own newspaper, The North Briton (a Briton is a native of Great Britain). Wilkes now had a whole newspaper in which to attack and poke fun at King George and Lord Bute; he didn't stop with them, but made targets of old friends, other politicians, and even children he knew. With the edition of the paper printed on April 23, 1763, Wilkes went too far. In an anonymous article, the king's advisers were attacked as "tools of despotism and corruption." (Despotism is rule by absolute power, not by law.) The article hinted that a peace treaty recently signed with France was dishonorable and dishonest, and the king knew it. As a result of Wilkes's article, the king became very angry. Tossed into Tower of London King George's secretary of state issued a warrant (a legal document) commanding that the authors, printers, and publishers of The North Briton, issue number 45, be arrested. As a result, nearly fifty people were arrested and jailed, including John Wilkes. Wilkes protested that the warrant was illegal, because it did not mention any names. He also claimed that he had special privileges against being arrested, because he was a Member of Parliament. In spite of his protests, Wilkes was imprisoned in the Tower of London and charged with seditious libel. This was a very serious charge; libel is any written, printed, or pictorial statement that damages a person by attacking his good name or exposing him to ridicule, and sedition is conduct or language intended to incite rebellion against the authority of the state. In prison, Wilkes was not allowed to speak to anyone. His house was thoroughly and messily searched, and even his personal papers were seized. At a court hearing, the judge ruled that as a Member of Parliament, Wilkes could not be arrested for libel and was let go. Wilkes was hailed as the hero of the common people of London. Some time later, Wilkes's success led to reforms that protected other people from similar treatment by the government. Wilkes went back to attacking the king and his advisers in print. On November 16, 1763, Wilkes was shot in the stomach by a supporter of King George. The man had challenged Wilkes to a duel, a move that many people believed was a government plot to get rid of Wilkes. The following week, Parliament voted that a member could indeed be arrested for publishing seditious libel. Wilkes fled to Paris, France, rather than be arrested. While he was away, Parliament expelled him for having previously published an "obscene libel" entitled Essay on Woman, and Wilkes was declared an outlaw. Exiled; returns to fight for free press Wilkes had a fine time in Europe. After he recovered from his wound, he took a mistress and traveled through Italy. He began work on a book, History of England, which he never finished. His mistress deserted him and he returned to Paris, but he felt uncomfortable there. His lifestyle was costly, his daughter's education was expensive, his writing earned little money, and he was running out of funds. In early 1768, Wilkes returned to London, hoping to restore his good name and his government position. He wrote to ask for the king's pardon but was ignored. Londoners had not forgotten him, however, and in March 1768, a huge majority elected him a Member of Parliament for the district of Middlesex. Wilkes was still considered an outlaw; after his election he surrendered and was imprisoned. A mob tried to rescue him as he went from court to jail, but he escaped the mob and returned to jail. From his cell he wrote a passionate letter to his supporters, who continued to surround the jail. By May 10, 1768, a crowd of 15,000 had gathered outside the prison, shouting "Wilkes and Liberty," "No Liberty, No King," and "Damn the King! Damn the Government! Damn the Justices!" ("Justice" is another word for judge). British soldiers tried to break up the mob, and seven people were killed. Wilkes was sentenced to a jail term and a fine, and he was again expelled from Parliament. Elections for his Middlesex seat were held in February, March, and April 1769; each time Wilkes was re-elected, and each time, Parliament over-turned the elections. Wilkes declared war on the government, publishing letters attacking the government for its unfair and illegal treatment of him and blaming them for what he called the "massacre" outside the jail. In April 1770 Wilkes was released from prison. He was banned from Parliament, but he could still write articles for the newspapers. He continued to attack what he believed to be a corrupt government. (Benjamin Franklin see entry, who was living in London as a representative of the American colonies, agreed with Wilkes that Parliament was corrupt). When Parliament tried to prevent London newspapers from publishing reports of government debates, Wilkes challenged the decision. Faced with the opposition of Wilkes and a huge crowd outside their doors, Parliament gave up their attempt to suppress the news. Wilkes had struck a blow for freedom of the press. Darling of London mobs, American revolutionaries In 1771 Wilkes was elected sheriff of London and Middlesex. In a time when Great Britain operated under a harsh system of treating prisoners, Wilkes courted popularity by stopping the practice of holding a prisoner in chains during the prisoner's trial. He passed a measure that forbade soldiers to attend executions. Witnessing executions was a form of entertainment in those days, and soldiers were stationed to keep the crowds in order. Without crowd control, the common people loved him; however, people high up in Parliament dismissed him as the darling of the mobs. In 1774 Wilkes was elected Lord Mayor of London and a Member of Parliament from Middlesex. He was obviously a very popular man, and this time, no one opposed his taking his seat in Parliament. Wilkes was just in time to voice his opinion on the Intolerable Acts, the measures adopted by Parliament to punish the city of Boston, Massachusetts, for the Boston Tea Party. For more than ten years, anger had been building in the American colonies over taxes and other measures imposed on them by Parliament. The matter reached a head with the dumping of 342 chests of British tea in Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773. Relations between England and America went downhill from there, and the first shots of the American Revolution rang out at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775. Just nine days before, John Wilkes had presented to King George a protest over British treatment of the colonies. Throughout the American Revolution, Wilkes continued to speak out against his government's conduct, in the process becoming the man King George most disliked. At the same time, he pressed for "just and equal representation of the people of England in parliament." His protests came at a time when industrial cities in England were growing quickly but had fewer representatives in Parliament than older, smaller districts, whose representatives jealously guarded their power. It would be another fifty years before Wilkes's ideal of fair representation was realized. Wilkes's phrase "the rights of Englishmen" was adopted by American rebels as they pleaded their cause to King George and Parliament. To American patriots, Wilkes became a hero. Wilkes was involved in another ugly mob incident in 1780 called the Gordon riots. English Catholics had been persecuted for hundreds of years, and beginning in 1778, some of the punishing laws against them were lifted. In 1780, Catholic-hating mobs reacted angrily to these changes in the laws. Wilkes played a courageous role in the event, reminding the mob of the authority of the law. Wilkes kept his seat in Parliament until 1790. Wilkes was more interested in French and Italian literature and painting than in politics. He continued writing essays, translated some ancient poems from Latin, and wrote some of his own poetry, which he dedicated to his beloved daughter. Wilkes divided his time during the last seven years of his life among his three homes, one on the Isle of Wight and two in London. He died nearly penniless in one of his London homes on the day after Christmas, 1797. He was buried in a London chapel with only a wall tablet to mark the burial spot. It read: "The Remains of John Wilkes, a friend to liberty." He left behind his daughter Mary, who died unmarried in 1802. He also had a son and a daughter by someone other than his wife. Wilkes is summed up in The Dictionary of National Biography this way: "Wilkes had fine manners and an inexhaustible fund of wit and humour which made his society acceptable even to those who … thoroughly distrusted him. In his vices he was by no means [unusual]; and his tender affection for his daughter and the constancy of his friendship … are redeeming traits in his character." For More Information Boatner, Mark M., III. "Wilkes, John." Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1994, pp. 1203-05. Churchhill, Winston S. A History of the English-Speaking Peoples. Volume 3: The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1983, pp. 163-99. "Wilkes, John." [Online] Available http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRwilkes.htm (accessed on October 13, 1999). The John Wilkes Connection Some interesting people are connected in one way or another to John Wilkes. Another British politician who lived at the same time as Wilkes, a man named Isaac Barré, also became famous in America as a champion of freedom. It was Barré who coined the term "sons of liberty" to describe the American rebels; the name was taken up by a radical group formed by Samuel Adams see entry. Today, the town of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, pays homage to Wilkes and Barré. John Wilkes's older brother Israel had a son, Charles Wilkes, who discovered Antarctica in 1840 and later became a hero during the American Civil War (1861–65). A distant relative of John Wilkes, John Wilkes Booth, will always be remembered as the man who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln in 1865. WILKES, JOHN. (1725–1797). British politician. Wilkes was born in Clerkenwell, London, on 17 October 1725, the second son of a malt distiller. Educated at a Hertford school from 1734, in 1744 he entered the University of Leiden. Here he rebelled against his mother's Presbyterianism with endless bouts of womanizing and drinking. His arranged marriage in 1747 to Mary Mead, puritanical and ten years his senior, had no effect on his behavior. However, her dowry, the manor of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, secured Wilkes's status as a landed gentleman. He joined Sir Francis Dashwood's "Monks of Medmenham," a secret society that met at the ruins of Medmenham Abbey to engage in obscene parodies of Roman Catholic ritual. In 1754 he composed an obscene Essay on Woman, a satire on Alexander Pope's Essay on Man; fatefully, he had thirteen copies printed for private circulation. Meanwhile his life as a witty and generous man about town, combined with his first attempts to enter politics, proved enormously expensive. In 1758 he was permanently separated from his wife, to whom he paid £200 a year in return for possession of the manor. In 1757, with the support of his neighbors the Grenvilles—Richard Grenville, first Earl Temple, and his brother, George Grenville (who was the brother-in-law of William Pitt)—he was elected member of Parliament for Aylesbury. However, Wilkes was a poor and infrequent speaker and of little use to the ministry. Consequently his ambitious requests to be appointed to the Board of Trade, ambassador to Constantinople, and governor of Quebec fell on deaf ears. Under Temple's patronage, Wilkes spoke up for Pitt after the latter's resignation in October 1761 but made little impression. He had finally to accept that he was no orator and could not hope to make his way in the House of Commons. Wilkes, funded by Temple, now turned to journalism. The new Lord Bute ministry was negotiating peace on terms unacceptable to Pitt and his allies, and badly needed a pen to counter Bute's journal The Briton, edited by the Scottish novelist Tobias Smollett. After writing a few articles for existing journals, on 6 June 1762 Wilkes founded TheNorth Briton, the title being an ironic reference to the Scot Bute's supposed takeover of English politics. Wilkes reminded readers of the ancient FrancoScots alliance against England and falsely hinted that Bute owed his position to a liaison with the king's mother. The claim rightly angered George III, but it went down very well with the London crowds: a gibbet bearing a top boot and a petticoat became a familiar symbol in popular demonstrations. Although this gutter journalism soon alarmed Pitt and Temple, they were not inclined to stop it, and Wilkes cleverly avoided giving grounds for prosecution. Private victims were less restrained: in 1763 the artist William Hogarth published a savage caricature which has ever since perpetuated an image of Wilkes as surpassingly ugly. Bute, wearied and distressed by such attacks, resigned on 8 April 1763 to be succeeded by George Grenville, who had fallen out with Temple and Pitt in 1761. Grenville ended the parliamentary session with a king's speech praising the peace settlement, and on 23 April Wilkes struck. Number 45 of The North Briton attacked the treaties and suggested that the king had lied on his prime minister's instructions. This was enough to goad ministers into bringing a charge of seditious libel. The problem was that the articles in number 45 were anonymous, and, although everyone knew Wilkes had written them, there was no legal proof of authorship. Lord Halifax, secretary of state for the north, therefore issued a general warrant for the arrest of the unnamed authors, printers, and publishers. Most of those arrested were quickly released, but crucially they provided firm evidence that Wilkes had wielded the offending pen. Halifax could then have issued a warrant naming Wilkes. Instead, he took legal advice as to whether Wilkes could be arrested on the existing general warrant. The reply was that Wilkes's parliamentary privilege protected him from arrest except on charges of treason, felony, or actual breach of the king's peace; number 45 tended to a breach of the peace and for that the general warrant would suffice. Reassured, on 30 April Halifax and his colleagues had Wilkes arrested and his papers seized. This was a disaster. Although there were plenty of precedents for ministers using general warrants, their legality was uncertain and had already been questioned. Moreover, the view that Wilkes was guilty of a breach of the peace was open to question. Temple at once obtained a writ of habeas corpus, and on 6 May Chief Justice Sir Charles Pratt, a supporter of Pitt, heard the case in the Court of Common Pleas. In his defense Wilkes claimed that he was acting for those who had no political voice-and at least some spectators thought he meant it. When he was freed on grounds of parliamentary privilege the crowd in Westminster Hall, thinking he had been acquitted, raised the cry "Wilkes and liberty!" Wilkes and his friends now counterattacked, bringing a series of prosecutions for wrongful arrest and seizure against the ministers, their undersecretaries, and king's messengers who had executed the warrant. Their cause was assisted by the now widespread concern about the principle of general warrants, even among those who despised Wilkes as a man. On 3 December Pratt ruled that general warrants could not be used to authorize searches of unspecified buildings and awarded Wilkes £4,000 in damages against the government. In January 1764 the Commons expelled Wilkes without a vote; but on 17 February the government survived a motion condemning general warrants only by begging to await the courts' decisions. On 18 June 1764 and 8 November 1765, Lord Chief Justice Mansfield ruled that general warrants could not be used against persons. Finally, Pratt (now Lord Camden) found that, except in cases of treason, secretaries of state could not issue warrants for even named persons. In this way Wilkes's scurrilous opportunism produced landmark protection for the liberty of the subject, the freedom of the press, and private property. Wilkes, however, was not there to see the fullness of his triumph: by then he was an exiled outlaw in France. Shortly after the case against Wilkes collapsed, the ministry's agents had obtained one of the printed copies of Essay on Woman, which (the print claimed) had been edited by a bishop. Ribald mirth greeted the earl of Sandwich, secretary of state for the northern department, when he read it to the Lords on 15 November 1763. Nevertheless, the peers promptly declared it blasphemous. On the same day the Commons resolved that number 45 was a seditious libel and that seditious libels were not protected by parliamentary privilege. During this debate Samuel Atkins, the secretary to the treasury, called Wilkes a coward, and in the ensuing pistol duel Wilkes was severely wounded in the stomach. He still had the crowd on his side: when, on 3 December, number 45 was to be ceremonially burned in Cheapside, the crowd attacked the sheriffs, rescued the papers, and burned a top boot in its place. However, it could do him little good. Too ill to attend Parliament or court, and unwilling to face the inevitable prosecutions, Wilkes decamped to France on 25 December 1763. When he repeatedly failed to appear in King's Bench, he was outlawed in November 1764. He remained abroad for four years, writing, traveling in France and Italy, getting robbed by a teenage mistress and by his English agent, and failing to live within his precarious means. In the end his French debts forced him to flee to Leiden, where he enrolled in his old university as a precaution against prosecution. He returned to Britain in 1768, hoping for a pardon and, lacking a patron, for popular election to a seat in Parliament. Promising to surrender when the court of King's Bench next met, he was triumphantly returned as member for Middlesex, where he had attracted hordes of skilled workers pressed by high prices and lack of work. In spite of almost nightly demonstrations in his favor, Wilkes took care not to use the crowd as a weapon. He surrendered to the court and—his outlawry being quashed on a technicality—accepted two years' imprisonment for seditious libel and blasphemy. Now a political martyr, Wilkes lived comfortably in prison and continued his political activity. On 3 February 1769 the Commons voted to expel him, but at the ensuing Middlesex election he was returned unopposed. Once again he was expelled, the House declaring him incapable of election: and once again he was re-elected without a contest. Yet again he was expelled. This time the ministry put up its own candidate, Colonel Luttrell, who, though defeated by a landslide vote, was nevertheless declared elected. This blatant attack on the principle of representation, even though aimed at an obnoxious individual, united the opposition leaders in January 1770. The prime minister, the duke of Grafton, was forced to resign. But Wilkes and the opposition had not triumphed: Lord North's new ministry declined to unseat Luttrell in favor of Wilkes. Wilkes now turned to building up a power base in the City of London, where he had been elected alderman in January 1769. In 1771 he orchestrated a successful City challenge to the ban on parliamentary reporting, advocated annual parliamentary elections, and was elected sheriff. In 1774 he became lord mayor, and Middlesex re-elected him to Parliament. In the House he advocated the parliamentary reform and full civil rights for Dissenters and Catholics. From the beginning of the colonial troubles, Wilkes was opposed to American independence. In 1765 he thought the Stamp Act riots little short of rebellion. However, public adulation in America, he was persuaded, sincerely or otherwise, to exploit the idea of a trans-Atlantic plot to subvert English liberties. By 1767 he was praising the resistance to the Townshend duties, and in 1768 he denounced the deployment of troops against civilians in Boston. From then until 1774 Wilkes had little use for American issues as his Middlesex election and City politics provided plentiful antigovernment ammunition. Although he organized petitions against the Coercive Acts and denounced parliamentary taxation of the colonies, he did not oppose parliamentary supremacy until October 1775. By 1777 he was arguing that the war was bloody and futile and recommended conciliation. On 10 December, after news of Saratoga, he moved for the repeal of the Declaratory Act only as a last-ditch means of persuading the rebels to forgo independence. Not until the failure of the 1778 Carlisle Peace Commission was Wilkes induced to speak for independence, and then only as an expedient to end an unwinnable war. Even this position was so unpopular that his radical power base in City politics wasted away. It was further weakened by his part in suppressing the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in 1780. By the end of the war the once terrible Wilkes had become respectable, and in1790 he abandoned his Middlesex seat without a contest. He died in London on 26 December 1797. Whatever popular legend might say, his espousal of American causes was at best lukewarm and always subservient to his domestic and personal agenda. However, at first for his own ends, later also from reasons of principle, Wilkes had campaigned for traditional liberties for over two decades. His career had seen the demise of general warrants, the establishment of the supremacy of electors over parliamentary privilege, and vindication of the right to report debates. Politics was no longer a closed world, and the way was paved for reform, which followed in the nineteenth century. Above all he had shown how an unsavory personality might be a powerful vehicle for lofty causes. SEE ALSO Bute, John Stuart, Third Earl of; Chatham, William Pitt, First Earl of; Gordon Riots; Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy; Grenville, George; Intolerable (or Coercive) Acts; Sandwich, John Montagu, fourth earl of; Stamp Act; Townshend Acts. Christie, I. R. Wars and Revolutions: Britain 1760–1815. London: Edward Arnold, 1982. Williamson, A. Wilkes. London: Allen and Unwin, 1974. revised by John Oliphant As a focus and spokesman of radical discontent, the English politician John Wilkes (1727-1797) made an important contribution to the movement for parlia mentary reform. John Wilkes was born on Oct. 17, 1727, at Clerkenwell. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1742 and studied for two years (1744-1746) at the University of Leiden. In 1747 he married the daughter of a Buckinghamshire squire, a connection which enabled him to become sheriff of the country in 1754-1755 and to enter Parliament as member for Aylesbury in 1757. On meeting Wilkes in 1762, Edward Gibbon wrote: "I scarcely ever met with a better companion; he has inexhaustible spirits, infinite wit and humour, and a great deal of knowledge; but a thorough profligate in principle as in practice…. He told us himself that in this time of public dissension he was resolved to make his fortune. Upon this noble principle he has connected himself closely with Lord Temple and Mr. Pitt [and] commenced public adversity to Lord Bute, whom he abuses weekly in the North Briton." Wilkes gained little from pursuit of his "principle." The resignation of his friends William Pitt the Elder and Lord Temple spoiled his chance of obtaining office; and a libel published in the North Briton resulted in his arrest on an illegal general warrant and imprisonment in the Tower. Released on a warrant of habeas corpus, he withdrew to France and in January 1764 was expelled from the Commons. His expulsion and the matter of general warrants were taken up by the opposition as political issues; but Wilkes himself they disowned. In 1768, impoverished and frustrated, Wilkes decided to return to England. Defeated as parliamentary candidate for London, he was head of the poll for Middlesex. His imprisonment, expulsion from the Commons, and finally the seating of his defeated rival constituted a small price to pay for the popularity which Wilkes now assumed. His debts were settled by public subscription, and a party under his leadership was formed in the City of London. He became the martyr of the London radicals and the idol of the London mob. Yet he showed no sympathy with their economic grievances and took resolute action against them during the Gordon riots. But he did adopt the radical demands of the urban middle class: shorter Parliaments, exclusion of place-men and pensioners from the Commons, parliamentary reform, and pro-Americanism. However, Edmund Burke, James Boswell, and Gibbon all noted the lack of seriousness in Wilkes's political conduct. In 1774 Wilkes finally secured admittance to the House as member for Middlesex and 5 years later was elected to the lucrative office of chamberlain of the City of London. He never formally discarded his radicalism, but his behavior during the last seven years of his parliamentary career reflected his new respectability. By the time of the 1790 election his popularity in Middlesex had sunk so low that he was forced to decline the poll. He thereupon retired from national politics. Wilkes died at Rouen, France, on Dec. 26, 1797. Modern biographies of Wilkes include R. W. Postgate, That Devil Wilkes (1929; rev. ed. 1956); O. A. Sherrard, A Life of John Wilkes (1930); and Charles Chenevix-Trench, Portrait of a Patriot: A Biography of John Wilkes (1962). Two important works set Wilkes in historical context: lan R. Christie, Wilkes, Wyvill and Reform: The Parliamentary Reform Movement in British Politics, 1760-1785 (1962), and George Rudé, Wilkes and Liberty: A Social Study of 1763 to 1774 (1962). Kronenberger, Louis, The extraordinary Mr. Wilkes: his life and time, Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1974. Thomas, Peter David Garner, John Wilkes, a friend of liberty, New York: Clarendon Press, 1996. Williamson, Audrey, Wilkes, a friend to liberty, New York: Reader's Digest Press: distributed by Dutton, 1974. □ John F. C. Harrison	6,963	ENGLISH	1
Maya Angelou is a well-recognized American author, primarily from the period of the Civil Rights Movement, where she participated as an activist. According to Richard, Angelou was born in 1928 and died in 2004 (84). Throughout she had a long career that included different works from poetry, screenplays for television programs and film, plays, directing acting, as well as public speaking. She is most recognized for her career in poetry, whereby her style of writing was directed to self-empowerment, and to encourage people to rise over all odds and take personal pride of one's identity. Angelou's style of writing shows her honesty, feelings, and emotions about most of the experiences that she went through in her life, as well as the life of the people around her (Richard 84). Angelou's work is well-known around the world because it is usually inspiring. Some of her works such as poems are even considered to be autobiographical kind of poems. The paper presents an analysis of Maya Angelou through researching her cultural context and how it helps readers to understand her work, influences among writers, her writing style applied to I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her theories about literature and writing, and critical reception of the writers work. Maya Angelou's was an African American, thus shared the totality of meanings, ideas, and beliefs with the black Americans. She also shared the values, norms, and customs of the black Americans. As an African American, Maya experienced racial discrimination in Arkansas. During her childhood, she suffered at the hands of a close family associate, an ordeal that left her traumatized. At the age of 7 Angelou was raped by her mother's boyfriend after her mother had taken her along during a visit. As a way of revenging the sexual offense, Angelou's uncles who in this case were the brothers to her mother killed the boyfriend (Lupton 24). Angelou was traumatized by the whole experience that she stopped talking and she spent five years as a virtual mute.	<urn:uuid:218c69c5-ceeb-4593-92c2-eb6dd75bf749>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/216330.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00501.warc.gz	en	0.987568	413	3.421875	3	[ -0.33808577060699463, 0.3922610580921173, 0.17924916744232178, 0.8739408850669861, -0.08561891317367554, 0.18501949310302734, 0.23797950148582458, -0.09322081506252289, -0.22232891619205475, -0.24136191606521606, -0.20660671591758728, 0.06155427545309067, -0.34059175848960876, -0.240890517...	5	Maya Angelou is a well-recognized American author, primarily from the period of the Civil Rights Movement, where she participated as an activist. According to Richard, Angelou was born in 1928 and died in 2004 (84). Throughout she had a long career that included different works from poetry, screenplays for television programs and film, plays, directing acting, as well as public speaking. She is most recognized for her career in poetry, whereby her style of writing was directed to self-empowerment, and to encourage people to rise over all odds and take personal pride of one's identity. Angelou's style of writing shows her honesty, feelings, and emotions about most of the experiences that she went through in her life, as well as the life of the people around her (Richard 84). Angelou's work is well-known around the world because it is usually inspiring. Some of her works such as poems are even considered to be autobiographical kind of poems. The paper presents an analysis of Maya Angelou through researching her cultural context and how it helps readers to understand her work, influences among writers, her writing style applied to I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her theories about literature and writing, and critical reception of the writers work. Maya Angelou's was an African American, thus shared the totality of meanings, ideas, and beliefs with the black Americans. She also shared the values, norms, and customs of the black Americans. As an African American, Maya experienced racial discrimination in Arkansas. During her childhood, she suffered at the hands of a close family associate, an ordeal that left her traumatized. At the age of 7 Angelou was raped by her mother's boyfriend after her mother had taken her along during a visit. As a way of revenging the sexual offense, Angelou's uncles who in this case were the brothers to her mother killed the boyfriend (Lupton 24). Angelou was traumatized by the whole experience that she stopped talking and she spent five years as a virtual mute.	427	ENGLISH	1
Miss Pitchford: September 2017 We have had a brilliant week in Base 1. In our literacy lessons we have read a little more of our story, Stuck. Floyd really does get in a pickle when not only his kite gets stuck in the tree, but also his favourite shoes. After discussing different emotions and feelings we thought about how Floyd would be feeling. Each of the children got to sit on a special chair where they became Floyd and could say exactly how frustrated and annoyed they were to have all these things stuck in the tree. The year 1 children worked on using 'and' effectively in a sentence to join words and ideas and they then practised this in their writing about a new character in our book, Mitch the cat. In maths the year 1 children have been working on giving 1 more and 1 less than a given number. They have made their own number tracks to use in maths lessons and some have started to explore the 100 square to help them find 1 more or less than some bigger numbers. We have also started to have a go at some problem solving questions and next week we will continue to work on strategies to answer these questions. The reception children have been working hard on their number recognition and have played lots of different games to help them remember the number names. They have also been working on counting out different numbers of objects. As Summer now seems to have well and truly left us, we have been learning all about autumn this week. On Tuesday we went out on an autumn walk around the school grounds and collected lots of lovely leaves and acorns and conkers that made us think of autumn. We brought all of our finds back into the classroom and used them to create some beautiful natural artwork. The children also created some lovely paintings showing how the leaves change colour in the autumn and start to fall to the ground. On Thursday it was World Peace Day and we took it as an opportunity to talk about what peace means and looks like. We read a story about some red rectangles and green lizards who were at war and as a class we tried to work out what they were fighting for. The children thought really carefully about the problem and came up with lots of ideas, they all decided in the end that they should stop fighting and try to live peacefully with each other. The children all listened carefully to each other and shared their own thoughts beautifully. I hope everyone is having a lovely weekend and getting lots of rest ready for another busy week next week! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en... A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %... What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look...	<urn:uuid:b060192e-4e20-43d7-a8bb-ba748746a1d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-1-news-info.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00348.warc.gz	en	0.982755	740	3.34375	3	[ -0.19891111552715302, -0.3975692093372345, 0.081316739320755, -0.21779443323612213, -0.40672340989112854, -0.05267287790775299, 0.0980367660522461, -0.2229297161102295, -0.07158610224723816, 0.0910167470574379, -0.1671101599931717, -0.17063981294631958, 0.14854209125041962, 0.4885225594043...	1	Miss Pitchford: September 2017 We have had a brilliant week in Base 1. In our literacy lessons we have read a little more of our story, Stuck. Floyd really does get in a pickle when not only his kite gets stuck in the tree, but also his favourite shoes. After discussing different emotions and feelings we thought about how Floyd would be feeling. Each of the children got to sit on a special chair where they became Floyd and could say exactly how frustrated and annoyed they were to have all these things stuck in the tree. The year 1 children worked on using 'and' effectively in a sentence to join words and ideas and they then practised this in their writing about a new character in our book, Mitch the cat. In maths the year 1 children have been working on giving 1 more and 1 less than a given number. They have made their own number tracks to use in maths lessons and some have started to explore the 100 square to help them find 1 more or less than some bigger numbers. We have also started to have a go at some problem solving questions and next week we will continue to work on strategies to answer these questions. The reception children have been working hard on their number recognition and have played lots of different games to help them remember the number names. They have also been working on counting out different numbers of objects. As Summer now seems to have well and truly left us, we have been learning all about autumn this week. On Tuesday we went out on an autumn walk around the school grounds and collected lots of lovely leaves and acorns and conkers that made us think of autumn. We brought all of our finds back into the classroom and used them to create some beautiful natural artwork. The children also created some lovely paintings showing how the leaves change colour in the autumn and start to fall to the ground. On Thursday it was World Peace Day and we took it as an opportunity to talk about what peace means and looks like. We read a story about some red rectangles and green lizards who were at war and as a class we tried to work out what they were fighting for. The children thought really carefully about the problem and came up with lots of ideas, they all decided in the end that they should stop fighting and try to live peacefully with each other. The children all listened carefully to each other and shared their own thoughts beautifully. I hope everyone is having a lovely weekend and getting lots of rest ready for another busy week next week! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en... A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %... What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look...	743	ENGLISH	1
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,341 pages of information and 220,748 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them. John Peake Knight (1828–1886) was a railway engineer and inventor, credited with inventing the first traffic light. John Peake Knight was born in Nottingham and attended Nottingham High School. He left school at 12 to work in the parcel room of Derby Railway Station. Peake Knight was promoted quickly and by the age of 20 was Traffic Manager for the London to Brighton Line. He did a great deal to improve the quality of railway travel, introducing the Pullman car and safe carriages with alarm pulls for ladies. He and his wife had five sons and the eldest founded J. P. Knight, tug boat operators. John Peake Knight is credited with inventing the original traffic light in 1868, a semaphore system based on railway signalling. In 1866, a year in which 1102 people were killed and 1334 injured on roads in London, he proposed a signalling system to regulate the horse-drawn traffic and reduce the number of road accidents. This was not the traffic light we know today, but was a revolving gas-powered lantern with a red and a green light at the end of a wooden arm. Knight's invention was similar to the railway signals of the time. The traffic light was originally placed near London's House of Commons, at the intersection of Great George Street and Bridge Street, London SW1. However, the lights exploded during use in 1869 because of a gas leak and were removed by 1870. A policeman nearby on points duty was badly injured. In 1910, Ernest Sirrine of Chicago improved the light by adding automatics. He also changed the red and green lights to words that read proceed and stop. In 1912 Lester Wire, a detective in Salt Lake City, Utah, opted to go back to red and green lights and is credited with inventing traffic lights as we know them today. However, this time, electric lights developed in the USA were used instead of the original gas-powered lanterns. In 1922, Garrett Morgan had witnessed a serious accident at an intersection in Chicago and invented a traffic control device and applied for a patent on it in 1922. His invention was a hand-cranked mechanical sign system using signs that could be switched relatively easily by a traffic control officer. His device was relatively simple, yet had key additional safety features that many others at the time did not have. In addition to having "stop" and "go" indicators, it had an "all stop" signal that could be used to clear the intersection to allow pedestrians to cross or to stop cross-traffic before signaling a different direction to proceed. It also had a "half mast" warning position to indicate general caution at times when the device operator was not present. In addition to the signs, his device featured lights and warning bells powered by a battery or a connection to a main power source. Peake Knight died in 1886 and the Prince of Wales had a special wreath placed on his coffin during the funeral. He is buried in Brompton Cemetery in London. A memorial plaque to Peake Knight's invention can be seen at 12 Bridge Street, Westminster, the corner building close to where the original traffic lights were erected. Minister for Roads and Road Safety Baroness Hayman unveiled the plaque on 4 March 1998 1887 Obituary JOHN PEAKE KNIGHT was born in Nottingham on the 13th of January, 1828, and was educated at the local Grammar School, the Rev. W. Butler being then head master. He left school in 1841, and commenced his business life in the Parcel- and Telegraph-Offices of the Midland Railway at Derby Station, where his elder brothers, William and Sam, were likewise then employed. He was also for a short time engaged with Mr. Peter Clarke on the York and North Midland line at York Station, acting in the capacity of private secretary to that gentleman. When Mr. Peter Clarke was appointed General Manager of the Brighton Railway, he sent for his former assistant, in whose welfare he had always taken a friendly interest. In this way Mr. J. P. Knight first became connected with the Brighton Company, taking up his duties in the Audit Offices, which were then at Brighton, in the year 1846. In 1853 he left the Brighton Company, and was engaged by its neighbour the South Eastern, whose London terminus was then at Bricklayers Arms. He was shortly afterwards appointed Superintendent of that line, and held the post until 1869. In the latter year [George Hawkins\|Mr. George Hawkins]], the Brighton Company’s Traffic-Manager, retired, and Mr. Knight was appointed his successor. He had not long been Traffic Manager before the Directors, being so well satisfied with him, made him their General Manager, which position he retained until the day of his death. Enjoying the thorough confidence of his Directors, and having full scope for carrying out his enterprising and far-seeing plans for the development and improvement of the line, Mr. Knight succeeded in making the Brighton railway one of the most popular in the kingdom, with a deserved reputation for careful working and immunity from accident. He was more especially known by the general public for his skill and smartness in organising provision for the pressure of traffic on the occasion of popular holidays such as those made by statute and occurring four times a year ; gatherings at the Crystal Palace ; Volunteer Reviews ; and above all, the Derby Day. In respect of the latter it was his custom some days in advance of the great race-meeting to make a special survey of the line and rolling-stock, minutely inspecting the track, and making sure that everything was well prepared for the great strain shortly to be put upon it. For the material improvement of the line under his charge, Mr. Knight worked unceasingly. He was instrumental in the adoption of the interlocking of signals, and the block system. In the years 1877 and 1878, he went very fully into the necessity for providing passenger-trains with an efficient continuous brake, and made extensive and exhaustive inquiries with respect to the merits of the various kinds then in use, which led to the adoption by the Brighton Company of the Westinghouse automatic brake, with which the whole of its trains are now fully equipped. He in 1877 introduced Pullman Cars, which have been very popular with the travelling public on the line, so much so that the number of cars has from time to time been increased. It may also be mentioned that in December, 1881, a novel feature was introduced on the Brighton line, namely, a train composed entirely of “Pullmans,” consisting of parlour drawing-room- restaurant- and smoking-cars, all communicating with each other, enabling passengers to pass through the entire length of the train. This train still runs between London and Brighton, two or three ordinary first class carriages having recently been attached to it. Through the instrumentality of Mr. Knight the system of lighting carriages by electric accumulators was first introduced in England in the Pullman-car train referred to, and it has been in operation and working satisfactorily in that train ever since. He also initiated, about 1884, the system. of lighting carriages by electricity generated from the axles of the brake-van, described by his colleague, Mr. Stroudley, M.Inst.C.E. This system is now at work in several trains. After the Paris International Exhibition of 1878, Mr. Knight received the distinction and decoration of the Legion of Honour from the French Government. He also received many other distinctive marks of honour from Royal and distinguished personages. The Crown Prince of Germany forwarded, through Count Munster, in the year 1881, a bronze bust of himself for Mr. Knight’s acceptance, in acknowledgment of the many kind attentions shown by him to their Royal and Imperial Highnesses the Crown Prince and Princess during their stay in England in the summer of that year. Mr. Knight had conferred upon him by the Emperor and Empress of Austria the Order of the Iron Cross. He had the special privilege of making all the arrangements in connection with the reception of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, on his return from India in the year 1876, for which Mr. Knight received one of the copies of the few commemoration medals His Royal Highness had struck to mark the event. Mr. Knight also received, in the year 1876, at the hands of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales two fine portraits of their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales, accompanied by a letter from Lieut.-Colonel Arthur Ellis, expressing the Prince’s appreciation of his constant readiness to secure punctuality whenever the Prince has had occasion to travel on the railway under Mr. Knight’s charge. Queen Marie Amhlie likewise presented to him, when he was in the service of the South Eastern Railway Company, a valuable ring, and also a handsome bracelet for Mrs. Knight. Mr. Knight was elected an Associate of the Institution on the 7th of May, 1872, and was also a Lieutenant-Colonel in the “ Engineer and Railway Volunteer Staff Corps.” Mr. Knight for many years enjoyed uninterrupted good health, but on the 18th of March, 1886, he was seized with a fit of apoplexy, though by the skilful and unremitting exertions of his physicians, he made tolerable progress towards convalescence. It was manifest, however, to the Directors that when Mr. Knight returned to his duties on the 22nd of May following he had not by any means recovered his usual health. He was present at the Brighton Company’s half-yearly meeting, on the 21st of July, 1886, when the chairman congratulated the shareholders upon the improvement in Mr. Knight’s health, and upon his being present on that occasion. On the following day Mr. Knight attended at his office, and was engaged with Mr. Humphriss, his chief assistant, in the transaction of his duties, until the afternoon. Immediately afterwards he left town on a short visit to some friends at Chigwell, and about 9 o’clock in the evening of the same day he had another apoplectic fit, falling at the dinner table, but remaining conscious for about two hours afterwards, and exchanging conversation with Mrs. Knight and the physicians in attendance on him. His illness terminated fatally on the morning of the following day, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. On the 28th of July he was interred at Brompton Cemetery, in the presence of the Directors and of a great concourse of his associates of the Brighton railway, as well as of representatives from all the leading railway companies in the kingdom, and of several foreign ones with which his own line had been connected.	<urn:uuid:d69cf94f-9ae4-4b5e-b79e-aca645a2c7ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gracesguide.co.uk/John_Peake_Knight	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00326.warc.gz	en	0.984605	2,273	3.296875	3	[ -0.3125966489315033, -0.08368681371212006, 0.5887088775634766, -0.24768051505088806, -0.33650362491607666, 0.08905898034572601, 0.28652626276016235, 0.10047794133424759, -0.1968470811843872, 0.2882618308067322, -0.07637351751327515, 0.03209444880485535, -0.26319772005081177, 0.097182840108...	1	Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,341 pages of information and 220,748 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them. John Peake Knight (1828–1886) was a railway engineer and inventor, credited with inventing the first traffic light. John Peake Knight was born in Nottingham and attended Nottingham High School. He left school at 12 to work in the parcel room of Derby Railway Station. Peake Knight was promoted quickly and by the age of 20 was Traffic Manager for the London to Brighton Line. He did a great deal to improve the quality of railway travel, introducing the Pullman car and safe carriages with alarm pulls for ladies. He and his wife had five sons and the eldest founded J. P. Knight, tug boat operators. John Peake Knight is credited with inventing the original traffic light in 1868, a semaphore system based on railway signalling. In 1866, a year in which 1102 people were killed and 1334 injured on roads in London, he proposed a signalling system to regulate the horse-drawn traffic and reduce the number of road accidents. This was not the traffic light we know today, but was a revolving gas-powered lantern with a red and a green light at the end of a wooden arm. Knight's invention was similar to the railway signals of the time. The traffic light was originally placed near London's House of Commons, at the intersection of Great George Street and Bridge Street, London SW1. However, the lights exploded during use in 1869 because of a gas leak and were removed by 1870. A policeman nearby on points duty was badly injured. In 1910, Ernest Sirrine of Chicago improved the light by adding automatics. He also changed the red and green lights to words that read proceed and stop. In 1912 Lester Wire, a detective in Salt Lake City, Utah, opted to go back to red and green lights and is credited with inventing traffic lights as we know them today. However, this time, electric lights developed in the USA were used instead of the original gas-powered lanterns. In 1922, Garrett Morgan had witnessed a serious accident at an intersection in Chicago and invented a traffic control device and applied for a patent on it in 1922. His invention was a hand-cranked mechanical sign system using signs that could be switched relatively easily by a traffic control officer. His device was relatively simple, yet had key additional safety features that many others at the time did not have. In addition to having "stop" and "go" indicators, it had an "all stop" signal that could be used to clear the intersection to allow pedestrians to cross or to stop cross-traffic before signaling a different direction to proceed. It also had a "half mast" warning position to indicate general caution at times when the device operator was not present. In addition to the signs, his device featured lights and warning bells powered by a battery or a connection to a main power source. Peake Knight died in 1886 and the Prince of Wales had a special wreath placed on his coffin during the funeral. He is buried in Brompton Cemetery in London. A memorial plaque to Peake Knight's invention can be seen at 12 Bridge Street, Westminster, the corner building close to where the original traffic lights were erected. Minister for Roads and Road Safety Baroness Hayman unveiled the plaque on 4 March 1998 1887 Obituary JOHN PEAKE KNIGHT was born in Nottingham on the 13th of January, 1828, and was educated at the local Grammar School, the Rev. W. Butler being then head master. He left school in 1841, and commenced his business life in the Parcel- and Telegraph-Offices of the Midland Railway at Derby Station, where his elder brothers, William and Sam, were likewise then employed. He was also for a short time engaged with Mr. Peter Clarke on the York and North Midland line at York Station, acting in the capacity of private secretary to that gentleman. When Mr. Peter Clarke was appointed General Manager of the Brighton Railway, he sent for his former assistant, in whose welfare he had always taken a friendly interest. In this way Mr. J. P. Knight first became connected with the Brighton Company, taking up his duties in the Audit Offices, which were then at Brighton, in the year 1846. In 1853 he left the Brighton Company, and was engaged by its neighbour the South Eastern, whose London terminus was then at Bricklayers Arms. He was shortly afterwards appointed Superintendent of that line, and held the post until 1869. In the latter year [George Hawkins\|Mr. George Hawkins]], the Brighton Company’s Traffic-Manager, retired, and Mr. Knight was appointed his successor. He had not long been Traffic Manager before the Directors, being so well satisfied with him, made him their General Manager, which position he retained until the day of his death. Enjoying the thorough confidence of his Directors, and having full scope for carrying out his enterprising and far-seeing plans for the development and improvement of the line, Mr. Knight succeeded in making the Brighton railway one of the most popular in the kingdom, with a deserved reputation for careful working and immunity from accident. He was more especially known by the general public for his skill and smartness in organising provision for the pressure of traffic on the occasion of popular holidays such as those made by statute and occurring four times a year ; gatherings at the Crystal Palace ; Volunteer Reviews ; and above all, the Derby Day. In respect of the latter it was his custom some days in advance of the great race-meeting to make a special survey of the line and rolling-stock, minutely inspecting the track, and making sure that everything was well prepared for the great strain shortly to be put upon it. For the material improvement of the line under his charge, Mr. Knight worked unceasingly. He was instrumental in the adoption of the interlocking of signals, and the block system. In the years 1877 and 1878, he went very fully into the necessity for providing passenger-trains with an efficient continuous brake, and made extensive and exhaustive inquiries with respect to the merits of the various kinds then in use, which led to the adoption by the Brighton Company of the Westinghouse automatic brake, with which the whole of its trains are now fully equipped. He in 1877 introduced Pullman Cars, which have been very popular with the travelling public on the line, so much so that the number of cars has from time to time been increased. It may also be mentioned that in December, 1881, a novel feature was introduced on the Brighton line, namely, a train composed entirely of “Pullmans,” consisting of parlour drawing-room- restaurant- and smoking-cars, all communicating with each other, enabling passengers to pass through the entire length of the train. This train still runs between London and Brighton, two or three ordinary first class carriages having recently been attached to it. Through the instrumentality of Mr. Knight the system of lighting carriages by electric accumulators was first introduced in England in the Pullman-car train referred to, and it has been in operation and working satisfactorily in that train ever since. He also initiated, about 1884, the system. of lighting carriages by electricity generated from the axles of the brake-van, described by his colleague, Mr. Stroudley, M.Inst.C.E. This system is now at work in several trains. After the Paris International Exhibition of 1878, Mr. Knight received the distinction and decoration of the Legion of Honour from the French Government. He also received many other distinctive marks of honour from Royal and distinguished personages. The Crown Prince of Germany forwarded, through Count Munster, in the year 1881, a bronze bust of himself for Mr. Knight’s acceptance, in acknowledgment of the many kind attentions shown by him to their Royal and Imperial Highnesses the Crown Prince and Princess during their stay in England in the summer of that year. Mr. Knight had conferred upon him by the Emperor and Empress of Austria the Order of the Iron Cross. He had the special privilege of making all the arrangements in connection with the reception of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, on his return from India in the year 1876, for which Mr. Knight received one of the copies of the few commemoration medals His Royal Highness had struck to mark the event. Mr. Knight also received, in the year 1876, at the hands of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales two fine portraits of their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales, accompanied by a letter from Lieut.-Colonel Arthur Ellis, expressing the Prince’s appreciation of his constant readiness to secure punctuality whenever the Prince has had occasion to travel on the railway under Mr. Knight’s charge. Queen Marie Amhlie likewise presented to him, when he was in the service of the South Eastern Railway Company, a valuable ring, and also a handsome bracelet for Mrs. Knight. Mr. Knight was elected an Associate of the Institution on the 7th of May, 1872, and was also a Lieutenant-Colonel in the “ Engineer and Railway Volunteer Staff Corps.” Mr. Knight for many years enjoyed uninterrupted good health, but on the 18th of March, 1886, he was seized with a fit of apoplexy, though by the skilful and unremitting exertions of his physicians, he made tolerable progress towards convalescence. It was manifest, however, to the Directors that when Mr. Knight returned to his duties on the 22nd of May following he had not by any means recovered his usual health. He was present at the Brighton Company’s half-yearly meeting, on the 21st of July, 1886, when the chairman congratulated the shareholders upon the improvement in Mr. Knight’s health, and upon his being present on that occasion. On the following day Mr. Knight attended at his office, and was engaged with Mr. Humphriss, his chief assistant, in the transaction of his duties, until the afternoon. Immediately afterwards he left town on a short visit to some friends at Chigwell, and about 9 o’clock in the evening of the same day he had another apoplectic fit, falling at the dinner table, but remaining conscious for about two hours afterwards, and exchanging conversation with Mrs. Knight and the physicians in attendance on him. His illness terminated fatally on the morning of the following day, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. On the 28th of July he was interred at Brompton Cemetery, in the presence of the Directors and of a great concourse of his associates of the Brighton railway, as well as of representatives from all the leading railway companies in the kingdom, and of several foreign ones with which his own line had been connected.	2,351	ENGLISH	1
The Ocean Terminals were built in the south end of the city, close to the mouth of the harbour, and were meant to be new, modern and larger port facilities for Halifax. It was quite the civil engineering feat. The project was for the construction of what we know today as Piers 20-28, the railway cut, and port facilities. Halifax for a while dominated as Canada’s East Coast port, but poor railway access made it too distant; and antiquated methods, unprofitable. In 1910, improvements were made to Pier 2 at the deep water terminus in the north end, however it was constrained by space available to it. Wharves, private residences and businesses had encroached, and there was no longer space for railway expansion. In 1912, the Dominion Government decided to proceed with the Ocean Terminals project. Though expected to be much larger, the initial project called for the construction of the passenger terminal, interconnected with the rail terminal, as well as Pier A, and the breakwater. The requirements were for 45′ depth. The construction contract was held by Foley Bros, Welsh, Stewart & Fauquier. James Macgregor was the Superintending Engineer, responsible for design and construction for the Canadian Government. Though Halifax is known for having a deep natural channel, the piers were located close to shore; in places, in as little as 10 feet of water, and so required substantial dredging. 250,000 cubic yards of material was removed to ensure the required 45′ depth was met. As well, stable foundations would be required for the piers. The area would be drilled, charges set, and then the rock excavated. Most of the rock was excavated by the Canadian government’s 12yd dipper dredge “Cynthia”, though deeper areas were done with a Marion Dragline scraper on a barge fitted with an orange peel bucket. This crane was intended to be used for block placement, but proved versatile. The pier was to be constructed from 3647 sixty-ton Concrete blocks would then be stacked to form the pier face, and then after placement filled with sand rocks and concrete. The area within would then be filled. The blocks were 31′ wide, 22’long and 4’tall. They were cast on site, and stored until they were required to be placed. Though this method was not new, it was to date the largest construction using this method. The blocks were cast on site and stored until needed. When they were required, a 100ton crane would pick up the block, take it to the end of the pier and lower it into place. the blocks were cast with keys to ensure they aligned properly when placed. The breakwater was constructed with rock removed from the railcut. Loads of rock would be pushed out on railcars to the end of the breakwater, then across a plate girder bridge, and onto a barge. They would then be dumped. The barge was kept level in the tides by adjusting ballast. As the pier extended, the barge would be moved further along until the required 1500′ was constructed. Once the piers were built, additional Facilities could be constructed. Pier A featured a sizeable freight shed, and the Terminal Shed at pier 21 was completed for handling passengers.	<urn:uuid:e3128a11-6f89-4b67-b6d4-34c7c3077914>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://halifaxbloggers.ca/builthalifax/2015/03/the-halifax-ocean-terminals/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00323.warc.gz	en	0.986806	686	3.515625	4	[ 0.1821785569190979, 0.3299593925476074, 0.5261780023574829, -0.39892876148223877, -0.10546302795410156, -0.0017800666391849518, -0.3673632740974426, 0.05769117921590805, -0.30938461422920227, 0.34904414415359497, 0.3194767236709595, -0.25251904129981995, 0.2229209691286087, -0.085510388016...	3	The Ocean Terminals were built in the south end of the city, close to the mouth of the harbour, and were meant to be new, modern and larger port facilities for Halifax. It was quite the civil engineering feat. The project was for the construction of what we know today as Piers 20-28, the railway cut, and port facilities. Halifax for a while dominated as Canada’s East Coast port, but poor railway access made it too distant; and antiquated methods, unprofitable. In 1910, improvements were made to Pier 2 at the deep water terminus in the north end, however it was constrained by space available to it. Wharves, private residences and businesses had encroached, and there was no longer space for railway expansion. In 1912, the Dominion Government decided to proceed with the Ocean Terminals project. Though expected to be much larger, the initial project called for the construction of the passenger terminal, interconnected with the rail terminal, as well as Pier A, and the breakwater. The requirements were for 45′ depth. The construction contract was held by Foley Bros, Welsh, Stewart & Fauquier. James Macgregor was the Superintending Engineer, responsible for design and construction for the Canadian Government. Though Halifax is known for having a deep natural channel, the piers were located close to shore; in places, in as little as 10 feet of water, and so required substantial dredging. 250,000 cubic yards of material was removed to ensure the required 45′ depth was met. As well, stable foundations would be required for the piers. The area would be drilled, charges set, and then the rock excavated. Most of the rock was excavated by the Canadian government’s 12yd dipper dredge “Cynthia”, though deeper areas were done with a Marion Dragline scraper on a barge fitted with an orange peel bucket. This crane was intended to be used for block placement, but proved versatile. The pier was to be constructed from 3647 sixty-ton Concrete blocks would then be stacked to form the pier face, and then after placement filled with sand rocks and concrete. The area within would then be filled. The blocks were 31′ wide, 22’long and 4’tall. They were cast on site, and stored until they were required to be placed. Though this method was not new, it was to date the largest construction using this method. The blocks were cast on site and stored until needed. When they were required, a 100ton crane would pick up the block, take it to the end of the pier and lower it into place. the blocks were cast with keys to ensure they aligned properly when placed. The breakwater was constructed with rock removed from the railcut. Loads of rock would be pushed out on railcars to the end of the breakwater, then across a plate girder bridge, and onto a barge. They would then be dumped. The barge was kept level in the tides by adjusting ballast. As the pier extended, the barge would be moved further along until the required 1500′ was constructed. Once the piers were built, additional Facilities could be constructed. Pier A featured a sizeable freight shed, and the Terminal Shed at pier 21 was completed for handling passengers.	708	ENGLISH	1
In the thirteenth century, the people in the Mesa Verde area went from living in scattered independent households to living in large pueblos. A. Because the thirteenth-century inhabitants of the Mesa Verde area did not have the cultural expectations of today's city dwellers, they easily adapted to communal life. B. Even though living in pueblos had disadvantages, the population of the area had grown so large that there may have been no other arrangement that would have met its needs. C. From the eleventh century onward, farmers began to increase food production on existing farmland and started bringing more land under cultivation. D. A development that contributed to increasing population densities was a cooling climate that led many people to leave the coldest areas and crowd into climatically more favorable areas. E. The primary reason for moving to pueblos was the social benefits associated with communal life. F. People were brought together by the need to produce food cooperatively, as the use of food surpluses in one place to relieve shortages in another ended due to a change in climate.	<urn:uuid:b6256805-c276-4f64-b8de-93d7942ce5e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.peakgmt.com/web/J98A4541LOE40T06N$.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00497.warc.gz	en	0.980003	221	4.0625	4	[ -0.0790870413184166, -0.10659807920455933, 0.28853973746299744, 0.40839990973472595, 0.3914834260940552, -0.32342293858528137, -0.4185642600059509, 0.16173599660396576, -0.22122026979923248, -0.008039484731853008, -0.002532422309741378, 0.05037793889641762, 0.23421432077884674, -0.04397289...	1	In the thirteenth century, the people in the Mesa Verde area went from living in scattered independent households to living in large pueblos. A. Because the thirteenth-century inhabitants of the Mesa Verde area did not have the cultural expectations of today's city dwellers, they easily adapted to communal life. B. Even though living in pueblos had disadvantages, the population of the area had grown so large that there may have been no other arrangement that would have met its needs. C. From the eleventh century onward, farmers began to increase food production on existing farmland and started bringing more land under cultivation. D. A development that contributed to increasing population densities was a cooling climate that led many people to leave the coldest areas and crowd into climatically more favorable areas. E. The primary reason for moving to pueblos was the social benefits associated with communal life. F. People were brought together by the need to produce food cooperatively, as the use of food surpluses in one place to relieve shortages in another ended due to a change in climate.	221	ENGLISH	1
Owain Glyndŵr – called Owen Glendower in Shakespeare – was the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales. He led a fierce revolt against the English rule of Wales under Henry IV in 1400, and despite being offered a pardon from the king more than once and large rewards being offered for his whereabouts, Glyndŵr never surrendered to the English, nor was never betrayed by his followers even when it became clear the Welsh Revolt was going to fail. With his death Glyndŵr acquired a mythical status as the hero awaiting the call to return and liberate his people. In his play Henry IV, Shakespeare similarly portrayed Glyndŵr as an exotic, magical and spiritual man. His life and legacy was examined once again in the 19th century, as the Welsh 'nation' began to find its voice once more. The discovery of his seal – which has inspired the design on this tea towel – and letters demonstrated his importance as a national leader, and he continues to be held in high regard, now a figure of Welsh culture and history.	<urn:uuid:ccb9607b-ebf4-48be-8f19-59d9fb73635a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.radicalteatowel.com/tea-towels/owain-glyndwr-tea-towel	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00371.warc.gz	en	0.99003	222	3.75	4	[ -0.6134994626045227, 0.15761378407478333, 0.42432695627212524, 0.007944293320178986, -0.16500742733478546, -0.2675163447856903, 0.5285094380378723, 0.2323783040046692, -0.7046492099761963, -0.19166429340839386, -0.16705191135406494, -0.31635698676109314, 0.06293188035488129, 0.421334683895...	7	Owain Glyndŵr – called Owen Glendower in Shakespeare – was the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales. He led a fierce revolt against the English rule of Wales under Henry IV in 1400, and despite being offered a pardon from the king more than once and large rewards being offered for his whereabouts, Glyndŵr never surrendered to the English, nor was never betrayed by his followers even when it became clear the Welsh Revolt was going to fail. With his death Glyndŵr acquired a mythical status as the hero awaiting the call to return and liberate his people. In his play Henry IV, Shakespeare similarly portrayed Glyndŵr as an exotic, magical and spiritual man. His life and legacy was examined once again in the 19th century, as the Welsh 'nation' began to find its voice once more. The discovery of his seal – which has inspired the design on this tea towel – and letters demonstrated his importance as a national leader, and he continues to be held in high regard, now a figure of Welsh culture and history.	225	ENGLISH	1
April 29, 1987. On this day, Cesar Chavez, founder of the United Farm Workers Union, spoke on the IUPUI campus in the Union Building. His topic was the exposure to toxic pesticides that farm workers who picked fruits and vegetables in the fields regularly experienced. As well as discussing the health of farm workers, he also asserted that farm workers had rights and called for food boycotts to pressure growers to protect workers' health and rights. Chavez came to IUPUI as a result of his collaboration with IUPUI Department of Anthropology professor Kenneth Barger, who in previous years had produced studies documenting the impacts on farm-workers' healths from exposure to pesticides sprayed on crops. Barger worked closely with Chavez over the years.	<urn:uuid:80d0c0e4-12fa-43bb-a70d-2a5772b8c859>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://dlib.ulib.iupui.edu/special/blog/day-iupui-history-april-29-1987	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00081.warc.gz	en	0.982038	152	3.515625	4	[ -0.6154195666313171, 0.17061038315296173, 0.2736583948135376, 0.3135887682437897, 0.3860751986503601, -0.2696762979030609, 0.43975865840911865, 0.27461013197898865, -0.38274943828582764, 0.10162501782178879, -0.2290928214788437, -0.49102792143821716, -0.04572768881917, 0.5588241815567017, ...	6	April 29, 1987. On this day, Cesar Chavez, founder of the United Farm Workers Union, spoke on the IUPUI campus in the Union Building. His topic was the exposure to toxic pesticides that farm workers who picked fruits and vegetables in the fields regularly experienced. As well as discussing the health of farm workers, he also asserted that farm workers had rights and called for food boycotts to pressure growers to protect workers' health and rights. Chavez came to IUPUI as a result of his collaboration with IUPUI Department of Anthropology professor Kenneth Barger, who in previous years had produced studies documenting the impacts on farm-workers' healths from exposure to pesticides sprayed on crops. Barger worked closely with Chavez over the years.	156	ENGLISH	1
WISCONSIN--Birthday wishes are in order for the great State of Wisconsin. On this day, May 29, in 1848 Wisconsin became the 30th state in the Union, according to the Wisconsin Historical Society. The quest for statehood finally succeeded after four previous failed attempts. "A strongly Democratic territorial legislature under Governor Henry Dodge pushed through a referendum that received overwhelming majority support in 1846," according to the WHS website. However, ratifying the State Constitution took nearly two years. A lot of the debate over drafting the constitution came from banking and paper vs metallic currency. Finally, in December of 1946, the first draft of the constitution was released. "The 1846 constitution allowed immigrants who applied for citizenship t vote, granted married women the right to own property, and (perhaps most significant, and despite strong objections from politicians) made the question of black suffrage subject to popular referendum," according to the WHS website. This progressive constitution was met with enough contention that it was defeated in April of 1847. Politicians gathered and drafted a new constitution that was much more moderate. "Using the results of the April vote to guide them, the delegates prepared a second document that omitted any mention of women's property rights or black suffrage. Suffrage was given to white native-born men, immigrant men who had declared their intention to become citizens, and [Native Americans] who had been declared U.S. citizens," according to the WHS website. The new constitution was voted on and approved in March of 1848, and Wisconsin officially became a state on May 29, 1848.	<urn:uuid:1188c133-e1e6-4683-a56c-58518a02bdbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tmj4.com/news/local-news/happy-170th-birthday-wisconsin-	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00074.warc.gz	en	0.982648	332	3.953125	4	[ -0.4823552668094635, -0.0500052310526371, 0.170169398188591, -0.10633847862482071, -0.6354479789733887, 0.10776587575674057, -0.23029978573322296, 0.03448161855340004, -0.314287930727005, 0.05839282274246216, 0.020170051604509354, 0.26245489716529846, -0.19500403106212616, 0.54327487945556...	5	WISCONSIN--Birthday wishes are in order for the great State of Wisconsin. On this day, May 29, in 1848 Wisconsin became the 30th state in the Union, according to the Wisconsin Historical Society. The quest for statehood finally succeeded after four previous failed attempts. "A strongly Democratic territorial legislature under Governor Henry Dodge pushed through a referendum that received overwhelming majority support in 1846," according to the WHS website. However, ratifying the State Constitution took nearly two years. A lot of the debate over drafting the constitution came from banking and paper vs metallic currency. Finally, in December of 1946, the first draft of the constitution was released. "The 1846 constitution allowed immigrants who applied for citizenship t vote, granted married women the right to own property, and (perhaps most significant, and despite strong objections from politicians) made the question of black suffrage subject to popular referendum," according to the WHS website. This progressive constitution was met with enough contention that it was defeated in April of 1847. Politicians gathered and drafted a new constitution that was much more moderate. "Using the results of the April vote to guide them, the delegates prepared a second document that omitted any mention of women's property rights or black suffrage. Suffrage was given to white native-born men, immigrant men who had declared their intention to become citizens, and [Native Americans] who had been declared U.S. citizens," according to the WHS website. The new constitution was voted on and approved in March of 1848, and Wisconsin officially became a state on May 29, 1848.	347	ENGLISH	1
The Massachusetts Colony was important because it let Pilgrims practice their religion freely. Massachusetts was the second colony to form. The first governor was John Carver and the second was William Bradford. Both came on the Mayflower to find the new colony. It was John Carver, William Bradford, and Miles Standish who left the Mayflower at Provincetown and scouted out the area for the new colony. The people settled in Massachusetts because they wanted their own land and wanted to practice their own Puritan religion. Massachusetts got its name from the Algonquin Indians who camped on a big hill which they called "Mesatuset." Someone translated this into the name Massachusetts. Massachusetts was a land of plenty. There were plenty of trees for making houses and boats. There were lots of coves where the Puritans could fish. The land was good for farming especially when the Puritans used the Indian crops like corn and squash. The land was somewhat rocky which meant that in some places it wasn't good for farming. They also made stone walls with the many rocks. The climate was moderate and this meant there were four seasons which meant that you had one season for growing and one season for harvesting. It was a very comfortable place for people to live most of the time. The colonists built their houses out of logs, sticks, and mud. They couldn't make big houses because their resources were limited and they had to share them with other people. The religion of the Massachusetts Colony was Puritan. The first people who came over were all Separatists. They were people who separated from the Church of England. All the Puritans did was work and go to church. Sometimes the younger children played marbles. They had to walk everywhere they went. They ate corn, berries, squash, cornbread, and meat like venison, wild turkey, and goose. From the bay, they ate fish that they caught and lobster and clams. Many famous things happened in Massachusetts. There was the settling of Plimoth Plantation, which was the beginning of this second colony called Massachusetts. The first Thanksgiving is when the Indians helped the Puritans grow and harvest their first crop. The Puritans were very thankful. The Salem Witch Trials happened in Salem, Massachusetts. Here they accused a lot of women of being witches. They would dunk a woman they suspected of being a witch under water. If she lived they would hang her. If she died, they would write a sincere apology. The Boston Tea Party is also a well known event. Radicals threw the King's tea into the water because they didn't want to pay his taxes on tea. They wanted him to know they were mad.	<urn:uuid:729a4c3d-35d0-45c9-a984-3ffeb6912dad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.germantownacademy.org/academics/LS/4/sstudies/Colonial/4R/4r98/heather.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00533.warc.gz	en	0.992942	548	3.59375	4	[ 0.22147312760353088, 0.21890710294246674, 0.20477737486362457, -0.5986867547035217, -0.20207300782203674, 0.10156898200511932, -0.049540989100933075, -0.038048893213272095, -0.1572062075138092, 0.33612024784088135, -0.2588173747062683, -0.3839302659034729, -0.16589446365833282, 0.145590871...	1	The Massachusetts Colony was important because it let Pilgrims practice their religion freely. Massachusetts was the second colony to form. The first governor was John Carver and the second was William Bradford. Both came on the Mayflower to find the new colony. It was John Carver, William Bradford, and Miles Standish who left the Mayflower at Provincetown and scouted out the area for the new colony. The people settled in Massachusetts because they wanted their own land and wanted to practice their own Puritan religion. Massachusetts got its name from the Algonquin Indians who camped on a big hill which they called "Mesatuset." Someone translated this into the name Massachusetts. Massachusetts was a land of plenty. There were plenty of trees for making houses and boats. There were lots of coves where the Puritans could fish. The land was good for farming especially when the Puritans used the Indian crops like corn and squash. The land was somewhat rocky which meant that in some places it wasn't good for farming. They also made stone walls with the many rocks. The climate was moderate and this meant there were four seasons which meant that you had one season for growing and one season for harvesting. It was a very comfortable place for people to live most of the time. The colonists built their houses out of logs, sticks, and mud. They couldn't make big houses because their resources were limited and they had to share them with other people. The religion of the Massachusetts Colony was Puritan. The first people who came over were all Separatists. They were people who separated from the Church of England. All the Puritans did was work and go to church. Sometimes the younger children played marbles. They had to walk everywhere they went. They ate corn, berries, squash, cornbread, and meat like venison, wild turkey, and goose. From the bay, they ate fish that they caught and lobster and clams. Many famous things happened in Massachusetts. There was the settling of Plimoth Plantation, which was the beginning of this second colony called Massachusetts. The first Thanksgiving is when the Indians helped the Puritans grow and harvest their first crop. The Puritans were very thankful. The Salem Witch Trials happened in Salem, Massachusetts. Here they accused a lot of women of being witches. They would dunk a woman they suspected of being a witch under water. If she lived they would hang her. If she died, they would write a sincere apology. The Boston Tea Party is also a well known event. Radicals threw the King's tea into the water because they didn't want to pay his taxes on tea. They wanted him to know they were mad.	550	ENGLISH	1
The philosopher of religion Martin Buber was born on February 8, 1878, in Vienna. Best known for his 1923 work I and Thou, he also, in collaboration with Franz Rosenzweig, created a new translation of the Hebrew Bible into German. Buber was so popular with German-Jewish youth that the term “Bubertät” (“Buberty”) was coined to describe the phenomenon. Buber was among the proponents of a bi-national state in Palestine and in 1925, together with Gershom Scholem, Robert Weltsch, Hugo Bergmann, Ernst Simon and others, he founded “Brit Shalom,” an organisation that promoted Arab-Jewish coexistence on the basis of justice and equality. On February 8, he celebrated his 50th birthday. One of the first official acts of the new Nazi rulers in 1933 had been the elimination of the independent press. Already in February, the freedom of the press was abolished, and from October, only such individuals who were deemed politically reliable and could prove their “Aryan” descent were admitted to journalistic professions. Ernst Feder (b. 1881), a jurist and erstwhile editor for domestic affairs at the “Berliner Tageblatt,” fulfilled neither of these requirements. In his Parisian exile, he resumed his activities as a journalist as one of the founders of the German-language Pariser Tageblatt (1933-36) and as a freelance writer. On the pages of his diary, he covers a plethora of topics, ranging from the personal to the philosophical and political. Among his friends and fellow exiles was the gynecologist and endocrinologist, Dr. Selmar Aschheim (b. 1878). As Feder notes in his diary on December 30th, the eminent physician and scientist was looking for an alternative source of income, should he be denied the possibility to practice in France. Especially older emigrants often had to overcome major obstacles in order to gain a foothold abroad. Language barriers and admission examinations, for which decades of professional experience were not seen as a substitute, additionally exacerbated the situation. Stella was not thrilled about the idea of living in Palestine. Like her friend, Annemarie Riess, with whom she shared her feelings on December 28th, she had fled to Italy. But as a Jew, she was no longer welcome there, either. According to the fascist regime’s new racial laws, non-native Jews were to leave the country within six months. 2,000 of the 10,000 foreign Jews who had settled down in Italy before 1919 were exempt from the provision. At least Stella had an immigration certificate for Palestine, issued by the Mandatory Government, and at a Tel Aviv clinic, an unpaid position that came with free room and board was waiting for her. Nevertheless, she continued to try to get permission to enter the US or England. Actually, even the offer on an unpaid position was more than many immigrant physicians could expect in Palestine. Since 1936, there was a surplus of physicians in the land, and a new wave of immigration after the annexation of Austria in February 1938 (“Anschluss”) had aggravated the situation even more. Not long after power was handed to the Nazis, the motto “Police – your friends and helpers,” which already during the Weimar Republic often reflected a hope rather than reality, lost any hint of meaning for opponents of the regime and for the country’s Jews. A law introduced as early as February 1933 stipulated that police officers who resorted to the use of firearms against people perceived as enemies of the regime were to go unpunished. As part of an unholy trinity, in tandem with the SA and SS, the police quickly became an instrument of Nazi terror. Therefore, obtaining a police clearance certificate was probably not the easiest of the requirements of would-be immigrants applying for US visas. On December 24th, 1938, this important document was issued to Ernst Aldor, a resident of Vienna. For many Jewish children in Germany, going to school had become an ordeal: the constant anti-Jewish indoctrination of German students was poisoning the atmosphere, teachers as the agents of this policy rarely supported the Jewish children, and the mere act of getting to school and back could be like running the gauntlet. As a result, Jewish schools began to proliferate, and those who could afford it sent their children to boarding schools abroad. When Ruth Berlak, in Berlin, received this friendly note from St. Margaret’s School in Westgate-on-Sea, Kent, informing her of the acceptance of her 13-year-old daughter, Marianne, as a pupil, little more than a month had passed since the Nazi regime had decreed the removal of Jewish children from German schools. Marianne’s maternal grandfather was Rabbi Dr. Leo Baeck, the president of the Reich Representation of Jews in Germany. Her father’s father was Leo Berlak, the chairman of the Association of Jewish Heimatvereine, clubs devoted to the maintenance of local traditions. The reply of the secretary of the Kenya Jewish Refugee Committee, Israel Somen, to Paul Egon Cahn’s request for help was rather reserved: the young man urgently wished to bring his parents from Cologne to join him, but he didn’t have the £100 which were to be paid to the British Colonial Office in Mombasa for entry permits. The financial situation of the Committee was utterly strained, so that Somen could only advise the young man to submit an orderly application with the immigration board in Nairobi. In addition, he would have to furnish proof that he was able to pay for his parents’ upkeep and that he had paid the fee for the permits. Only then would it be conceivable that the authority would follow the request, provided the Refugee Committee would give him security. This, too, Somen emphasized, was contingent on Paul Egon Cahn’s ability to prove that his parents would not be a financial burden on the Committee or on the local authorities. Willy Nordwind, co-chair of the Boston Committee for Refugees, tirelessly endeavored to save Jews from the grip of the Nazis by helping them immigrate to the United States. Himself an immigrant from Germany and familiar with the requirements, he helped organize affidavits and saw to it that newcomers with fields of expertise as heterogeneous as “tobacco and clothing retail business,” “tourism,” “expert buyer and salesman of hosiery,” and “wholesale fish dealer” found employment in America. Most of the people he helped were total strangers to him, but some of his beneficiaries were personal acquaintances. On November 28th, 1938, his friend Seppel pleads with Nordwind to find a special arrangement for him that would speed things up. Requests for visas had risen sharply since the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), and the usual waiting period for the processing of affidavits was far too long. Willi Jonas and his wife Hilde owned a shoe shop in tranquil Basel, Switzerland. Deeply worried about their relatives in Germany, Willi Jonas sent his Swiss chauffeur to sound out the situation. In a November 18th, 1938 letter, the couple tell emigré friends in America about their loved ones’ experiences during and since the night of pogroms (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”). Louis Jonas, a cattle dealer in Waldbreitbach near Neuwied, has gotten away without material losses. However, after having had to spend 4 days in jail and being released only due to the fact that he is above 50, all he wants is to get out. The news from Worms is even more alarming: Paul Weiner has been taken to a concentration camp and nobody has seen fit to notify his wife, Berta (née Jonas), as to which. The couple’s home was almost entirely wrecked, some of their property stolen. Days after his 12th birthday on April 15th, 1938, Harry Kranner, along with all his Jewish schoolmates, had been expelled from the Kandlgasse Realgymnasium in Vienna. By November, Harry’s mother, Gertrude, and his stepfather, Emil Fichmann, were making preparations for emigration. Harry shows great excitement about the prospect of traveling and the various pieces of equipment he’ll receive. In the November 8th entry in his new diary, given to him by his mother for the purpose of recording his emigration experience, he enthusiastically reports about his new leather gloves. But the bulk of the entry is concerned with the strong earthquake the night before. At the end of October, Adolph Markus looked back on an eventful month. Preceded by the Munich Conference, at which representatives of Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy decided that Czechoslovakia was to cede its borderlands (“Sudetenland”) to Germany in exchange for peace, German troops had occupied these areas, which had a sizeable German population totaling about 3 million. As Markus points out, with the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia had lost its line of defense. According to his diary entry, both in Britain and in France, people’s relief that war had been averted was soon followed by deep suspicion regarding Hitler’s true intentions. On a more personal note, the author mentions a hair-styling course and English classes which he has been taking in Vienna, clearly in preparation for emigration. Meanwhile, due to the expectation that soon all Jews would be expelled from his home town, Linz, half of the contents of his apartment had been sold. In the early years of the Nazi regime, Jews had sought refuge mainly in neighboring European countries, but also in Palestine and the United States. With the Nazis’ reach expanding and options for immigration diminishing, China increasingly turned into a destination for Jews seeking to escape. The SS Conte Verde was one of the steamers that brought refugees to Shanghai from the Italian ports of Genoa and Trieste. The voyage to China took one month and was quite costly – a challenge for German Jews whose financial situation had been severely eroded under the Nazis. Dr. Herbert Mansbach, a young dentist from Mannheim, had gone to Switzerland after his studies in Germany in order to obtain his DDS and specialize in orthodontics. This, he believed, would be a sought-after skill in Palestine, where he wished to emigrate. However, immigration to Palestine had been curtailed drastically by the British: Dr. Mansbach’s friend Alfred Rothschild, a retired lawyer, informed him that there were no preferential immigration certificates to be had at the moment and that the qualification procedure for a “capitalist certificate” (a type of certificate the awarding of which was dependent on the applicant’s ability to produce at least £1000 and not subject to quotation) was still under way. The matter was of great urgency, since in mid-October, Dr. Mansbach’s residence permit for Switzerland had expired. Rothschild assumed that if the application for a regular certificate was going to go through, the Swiss authorities would allow his friend to stay in the country for the time being. The importance of personal correspondence for a family that was scattered all over is shown by that of Lili Pinkus and her relatives. Through weekly letters, for example, she kept in touch with her 16-year-old stepson, Hans Joseph, nicknamed Pippo, who was going to school in her home town of Brünn (Brno), Czechoslovakia. The same regularity, however, was expected of him. Her letter from October 10th demonstrates what it must have meant when his replies were delayed: “Infinite relief” is how she describes what she felt when, after a long time, two postcards from the 16-year-old finally arrived. Lili Pinkus writes to her stepson about the everyday life of their family. However, she omits the worries with which she and her husband must have been struggling. The family’s textile factory in Neustadt, Upper Silesia (“S. Fränkel”), was one of the largest manufacturers of linen in the world. Lili Pinkus’ husband, Hans Hubert, had been in charge of the family business since 1926. But now, the “Aryanization” of the company was imminent. It was more of a wistful farewell than a joyful Bar Mitzvah: Rabbi Manfred Swarsensky seemed to be fully conscious of the situation in which his congregants at the Prinzregentenstraße Synagogue in Berlin found themselves. In his address on the occasion of the Bar Mitzvah of 15 teenagers, he captured the mood of this day of celebration: everything clearly bears “the stamp ‘for the last time.’” Many families, whose sons celebrated their Bar Mitzvah on this day, sat on packed suitcases. One family was departing the very next day. The synagoge, in Berlin’s Wilmersdorf neighborhood, had been one of the only synagogues first built during the Weimar Republic. It had also quickly developed into a center of Jewish culture. Now, at the end of September 1938, it was clear to the rabbi that his congregation was facing major changes: “In a few years, much of what’s here today will be gone and perhaps also forgotten.” An astonishing number of German physicians apparently not only had no qualms about being co-opted by the Nazi regime but actively subscribed to its racist and eugenic doctrines, conveniently ignoring their ostensible commitment to the Hippocratic Oath with its stipulation to do no harm. On top of propagating an ideology which declared Jews to be a danger to the “German race,” medical organizations in Germany expelled Jews, making it harder and harder for them to make a living. Under such circumstances, it’s not surprising that Dr. Max Schönenberg, a physician in Cologne, and his musician wife, Erna, supported their son Leopold’s emigration to Palestine in 1937, even though the boy was only 15 years old at the time. In this September 18th, 1938 letter to his son, Dr. Schönenberg touches upon various weighty topics, among them the regime’s recent decision to revoke Jewish doctors’ medical licenses and his uncertainty about his professional future (some Jewish physicians were given permission to treat Jewish patients). In her short life, Hilde Lachmann-Mosse already had a few relocations behind her. The 26-year-old grew up in Berlin. Other stops were Woodbrooke in Great Britain (school), Freiburg (studies in medicine) and Basel (medical doctorate). Now she was facing another move: to the United States. She had already had the certificate of employment regarding her time as an assistant gynecologist at the university hospital in Basel translated into English, although that was only one step of many. Even if the actual certificate is only a few lines long, the three stamps of authentication from various institutions is evidence of how many appointments with authorities must have been necessary for Hilde Lachmann-Mosse finally to hold this document in her hands. It was under adventurous circumstances that Gisella Jellinek made her way to Palestine in June 1938. As part of a group of several hundred youths, she was smuggled into the area of the Mandate. The moment she came ashore in Palestine, she had to make use of the Hebrew language skills she had acquired at the Zionist agricultural training camp in Austria, in order to avoid being identified as an illegal immigrant by the British authorities. Roughly two months after her arrival, Gisella, who now called herself Nadja, turned 18. In this belated birthday note, her sister Berta wishes her “heroism, courage, and to be a good Haverah (kibbutz member).” The negligible number of Jews (50 out of a total of 31,576 in 1933) in the town of Merseburg, in Saxony, did not dissuade local Nazis from terrorizing them. As early as 1934, Bernhard Taitza, a local merchant, reported on Jewish residents’ anguish at Nazis marching past their homes while singing anti-Semitic songs. The atmosphere became so unbearable that in 1938 he made his way out of Germany to Prague. Days later, on August 18th, he submitted this questionnaire to HICEM, founded in 1927 as a coalition of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the Jewish Colonization Association and Emigdirect, another Jewish migration organization. With two children already residing in America, Taitza was fortunate enough to have an affidavit and didn’t have to worry too much as to whether he would regain possession of the money confiscated from him by the Nazis. As the only member of her family, 18-year-old Ursula Meseritz left Germany in July and embarked from Le Havre to New York aboard the R.N.S. “Britannic.” Adolf Floersheim, a former neighbor and a resident of the U.S. since 1937, provided an affidavit for the young woman. Her parents, Olga and Fritz Meseritz, who had arranged for her emigration, remained in Hamburg. A travel agency, Plaut Travels, on Madison Avenue in New York, apparently run by German-Jewish immigrants, prepared the itinerary for Ursula’s next journey to the West Coast, with a leisurely detour to the capital, and sent it to her on August 8th. Identification cards for use within Germany were introduced by decree of the Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick, on July 22, 1938. Frick, a lawyer by training, consistently worked to furnish the anti-democratic, anti-Jewish measures of the regime with the veneer of legality. Frick’s initial order was vague about who would be required to carry IDs (“The Reich Minister of the Interior determines which groups of German nationals and to what extent are subject to compulsory identification”), but this was clarified in an announcement on July 23. Apart from men of military service age, it was mainly Jews of all age-groups who were required to apply for IDs. The purpose of the IDs was to clearly identify and stigmatize Jews and further separate them from the rest of the population. In a July 28 notice, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reports on this latest legal atrocity. On July 18, the commissioner of Dillkreis county in Hessen instructed the mayors of the cities Herborn, Dillenburg, and Haigern as well as police officials of the county to conduct a statistical survey of the Jewish population in their communities every three months. An official of the city of Herborn received the memorandum ordering the count and made notes showing that 51 Jews lived in the city on June 30, 1938. Three Jews had left their homes in the prior quarter. These local censuses of the Jewish population complemented other surveys that tracked the movement of Jews on a national level. To monitor and control the Jews in the country, the National Socialists used a variety of administrative tools, such requiring Jews to declare their financial assets, carry identification papers at all times, or change their names. The Zionist Federation of Germany was in a tricky position. While it supported the emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany, it struggled with the consequences of constantly losing capable staff members, especially on the leadership level. Nevertheless, Benno Cohn, member of the Federation’s executive board, generously supported yet another departing colleague with a deeply appreciative letter of recommendation. Rudolf Friedmann had been associated with the Zionist Central Office since 1933 in various capacities, serving it with the utmost diligence and dedication. Cohn praises his organizational abilities and ideas and warmly recommends Friedmann to any Zionist or other Jewish organization. The observance of Shabbat, holidays, and kashrut was so deeply ingrained in the life of the Lamm family in Munich that even the Catholic cook, Babett, saw to it that the traditional customs were adhered to. While traditional in their understanding of Judaism, the Lamms were open to worldly matters. After high school, Hans briefly studied law, but, understanding that in the new political climate, there was no way a Jew could advance in the field, he embarked on a career in journalism instead. The career paths of Jewish jounalists at the time were also stymied by the fact that non-Jewish papers would not hire them and Jewish ones were forced to close down one by one. In 1937, Lamm relocated to Berlin, where he studied with Leo Baeck and Ismar Elbogen at the Lehranstalt für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, in order to deepen his understanding of Judaism. Deeply rooted in German culture as he was, it was difficult for him to decide to emigrate. Yet eventually, his older brother convinced him that there was no future for Jews in Germany. In this letter, the 25 year-old Lamm cordially and politely, yet without palpable emotion, bids farewell to the editors of the Jewish monthly, Der Morgen, a high-level publication to which he had been contributing, expressing his gratitude for their support. The first major rupture in artist Gustav Wolf’s biography had occurred during World War I. He had volunteered for frontline duty and was badly injured. His brother Willy was killed in combat. The works in which he processed his wartime experiences leave no doubt about his feelings. Instead of glorifying war, he shows its horrors. His confrontation with antisemitism during and after the war led him to an increased awareness of his own Jewishness. In 1920 he accepted a professorship at the Baden Art School in Karlsruhe, trying to realize his ideal of an equitable partnership between teacher and student. After a year, he quit this “dead activity,” referring to the school as “an academy of schemers.” In 1929, he designed the set for Fritz Lang’s silent film “Woman in the Moon,” an early science-fiction movie. Upon the Nazi rise to power in 1933, he canceled his memberships with all the artists’ associations to which he had belonged. In his letter to the Baden Secession, he explained his decision with the following words: “I must first get my bearings again. The foundations of my existence have been called into question and shaken.” After extended stays in Switzerland, Italy and Greece, he returned to Germany in 1937. In February 1938, he boarded a ship to New York. June 26, 1938 was his 49th birthday. Since discussing the possibility of emigration with his relatives in Vienna on April 20, Adolph Markus of Linz had taken up English lessons at the synagogue twice to three times a week. On April 29, his brother-in-law had been picked up by the Gestapo, and the Markuses’ tension and nervousness was beginning to rub off on the children. Two weeks later, Mrs. Markus was questioned by the Gestapo about the value of a house she owned and all her other property. Finally, on June 18, two Gestapo officers appeared at the family’s home: While going over the contents of some boxes, one of them tried to frame Adolph Markus by sneaking in a communist leaflet. Markus mustered the calm and self-assurance to point out to the officers that he had never been politically active in any way. His allusion to his frontline service in World War I, combined with the remark that if they were to arrest him, they would have to take along his two little boys, since their mother was in the hospital, made them change their mind. They left – threatening to return after six weeks if he wasn’t going to leave the country on his own accord. Hans Joseph Pinkus was a direct descendant of Samuel Fränkel, founder of a textile factory in Neustadt (Upper Silesia), which for a while was the primary employer in the entire region and one of the world’s foremost producers of linens. His grandfather, Max, had been a personal friend and patron of the Nobel Prize-winning author Gerhart Hauptmann. His great-uncle, the scientist Paul Ehrlich, had been a Nobel laureate, too. Lili, Hans Joseph’s stepmother, was hardly intimidated by this pedigree. In this letter, written on June 8, 1938, she gives him a major dressing down for having neglected his correspondence with his parents and sternly inquires whether he flunked his exam in the Czech language. At this point, 16 year-old “Pipo,” as the family called him, was staying with his step-grandmother in Brünn (Brno, Czechoslovakia) and attending school there. His parents and half-sisters lived in Neustadt: the directorship of the the S. Fränkel company had been handed down to male members of the Pinkus family for several generations and was now held by his father, Hans Hubert. In 1933, the distinguished philosopher of religion Martin Buber decided to relinquish his honorary professorship at Goethe University in Frankfurt/Main in protest against the Nazi rise to power. Consequently, the regime forbade him to give public lectures. In the years to follow, Buber founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education and countered the Nazis’ efforts to marginalize and destroy German Jewry by strengthening Jewish identity through education. It was not until May 1938 that he followed a call to the Hebrew University to assume the new chair for Social Philosophy and moved to Jerusalem with his wife Paula, a writer. The couple settled down in the Talbiyeh neighborhood in the Western part of the city, which at the time was inhabited by both Jews and Arabs. It borders on Rehavia, then a major stronghold of immigrants from Germany. Buber was among those envisioning peaceful coexistence in a bi-national state. After stints with various orchestras in Germany and Austria, in 1930, the conductor Erich Erck returned to Munich, where he had studied music. The Nazis forced him to relinquish his stage name and return to his family name, Eisner. His application for membership in the Reichsmusikkammer was rejected, since his Jewishness was seen as more damning than his combat service for Germany in WWI was redeeming. After he was banned from employment in 1935, he initiated the establishment of the Munich branch of the Jüdischer Kulturbund and became the executive director of its Bavarian State Association. He also took over the Orchestra of the Kulturbund (founded in 1926 as the “Jewish Chamber Orchestra”), in which capacity he appears on this photograph from the ensemble’s May 18, 1938 performance at Munich’s monumental Main Synagogue on Herzog-Max-Straße. After Polish-born Shulamit Gutgeld’s return to Palestine from several years of study in Berlin with the greats of German theater, Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt, she changed her name to Bat Dori – “daughter of my generation” or “contemporary.” And that she certainly was in a very conscious way: her plays were highly political and attuned to the events of the day—so much so that the British mandatory authorities forbade the performance of her 1936 play, “The Trial,” which called for peace between Jews and Arabs and was critical of the British. The Berlin branch of the Jüdischer Kulturbund, however, decided to produce the play. The document shown here is an invitation to the May 8 performance at the Kulturbund-Theater on Kommandantenstraße under the direction of Fritz Wisten. During the years of the authoritarian regime installed in Austria in 1934 (“Austrofascism”), the police prison at Rossauer Lände in Vienna (nicknamed “Liesl” by the locals) had already been used as a lockup not only for criminals but also for political dissidents. After the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany on March 12, 1938 (“Anschluss”), the first 150 Austrians were taken to the Dachau concentration camp from this notorious prison. Some, like Edmund Wachs, were held there in “protective custody,” a convenient tool used by the nazis to rid themselves of Jews and political opponents, since it could be imposed arbitrarily and left the prisoners little or no recourse to legal support. In this postcard, Edmund’s brother, the attorney Dr. Karl Wachs, reassures Edmund that he is doing everything he can to press his case and asks him for patience. Residents of Linz, Adolph Markus, his wife, and their two children were among the relatively few of Austria’s roughly 200,000 Jews not living in Vienna. On April 20, 1938 Markus went to visit his family in the capital in order to discuss the difficult situation and explore options for emigration. While his brother Rudi was prepared to lose his job any day, he opined that Adolph, as WWI combat veteran, had nothing to worry about. Indeed, combat veterans were exempt from certain anti-Jewish measures, as were Jews who had lost their father or a son in combat for Germany or its allies.	<urn:uuid:eeae9263-85b1-46e3-837d-b6332747ea24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lbi.org/1938projekt/?s=February%208	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00216.warc.gz	en	0.984214	6,213	3.578125	4	[ 0.021425772458314896, 0.5811339616775513, -0.2520815432071686, -0.35675370693206787, -0.4032348096370697, -0.08739474415779114, 0.09316373616456985, 0.2534645199775696, 0.2969580292701721, -0.020989537239074707, -0.316311776638031, -0.2735081911087036, 0.14159895479679108, 0.05147042125463...	6	The philosopher of religion Martin Buber was born on February 8, 1878, in Vienna. Best known for his 1923 work I and Thou, he also, in collaboration with Franz Rosenzweig, created a new translation of the Hebrew Bible into German. Buber was so popular with German-Jewish youth that the term “Bubertät” (“Buberty”) was coined to describe the phenomenon. Buber was among the proponents of a bi-national state in Palestine and in 1925, together with Gershom Scholem, Robert Weltsch, Hugo Bergmann, Ernst Simon and others, he founded “Brit Shalom,” an organisation that promoted Arab-Jewish coexistence on the basis of justice and equality. On February 8, he celebrated his 50th birthday. One of the first official acts of the new Nazi rulers in 1933 had been the elimination of the independent press. Already in February, the freedom of the press was abolished, and from October, only such individuals who were deemed politically reliable and could prove their “Aryan” descent were admitted to journalistic professions. Ernst Feder (b. 1881), a jurist and erstwhile editor for domestic affairs at the “Berliner Tageblatt,” fulfilled neither of these requirements. In his Parisian exile, he resumed his activities as a journalist as one of the founders of the German-language Pariser Tageblatt (1933-36) and as a freelance writer. On the pages of his diary, he covers a plethora of topics, ranging from the personal to the philosophical and political. Among his friends and fellow exiles was the gynecologist and endocrinologist, Dr. Selmar Aschheim (b. 1878). As Feder notes in his diary on December 30th, the eminent physician and scientist was looking for an alternative source of income, should he be denied the possibility to practice in France. Especially older emigrants often had to overcome major obstacles in order to gain a foothold abroad. Language barriers and admission examinations, for which decades of professional experience were not seen as a substitute, additionally exacerbated the situation. Stella was not thrilled about the idea of living in Palestine. Like her friend, Annemarie Riess, with whom she shared her feelings on December 28th, she had fled to Italy. But as a Jew, she was no longer welcome there, either. According to the fascist regime’s new racial laws, non-native Jews were to leave the country within six months. 2,000 of the 10,000 foreign Jews who had settled down in Italy before 1919 were exempt from the provision. At least Stella had an immigration certificate for Palestine, issued by the Mandatory Government, and at a Tel Aviv clinic, an unpaid position that came with free room and board was waiting for her. Nevertheless, she continued to try to get permission to enter the US or England. Actually, even the offer on an unpaid position was more than many immigrant physicians could expect in Palestine. Since 1936, there was a surplus of physicians in the land, and a new wave of immigration after the annexation of Austria in February 1938 (“Anschluss”) had aggravated the situation even more. Not long after power was handed to the Nazis, the motto “Police – your friends and helpers,” which already during the Weimar Republic often reflected a hope rather than reality, lost any hint of meaning for opponents of the regime and for the country’s Jews. A law introduced as early as February 1933 stipulated that police officers who resorted to the use of firearms against people perceived as enemies of the regime were to go unpunished. As part of an unholy trinity, in tandem with the SA and SS, the police quickly became an instrument of Nazi terror. Therefore, obtaining a police clearance certificate was probably not the easiest of the requirements of would-be immigrants applying for US visas. On December 24th, 1938, this important document was issued to Ernst Aldor, a resident of Vienna. For many Jewish children in Germany, going to school had become an ordeal: the constant anti-Jewish indoctrination of German students was poisoning the atmosphere, teachers as the agents of this policy rarely supported the Jewish children, and the mere act of getting to school and back could be like running the gauntlet. As a result, Jewish schools began to proliferate, and those who could afford it sent their children to boarding schools abroad. When Ruth Berlak, in Berlin, received this friendly note from St. Margaret’s School in Westgate-on-Sea, Kent, informing her of the acceptance of her 13-year-old daughter, Marianne, as a pupil, little more than a month had passed since the Nazi regime had decreed the removal of Jewish children from German schools. Marianne’s maternal grandfather was Rabbi Dr. Leo Baeck, the president of the Reich Representation of Jews in Germany. Her father’s father was Leo Berlak, the chairman of the Association of Jewish Heimatvereine, clubs devoted to the maintenance of local traditions. The reply of the secretary of the Kenya Jewish Refugee Committee, Israel Somen, to Paul Egon Cahn’s request for help was rather reserved: the young man urgently wished to bring his parents from Cologne to join him, but he didn’t have the £100 which were to be paid to the British Colonial Office in Mombasa for entry permits. The financial situation of the Committee was utterly strained, so that Somen could only advise the young man to submit an orderly application with the immigration board in Nairobi. In addition, he would have to furnish proof that he was able to pay for his parents’ upkeep and that he had paid the fee for the permits. Only then would it be conceivable that the authority would follow the request, provided the Refugee Committee would give him security. This, too, Somen emphasized, was contingent on Paul Egon Cahn’s ability to prove that his parents would not be a financial burden on the Committee or on the local authorities. Willy Nordwind, co-chair of the Boston Committee for Refugees, tirelessly endeavored to save Jews from the grip of the Nazis by helping them immigrate to the United States. Himself an immigrant from Germany and familiar with the requirements, he helped organize affidavits and saw to it that newcomers with fields of expertise as heterogeneous as “tobacco and clothing retail business,” “tourism,” “expert buyer and salesman of hosiery,” and “wholesale fish dealer” found employment in America. Most of the people he helped were total strangers to him, but some of his beneficiaries were personal acquaintances. On November 28th, 1938, his friend Seppel pleads with Nordwind to find a special arrangement for him that would speed things up. Requests for visas had risen sharply since the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), and the usual waiting period for the processing of affidavits was far too long. Willi Jonas and his wife Hilde owned a shoe shop in tranquil Basel, Switzerland. Deeply worried about their relatives in Germany, Willi Jonas sent his Swiss chauffeur to sound out the situation. In a November 18th, 1938 letter, the couple tell emigré friends in America about their loved ones’ experiences during and since the night of pogroms (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”). Louis Jonas, a cattle dealer in Waldbreitbach near Neuwied, has gotten away without material losses. However, after having had to spend 4 days in jail and being released only due to the fact that he is above 50, all he wants is to get out. The news from Worms is even more alarming: Paul Weiner has been taken to a concentration camp and nobody has seen fit to notify his wife, Berta (née Jonas), as to which. The couple’s home was almost entirely wrecked, some of their property stolen. Days after his 12th birthday on April 15th, 1938, Harry Kranner, along with all his Jewish schoolmates, had been expelled from the Kandlgasse Realgymnasium in Vienna. By November, Harry’s mother, Gertrude, and his stepfather, Emil Fichmann, were making preparations for emigration. Harry shows great excitement about the prospect of traveling and the various pieces of equipment he’ll receive. In the November 8th entry in his new diary, given to him by his mother for the purpose of recording his emigration experience, he enthusiastically reports about his new leather gloves. But the bulk of the entry is concerned with the strong earthquake the night before. At the end of October, Adolph Markus looked back on an eventful month. Preceded by the Munich Conference, at which representatives of Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy decided that Czechoslovakia was to cede its borderlands (“Sudetenland”) to Germany in exchange for peace, German troops had occupied these areas, which had a sizeable German population totaling about 3 million. As Markus points out, with the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia had lost its line of defense. According to his diary entry, both in Britain and in France, people’s relief that war had been averted was soon followed by deep suspicion regarding Hitler’s true intentions. On a more personal note, the author mentions a hair-styling course and English classes which he has been taking in Vienna, clearly in preparation for emigration. Meanwhile, due to the expectation that soon all Jews would be expelled from his home town, Linz, half of the contents of his apartment had been sold. In the early years of the Nazi regime, Jews had sought refuge mainly in neighboring European countries, but also in Palestine and the United States. With the Nazis’ reach expanding and options for immigration diminishing, China increasingly turned into a destination for Jews seeking to escape. The SS Conte Verde was one of the steamers that brought refugees to Shanghai from the Italian ports of Genoa and Trieste. The voyage to China took one month and was quite costly – a challenge for German Jews whose financial situation had been severely eroded under the Nazis. Dr. Herbert Mansbach, a young dentist from Mannheim, had gone to Switzerland after his studies in Germany in order to obtain his DDS and specialize in orthodontics. This, he believed, would be a sought-after skill in Palestine, where he wished to emigrate. However, immigration to Palestine had been curtailed drastically by the British: Dr. Mansbach’s friend Alfred Rothschild, a retired lawyer, informed him that there were no preferential immigration certificates to be had at the moment and that the qualification procedure for a “capitalist certificate” (a type of certificate the awarding of which was dependent on the applicant’s ability to produce at least £1000 and not subject to quotation) was still under way. The matter was of great urgency, since in mid-October, Dr. Mansbach’s residence permit for Switzerland had expired. Rothschild assumed that if the application for a regular certificate was going to go through, the Swiss authorities would allow his friend to stay in the country for the time being. The importance of personal correspondence for a family that was scattered all over is shown by that of Lili Pinkus and her relatives. Through weekly letters, for example, she kept in touch with her 16-year-old stepson, Hans Joseph, nicknamed Pippo, who was going to school in her home town of Brünn (Brno), Czechoslovakia. The same regularity, however, was expected of him. Her letter from October 10th demonstrates what it must have meant when his replies were delayed: “Infinite relief” is how she describes what she felt when, after a long time, two postcards from the 16-year-old finally arrived. Lili Pinkus writes to her stepson about the everyday life of their family. However, she omits the worries with which she and her husband must have been struggling. The family’s textile factory in Neustadt, Upper Silesia (“S. Fränkel”), was one of the largest manufacturers of linen in the world. Lili Pinkus’ husband, Hans Hubert, had been in charge of the family business since 1926. But now, the “Aryanization” of the company was imminent. It was more of a wistful farewell than a joyful Bar Mitzvah: Rabbi Manfred Swarsensky seemed to be fully conscious of the situation in which his congregants at the Prinzregentenstraße Synagogue in Berlin found themselves. In his address on the occasion of the Bar Mitzvah of 15 teenagers, he captured the mood of this day of celebration: everything clearly bears “the stamp ‘for the last time.’” Many families, whose sons celebrated their Bar Mitzvah on this day, sat on packed suitcases. One family was departing the very next day. The synagoge, in Berlin’s Wilmersdorf neighborhood, had been one of the only synagogues first built during the Weimar Republic. It had also quickly developed into a center of Jewish culture. Now, at the end of September 1938, it was clear to the rabbi that his congregation was facing major changes: “In a few years, much of what’s here today will be gone and perhaps also forgotten.” An astonishing number of German physicians apparently not only had no qualms about being co-opted by the Nazi regime but actively subscribed to its racist and eugenic doctrines, conveniently ignoring their ostensible commitment to the Hippocratic Oath with its stipulation to do no harm. On top of propagating an ideology which declared Jews to be a danger to the “German race,” medical organizations in Germany expelled Jews, making it harder and harder for them to make a living. Under such circumstances, it’s not surprising that Dr. Max Schönenberg, a physician in Cologne, and his musician wife, Erna, supported their son Leopold’s emigration to Palestine in 1937, even though the boy was only 15 years old at the time. In this September 18th, 1938 letter to his son, Dr. Schönenberg touches upon various weighty topics, among them the regime’s recent decision to revoke Jewish doctors’ medical licenses and his uncertainty about his professional future (some Jewish physicians were given permission to treat Jewish patients). In her short life, Hilde Lachmann-Mosse already had a few relocations behind her. The 26-year-old grew up in Berlin. Other stops were Woodbrooke in Great Britain (school), Freiburg (studies in medicine) and Basel (medical doctorate). Now she was facing another move: to the United States. She had already had the certificate of employment regarding her time as an assistant gynecologist at the university hospital in Basel translated into English, although that was only one step of many. Even if the actual certificate is only a few lines long, the three stamps of authentication from various institutions is evidence of how many appointments with authorities must have been necessary for Hilde Lachmann-Mosse finally to hold this document in her hands. It was under adventurous circumstances that Gisella Jellinek made her way to Palestine in June 1938. As part of a group of several hundred youths, she was smuggled into the area of the Mandate. The moment she came ashore in Palestine, she had to make use of the Hebrew language skills she had acquired at the Zionist agricultural training camp in Austria, in order to avoid being identified as an illegal immigrant by the British authorities. Roughly two months after her arrival, Gisella, who now called herself Nadja, turned 18. In this belated birthday note, her sister Berta wishes her “heroism, courage, and to be a good Haverah (kibbutz member).” The negligible number of Jews (50 out of a total of 31,576 in 1933) in the town of Merseburg, in Saxony, did not dissuade local Nazis from terrorizing them. As early as 1934, Bernhard Taitza, a local merchant, reported on Jewish residents’ anguish at Nazis marching past their homes while singing anti-Semitic songs. The atmosphere became so unbearable that in 1938 he made his way out of Germany to Prague. Days later, on August 18th, he submitted this questionnaire to HICEM, founded in 1927 as a coalition of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the Jewish Colonization Association and Emigdirect, another Jewish migration organization. With two children already residing in America, Taitza was fortunate enough to have an affidavit and didn’t have to worry too much as to whether he would regain possession of the money confiscated from him by the Nazis. As the only member of her family, 18-year-old Ursula Meseritz left Germany in July and embarked from Le Havre to New York aboard the R.N.S. “Britannic.” Adolf Floersheim, a former neighbor and a resident of the U.S. since 1937, provided an affidavit for the young woman. Her parents, Olga and Fritz Meseritz, who had arranged for her emigration, remained in Hamburg. A travel agency, Plaut Travels, on Madison Avenue in New York, apparently run by German-Jewish immigrants, prepared the itinerary for Ursula’s next journey to the West Coast, with a leisurely detour to the capital, and sent it to her on August 8th. Identification cards for use within Germany were introduced by decree of the Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick, on July 22, 1938. Frick, a lawyer by training, consistently worked to furnish the anti-democratic, anti-Jewish measures of the regime with the veneer of legality. Frick’s initial order was vague about who would be required to carry IDs (“The Reich Minister of the Interior determines which groups of German nationals and to what extent are subject to compulsory identification”), but this was clarified in an announcement on July 23. Apart from men of military service age, it was mainly Jews of all age-groups who were required to apply for IDs. The purpose of the IDs was to clearly identify and stigmatize Jews and further separate them from the rest of the population. In a July 28 notice, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reports on this latest legal atrocity. On July 18, the commissioner of Dillkreis county in Hessen instructed the mayors of the cities Herborn, Dillenburg, and Haigern as well as police officials of the county to conduct a statistical survey of the Jewish population in their communities every three months. An official of the city of Herborn received the memorandum ordering the count and made notes showing that 51 Jews lived in the city on June 30, 1938. Three Jews had left their homes in the prior quarter. These local censuses of the Jewish population complemented other surveys that tracked the movement of Jews on a national level. To monitor and control the Jews in the country, the National Socialists used a variety of administrative tools, such requiring Jews to declare their financial assets, carry identification papers at all times, or change their names. The Zionist Federation of Germany was in a tricky position. While it supported the emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany, it struggled with the consequences of constantly losing capable staff members, especially on the leadership level. Nevertheless, Benno Cohn, member of the Federation’s executive board, generously supported yet another departing colleague with a deeply appreciative letter of recommendation. Rudolf Friedmann had been associated with the Zionist Central Office since 1933 in various capacities, serving it with the utmost diligence and dedication. Cohn praises his organizational abilities and ideas and warmly recommends Friedmann to any Zionist or other Jewish organization. The observance of Shabbat, holidays, and kashrut was so deeply ingrained in the life of the Lamm family in Munich that even the Catholic cook, Babett, saw to it that the traditional customs were adhered to. While traditional in their understanding of Judaism, the Lamms were open to worldly matters. After high school, Hans briefly studied law, but, understanding that in the new political climate, there was no way a Jew could advance in the field, he embarked on a career in journalism instead. The career paths of Jewish jounalists at the time were also stymied by the fact that non-Jewish papers would not hire them and Jewish ones were forced to close down one by one. In 1937, Lamm relocated to Berlin, where he studied with Leo Baeck and Ismar Elbogen at the Lehranstalt für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, in order to deepen his understanding of Judaism. Deeply rooted in German culture as he was, it was difficult for him to decide to emigrate. Yet eventually, his older brother convinced him that there was no future for Jews in Germany. In this letter, the 25 year-old Lamm cordially and politely, yet without palpable emotion, bids farewell to the editors of the Jewish monthly, Der Morgen, a high-level publication to which he had been contributing, expressing his gratitude for their support. The first major rupture in artist Gustav Wolf’s biography had occurred during World War I. He had volunteered for frontline duty and was badly injured. His brother Willy was killed in combat. The works in which he processed his wartime experiences leave no doubt about his feelings. Instead of glorifying war, he shows its horrors. His confrontation with antisemitism during and after the war led him to an increased awareness of his own Jewishness. In 1920 he accepted a professorship at the Baden Art School in Karlsruhe, trying to realize his ideal of an equitable partnership between teacher and student. After a year, he quit this “dead activity,” referring to the school as “an academy of schemers.” In 1929, he designed the set for Fritz Lang’s silent film “Woman in the Moon,” an early science-fiction movie. Upon the Nazi rise to power in 1933, he canceled his memberships with all the artists’ associations to which he had belonged. In his letter to the Baden Secession, he explained his decision with the following words: “I must first get my bearings again. The foundations of my existence have been called into question and shaken.” After extended stays in Switzerland, Italy and Greece, he returned to Germany in 1937. In February 1938, he boarded a ship to New York. June 26, 1938 was his 49th birthday. Since discussing the possibility of emigration with his relatives in Vienna on April 20, Adolph Markus of Linz had taken up English lessons at the synagogue twice to three times a week. On April 29, his brother-in-law had been picked up by the Gestapo, and the Markuses’ tension and nervousness was beginning to rub off on the children. Two weeks later, Mrs. Markus was questioned by the Gestapo about the value of a house she owned and all her other property. Finally, on June 18, two Gestapo officers appeared at the family’s home: While going over the contents of some boxes, one of them tried to frame Adolph Markus by sneaking in a communist leaflet. Markus mustered the calm and self-assurance to point out to the officers that he had never been politically active in any way. His allusion to his frontline service in World War I, combined with the remark that if they were to arrest him, they would have to take along his two little boys, since their mother was in the hospital, made them change their mind. They left – threatening to return after six weeks if he wasn’t going to leave the country on his own accord. Hans Joseph Pinkus was a direct descendant of Samuel Fränkel, founder of a textile factory in Neustadt (Upper Silesia), which for a while was the primary employer in the entire region and one of the world’s foremost producers of linens. His grandfather, Max, had been a personal friend and patron of the Nobel Prize-winning author Gerhart Hauptmann. His great-uncle, the scientist Paul Ehrlich, had been a Nobel laureate, too. Lili, Hans Joseph’s stepmother, was hardly intimidated by this pedigree. In this letter, written on June 8, 1938, she gives him a major dressing down for having neglected his correspondence with his parents and sternly inquires whether he flunked his exam in the Czech language. At this point, 16 year-old “Pipo,” as the family called him, was staying with his step-grandmother in Brünn (Brno, Czechoslovakia) and attending school there. His parents and half-sisters lived in Neustadt: the directorship of the the S. Fränkel company had been handed down to male members of the Pinkus family for several generations and was now held by his father, Hans Hubert. In 1933, the distinguished philosopher of religion Martin Buber decided to relinquish his honorary professorship at Goethe University in Frankfurt/Main in protest against the Nazi rise to power. Consequently, the regime forbade him to give public lectures. In the years to follow, Buber founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education and countered the Nazis’ efforts to marginalize and destroy German Jewry by strengthening Jewish identity through education. It was not until May 1938 that he followed a call to the Hebrew University to assume the new chair for Social Philosophy and moved to Jerusalem with his wife Paula, a writer. The couple settled down in the Talbiyeh neighborhood in the Western part of the city, which at the time was inhabited by both Jews and Arabs. It borders on Rehavia, then a major stronghold of immigrants from Germany. Buber was among those envisioning peaceful coexistence in a bi-national state. After stints with various orchestras in Germany and Austria, in 1930, the conductor Erich Erck returned to Munich, where he had studied music. The Nazis forced him to relinquish his stage name and return to his family name, Eisner. His application for membership in the Reichsmusikkammer was rejected, since his Jewishness was seen as more damning than his combat service for Germany in WWI was redeeming. After he was banned from employment in 1935, he initiated the establishment of the Munich branch of the Jüdischer Kulturbund and became the executive director of its Bavarian State Association. He also took over the Orchestra of the Kulturbund (founded in 1926 as the “Jewish Chamber Orchestra”), in which capacity he appears on this photograph from the ensemble’s May 18, 1938 performance at Munich’s monumental Main Synagogue on Herzog-Max-Straße. After Polish-born Shulamit Gutgeld’s return to Palestine from several years of study in Berlin with the greats of German theater, Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt, she changed her name to Bat Dori – “daughter of my generation” or “contemporary.” And that she certainly was in a very conscious way: her plays were highly political and attuned to the events of the day—so much so that the British mandatory authorities forbade the performance of her 1936 play, “The Trial,” which called for peace between Jews and Arabs and was critical of the British. The Berlin branch of the Jüdischer Kulturbund, however, decided to produce the play. The document shown here is an invitation to the May 8 performance at the Kulturbund-Theater on Kommandantenstraße under the direction of Fritz Wisten. During the years of the authoritarian regime installed in Austria in 1934 (“Austrofascism”), the police prison at Rossauer Lände in Vienna (nicknamed “Liesl” by the locals) had already been used as a lockup not only for criminals but also for political dissidents. After the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany on March 12, 1938 (“Anschluss”), the first 150 Austrians were taken to the Dachau concentration camp from this notorious prison. Some, like Edmund Wachs, were held there in “protective custody,” a convenient tool used by the nazis to rid themselves of Jews and political opponents, since it could be imposed arbitrarily and left the prisoners little or no recourse to legal support. In this postcard, Edmund’s brother, the attorney Dr. Karl Wachs, reassures Edmund that he is doing everything he can to press his case and asks him for patience. Residents of Linz, Adolph Markus, his wife, and their two children were among the relatively few of Austria’s roughly 200,000 Jews not living in Vienna. On April 20, 1938 Markus went to visit his family in the capital in order to discuss the difficult situation and explore options for emigration. While his brother Rudi was prepared to lose his job any day, he opined that Adolph, as WWI combat veteran, had nothing to worry about. Indeed, combat veterans were exempt from certain anti-Jewish measures, as were Jews who had lost their father or a son in combat for Germany or its allies.	6,220	ENGLISH	1
List and describe three ways in which American society was affected/changed as a result of World War I. How did the government respond to the debate for and against America's entry into the War? Your questions has two distinct parts. First, you ask about the reasons for American entry into World War I (1914–1918). Second, you inquire about changes in America as a result of the war. America did manage to stay out of the war up until its final year. This reluctance to enter a European war had been a long-adhered to practice dating back to the nation's first president, George Washington. The US did finally enter in 1917, though. Why was it unable to remain neutral? There were two primary reasons for America's eventual participation. First, America sought to uphold the principle of freedom of the seas. While both sides interfered with freedom of the seas, the US was really only concerned with German interference using deadly submarines. Germany sank the Lusitania in 1915; about twelve hundred civilians died—including over one hundred Americans. President Woodrow Wilson demanded that Germany stop submarine warfare, and Germany acquiesced for two years. Second, Wilson also wanted to "make the world safe for democracy." His idealism helped take America into the war. He thought a "just peace" would end war forever. American society was affected in at least three ways by the war. First, the labor force changed as black citizens and women began to do jobs that had previously been done only by white men. Southern African Americans moved North by the thousands for these jobs. Women became active in all professions. Second, there were race riots caused by changes due to the war: whites citizens did not welcome the influx of black citizens to their communities. In 1917, there was a bloody riot in East St. Louis. Third, civil liberties were suppressed during the war. Thousands of people, including the famous Eugene Debs, were jailed. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:fee6c5e7-46cc-42ea-b8bd-b35a5a352c9e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/list-and-describe-three-ways-in-which-american-2068776	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00254.warc.gz	en	0.980729	404	3.640625	4	[ -0.22468772530555725, 0.2590949833393097, -0.00997996050864458, 0.0899151861667633, 0.037266671657562256, 0.43696922063827515, 0.12302834540605545, 0.17716994881629944, -0.008036057464778423, 0.09226465225219727, 0.38730883598327637, 0.47367802262306213, -0.216144859790802, 0.2083733826875...	1	List and describe three ways in which American society was affected/changed as a result of World War I. How did the government respond to the debate for and against America's entry into the War? Your questions has two distinct parts. First, you ask about the reasons for American entry into World War I (1914–1918). Second, you inquire about changes in America as a result of the war. America did manage to stay out of the war up until its final year. This reluctance to enter a European war had been a long-adhered to practice dating back to the nation's first president, George Washington. The US did finally enter in 1917, though. Why was it unable to remain neutral? There were two primary reasons for America's eventual participation. First, America sought to uphold the principle of freedom of the seas. While both sides interfered with freedom of the seas, the US was really only concerned with German interference using deadly submarines. Germany sank the Lusitania in 1915; about twelve hundred civilians died—including over one hundred Americans. President Woodrow Wilson demanded that Germany stop submarine warfare, and Germany acquiesced for two years. Second, Wilson also wanted to "make the world safe for democracy." His idealism helped take America into the war. He thought a "just peace" would end war forever. American society was affected in at least three ways by the war. First, the labor force changed as black citizens and women began to do jobs that had previously been done only by white men. Southern African Americans moved North by the thousands for these jobs. Women became active in all professions. Second, there were race riots caused by changes due to the war: whites citizens did not welcome the influx of black citizens to their communities. In 1917, there was a bloody riot in East St. Louis. Third, civil liberties were suppressed during the war. Thousands of people, including the famous Eugene Debs, were jailed. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	414	ENGLISH	1
Most of the punishments ended in death, tortured until dead, and other things that go along with that. The punishment for treason was death by hanging, removing the person's internal organs, or quartering. People who committed felonies almost always received death by beheading or by hanging but not in all cases. And for misdemeanors the punishment almost never ended in death but it was not uncommon, their punishment would be along the lines of; burning at the steak, dismemberment, starvation, whipping, the pillory, and branding. The pillory was used as an embarrassment and the branding was used so that if a person was caught doing another crime they would be punished harsher, most likely with death. The justice system in the Elizabethan era was often quick and harsh. The prisons were not used as they are today, to take away a persons freedom. Then they were used as holding areas while they awaited trial. Though if you were lucky enough to learn to read then you had a chance of not being sentenced to death and instead. If you were a woman then you didn’t receive that kind of mercy, or any for that matter. The Elizabethan era should be called The era of pain and torture techniques. There were hundreds of different types of…	<urn:uuid:057041bc-e0cb-4278-bfb7-c2ffd9a6ecc2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Capital-Punishment-And-Violent-Act-560718.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00033.warc.gz	en	0.990295	259	3.59375	4	[ -0.5218502879142761, 0.21595603227615356, 0.20458872616291046, -0.18823760747909546, 0.028885493054986, -0.17680759727954865, 0.7379559278488159, 0.11819510906934738, 0.29696911573410034, -0.21029280126094818, 0.13040049374103546, 0.2785581946372986, 0.12765856087207794, 0.2500148117542267...	1	Most of the punishments ended in death, tortured until dead, and other things that go along with that. The punishment for treason was death by hanging, removing the person's internal organs, or quartering. People who committed felonies almost always received death by beheading or by hanging but not in all cases. And for misdemeanors the punishment almost never ended in death but it was not uncommon, their punishment would be along the lines of; burning at the steak, dismemberment, starvation, whipping, the pillory, and branding. The pillory was used as an embarrassment and the branding was used so that if a person was caught doing another crime they would be punished harsher, most likely with death. The justice system in the Elizabethan era was often quick and harsh. The prisons were not used as they are today, to take away a persons freedom. Then they were used as holding areas while they awaited trial. Though if you were lucky enough to learn to read then you had a chance of not being sentenced to death and instead. If you were a woman then you didn’t receive that kind of mercy, or any for that matter. The Elizabethan era should be called The era of pain and torture techniques. There were hundreds of different types of…	254	ENGLISH	1
Most Americans today don’t recognize the name Billy Mitchell, but he is considered the father of the United States Air Force. Mitchell was a very early proponent of airpower and was the commander of all American air forces in France during World War I. Mitchell was a forward thinker who predicted decades before World War II that war with Japan was inevitable. He even predicted how the Japanese would attack Pearl Harbor. And he was an officer who put his career on the line to see that American flyers got the equipment that they needed. He even ended up being court-martialed to ensure that American leaders would see the light in terms of the importance of aviation. Mitchell was born on December 29, 1879, in Nice, France. His father fought in the American Civil War and served with the father of future Army General Douglas MacArthur. His father later became a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin and the family lived on an estate in the suburbs of Milwaukee. After graduating from college, Mitchell joined the United States Army and fought in the Spanish-American War in the Philippines. He remained in the military after the war and was posted to Alaska where he worked on establishing a telegraph line that would link the far-flung army outposts and gold mining towns with the Continental U.S. It was during this time, as early as 1906, that Mitchell predicted that future conflicts would be fought and won in the air, not just the ground or the sea. Around 1912, Mitchell was assigned to the Philippines and toured the battlefields of the Russo-Japanese war. Seeing the handwriting on the wall, Mitchell concluded then, nearly 30 years before Pearl Harbor, that war with Japan was inevitable. He had earlier witnessed the Wright brothers flight at Ft. Myer, VA right outside of Washington D.C. and paid for his own flight training at the Curtiss Aviation School at Newport News, VA. He was chosen as the temporary head of the Aviation Section of the Army’s Signal Corps after the commander was relieved. In mid-1916, just before the United States entered World War I, he was appointed as the Chief of the Air Service of the First Army. When the U.S. entered WWI on April 6, 1917, Mitchell was already in Spain en route to France and on April 24, made his first flight over the battlefield. He quickly gained the needed experience to plan and conduct air operations for the American Expeditionary Force. He was promoted to Brigadier General and planned and conducted one of the first major air-ground offensives in history during the Battle of Saint Mihiel in October of 1918. There, over 1500 aircraft took part in the major attack on the German lines. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal for his service in France during the U.S.’s 18-month involvement in the war. During this time he forged solid relationships with men who would serve as America’s great aviation leaders in the next war, Henry “Hap” Arnold, Carl “Tooey” Spaatz, Ira Eaker and others. Following the end of the war, Mitchell would become embroiled in battles with senior Army and Navy leadership over the subject of aviation. He believed that an air force, independent from the Army or Navy shackles, was a necessity moving forward. With the Navy’s insistence on building battleships for the defense of our coasts, Mitchell believed that airpower would be a much better alternative and tried to convince the then-Under Secretary for the Navy Frankin D. Roosevelt of his ideas. Mitchell said that land-based bombers could sink a battleship. He called to task senior Army and Navy leadership over their refusal to see that airpower would be the wave of the future. He advocated the development of bombsights, aerial torpedoes and superchargers for aircraft engines — all of which would more than prove their worth in the next war. Mitchell’s protests got public support and the Navy eventually agreed to tests to see whether bombers could sink a battleship. Yet, the Navy attempted to rig the tests to disprove Mitchell’s theories. The Navy chose the target area farther out to sea, in order to minimize the time Mitchell’s bombers would have over the targets. The Navy also stipulated that smaller ships could not be hit with bombs larger than 600 pounds. It also forbid the use of aerial torpedoes and only allowed two hits per target at which time the test would be stopped and a Navy damage control assessment team would assess the damage to each ship. The targets were to be former German ships taken after WWI. The initial tests were conducted in late June and July of 1921. Mitchell’s bombers sunk former German destroyer G-102 and the light cruiser Frankfurt. On July 20, 1921, the former German battleship Ostfriesland was towed to the target area. Army, Navy and Marine Corps bombers hit the battleship with 550- and 600-pound bombs and she began to take on water in her stern. But as Mitchell’s bombers approached the target, they were ordered to halt the attack and were forced to loiter for 45 minutes as heavy seas made it impossible for Navy inspectors to get to the battleship. The next day, Mitchell’s bombers scored three direct hits on the Ostfriesland, but were again ordered to halt, although they still had nine bombs remaining. At about 12:30 a.m. more bombers hit the battleship, aiming for the water alongside the ship in order to use the concussion to buckle the sides of the vessel. Mitchell’s notes from the attack, as he observed it occurring, were telling. “Four bombs hit in rapid succession, close alongside the Ostfriesland. We could see her rise eight to ten feet between the terrific blows from underwater. On the fourth shot, Capt Street, sitting in the back seat of my plane stood up and waving both arms shouted, “She is gone!” There were no direct hits but at least three of the bombs landed close enough to rip hull plates as well as cause the ship to roll over. The ship sank at 12:40 pm, 22 minutes after the first bomb, with a seventh bomb dropped by a Handley Page bomber on the foam rising up from the sinking ship.” The Navy claimed that damage control parties could have stemmed the flooding that sunk the ship, but Mitchell was unperturbed. His report and glowing recommendations of the power of the aircraft would cause the budgets of both the Army and Navy to take notice. “…sea craft of all kinds, up to and including the most modern battleships, can be destroyed easily by bombs dropped from aircraft, and further, that the most effective means of destruction are bombs. [They] demonstrated beyond a doubt that, given sufficient bombing planes—in short, an adequate air force—aircraft constitute a positive defense of our country against hostile invasion.” The Navy and President Harding were not happy with Mitchell’s report or the results of the tests and tried to bury the reports…(sounds strangely familiar). Mitchell was sent on tours of far-flung places to keep him away from Washington. But he continued to investigate further developments of airpower and in 1924 published a book called “Winged Defense,” where he once again stated that the U.S and Japan would go to war and that the latter would hit Pearl Harbor in an air raid. The book didn’t sell well and few people read it. Mitchell was shipped off to San Antonio and a land-based assignment; but if the Army and Navy were hoping he’d be quiet, they were wrong. After a series of serious air crashes, Mitchell blasted both the military and government officials, accusing senior leaders in the Army and Navy of incompetence and “almost treasonable administration of the national defense.” This was the tipping point: In October 1925, President Calvin Coolidge ordered that he be court-martialled, accusing him of violation of the 96th Article of War: bringing discredit to the armed forces. The court-martial began in early November and lasted for seven weeks. The court-martial didn’t bother itself on whether Mitchell’s observations were true or false. The result was foregone, and on December 17, 1925, the court found him “guilty of all specifications and of the charge.” The court specified that it was “lenient” to Mitchell, due to his outstanding service in the war. Mitchell was then suspended from active duty without pay for a period of five years. However, President Coolidge later amended this punishment to half-pay. Mitchell then promptly resigned from the Army on February 1, 1926. He tried to sell Roosevelt, his former antagonist, on a unified Department of Defense idea and would spend the rest of his life extolling the virtues of airpower. Mitchell died of heart disease, brought about by and extreme case of influenza, in New York City on February 19, 1936, at the age of 56. He was buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The vast majority of his theories on the development of air power and on Japan’s actions would prove to be correct. However, he thought that land-based bombers, and not bombers launched from aircraft carriers, would be the game-changers, as he believed that ships couldn’t be big enough to carry enough aircraft to do the job. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.	<urn:uuid:fe36b14c-abec-4752-bb25-b869a7b0d7cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sofrep.com/news/remembering-the-father-of-american-air-forces/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00115.warc.gz	en	0.982015	1,987	3.453125	3	[ -0.040970999747514725, 0.2956358790397644, -0.0037370938807725906, -0.19882135093212128, -0.004250027239322662, 0.5400040149688721, 0.2712121605873108, 0.22303517162799835, -0.16061244904994965, -0.29103904962539673, 0.10666501522064209, 0.23679238557815552, 0.012812813743948936, 0.5970093...	6	Most Americans today don’t recognize the name Billy Mitchell, but he is considered the father of the United States Air Force. Mitchell was a very early proponent of airpower and was the commander of all American air forces in France during World War I. Mitchell was a forward thinker who predicted decades before World War II that war with Japan was inevitable. He even predicted how the Japanese would attack Pearl Harbor. And he was an officer who put his career on the line to see that American flyers got the equipment that they needed. He even ended up being court-martialed to ensure that American leaders would see the light in terms of the importance of aviation. Mitchell was born on December 29, 1879, in Nice, France. His father fought in the American Civil War and served with the father of future Army General Douglas MacArthur. His father later became a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin and the family lived on an estate in the suburbs of Milwaukee. After graduating from college, Mitchell joined the United States Army and fought in the Spanish-American War in the Philippines. He remained in the military after the war and was posted to Alaska where he worked on establishing a telegraph line that would link the far-flung army outposts and gold mining towns with the Continental U.S. It was during this time, as early as 1906, that Mitchell predicted that future conflicts would be fought and won in the air, not just the ground or the sea. Around 1912, Mitchell was assigned to the Philippines and toured the battlefields of the Russo-Japanese war. Seeing the handwriting on the wall, Mitchell concluded then, nearly 30 years before Pearl Harbor, that war with Japan was inevitable. He had earlier witnessed the Wright brothers flight at Ft. Myer, VA right outside of Washington D.C. and paid for his own flight training at the Curtiss Aviation School at Newport News, VA. He was chosen as the temporary head of the Aviation Section of the Army’s Signal Corps after the commander was relieved. In mid-1916, just before the United States entered World War I, he was appointed as the Chief of the Air Service of the First Army. When the U.S. entered WWI on April 6, 1917, Mitchell was already in Spain en route to France and on April 24, made his first flight over the battlefield. He quickly gained the needed experience to plan and conduct air operations for the American Expeditionary Force. He was promoted to Brigadier General and planned and conducted one of the first major air-ground offensives in history during the Battle of Saint Mihiel in October of 1918. There, over 1500 aircraft took part in the major attack on the German lines. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal for his service in France during the U.S.’s 18-month involvement in the war. During this time he forged solid relationships with men who would serve as America’s great aviation leaders in the next war, Henry “Hap” Arnold, Carl “Tooey” Spaatz, Ira Eaker and others. Following the end of the war, Mitchell would become embroiled in battles with senior Army and Navy leadership over the subject of aviation. He believed that an air force, independent from the Army or Navy shackles, was a necessity moving forward. With the Navy’s insistence on building battleships for the defense of our coasts, Mitchell believed that airpower would be a much better alternative and tried to convince the then-Under Secretary for the Navy Frankin D. Roosevelt of his ideas. Mitchell said that land-based bombers could sink a battleship. He called to task senior Army and Navy leadership over their refusal to see that airpower would be the wave of the future. He advocated the development of bombsights, aerial torpedoes and superchargers for aircraft engines — all of which would more than prove their worth in the next war. Mitchell’s protests got public support and the Navy eventually agreed to tests to see whether bombers could sink a battleship. Yet, the Navy attempted to rig the tests to disprove Mitchell’s theories. The Navy chose the target area farther out to sea, in order to minimize the time Mitchell’s bombers would have over the targets. The Navy also stipulated that smaller ships could not be hit with bombs larger than 600 pounds. It also forbid the use of aerial torpedoes and only allowed two hits per target at which time the test would be stopped and a Navy damage control assessment team would assess the damage to each ship. The targets were to be former German ships taken after WWI. The initial tests were conducted in late June and July of 1921. Mitchell’s bombers sunk former German destroyer G-102 and the light cruiser Frankfurt. On July 20, 1921, the former German battleship Ostfriesland was towed to the target area. Army, Navy and Marine Corps bombers hit the battleship with 550- and 600-pound bombs and she began to take on water in her stern. But as Mitchell’s bombers approached the target, they were ordered to halt the attack and were forced to loiter for 45 minutes as heavy seas made it impossible for Navy inspectors to get to the battleship. The next day, Mitchell’s bombers scored three direct hits on the Ostfriesland, but were again ordered to halt, although they still had nine bombs remaining. At about 12:30 a.m. more bombers hit the battleship, aiming for the water alongside the ship in order to use the concussion to buckle the sides of the vessel. Mitchell’s notes from the attack, as he observed it occurring, were telling. “Four bombs hit in rapid succession, close alongside the Ostfriesland. We could see her rise eight to ten feet between the terrific blows from underwater. On the fourth shot, Capt Street, sitting in the back seat of my plane stood up and waving both arms shouted, “She is gone!” There were no direct hits but at least three of the bombs landed close enough to rip hull plates as well as cause the ship to roll over. The ship sank at 12:40 pm, 22 minutes after the first bomb, with a seventh bomb dropped by a Handley Page bomber on the foam rising up from the sinking ship.” The Navy claimed that damage control parties could have stemmed the flooding that sunk the ship, but Mitchell was unperturbed. His report and glowing recommendations of the power of the aircraft would cause the budgets of both the Army and Navy to take notice. “…sea craft of all kinds, up to and including the most modern battleships, can be destroyed easily by bombs dropped from aircraft, and further, that the most effective means of destruction are bombs. [They] demonstrated beyond a doubt that, given sufficient bombing planes—in short, an adequate air force—aircraft constitute a positive defense of our country against hostile invasion.” The Navy and President Harding were not happy with Mitchell’s report or the results of the tests and tried to bury the reports…(sounds strangely familiar). Mitchell was sent on tours of far-flung places to keep him away from Washington. But he continued to investigate further developments of airpower and in 1924 published a book called “Winged Defense,” where he once again stated that the U.S and Japan would go to war and that the latter would hit Pearl Harbor in an air raid. The book didn’t sell well and few people read it. Mitchell was shipped off to San Antonio and a land-based assignment; but if the Army and Navy were hoping he’d be quiet, they were wrong. After a series of serious air crashes, Mitchell blasted both the military and government officials, accusing senior leaders in the Army and Navy of incompetence and “almost treasonable administration of the national defense.” This was the tipping point: In October 1925, President Calvin Coolidge ordered that he be court-martialled, accusing him of violation of the 96th Article of War: bringing discredit to the armed forces. The court-martial began in early November and lasted for seven weeks. The court-martial didn’t bother itself on whether Mitchell’s observations were true or false. The result was foregone, and on December 17, 1925, the court found him “guilty of all specifications and of the charge.” The court specified that it was “lenient” to Mitchell, due to his outstanding service in the war. Mitchell was then suspended from active duty without pay for a period of five years. However, President Coolidge later amended this punishment to half-pay. Mitchell then promptly resigned from the Army on February 1, 1926. He tried to sell Roosevelt, his former antagonist, on a unified Department of Defense idea and would spend the rest of his life extolling the virtues of airpower. Mitchell died of heart disease, brought about by and extreme case of influenza, in New York City on February 19, 1936, at the age of 56. He was buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The vast majority of his theories on the development of air power and on Japan’s actions would prove to be correct. However, he thought that land-based bombers, and not bombers launched from aircraft carriers, would be the game-changers, as he believed that ships couldn’t be big enough to carry enough aircraft to do the job. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.	1,977	ENGLISH	1
There was a time in history when Jazz the music was banned during World War II when it was considered a plight for freedom against Hitler’s Nazi regime due to what it represents. Jazz music is the product of America that was creatively invented by African American from culture, and all the elements of the American life that influenced this style of music. Jazz music is a symbol of freedom, hope and the ability of express ones self in through one of best art forms which is music. Meaning, African Americans fought oppression since the beginning of slavery, and Jazz music represented that resistance. Jazz music has a foundation of the basic rules of composition, but it has since expanded its way toward newer forms of music. America who also gained their freedom from Europe joined showed their patriarchy by listening to the Jazz music on records and on the radio to encourage their fellow Americans to believe in their country, and the freedom it stands for. Hollywood, celebrity musicians and Jazz musicians even supported freedom by joining patriotic films to get their point across to the world. This act caused Hitler and Stalin to fear the effect Jazz music would have on all who listens who could easily be influenced by the idea of freedom, and patriotism. In the year 1921 there were Americans who did not favor Jazz music or the Jazz dance. There were activist who stated that Jazz is a type of menace that is worse that alcohol, and that it would be better to wipe Jazz out of existence. In Germany, Jazz and all other American music was banned in the country before and after Americans joined the war. Stalin forbid the playing of Jazz music at the end of the 1945 war throughout the Soviet Union, and banned the use of saxophones. Jazz was called “the music of blacks by Hitler as a reason for the prohibition of Jazz music. Nevertheless, Jazz music was embraced by all who heard it around the globe. In fact, It was adored by those who supported the resistance of such a war. In the area of Azerbaijan the year of the 1950’s produced even more forbidden Jazz music into a new style of Jazz known as Mugam that came from the Baku style of music. The sound of Jazz produces an atmosphere of relaxation and freedom that even spread to Algeria who wrote a form of Jazz that spread all around their country and in Europe known as Rai in the late 1960’s. Though there were many haters of Jazz music who forbid the use of it those who understood loved it. Those who did not like Jazz wrote books on it titled “Vo do do de o Blues” against Jazz and blues. Another title was “Anti rag time girl” about a lady who hates Jazz music. However, when the underground clubs broke the law discreetly to make a home for jazz in Speakeasies they also spread the gospel of Jazz music all around the world.	<urn:uuid:625c4297-480c-4b3a-bc52-cd61b8b1d32f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hasenchat.dance/jazz-the-forbidden-music/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00209.warc.gz	en	0.983563	578	3.4375	3	[ -0.08738581836223602, 0.08721748739480972, -0.010532332584261894, -0.3007277846336365, -0.20914557576179504, 0.23165658116340637, 0.2409719079732895, -0.023633871227502823, 0.30134761333465576, 0.04533092677593231, 0.31468939781188965, 0.5581591129302979, 0.03359432518482208, 0.00058453530...	11	There was a time in history when Jazz the music was banned during World War II when it was considered a plight for freedom against Hitler’s Nazi regime due to what it represents. Jazz music is the product of America that was creatively invented by African American from culture, and all the elements of the American life that influenced this style of music. Jazz music is a symbol of freedom, hope and the ability of express ones self in through one of best art forms which is music. Meaning, African Americans fought oppression since the beginning of slavery, and Jazz music represented that resistance. Jazz music has a foundation of the basic rules of composition, but it has since expanded its way toward newer forms of music. America who also gained their freedom from Europe joined showed their patriarchy by listening to the Jazz music on records and on the radio to encourage their fellow Americans to believe in their country, and the freedom it stands for. Hollywood, celebrity musicians and Jazz musicians even supported freedom by joining patriotic films to get their point across to the world. This act caused Hitler and Stalin to fear the effect Jazz music would have on all who listens who could easily be influenced by the idea of freedom, and patriotism. In the year 1921 there were Americans who did not favor Jazz music or the Jazz dance. There were activist who stated that Jazz is a type of menace that is worse that alcohol, and that it would be better to wipe Jazz out of existence. In Germany, Jazz and all other American music was banned in the country before and after Americans joined the war. Stalin forbid the playing of Jazz music at the end of the 1945 war throughout the Soviet Union, and banned the use of saxophones. Jazz was called “the music of blacks by Hitler as a reason for the prohibition of Jazz music. Nevertheless, Jazz music was embraced by all who heard it around the globe. In fact, It was adored by those who supported the resistance of such a war. In the area of Azerbaijan the year of the 1950’s produced even more forbidden Jazz music into a new style of Jazz known as Mugam that came from the Baku style of music. The sound of Jazz produces an atmosphere of relaxation and freedom that even spread to Algeria who wrote a form of Jazz that spread all around their country and in Europe known as Rai in the late 1960’s. Though there were many haters of Jazz music who forbid the use of it those who understood loved it. Those who did not like Jazz wrote books on it titled “Vo do do de o Blues” against Jazz and blues. Another title was “Anti rag time girl” about a lady who hates Jazz music. However, when the underground clubs broke the law discreetly to make a home for jazz in Speakeasies they also spread the gospel of Jazz music all around the world.	579	ENGLISH	1
Nathaniel Lyon(July 14, 1818 – August 10, 1861) was a Federal general who gave his life in the service of his country, the first general on the Union side to die in the Civil War. Early Military Years Nathaniel seemed to have been born a soldier. From the beginning on the little farm in Ashford, Connecticut he hated agrarian life. His ancestors fought in the Revolutionary War, and Nathaniel was determined to serve his country. He graduated eleventh in a class of fifty-five from West Point in 1841. Nathaniel was assigned initially to the Seminole Wars, and then the war with Mexico – the training ground for most Civil War generals. Commended for conspicuous bravery in the Battle of Mexico City, he rose to brevet captain before the war’s end. Unlike many of his fellows, Nathaniel chose to stay with the Army. He ended up out west, and participated in the massacre of Native Americans at Clear Lake, California, on May 15, 1850. Fifteen or so of the Pomo tribe had been enslaved by two settlers, Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone, and confined to one village, where they were starved and abused until they rebelled and murdered their captors. In response, the U.S. Cavalry, including Lyon, slaughtered at least sixty of the local Pomo. After a few years in California, Nathaniel was transferred to Fort Riley, Kansas, and helped suppress the Bleeding Kansas wars that took place along the Kansas / Missouri border. It was during this period that Nathaniel became staunchly Camp Jackson and the St. Louis Riot Nathaniel was given command of the St. Louis Federal Arsenal, and was there when the Civil War began. Missouri was a slave state, and on the knife edge between Union and Confederate. The state guard refused to send troops to fight for the Union. Nathaniel deployed his troops and artillery on May 10, 1861, surrounding the pro-Confederate militia, and forced their surrender. The Army rewarded him with command of all Union forces in Missouri. Nathaniel marched the captured prisoners to St. Louis, but en route, learned of a plot to attack the arsenal in St. Louis, following the capture of the Liberty Arsenal by Confederate forces. The Camp Jackson group of militia was supposedly neutral, but secretly inclined to the gray. Nathaniel Lyons men were largely German-American volunteers, anti-slavery, and Republican. To prevent the St. Louis arsenal from falling into Confederate hands, early in the morning of April 26, nearly 21,000 rifles were loaded on the steamer City of Alton, which carried them across the Mississippi to Illinois. The remainder were held for issue to Lyon’s Missouri Volunteers. As Lyon marched the prisoners, a riot broke out, with cries of “Damn the Dutch!” from pro-Confederate onlookers. They began throwing rocks and bottles at the Federals – Lyon ordered his men to fire on the crowd. One theory is that a drunk stumbled into the crowd, firing a pistol, which made the Federals believe they were under fire. Some 28 civilians were killed, including women and children; more than 75 were wounded – including women and children. Lyon’s methods were extreme, but he is credited with preventing Missouri from joining the Confederacy. Bull Run of the West – Wilson’s Creek Command issues plagued both sides. Price and McCullough, the Confederate commanders, were at odds, neither acknowledging the other’s authority, and with different plans and goals.The Union side had its own problems – Fremont was in charge of Missouri now, and little concerned with his charge, focusing instead on the Mississippi River valley, leaving Lyon short handed and poorly supplied. Confederate generals Sterling Price and Ben McCullough gathered a force of nearly ten thousand men. They were poorly trained and equipped but outnumbered Lyon’s troops two to one. Lyon decided not to wait until the Confederates were better supplied. In a daring move, Lyon split his already outnumbered forces, sending General Franz Sigel around the Confederate rear, while he attacked at dawn August 10, 1861, from the front with his remaining troops at Wilson’s Creek. The Southerners might have struck first had it not been for light rain on August 9 that threatened unprotected ammunition in the soldiers’ pockets and led to an overnight bivouac along a stream called Wilson Creek. The next morning as the men were getting breakfast, Lyon’s main force of 4,200 federals attacked from the north, setting wagons and tents afire with artillery shells and throwing Price’s men into chaos. Nevertheless, Lyon’s strategy was sound, and the initial results of the surprise attack were favorable. Lyon’s force overran the enemy camps and took the high ground at the crest of a ridge, which would become known as “Bloody Hill”. Early Union hopes for a rout were dashed, however, when the artillery of the Pulaski Arkansas Battery unlimbered and checked the advance, which gave Price’s infantry time and cover to organize lines on the south slope of the hill. In the rear, results were also initially successful, but Sigel’s men mistook the 3rd Louisiana for the 1st Iowa Infantry (which also wore gray uniforms) and withheld their fire until the Confederates were nearly upon them. Sigel’s flank collapsed – he and his men ran from the field, abandoning four cannons. Sigel and Lyon had no way to communicate, and Lyon was left on his own. Price’s men rallied whenever an officer led enough men to charge uphill into the brush and the muzzles of enemy rifles. It wasn’t quite hand-to-hand fighting, but the combat was within shotgun range (a common Missouri weapon at the time), which was close and deadly enough. The divided Confederate forces Lyon led with desperate The battle was counted a Confederate victory, but Missouri remained in the Union like other border states, Kentucky and Maryland, through the remainder of the war. Losses were heavy, with the Union suffering approximately 1,200 casualties and the Confederates suffering some 1,100 casualties. The Yankees soon retreated to Springfield and then back to the railhead at Rolla, Missouri, 100 miles to the northeast.	<urn:uuid:fdb9d2da-53db-4f8b-95aa-2f94f285fcdd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historicalnovelsrus.com/2019/12/31/did-you-know-nathaniel-lyon/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00136.warc.gz	en	0.982499	1,311	3.28125	3	[ -0.006957801524549723, 0.5566551685333252, 0.6685843467712402, -0.12935754656791687, 0.05877633020281792, -0.33107370138168335, 0.03135281428694725, 0.1817626655101776, -0.07908135652542114, -0.16520875692367554, -0.13540828227996826, -0.1017979234457016, -0.005371007137000561, 0.544622719...	15	Nathaniel Lyon(July 14, 1818 – August 10, 1861) was a Federal general who gave his life in the service of his country, the first general on the Union side to die in the Civil War. Early Military Years Nathaniel seemed to have been born a soldier. From the beginning on the little farm in Ashford, Connecticut he hated agrarian life. His ancestors fought in the Revolutionary War, and Nathaniel was determined to serve his country. He graduated eleventh in a class of fifty-five from West Point in 1841. Nathaniel was assigned initially to the Seminole Wars, and then the war with Mexico – the training ground for most Civil War generals. Commended for conspicuous bravery in the Battle of Mexico City, he rose to brevet captain before the war’s end. Unlike many of his fellows, Nathaniel chose to stay with the Army. He ended up out west, and participated in the massacre of Native Americans at Clear Lake, California, on May 15, 1850. Fifteen or so of the Pomo tribe had been enslaved by two settlers, Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone, and confined to one village, where they were starved and abused until they rebelled and murdered their captors. In response, the U.S. Cavalry, including Lyon, slaughtered at least sixty of the local Pomo. After a few years in California, Nathaniel was transferred to Fort Riley, Kansas, and helped suppress the Bleeding Kansas wars that took place along the Kansas / Missouri border. It was during this period that Nathaniel became staunchly Camp Jackson and the St. Louis Riot Nathaniel was given command of the St. Louis Federal Arsenal, and was there when the Civil War began. Missouri was a slave state, and on the knife edge between Union and Confederate. The state guard refused to send troops to fight for the Union. Nathaniel deployed his troops and artillery on May 10, 1861, surrounding the pro-Confederate militia, and forced their surrender. The Army rewarded him with command of all Union forces in Missouri. Nathaniel marched the captured prisoners to St. Louis, but en route, learned of a plot to attack the arsenal in St. Louis, following the capture of the Liberty Arsenal by Confederate forces. The Camp Jackson group of militia was supposedly neutral, but secretly inclined to the gray. Nathaniel Lyons men were largely German-American volunteers, anti-slavery, and Republican. To prevent the St. Louis arsenal from falling into Confederate hands, early in the morning of April 26, nearly 21,000 rifles were loaded on the steamer City of Alton, which carried them across the Mississippi to Illinois. The remainder were held for issue to Lyon’s Missouri Volunteers. As Lyon marched the prisoners, a riot broke out, with cries of “Damn the Dutch!” from pro-Confederate onlookers. They began throwing rocks and bottles at the Federals – Lyon ordered his men to fire on the crowd. One theory is that a drunk stumbled into the crowd, firing a pistol, which made the Federals believe they were under fire. Some 28 civilians were killed, including women and children; more than 75 were wounded – including women and children. Lyon’s methods were extreme, but he is credited with preventing Missouri from joining the Confederacy. Bull Run of the West – Wilson’s Creek Command issues plagued both sides. Price and McCullough, the Confederate commanders, were at odds, neither acknowledging the other’s authority, and with different plans and goals.The Union side had its own problems – Fremont was in charge of Missouri now, and little concerned with his charge, focusing instead on the Mississippi River valley, leaving Lyon short handed and poorly supplied. Confederate generals Sterling Price and Ben McCullough gathered a force of nearly ten thousand men. They were poorly trained and equipped but outnumbered Lyon’s troops two to one. Lyon decided not to wait until the Confederates were better supplied. In a daring move, Lyon split his already outnumbered forces, sending General Franz Sigel around the Confederate rear, while he attacked at dawn August 10, 1861, from the front with his remaining troops at Wilson’s Creek. The Southerners might have struck first had it not been for light rain on August 9 that threatened unprotected ammunition in the soldiers’ pockets and led to an overnight bivouac along a stream called Wilson Creek. The next morning as the men were getting breakfast, Lyon’s main force of 4,200 federals attacked from the north, setting wagons and tents afire with artillery shells and throwing Price’s men into chaos. Nevertheless, Lyon’s strategy was sound, and the initial results of the surprise attack were favorable. Lyon’s force overran the enemy camps and took the high ground at the crest of a ridge, which would become known as “Bloody Hill”. Early Union hopes for a rout were dashed, however, when the artillery of the Pulaski Arkansas Battery unlimbered and checked the advance, which gave Price’s infantry time and cover to organize lines on the south slope of the hill. In the rear, results were also initially successful, but Sigel’s men mistook the 3rd Louisiana for the 1st Iowa Infantry (which also wore gray uniforms) and withheld their fire until the Confederates were nearly upon them. Sigel’s flank collapsed – he and his men ran from the field, abandoning four cannons. Sigel and Lyon had no way to communicate, and Lyon was left on his own. Price’s men rallied whenever an officer led enough men to charge uphill into the brush and the muzzles of enemy rifles. It wasn’t quite hand-to-hand fighting, but the combat was within shotgun range (a common Missouri weapon at the time), which was close and deadly enough. The divided Confederate forces Lyon led with desperate The battle was counted a Confederate victory, but Missouri remained in the Union like other border states, Kentucky and Maryland, through the remainder of the war. Losses were heavy, with the Union suffering approximately 1,200 casualties and the Confederates suffering some 1,100 casualties. The Yankees soon retreated to Springfield and then back to the railhead at Rolla, Missouri, 100 miles to the northeast.	1,326	ENGLISH	1
On January 13, Catholics celebrate St. Hilary of Poitiers, a fourth-century philosopher whose studies made him a champion of Orthodox Trinitarian theology during one of the most difficult periods of Church history. He protected the Church and its members byÂ brilliantly defending the sacred humanity of Jesus while also defeating Arianism which denied Christ’s placement within the Trinity. St. Hilary was a gentle and courteous man, devoted to writing some of the greatest theology on the Trinity, and was like his Master in being labeled a “disturber of the peace.” In a very troubled period in the Church, his holiness was lived out in both scholarship and controversy. Little is known about St. Hilary’s life before he became a bishop. Fittingly, what historians do know about him derives mostly from personal details contained within his extensive theological works. Those remarks indicate that Hilary was born to a pagan family in present-day France, most likely around 310 â€“ three years before the Roman Empire declared its official toleration of Christianity. Hilary himself grew up apparently without any significant Christian influence, but received an otherwise comprehensive education in the Latin and Greek classics. Not unusual for his era, he rigorously studied both Greek philosophy and the Bible. Like many other early Church Fathers, he came to accept the truth of the Bible by recognizing its compatibility with philosophy and the sciences. This was a gradual process for him, however, and it was not until 345 â€“ by which time he was already married, and had a daughterâ€“ that Hilary committed himself to full membership in the Catholic Church by receiving baptism with the rest of his family. His rise within the Church, however, was not gradual at all: around 353, the people of Poitiers called for him to be made their bishop. By its nature, the position involved tremendous responsibility, as well as significant personal sacrifice. While the early church permitted some married men to become bishops, they were traditionally required to practice celibacy within marriage, and many adopted a radically simplified lifestyle akin to monasticism. There are indications that Hilary followed this ascetic path, once ordained. Moreover, Hilary’s election as the Bishop of Poitiers coincided with the second wave of the Church’s first great doctrinal controversy, in which he would play a significant role. Although the Council of Nicaea in 325 had confirmed the Churchâ€™s rejection of Arianism â€“ which claimed Jesus was only human, not divine â€“ powerful forces within both the Church and the empire clung to the heresy. Only a few years after his assumption of episcopal rank, Hilary found himself virtually alone in defending Jesusâ€™ deity before a hostile crowd of bishops in the southern French region of Gaul. The bishops appealed to Emperor Constantius II, who favored a modified version of Arianism and declared Hilaryâ€™s exile from Gaul. Constantius II did not likely suspect that by banishing Hilary to Phrygia he would inspire the bishop to mount an even greater defense of orthodox theology. There, he wrote his most important work, â€œOn the Trinity,â€� showing the Bibleâ€™s consistent witness to the central mystery of Christian faith. Remarkably, this staunchly Orthodox bishop also showed great charity toward those he believed were honestly mistaken. He worked closely with groups of clergy and faithful whose formulations of dogma he perceived to be merely imperfect or imprecise, but not intentionally heretical, to support what was correct in their understanding and lead them into full adherence with tradition. Hilary even traveled to Constantinople during his exile, to explain to the cityâ€™s bishops why their emperor was not orthodox. After the death of Constantius II in 361, Hilary was able to return to his diocese at Poitiers. Once exiled for opposing Arianism in Gaul, he lived to see it squarely condemned in the local church after his return. Although deeply committed to the leadership of his own diocese, Hilary took steps late in his life to support orthodox teaching in other regions. Most significantly, he denounced Auxentius, the Arian bishop of Milan. Subsequent opposition to Auxentius led to his succession by St. Ambrose of Milan, who, in turn, greatly influenced the conversion of St. Augustine. St. Hilary died at Poitiers in 367, after having passed on his teachings and way of life to a number of students, including St. Martin of Tours. Long regarded and celebrated as a saint within the Church, St. Hilary was also declared a Doctor of the Church in 1851.	<urn:uuid:ea23b0ef-5f90-469e-8461-ce83d683f6b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cathlinks.com/st-hilary-of-poitiers-5/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00378.warc.gz	en	0.98706	984	3.4375	3	[ 0.27670904994010925, 0.49134087562561035, 0.24561166763305664, -0.22577565908432007, -0.019403379410505295, -0.19684459269046783, -0.24333108961582184, 0.1898598074913025, 0.47203904390335083, -0.0952216237783432, -0.06647463142871857, -0.07097101956605911, 0.1003001481294632, 0.0567975416...	3	On January 13, Catholics celebrate St. Hilary of Poitiers, a fourth-century philosopher whose studies made him a champion of Orthodox Trinitarian theology during one of the most difficult periods of Church history. He protected the Church and its members byÂ brilliantly defending the sacred humanity of Jesus while also defeating Arianism which denied Christ’s placement within the Trinity. St. Hilary was a gentle and courteous man, devoted to writing some of the greatest theology on the Trinity, and was like his Master in being labeled a “disturber of the peace.” In a very troubled period in the Church, his holiness was lived out in both scholarship and controversy. Little is known about St. Hilary’s life before he became a bishop. Fittingly, what historians do know about him derives mostly from personal details contained within his extensive theological works. Those remarks indicate that Hilary was born to a pagan family in present-day France, most likely around 310 â€“ three years before the Roman Empire declared its official toleration of Christianity. Hilary himself grew up apparently without any significant Christian influence, but received an otherwise comprehensive education in the Latin and Greek classics. Not unusual for his era, he rigorously studied both Greek philosophy and the Bible. Like many other early Church Fathers, he came to accept the truth of the Bible by recognizing its compatibility with philosophy and the sciences. This was a gradual process for him, however, and it was not until 345 â€“ by which time he was already married, and had a daughterâ€“ that Hilary committed himself to full membership in the Catholic Church by receiving baptism with the rest of his family. His rise within the Church, however, was not gradual at all: around 353, the people of Poitiers called for him to be made their bishop. By its nature, the position involved tremendous responsibility, as well as significant personal sacrifice. While the early church permitted some married men to become bishops, they were traditionally required to practice celibacy within marriage, and many adopted a radically simplified lifestyle akin to monasticism. There are indications that Hilary followed this ascetic path, once ordained. Moreover, Hilary’s election as the Bishop of Poitiers coincided with the second wave of the Church’s first great doctrinal controversy, in which he would play a significant role. Although the Council of Nicaea in 325 had confirmed the Churchâ€™s rejection of Arianism â€“ which claimed Jesus was only human, not divine â€“ powerful forces within both the Church and the empire clung to the heresy. Only a few years after his assumption of episcopal rank, Hilary found himself virtually alone in defending Jesusâ€™ deity before a hostile crowd of bishops in the southern French region of Gaul. The bishops appealed to Emperor Constantius II, who favored a modified version of Arianism and declared Hilaryâ€™s exile from Gaul. Constantius II did not likely suspect that by banishing Hilary to Phrygia he would inspire the bishop to mount an even greater defense of orthodox theology. There, he wrote his most important work, â€œOn the Trinity,â€� showing the Bibleâ€™s consistent witness to the central mystery of Christian faith. Remarkably, this staunchly Orthodox bishop also showed great charity toward those he believed were honestly mistaken. He worked closely with groups of clergy and faithful whose formulations of dogma he perceived to be merely imperfect or imprecise, but not intentionally heretical, to support what was correct in their understanding and lead them into full adherence with tradition. Hilary even traveled to Constantinople during his exile, to explain to the cityâ€™s bishops why their emperor was not orthodox. After the death of Constantius II in 361, Hilary was able to return to his diocese at Poitiers. Once exiled for opposing Arianism in Gaul, he lived to see it squarely condemned in the local church after his return. Although deeply committed to the leadership of his own diocese, Hilary took steps late in his life to support orthodox teaching in other regions. Most significantly, he denounced Auxentius, the Arian bishop of Milan. Subsequent opposition to Auxentius led to his succession by St. Ambrose of Milan, who, in turn, greatly influenced the conversion of St. Augustine. St. Hilary died at Poitiers in 367, after having passed on his teachings and way of life to a number of students, including St. Martin of Tours. Long regarded and celebrated as a saint within the Church, St. Hilary was also declared a Doctor of the Church in 1851.	963	ENGLISH	1
After a general election was announced for December 12 2019, references suddenly began to appear to the 1923 election, nearly a century ago. The reason was simple: this was the last time that UK voters had gone to the polls in December. British elections are usually held in May or June, when good weather can be expected and there are long hours of daylight for door-to-door canvassing. But the circumstances of the December 1923 election deserve more reflection, for weightier reasons than the date. While there are some similarities with the 2019 election, there are also evident contrasts. The greatest difference is that during the 1920s there were fewer parliamentary parties, and all the parties favoured retention of the UK – there were not yet Scottish and Welsh nationalist MPs. Nevertheless, in 1923 as in 2019 the existence of multiple parties caused political instability, and electoral opinions were uncertain and volatile. The December election was an early one, announced just 12 months after the previous poll. It was called by a new Conservative prime minister, Stanley Baldwin, who had been in post for just six months, leading a divided Conservative party. The main election issue was trade relations, a matter arousing deep political divisions. The eventual outcomes were unintended, unexpected and enduring. The instability of the early 1920s had several causes. Formation of a coalition government during the first world war had split the Liberal Party – until then still a party of government. The continuation of the coalition amid post-war economic depression and external crises split the Conservative Party. There had been a three-fold increase in the size of the electorate, created by reforms in 1918 which extended the right to vote to many more male workers and to women over the age of 30 who owned a certain amount of property. At the same time, a post-war intensification of opinion in support of peace, mass unemployment, industrial militancy and cuts to social services all swelled support for a newly emerging Labour party and its socialist policies. After the coalition collapsed in October 1922, a Conservative government was elected. But with the Liberals still divided, Labour for the first time became the official opposition party. As unemployment continued to rise, it seemed that without a large government initiative, Labour would inexorably rise to political dominance. For Baldwin as prime minister, the answer was to revive the longstanding Conservative cause of taxation of imported goods – known as protection – presented as a policy to increase employment and wages and to demonstrate Conservative concern for the working population. This was a great risk: it revived the opposing Liberal and Labour free-trade argument that protection would increase prices for imported food and other essential goods. It was so controversial that, despite a comfortable parliamentary majority, Baldwin felt obliged to seek a new electoral mandate as soon as possible. It’s unlikely that the December date of the election significantly affected the turnout and outcome. There was a slight fall, from 73% at the 1922 election to 71.1%, but this could be explained by other factors – including irritation with a second election in such a short space of time. What was plain was that Baldwin had miscalculated. The Conservatives remained the largest party but lost seats – and their overall majority. Labour gained more MPs, while their defence of free trade reunited the Liberals and helped them elect more MPs, giving them the enticing prospect of holding the balance between the other parties. With three parties in a hung parliament, the relentless political logic of the British first-past-the-post electoral system now played out. The two largest parties each decided to maximise their future electoral support by embarrassing and damaging the smaller party. Baldwin did not resign immediately, but let the Liberals take responsibility for defeating a Conservative government and enabling the first Labour government to take office, which it did under Ramsay MacDonald as prime minister in January 1924. Baldwin calculated that, as a minority government, Labour could do little – least of all introduce socialism. The new Labour ministers repudiated Liberal assistance in parliament, acted moderately and demonstrated their competence in office. After nine months, the minority Labour government was defeated in an effective no-confidence motion. At the resulting general election in October 1924, the Conservative Party won a huge majority, securing its position as the chief anti-Labour party. Although Labour lost seats, it gained popular votes, establishing itself as the main anti-Conservative party. These two parties had polarised party politics to their own long-term advantage. The Liberals, after being manoeuvred into defeating a Conservative government and then a Labour government, had alienated many of their electoral supporters and suffered a collapse from which their party never fully recovered. Such are the perils of occupying a balance of power in parliament. Philip Williamson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.	<urn:uuid:7442ad04-4b95-4e1f-94ce-113b4db7235c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://finance.yahoo.com/news/last-time-uk-had-december-163641748.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00263.warc.gz	en	0.981822	988	3.640625	4	[ -0.3196209967136383, 0.17707429826259613, 0.15936583280563354, -0.13867391645908356, -0.04096171259880066, 0.3260684013366699, -0.5023078322410583, 0.08596470206975937, 0.33765333890914917, -0.028680823743343353, 0.2635267376899719, 0.11525914818048477, 0.2618916630744934, 0.02470227889716...	1	After a general election was announced for December 12 2019, references suddenly began to appear to the 1923 election, nearly a century ago. The reason was simple: this was the last time that UK voters had gone to the polls in December. British elections are usually held in May or June, when good weather can be expected and there are long hours of daylight for door-to-door canvassing. But the circumstances of the December 1923 election deserve more reflection, for weightier reasons than the date. While there are some similarities with the 2019 election, there are also evident contrasts. The greatest difference is that during the 1920s there were fewer parliamentary parties, and all the parties favoured retention of the UK – there were not yet Scottish and Welsh nationalist MPs. Nevertheless, in 1923 as in 2019 the existence of multiple parties caused political instability, and electoral opinions were uncertain and volatile. The December election was an early one, announced just 12 months after the previous poll. It was called by a new Conservative prime minister, Stanley Baldwin, who had been in post for just six months, leading a divided Conservative party. The main election issue was trade relations, a matter arousing deep political divisions. The eventual outcomes were unintended, unexpected and enduring. The instability of the early 1920s had several causes. Formation of a coalition government during the first world war had split the Liberal Party – until then still a party of government. The continuation of the coalition amid post-war economic depression and external crises split the Conservative Party. There had been a three-fold increase in the size of the electorate, created by reforms in 1918 which extended the right to vote to many more male workers and to women over the age of 30 who owned a certain amount of property. At the same time, a post-war intensification of opinion in support of peace, mass unemployment, industrial militancy and cuts to social services all swelled support for a newly emerging Labour party and its socialist policies. After the coalition collapsed in October 1922, a Conservative government was elected. But with the Liberals still divided, Labour for the first time became the official opposition party. As unemployment continued to rise, it seemed that without a large government initiative, Labour would inexorably rise to political dominance. For Baldwin as prime minister, the answer was to revive the longstanding Conservative cause of taxation of imported goods – known as protection – presented as a policy to increase employment and wages and to demonstrate Conservative concern for the working population. This was a great risk: it revived the opposing Liberal and Labour free-trade argument that protection would increase prices for imported food and other essential goods. It was so controversial that, despite a comfortable parliamentary majority, Baldwin felt obliged to seek a new electoral mandate as soon as possible. It’s unlikely that the December date of the election significantly affected the turnout and outcome. There was a slight fall, from 73% at the 1922 election to 71.1%, but this could be explained by other factors – including irritation with a second election in such a short space of time. What was plain was that Baldwin had miscalculated. The Conservatives remained the largest party but lost seats – and their overall majority. Labour gained more MPs, while their defence of free trade reunited the Liberals and helped them elect more MPs, giving them the enticing prospect of holding the balance between the other parties. With three parties in a hung parliament, the relentless political logic of the British first-past-the-post electoral system now played out. The two largest parties each decided to maximise their future electoral support by embarrassing and damaging the smaller party. Baldwin did not resign immediately, but let the Liberals take responsibility for defeating a Conservative government and enabling the first Labour government to take office, which it did under Ramsay MacDonald as prime minister in January 1924. Baldwin calculated that, as a minority government, Labour could do little – least of all introduce socialism. The new Labour ministers repudiated Liberal assistance in parliament, acted moderately and demonstrated their competence in office. After nine months, the minority Labour government was defeated in an effective no-confidence motion. At the resulting general election in October 1924, the Conservative Party won a huge majority, securing its position as the chief anti-Labour party. Although Labour lost seats, it gained popular votes, establishing itself as the main anti-Conservative party. These two parties had polarised party politics to their own long-term advantage. The Liberals, after being manoeuvred into defeating a Conservative government and then a Labour government, had alienated many of their electoral supporters and suffered a collapse from which their party never fully recovered. Such are the perils of occupying a balance of power in parliament. Philip Williamson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.	1,028	ENGLISH	1
Religious aspects were of the great importance for the Ancient Egyptians. Nevertheless, they had no single and joint system of religious beliefs. An Ancient Egypt was notable for being a desultory group of beliefs and practices, which had differences according to social class and location. In spite of this, the tradition had a strong impact on their religion that made them resist the changes. Ancient Egyptians did not have any questions about their beliefs; they did not want any changes in their surroundings and society. Their outmost goal was to imitate those conditions and traditions they believed were created before them. Herodotus was claiming that the Egyptians, comparing to other people are more religious. Moreover, Egypt became the image of heaven that combined all the forces in it and some of the Egyptians even believed that it became the temple of the world. One of the strongest traditions was of the Divine Kingship. It was the creed that the Pharaoh was playing the multiple roles, one of which was the role of a political leader and the other was the role of a God. The Ancient Egyptians associated Pharaoh with Horus, who was the son of the God of Sun. According to their ideology, after his death he was known as Osiris and he used to assist the Egyptians in the afterworld. Owing to their creed, the Pharaoh was remarkable for an enormous mass of power. Besides that, the priests in the Ancient Egypt were also very influential (Gadalla, 310). When people were living well, they usually believed that the priest and Pharaoh were taking care of that. If it happens, that people had troubles, they immediately accused Pharaoh and the priest of the inefficiency. Buy Ancient Egyptian Religion essay paper online Ancient Egypt was famous for polytheistic religion; however there was one short period of time when it was monotheistic. The religion of Ancient Egyptians included 700 various gods and goddesses. Furthermore, it was an ordinary thing for deities to merge in order to create a new deity. In addition, the Ancient Egyptians were convinced that from the childhood people were surrounded by some power that had an influence on their destiny. Demons of fate accompanied them during all their life and even after the death (Gadalla, 310). According to Pyramid Text written in 1466, Ancient Egyptians believed that there was a time when blankness and nothingness were ruling over Egypt. They were convinced that the sky, the earth, the death and the gods did not come into the world. The process of creation was of the big importance for Egyptians. One of the biggest beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians was the idea of the afterlife. They strongly believed that physical body should be kept in order to make a place for its spirits to live in the afterlife. As a result the Ancient Egyptians started to perform mummification to keep the body. Additionally, they started to build up the large pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs (Crystal, 305). As it was above mentioned, an Ancient Egypt religion had a lot of gods and goddesses. In fact, each local area had its god or deity. Mostly they were depicted with the human body and animal head. In most cases, their outlook expressed their behavior and features of character. For instance: - Osiris. He was the principal god of the dead and the afterworld. He was usually shown as a mummified man wearing a white crown with ostrich feathers and holding a crook in his hand. On occasion, his skin happened to be green or black, symbolizing vegetation and fertile earth. - Anubis. He was the God with the jackal head who was responsible for mummification and embalming. In addition, he was the guard of the dead and a guide in the underworld. - Neith. She was the mother of the god of the sun Re and the goddess of hunting and welfare. - Bes. He was a dwarf. He was famous as a god of household and as a protector of the family. Strangely enough, but artists usually show him facing forward more than in profile. - Sakhmet was the goddess of war, discord, demolition and disaster. Her name has its roots from the Egyptian word “sekhem” which means “powerful”. Due to her violence, she was portrayed with the head of the lion. - Bastet was the opposite to violent Sakhmet. She was gentle, placid and altruistic. Comparing to the goddess of war, she was represented with the cat’s head. She used to secure homes and pregnant women. Furthermore, she had a tendency to exalt the power of moon. - Horus was the god of the sky and the Osiris’s son. He was the true personification of the divine kingship. He was depicted with the falcon’s head and was very powerful. The rulers of the Egypt wanted to take after Horus at all costs, that is why they constructed numerous falcon statues all over the territory of the Egypt. - There were also four sons of Horus: Imsety, depicted with the human head, who was the protector of liver; Hapy, portrayed with the head of baboon, the preserver of the lungs; Qebehsenuef, illustrated with the falcon’s head (as his father) and was responsible for the intestines; Duamutef, portrayed with the head of jackal and the stomach-keeper. - Thoth was the god of the moon and wisdom and also he was making the laws for other Gods. Moreover, he used to play the role of mentor and helper for the spirits of dead people who were lost in the netherworld. He was usually portrayed as a baboon, ibis or a man with one of heads of those animals. - Isis was the sister and wife of Osiris and the role of the goddess of protection. - Nephthys was the sister of Osiris and Isis and she was taking care of the dead (Crystal, 193). The religious rituals concerning the dead were of great importance in the Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians were always assiduously preparing for funerals, including the best equipment, traditions and process. The Egyptians were convinced that the human life included several psychical parts, the most crucial of which was ka. They believed that ka was the clone of the body that traveled with it throughout the whole life and after the death left the body and took its place in the kingdom of dead. However, the ka was unable to survive without the body. That is why much endeavor was made in order to keep the dead body. To achieve this, the corpses were embalmed and mummified, taking into consideration all the rules and traditions, which were set by Osiris. After the souls of dead leave the tomb they are likely to experience countless dangers, that is why the tombs were provided with the Book of the Dead, which was created for souls to overcome all possible dangers (Crystal, 196). In addition the Ancient Egyptians were mummifying animals as well as the people. They had three vital motifs for that. First of all, some animals were the favorite pets of their owners, and, by mummifying them, they hoped that they could join them in the afterlife. Secondly, some animals were mummified and put in the tombs together with their owners in order to serve as a feed for the deceased in the afterlife. Finally, the most of the animals were mummified for the separate religious purpose without any relation to the human burial. The thing is that a lot of Ancient Egyptians believed that some species of animals were sacred and they should be kept in the temples. According to their belief, visitors of the temples had an opportunity to pay for seeing the mummies in return for God’s blessing. For instance, cats were sanctified to Bastet, the Goddess who used to take care of the childbirth. The mummified cat in her temple had a power to assist with childbirth and to secure children. The ancient Egyptians were convinced that sacred animals could show the future and give answers to certain problems (Kinnaer, 99). The cat was one of the most sacred animals in Egypt between 4000 and 3500. However, they were treated both as house animals and vermin killers. A huge variety of cat’s figures or mummified cats used to have a big popularity over the territory of Egypt. In addition, coffins were made for some of the cat statues in order to keep the mummified cats. Even cat cemeteries were created all over the Egypt and they were filled with cat mummies, for example in Saqqara, Beni Hasan and Bubastis. In some cases, according to x-ray evidences, the owners were deliberately killing their pets even in quite young age. As a matter of fact, the so called “animal industry” improved considerable employment and also increased the tax income to Pharaohs (Spence, 217). Egyptian magic was a part and parcel of the religion. A big variety of spells were used in order to protect somebody/something or to establish something. There were restrictions for using them, for example, they were supposed to be performed in temples in accordance with codes. Magic was usually practiced by priests as a part of their everyday responsibilities. Under no circumstances magic was a kind of a business and priests did not make any profit out the spells. Long after such practices, the general public had forbidden to perform magic spells because of their law level of purification and education (Spence, 219). Magic in Ancient Egypt was used with different purposes. For example, amulets were used for protection of human body or soul from menacing influences. Another reason for performing magic was healing. It was a mean of alternative medicine and it was used only when regular methods of treatment did not work. The last but not the least reason was curses and manipulation. For example, some Egyptians were putting magic spells in tombs with robbers or other criminals in order to punish them in the afterlife (Stone, 139). Among Egyptians belief one can mention the conviction which was called animism. Due to this belief, Egyptians were convinced that almost every object in the world has its soul and personality. This idea found its inception with the phenomenon of sleep. They claimed that people, while sleeping, stay inside another being that existed simultaneously with people. They called it the notion of another self. They thought that this notion also existed after the human death, which is why Egyptians were so sure in afterlife existence (Stone, 145). Another reason of animism existence is the exaltation of the tree. The tree was very vital for Egyptians since, according to the myth about Osiris, it was the place where he was reborn. Additionally, the names of new rulers of Egypt were written on the leaves of acacia tree that made the ruler’s name last forever. All in all, the religion of the Ancient Egypt was not build on the religious beliefs, but on the cult, duties and practice in order to reach the favor of the Gods. The religion of the Ancient Egyptians had influence over their beliefs through flood, drought and huge harvests that were caused by the gods and goddesses. As a consequence, they were performing prays, sacrifices in order to recompense for their good fortune. Ancient Egyptians also believed in the afterworld where gods had a power to judge. Related Free Philosophy Essays Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:0bf031e9-72e7-4971-9661-cb504feb6beb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/philosophy/ancient-egyptian-religion.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00220.warc.gz	en	0.989649	2,337	3.640625	4	[ 0.24252040684223175, 0.7789218425750732, 0.34998491406440735, -0.36939555406570435, -0.640866756439209, 0.10605218261480331, 0.5827912092208862, -0.02488107420504093, 0.07326343655586243, -0.17884592711925507, -0.28347283601760864, -0.4915887117385864, 0.1475883573293686, 0.109248235821723...	1	Religious aspects were of the great importance for the Ancient Egyptians. Nevertheless, they had no single and joint system of religious beliefs. An Ancient Egypt was notable for being a desultory group of beliefs and practices, which had differences according to social class and location. In spite of this, the tradition had a strong impact on their religion that made them resist the changes. Ancient Egyptians did not have any questions about their beliefs; they did not want any changes in their surroundings and society. Their outmost goal was to imitate those conditions and traditions they believed were created before them. Herodotus was claiming that the Egyptians, comparing to other people are more religious. Moreover, Egypt became the image of heaven that combined all the forces in it and some of the Egyptians even believed that it became the temple of the world. One of the strongest traditions was of the Divine Kingship. It was the creed that the Pharaoh was playing the multiple roles, one of which was the role of a political leader and the other was the role of a God. The Ancient Egyptians associated Pharaoh with Horus, who was the son of the God of Sun. According to their ideology, after his death he was known as Osiris and he used to assist the Egyptians in the afterworld. Owing to their creed, the Pharaoh was remarkable for an enormous mass of power. Besides that, the priests in the Ancient Egypt were also very influential (Gadalla, 310). When people were living well, they usually believed that the priest and Pharaoh were taking care of that. If it happens, that people had troubles, they immediately accused Pharaoh and the priest of the inefficiency. Buy Ancient Egyptian Religion essay paper online Ancient Egypt was famous for polytheistic religion; however there was one short period of time when it was monotheistic. The religion of Ancient Egyptians included 700 various gods and goddesses. Furthermore, it was an ordinary thing for deities to merge in order to create a new deity. In addition, the Ancient Egyptians were convinced that from the childhood people were surrounded by some power that had an influence on their destiny. Demons of fate accompanied them during all their life and even after the death (Gadalla, 310). According to Pyramid Text written in 1466, Ancient Egyptians believed that there was a time when blankness and nothingness were ruling over Egypt. They were convinced that the sky, the earth, the death and the gods did not come into the world. The process of creation was of the big importance for Egyptians. One of the biggest beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians was the idea of the afterlife. They strongly believed that physical body should be kept in order to make a place for its spirits to live in the afterlife. As a result the Ancient Egyptians started to perform mummification to keep the body. Additionally, they started to build up the large pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs (Crystal, 305). As it was above mentioned, an Ancient Egypt religion had a lot of gods and goddesses. In fact, each local area had its god or deity. Mostly they were depicted with the human body and animal head. In most cases, their outlook expressed their behavior and features of character. For instance: - Osiris. He was the principal god of the dead and the afterworld. He was usually shown as a mummified man wearing a white crown with ostrich feathers and holding a crook in his hand. On occasion, his skin happened to be green or black, symbolizing vegetation and fertile earth. - Anubis. He was the God with the jackal head who was responsible for mummification and embalming. In addition, he was the guard of the dead and a guide in the underworld. - Neith. She was the mother of the god of the sun Re and the goddess of hunting and welfare. - Bes. He was a dwarf. He was famous as a god of household and as a protector of the family. Strangely enough, but artists usually show him facing forward more than in profile. - Sakhmet was the goddess of war, discord, demolition and disaster. Her name has its roots from the Egyptian word “sekhem” which means “powerful”. Due to her violence, she was portrayed with the head of the lion. - Bastet was the opposite to violent Sakhmet. She was gentle, placid and altruistic. Comparing to the goddess of war, she was represented with the cat’s head. She used to secure homes and pregnant women. Furthermore, she had a tendency to exalt the power of moon. - Horus was the god of the sky and the Osiris’s son. He was the true personification of the divine kingship. He was depicted with the falcon’s head and was very powerful. The rulers of the Egypt wanted to take after Horus at all costs, that is why they constructed numerous falcon statues all over the territory of the Egypt. - There were also four sons of Horus: Imsety, depicted with the human head, who was the protector of liver; Hapy, portrayed with the head of baboon, the preserver of the lungs; Qebehsenuef, illustrated with the falcon’s head (as his father) and was responsible for the intestines; Duamutef, portrayed with the head of jackal and the stomach-keeper. - Thoth was the god of the moon and wisdom and also he was making the laws for other Gods. Moreover, he used to play the role of mentor and helper for the spirits of dead people who were lost in the netherworld. He was usually portrayed as a baboon, ibis or a man with one of heads of those animals. - Isis was the sister and wife of Osiris and the role of the goddess of protection. - Nephthys was the sister of Osiris and Isis and she was taking care of the dead (Crystal, 193). The religious rituals concerning the dead were of great importance in the Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians were always assiduously preparing for funerals, including the best equipment, traditions and process. The Egyptians were convinced that the human life included several psychical parts, the most crucial of which was ka. They believed that ka was the clone of the body that traveled with it throughout the whole life and after the death left the body and took its place in the kingdom of dead. However, the ka was unable to survive without the body. That is why much endeavor was made in order to keep the dead body. To achieve this, the corpses were embalmed and mummified, taking into consideration all the rules and traditions, which were set by Osiris. After the souls of dead leave the tomb they are likely to experience countless dangers, that is why the tombs were provided with the Book of the Dead, which was created for souls to overcome all possible dangers (Crystal, 196). In addition the Ancient Egyptians were mummifying animals as well as the people. They had three vital motifs for that. First of all, some animals were the favorite pets of their owners, and, by mummifying them, they hoped that they could join them in the afterlife. Secondly, some animals were mummified and put in the tombs together with their owners in order to serve as a feed for the deceased in the afterlife. Finally, the most of the animals were mummified for the separate religious purpose without any relation to the human burial. The thing is that a lot of Ancient Egyptians believed that some species of animals were sacred and they should be kept in the temples. According to their belief, visitors of the temples had an opportunity to pay for seeing the mummies in return for God’s blessing. For instance, cats were sanctified to Bastet, the Goddess who used to take care of the childbirth. The mummified cat in her temple had a power to assist with childbirth and to secure children. The ancient Egyptians were convinced that sacred animals could show the future and give answers to certain problems (Kinnaer, 99). The cat was one of the most sacred animals in Egypt between 4000 and 3500. However, they were treated both as house animals and vermin killers. A huge variety of cat’s figures or mummified cats used to have a big popularity over the territory of Egypt. In addition, coffins were made for some of the cat statues in order to keep the mummified cats. Even cat cemeteries were created all over the Egypt and they were filled with cat mummies, for example in Saqqara, Beni Hasan and Bubastis. In some cases, according to x-ray evidences, the owners were deliberately killing their pets even in quite young age. As a matter of fact, the so called “animal industry” improved considerable employment and also increased the tax income to Pharaohs (Spence, 217). Egyptian magic was a part and parcel of the religion. A big variety of spells were used in order to protect somebody/something or to establish something. There were restrictions for using them, for example, they were supposed to be performed in temples in accordance with codes. Magic was usually practiced by priests as a part of their everyday responsibilities. Under no circumstances magic was a kind of a business and priests did not make any profit out the spells. Long after such practices, the general public had forbidden to perform magic spells because of their law level of purification and education (Spence, 219). Magic in Ancient Egypt was used with different purposes. For example, amulets were used for protection of human body or soul from menacing influences. Another reason for performing magic was healing. It was a mean of alternative medicine and it was used only when regular methods of treatment did not work. The last but not the least reason was curses and manipulation. For example, some Egyptians were putting magic spells in tombs with robbers or other criminals in order to punish them in the afterlife (Stone, 139). Among Egyptians belief one can mention the conviction which was called animism. Due to this belief, Egyptians were convinced that almost every object in the world has its soul and personality. This idea found its inception with the phenomenon of sleep. They claimed that people, while sleeping, stay inside another being that existed simultaneously with people. They called it the notion of another self. They thought that this notion also existed after the human death, which is why Egyptians were so sure in afterlife existence (Stone, 145). Another reason of animism existence is the exaltation of the tree. The tree was very vital for Egyptians since, according to the myth about Osiris, it was the place where he was reborn. Additionally, the names of new rulers of Egypt were written on the leaves of acacia tree that made the ruler’s name last forever. All in all, the religion of the Ancient Egypt was not build on the religious beliefs, but on the cult, duties and practice in order to reach the favor of the Gods. The religion of the Ancient Egyptians had influence over their beliefs through flood, drought and huge harvests that were caused by the gods and goddesses. As a consequence, they were performing prays, sacrifices in order to recompense for their good fortune. Ancient Egyptians also believed in the afterworld where gods had a power to judge. Related Free Philosophy Essays Most popular orders	2,366	ENGLISH	1
In 1905, Johnny’s brother John Roseland Johnson set the words of this poem to USIA. It was not long after that this song ended up in almost every church hymnal across the country. Therefore, it was typically performed via organ or piano along with drums. The music to this song is well organized. Being that the song was originally written as a poem is does have some parts that rhyme. The song is broken up into three paragraphs. The first stanza of each part has a different melody than the second stanza. The set up is the same for the other two parts. I feel that the way the music was written for this poem it also portrays the lyrics.Order now The song talks about he past and it seems as though on some of the parts the music tone is low which makes you think of something dark or depressing and the times this song was written in were dark and gloomy. I think I was attracted to reviewing this piece of music because I attend a predominantly African American church and this song is sung every year the month of Black History. I was interested in learning more information about it. One thing I really like about this piece of music is the lyrics are truly meaningful. It describes where groups of people were and where they wanted to be in the future. One weakness I think this song has is sometimes as the music is being sung it makes it difficult to hear what the actual words are. This song does show that it possesses lasting value because it is still being sung over 100 years later. The cultural significance this piece of work has is it described the place that African Americans came from in slavery and the freedom they were walking into. References The Black National Anthem. (2012, October 7). Retrieved from Black History: http:// blacklisting. Com/content/62362/the-black-national-anthem Music Reaction By watchstraps	<urn:uuid:58b4e362-5d67-4060-8bb4-35dc634cc825>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/performing-arts/music/music-reaction-30392/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00056.warc.gz	en	0.988123	382	3.46875	3	[ -0.06155095621943474, 0.054599691182374954, 0.09596457332372665, -0.017169998958706856, 0.017309531569480896, 0.1443132758140564, -0.14122049510478973, 0.005839935038238764, 0.03665022924542427, -0.3253873884677887, -0.3063167929649353, 0.6037653088569641, 0.06675498932600021, 0.0519305281...	4	In 1905, Johnny’s brother John Roseland Johnson set the words of this poem to USIA. It was not long after that this song ended up in almost every church hymnal across the country. Therefore, it was typically performed via organ or piano along with drums. The music to this song is well organized. Being that the song was originally written as a poem is does have some parts that rhyme. The song is broken up into three paragraphs. The first stanza of each part has a different melody than the second stanza. The set up is the same for the other two parts. I feel that the way the music was written for this poem it also portrays the lyrics.Order now The song talks about he past and it seems as though on some of the parts the music tone is low which makes you think of something dark or depressing and the times this song was written in were dark and gloomy. I think I was attracted to reviewing this piece of music because I attend a predominantly African American church and this song is sung every year the month of Black History. I was interested in learning more information about it. One thing I really like about this piece of music is the lyrics are truly meaningful. It describes where groups of people were and where they wanted to be in the future. One weakness I think this song has is sometimes as the music is being sung it makes it difficult to hear what the actual words are. This song does show that it possesses lasting value because it is still being sung over 100 years later. The cultural significance this piece of work has is it described the place that African Americans came from in slavery and the freedom they were walking into. References The Black National Anthem. (2012, October 7). Retrieved from Black History: http:// blacklisting. Com/content/62362/the-black-national-anthem Music Reaction By watchstraps	384	ENGLISH	1
Why is Ralph mad at Jack when he killed his first pig? no In William Golding's Lord of the Flies, conflict develops as a result of different priorities. As Jack becomes more and more obsessed with hunting, Ralph becomes more anxious to be rescued. In Chapter 4, Jack finally is able to kill his first pig. However, at the same time that Jack and his hunters are killing their pig, Ralph and Piggy have spotted a ship. It is at this point that Ralph realizes how desperately he wants to get off the island. When he looks to see if their fire is burning to signal the ship so that the boys can be rescued, he sees that the hunters have abandoned the fire to hunt and that the fire has gone out. Their chance of being rescued has passed. Jack's main job was to keep the signal fire going. He neglected this responsibility, and for this neglect, Ralph is quite angry. He keeps repeating to Jack, "You let the fire go out." Ralph cannot share in Jack's excitement over his first kill. Instead, he perhaps more than ever understands his responsibility as leader--to ensure that they work together to be safe and to be rescued. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:06e12b43-a576-41b8-83c2-7cef0b69b88f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-ralph-mad-jack-when-he-killed-his-first-pig-307006?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00035.warc.gz	en	0.986218	251	3.328125	3	[ -0.42202284932136536, 0.3001541793346405, 0.28270870447158813, -0.21141095459461212, 0.2430519312620163, -0.2917178273200989, 0.45966899394989014, 0.10937266051769257, -0.09217473119497299, -0.2722449004650116, 0.14677046239376068, -0.42823031544685364, -0.02908431924879551, 0.553530514240...	1	Why is Ralph mad at Jack when he killed his first pig? no In William Golding's Lord of the Flies, conflict develops as a result of different priorities. As Jack becomes more and more obsessed with hunting, Ralph becomes more anxious to be rescued. In Chapter 4, Jack finally is able to kill his first pig. However, at the same time that Jack and his hunters are killing their pig, Ralph and Piggy have spotted a ship. It is at this point that Ralph realizes how desperately he wants to get off the island. When he looks to see if their fire is burning to signal the ship so that the boys can be rescued, he sees that the hunters have abandoned the fire to hunt and that the fire has gone out. Their chance of being rescued has passed. Jack's main job was to keep the signal fire going. He neglected this responsibility, and for this neglect, Ralph is quite angry. He keeps repeating to Jack, "You let the fire go out." Ralph cannot share in Jack's excitement over his first kill. Instead, he perhaps more than ever understands his responsibility as leader--to ensure that they work together to be safe and to be rescued. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	246	ENGLISH	1
Adolf Hitler 1918 to 1924 Adolf Hitler remained in the German Army after World War One ended in November 1918. Seething with anger at Germany’s defeat, Hitler was employed as a V-Man. Hitler’s job was to visit as many political organisations as possible to check out whether they were right wing, centre politics or left wing. In particular, in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, both the government and army wanted to know who the socialists or communists were. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles only added to Hitler’s anger during this period in his life. Hitler also worked within the Education Department of the army and his task here was to lecture returning soldiers on the dangers of communism, socialism and pacifism. Senior officers were impressed with Hitler’s skills as a speaker. It was at this time that the corporal, who was a loner, discovered his greatest talent – public oratory. The gas attack Hitler had suffered had affected his vocal chords and he spoke in a manner that few had heard before. Many who later heard Hitler speak at public rallies claimed that his voice had hypnotic qualities to it. In November 1922, Truman Smith, an American spy based in Germany, wrote: \|The most important political force in Bavaria at the present time is the National Socialist German Workers Party….Adolf Hitler…is the dominating force in the movement….his ability to influence a large audience is uncanny.\| Karl Ludecke, who published a book called “I knew Hitler”, wrote the following about the first time that he heard Hitler speak: \|Hitler was a slight, pale man with brown hair parted to one side. He had steel-blue eyes…he had the look of a fanatic….he held the audience, and me with them, under a hypnotic spell by the sheer force of his conviction.\| What Hitler spoke about to the returning soldiers also hit home : the betrayal of the soldiers by politicians; the stab-in-the-back (of the soldiers) by the Jews; the failure of democratic politics and the disaster communism would be for Germany. His thoughts were widely held – but Hitler’s audience in 1918 to 1919 was very small and his impact was very little. In September 1919, Hitler visited, as a V-Man, a meeting of the German Workers’ Party. The party name indicated that it had socialist leanings with its “workers'” tag. It was, in fact, an extreme, anti-Semitic, anti-communist, right wing nationalist party lead by Karl Drexler. At Hitler’s visit, it only had 40 members. Hitler informed the army that it posed no threat to Germany. After this visit, Hitler joined the party as it seemed to represent all that he believed in. He quickly became the party’s propaganda officer. In early 1920, the party changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) which quickly got corrupted to ‘Nazi’ by both enemies and supporters alike. Hitler wrote out the party’s beliefs in the so-called 25 Point Party Programme. This party programme was a curious mixture – right wing nationalism; anti-capitalism; anti-socialism; anti-wealth etc. This rag-bag mixture would have been laughable in normal circumstances but Germany was not in normal circumstances. The NSDAP played on the Germans hatred of the Treaty of Versailles (which it said it would ignore); the belief that Germany had been stabbed in the back. Even in its early days, the NSDAP tuned in to many peoples’ emotions. However, in 1920, the party was just one of many right wing parties that seemed to exist in Germany at this time. In a 1920 leaflet, the NSDAP blamed 300 bankers and financiers throughout the world for dictating policy to the world and holding it to ransom. \|“Shake off your Jewish leaders…………Don’t expect anything from the Bolsheviks (the Russian Communists)…………(The Russian government) is nine-tenths Jewish. Bolshevism is a Jewish swindle.”\| This touched a raw nerve in some Germans. Former soldiers who had been in the Free Corps joined the Nazi Party and their ‘skills’ were used to break up meetings of other political parties. The use of violence became a way of life for the Nazis. Regardless of this, the party made little headway in politics. It did benefit from one great advantage in Weimar Germany – the electoral system used proportional representation in deciding results. Any party that got more votes than the cut-off would get some seats in the Reichstag. This favoured the Nazis. They could not afford expensive election campaigns as Karl Ludecke related in his book “I knew Hitler”. \|“The organisation lived from day-to-day financially, with no treasury to draw on for lecture halls rents, printing costs, or the thousand-and-one expenses which threatened to swamp us. The only funds we could count on were small, merely a drop in the bucket.”\| Up to 1923, the Nazi Party was small and noisy. Its importance was mainly in the Munich area of Bavaria. Money, or lack of it, was always a problem. The 1923 hyperinflation crisis proved to be an opportunity too good to miss for the now party leader – Hitler. Hyperinflation ruined the middle class. The poor had little and they lost most of the little they had. The rich lost a lot but as rich people they could keep their heads above water. The middle class did not have the cash reserves of the rich but they lead comfortable lives. These lives were now ruined by hyperinflation and they blamed the government. Hitler planned to seize the most important city in the south – Munich – and to use the city as a base to launch an attack on the rest of Germany, hoping that the angered middle class would rise up in support of him throughout the nation. The Beer Hall Putsch: On November 8th, 1923, Hitler and 2000 Nazis marched through the streets of Munich to take over a meeting at the Munich Beer Hall. This meeting was being chaired by the three most important people in Bavarian politics – Hans Seisser, Otto von Lossow and Gustav von Kahr. Depending on whose account you read, Hitler strode to the front of the meeting and declared that when convenient von Kahr would be declared regent of Bavaria, the Berlin government would be tried as traitors, Seisser would be made head of Germany’s police…….but as the time was not convenient. He, Hitler, would take charge of the country. He stated that on the following day, the Nazis would march on the War Ministry and set up government there. On the 9th November, the Nazis started on their march only to be met by armed police. What happened next varies. When the police fired on the leading marchers, the official Nazi biography of Hitler published in 1934 stated that he saved the life of the man next to him who had been shot. Another unofficial version – by Rudolf Olden – claims that on the first shot Hitler ran away to a waiting car to be driven to the Bavarian mountains and safety. He would not have known that 13 Nazis had been shot dead by the police. Regardless of what happened and what Hitler did, the march was a disaster for the Nazis and could have easily spelt the end of the Nazi Party. Ironically, the Beer Hall Putsch was to launch Hitler into national fame. He was arrested for treason and put on trial. This trial was to make Hitler famous within Germany and may well have saved the Nazi Party from collapse. - Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no… - Julius Streicher has become one of the most notorious Nazi leaders despite the fact that he played little part in World War Two and lost…	<urn:uuid:2aaa20e5-90c4-4e2b-a91b-e799a254280c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/adolf-hitler-1918-to-1924/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00395.warc.gz	en	0.982377	1,672	3.46875	3	[ -0.3644207715988159, 0.7560871839523315, 0.026816226541996002, -0.019469136372208595, -0.14952988922595978, 0.24343657493591309, 0.3338514268398285, -0.0015579103492200375, -0.45880186557769775, -0.2992740273475647, 0.29537394642829895, -0.18287904560565948, 0.4387087821960449, 0.438099384...	2	Adolf Hitler 1918 to 1924 Adolf Hitler remained in the German Army after World War One ended in November 1918. Seething with anger at Germany’s defeat, Hitler was employed as a V-Man. Hitler’s job was to visit as many political organisations as possible to check out whether they were right wing, centre politics or left wing. In particular, in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, both the government and army wanted to know who the socialists or communists were. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles only added to Hitler’s anger during this period in his life. Hitler also worked within the Education Department of the army and his task here was to lecture returning soldiers on the dangers of communism, socialism and pacifism. Senior officers were impressed with Hitler’s skills as a speaker. It was at this time that the corporal, who was a loner, discovered his greatest talent – public oratory. The gas attack Hitler had suffered had affected his vocal chords and he spoke in a manner that few had heard before. Many who later heard Hitler speak at public rallies claimed that his voice had hypnotic qualities to it. In November 1922, Truman Smith, an American spy based in Germany, wrote: \|The most important political force in Bavaria at the present time is the National Socialist German Workers Party….Adolf Hitler…is the dominating force in the movement….his ability to influence a large audience is uncanny.\| Karl Ludecke, who published a book called “I knew Hitler”, wrote the following about the first time that he heard Hitler speak: \|Hitler was a slight, pale man with brown hair parted to one side. He had steel-blue eyes…he had the look of a fanatic….he held the audience, and me with them, under a hypnotic spell by the sheer force of his conviction.\| What Hitler spoke about to the returning soldiers also hit home : the betrayal of the soldiers by politicians; the stab-in-the-back (of the soldiers) by the Jews; the failure of democratic politics and the disaster communism would be for Germany. His thoughts were widely held – but Hitler’s audience in 1918 to 1919 was very small and his impact was very little. In September 1919, Hitler visited, as a V-Man, a meeting of the German Workers’ Party. The party name indicated that it had socialist leanings with its “workers'” tag. It was, in fact, an extreme, anti-Semitic, anti-communist, right wing nationalist party lead by Karl Drexler. At Hitler’s visit, it only had 40 members. Hitler informed the army that it posed no threat to Germany. After this visit, Hitler joined the party as it seemed to represent all that he believed in. He quickly became the party’s propaganda officer. In early 1920, the party changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) which quickly got corrupted to ‘Nazi’ by both enemies and supporters alike. Hitler wrote out the party’s beliefs in the so-called 25 Point Party Programme. This party programme was a curious mixture – right wing nationalism; anti-capitalism; anti-socialism; anti-wealth etc. This rag-bag mixture would have been laughable in normal circumstances but Germany was not in normal circumstances. The NSDAP played on the Germans hatred of the Treaty of Versailles (which it said it would ignore); the belief that Germany had been stabbed in the back. Even in its early days, the NSDAP tuned in to many peoples’ emotions. However, in 1920, the party was just one of many right wing parties that seemed to exist in Germany at this time. In a 1920 leaflet, the NSDAP blamed 300 bankers and financiers throughout the world for dictating policy to the world and holding it to ransom. \|“Shake off your Jewish leaders…………Don’t expect anything from the Bolsheviks (the Russian Communists)…………(The Russian government) is nine-tenths Jewish. Bolshevism is a Jewish swindle.”\| This touched a raw nerve in some Germans. Former soldiers who had been in the Free Corps joined the Nazi Party and their ‘skills’ were used to break up meetings of other political parties. The use of violence became a way of life for the Nazis. Regardless of this, the party made little headway in politics. It did benefit from one great advantage in Weimar Germany – the electoral system used proportional representation in deciding results. Any party that got more votes than the cut-off would get some seats in the Reichstag. This favoured the Nazis. They could not afford expensive election campaigns as Karl Ludecke related in his book “I knew Hitler”. \|“The organisation lived from day-to-day financially, with no treasury to draw on for lecture halls rents, printing costs, or the thousand-and-one expenses which threatened to swamp us. The only funds we could count on were small, merely a drop in the bucket.”\| Up to 1923, the Nazi Party was small and noisy. Its importance was mainly in the Munich area of Bavaria. Money, or lack of it, was always a problem. The 1923 hyperinflation crisis proved to be an opportunity too good to miss for the now party leader – Hitler. Hyperinflation ruined the middle class. The poor had little and they lost most of the little they had. The rich lost a lot but as rich people they could keep their heads above water. The middle class did not have the cash reserves of the rich but they lead comfortable lives. These lives were now ruined by hyperinflation and they blamed the government. Hitler planned to seize the most important city in the south – Munich – and to use the city as a base to launch an attack on the rest of Germany, hoping that the angered middle class would rise up in support of him throughout the nation. The Beer Hall Putsch: On November 8th, 1923, Hitler and 2000 Nazis marched through the streets of Munich to take over a meeting at the Munich Beer Hall. This meeting was being chaired by the three most important people in Bavarian politics – Hans Seisser, Otto von Lossow and Gustav von Kahr. Depending on whose account you read, Hitler strode to the front of the meeting and declared that when convenient von Kahr would be declared regent of Bavaria, the Berlin government would be tried as traitors, Seisser would be made head of Germany’s police…….but as the time was not convenient. He, Hitler, would take charge of the country. He stated that on the following day, the Nazis would march on the War Ministry and set up government there. On the 9th November, the Nazis started on their march only to be met by armed police. What happened next varies. When the police fired on the leading marchers, the official Nazi biography of Hitler published in 1934 stated that he saved the life of the man next to him who had been shot. Another unofficial version – by Rudolf Olden – claims that on the first shot Hitler ran away to a waiting car to be driven to the Bavarian mountains and safety. He would not have known that 13 Nazis had been shot dead by the police. Regardless of what happened and what Hitler did, the march was a disaster for the Nazis and could have easily spelt the end of the Nazi Party. Ironically, the Beer Hall Putsch was to launch Hitler into national fame. He was arrested for treason and put on trial. This trial was to make Hitler famous within Germany and may well have saved the Nazi Party from collapse. - Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no… - Julius Streicher has become one of the most notorious Nazi leaders despite the fact that he played little part in World War Two and lost…	1,663	ENGLISH	1
“Franklin Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy was a more ethical, moral, respectful, and neighborly approach to international relations than that of his predecessors. ” This is exactly what U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt wanted his new foreign policy of 1933 to be. The Good Neighbor policy was the United State’s new foreign policy, stating that they were to no longer intervene militarily in other countries; they would no longer imperialize the world, and instead were to become “good neighbors” to the other countries. The Good Neighbor policy sounds like a great idea, but when one comes to think of it, why would they need to patch up things? Something, or in this case many things, led to the creation of the Good Neighbor Policy which was long overdue. It’s the first impression that will either open a door or close it, even though things are never as they seem. The United States, at first, seemed as if they wanted to help the Western Hemisphere by expelling all Europeans from it with the Monroe Doctrine, but once again, things are never as they seem. As time went on and policies were formed, the United States’ true colors began to show. At first they wanted to banish all European powers from their spheres of influence in the Americas, which appeared to be a good idea to the other American countries. When this was done, another imperial power started to rise. It was now the United States that had many spheres of influence, but they were even worse. They had the idea that they were to “master” the “inferior races” and expand territorially and culturally. Uncle Sam’s nation wanted to dominate the world, and for a while they did. Soon enough, things came crashing down. The Roosevelt Corollary, the Big Stick Policy, the Dollar Diplomacy and the Gunboat Diplomacy, just to name a few, were huge factors in the development of the other nations’ hatred towards the United States. Their constant interventions in different countries, the right to intervene in Puerto Rico, the massive intervention in Panama, they all led to abhorrence. The United States had gained many enemies and was always seen as the bad neighbor. Finally, someone realized this and was wise enough to do something about it. This man was Franklin Roosevelt, elected in 1932 as the president of the United States. FDR realized something had to be done, and he was the one to make it happen. In his inaugural speech on March 1933 he said “I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor—the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others” , and this is how the Good Neighbor Policy was born. The United States needed it in order to keep their sovereignty and their overall harmonious existence. With the establishment of the Good Neighbor policy came many new and great things. The Great Depression was taking place, but the Good Neighbor policy forced the US to open its markets to other countries, therefore causing a boom in the trade all over the western hemisphere. This led to a new and much desired economic stability. This great policy also put an end to the United States’ military interventions; they were no longer to meddle in other countries affairs, especially because as it was seen in the past with the Spanish-American war, their presence in foreign affairs could lead to war. All troops were withdrawn from in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua. The United States actually gained allies after this policy was enabled, something they were not used to having. Another huge effect was the remarkable decline in the belittling stereotyping of Latinos by the American government and media industries. It looked as if the Good Neighbor Policy was bringing many good things to the US. The Good Neighbor policy did patch up many things. It helped maintain better relations with other countries which previously hated and resented the United States, which was a huge advance towards international harmony. It stopped American imperialism and expansionism, and brought them down of their high horse. President Franklin Roosevelt knew what he was doing, and all Americans until today still owe him so much for having had the courage and the determination to make the United States a serene country, eliminating hate and resentments country by country. The Good Neighbor policy helped the United States and did change their relations with other countries, but maybe the others just chose to forgive, without forgetting.	<urn:uuid:8f735bc9-4400-4958-a654-d7289e8dc9f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tbf-sa.co.za/the-united-states-becomes-a-good-neighbor/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00424.warc.gz	en	0.987241	914	3.546875	4	[ -0.43240082263946533, -0.14592482149600983, 0.3306993246078491, -0.40691453218460083, 0.3869173526763916, 0.28005531430244446, -0.10029830038547516, 0.15510112047195435, -0.12236806750297546, -0.1445205807685852, 0.5335879325866699, 0.2237301468849182, 0.07496675103902817, 0.28414744138717...	3	“Franklin Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy was a more ethical, moral, respectful, and neighborly approach to international relations than that of his predecessors. ” This is exactly what U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt wanted his new foreign policy of 1933 to be. The Good Neighbor policy was the United State’s new foreign policy, stating that they were to no longer intervene militarily in other countries; they would no longer imperialize the world, and instead were to become “good neighbors” to the other countries. The Good Neighbor policy sounds like a great idea, but when one comes to think of it, why would they need to patch up things? Something, or in this case many things, led to the creation of the Good Neighbor Policy which was long overdue. It’s the first impression that will either open a door or close it, even though things are never as they seem. The United States, at first, seemed as if they wanted to help the Western Hemisphere by expelling all Europeans from it with the Monroe Doctrine, but once again, things are never as they seem. As time went on and policies were formed, the United States’ true colors began to show. At first they wanted to banish all European powers from their spheres of influence in the Americas, which appeared to be a good idea to the other American countries. When this was done, another imperial power started to rise. It was now the United States that had many spheres of influence, but they were even worse. They had the idea that they were to “master” the “inferior races” and expand territorially and culturally. Uncle Sam’s nation wanted to dominate the world, and for a while they did. Soon enough, things came crashing down. The Roosevelt Corollary, the Big Stick Policy, the Dollar Diplomacy and the Gunboat Diplomacy, just to name a few, were huge factors in the development of the other nations’ hatred towards the United States. Their constant interventions in different countries, the right to intervene in Puerto Rico, the massive intervention in Panama, they all led to abhorrence. The United States had gained many enemies and was always seen as the bad neighbor. Finally, someone realized this and was wise enough to do something about it. This man was Franklin Roosevelt, elected in 1932 as the president of the United States. FDR realized something had to be done, and he was the one to make it happen. In his inaugural speech on March 1933 he said “I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor—the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others” , and this is how the Good Neighbor Policy was born. The United States needed it in order to keep their sovereignty and their overall harmonious existence. With the establishment of the Good Neighbor policy came many new and great things. The Great Depression was taking place, but the Good Neighbor policy forced the US to open its markets to other countries, therefore causing a boom in the trade all over the western hemisphere. This led to a new and much desired economic stability. This great policy also put an end to the United States’ military interventions; they were no longer to meddle in other countries affairs, especially because as it was seen in the past with the Spanish-American war, their presence in foreign affairs could lead to war. All troops were withdrawn from in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua. The United States actually gained allies after this policy was enabled, something they were not used to having. Another huge effect was the remarkable decline in the belittling stereotyping of Latinos by the American government and media industries. It looked as if the Good Neighbor Policy was bringing many good things to the US. The Good Neighbor policy did patch up many things. It helped maintain better relations with other countries which previously hated and resented the United States, which was a huge advance towards international harmony. It stopped American imperialism and expansionism, and brought them down of their high horse. President Franklin Roosevelt knew what he was doing, and all Americans until today still owe him so much for having had the courage and the determination to make the United States a serene country, eliminating hate and resentments country by country. The Good Neighbor policy helped the United States and did change their relations with other countries, but maybe the others just chose to forgive, without forgetting.	897	ENGLISH	1
I have tried to look for an answer using the [currency] tag but none of those questions had answers that sufficed. I understand that back then there were a myriad of currencies, most of these were based on silver and gold, and their value in said ore usually represented their denominated value as well. (at least this is what I assume, correct me if I am wrong). At some later point the denominations value was provided by an other backing aside of what the actual coin was worth, but my question is more about when a gold coin's worth was governed by the gold that was used to smith it. Say there are two kingdoms, each mint gold coins. Crowns and Florins as an easy example. Trade is plenty between said kingdoms so there have to be conversions of the currency going on. Now if the currencies have different shapes and thickness I assume one coin type would be worth more than the other, if looking at the metal value. How is this difference in worth handled by the converters? I read a lot about using scales and we all know the stereotypical image of somebody biting a coin to check if it is fake, but this can't be how it was done surely? Additionally, how can they check if a coin had a core of another metal (of less worth) but a coat of gold? And for the kingdoms, how could they be sure their coinage was not devalued? I could think of some tactics to weaken a kingdom by tampering with their currency. Chaffing gold off their coins, forging them with a lower gold content and trading them out to melt their actual coins, and so on. These are things I come up with and I have little knowledge about it. I guess somebody with more extensive metallurgical knowledge can think of plenty more things to do. - How did they make conversions between two currencies in the middle ages (and other appropriate times) with currencies which's denominations values were the actual metal value of the minted coin? (backed by the metal and not the state or something) - How did the converters handle forgeries and tampering with the coin? - How did the kingdoms/ empires/ ... handle their currency being tampered with and exploited? Did this happen at all?	<urn:uuid:aa2cb061-c815-42b3-8467-720a141eb7e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/158719/how-was-currency-converted-in-the-middle-ages	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00005.warc.gz	en	0.981751	462	3.453125	3	[ -0.3106578588485718, -0.1540863960981369, 0.019954323768615723, 0.13004541397094727, 0.15152187645435333, -0.4388750195503235, 0.3359192907810211, -0.0676589086651802, -0.12267035990953445, -0.08855479210615158, 0.27524855732917786, -0.4327540993690491, 0.1886628270149231, -0.0781682729721...	3	I have tried to look for an answer using the [currency] tag but none of those questions had answers that sufficed. I understand that back then there were a myriad of currencies, most of these were based on silver and gold, and their value in said ore usually represented their denominated value as well. (at least this is what I assume, correct me if I am wrong). At some later point the denominations value was provided by an other backing aside of what the actual coin was worth, but my question is more about when a gold coin's worth was governed by the gold that was used to smith it. Say there are two kingdoms, each mint gold coins. Crowns and Florins as an easy example. Trade is plenty between said kingdoms so there have to be conversions of the currency going on. Now if the currencies have different shapes and thickness I assume one coin type would be worth more than the other, if looking at the metal value. How is this difference in worth handled by the converters? I read a lot about using scales and we all know the stereotypical image of somebody biting a coin to check if it is fake, but this can't be how it was done surely? Additionally, how can they check if a coin had a core of another metal (of less worth) but a coat of gold? And for the kingdoms, how could they be sure their coinage was not devalued? I could think of some tactics to weaken a kingdom by tampering with their currency. Chaffing gold off their coins, forging them with a lower gold content and trading them out to melt their actual coins, and so on. These are things I come up with and I have little knowledge about it. I guess somebody with more extensive metallurgical knowledge can think of plenty more things to do. - How did they make conversions between two currencies in the middle ages (and other appropriate times) with currencies which's denominations values were the actual metal value of the minted coin? (backed by the metal and not the state or something) - How did the converters handle forgeries and tampering with the coin? - How did the kingdoms/ empires/ ... handle their currency being tampered with and exploited? Did this happen at all?	457	ENGLISH	1
Lenape Native Americans originally inhabited Kennett Square area. This indigenous group lived in Canada and the United States. Name Lenape, comes from Lenni which means ‘real person’ or ‘original person’. They had a matrilineal clan system. They covered the area of present-day eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, western Long Island, and the Hudson Valley. They had a matrilineal kingship clan system and had 3 major clans divided into 12 sub-clans. Three major clans were Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey clan. Male children’s mentor was the mother’s eldest brother and had a more significant role in their life than their father, who was usually a member of another clan. They had animosity with Iroquois and Susquehannocks, but they practiced the adoption of young captives from warfare into their tribe and assimilating them as full members. Their downfall began with the arrival of the European colonist and the beginning of the inter-tribal conflicts. Furthermore, they got divided and pushed through the US during the American Revolutionary War, they got pushed far west to Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario. Lenape Native Americans were farmers and hunters. Land that they cultivated didn’t have an owner, it belongs to the tribe, and meaning of ownership of the land was unknown in their culture. They lived in fixed settlements, and they cultivated the surrounding area and hunt. Once the resources were exhausted, they would just move to another land and that is known as agricultural shifting. Women practiced companion planting and did cultivation of maize, beans, and squash. Men, on the other hand, practiced hunting, and the harvesting of seafood. They did an exchange of goods with early settlers, so they would trade vegetables and meats for iron tools. The Lenape skill of doing clothes from natural materials was on a high level. They used beaver pelts and bear skins, which they also traded with early settlers. For decoration purposes, they painted their skin, made ornaments made of stones, shells, animal claws, and teeth. Overall it was an advanced and organized group which last Chester County member known as Indian Hannah (Hannah Freeman) lived from 1730 till 1802.	<urn:uuid:1b62ce8f-8a40-4747-8938-a591a10999c1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.halfmoonrestaurant.com/lenape-native-americans/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00233.warc.gz	en	0.985605	460	4.15625	4	[ -0.0654076486825943, 0.23891989886760712, 0.1505943238735199, -0.023037739098072052, -0.0881355032324791, -0.36571991443634033, 0.22407127916812897, 0.013310549780726433, -0.19180311262607574, 0.19120754301548004, 0.1855703741312027, -0.13814587891101837, 0.25684788823127747, 0.21164967119...	4	Lenape Native Americans originally inhabited Kennett Square area. This indigenous group lived in Canada and the United States. Name Lenape, comes from Lenni which means ‘real person’ or ‘original person’. They had a matrilineal clan system. They covered the area of present-day eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, western Long Island, and the Hudson Valley. They had a matrilineal kingship clan system and had 3 major clans divided into 12 sub-clans. Three major clans were Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey clan. Male children’s mentor was the mother’s eldest brother and had a more significant role in their life than their father, who was usually a member of another clan. They had animosity with Iroquois and Susquehannocks, but they practiced the adoption of young captives from warfare into their tribe and assimilating them as full members. Their downfall began with the arrival of the European colonist and the beginning of the inter-tribal conflicts. Furthermore, they got divided and pushed through the US during the American Revolutionary War, they got pushed far west to Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario. Lenape Native Americans were farmers and hunters. Land that they cultivated didn’t have an owner, it belongs to the tribe, and meaning of ownership of the land was unknown in their culture. They lived in fixed settlements, and they cultivated the surrounding area and hunt. Once the resources were exhausted, they would just move to another land and that is known as agricultural shifting. Women practiced companion planting and did cultivation of maize, beans, and squash. Men, on the other hand, practiced hunting, and the harvesting of seafood. They did an exchange of goods with early settlers, so they would trade vegetables and meats for iron tools. The Lenape skill of doing clothes from natural materials was on a high level. They used beaver pelts and bear skins, which they also traded with early settlers. For decoration purposes, they painted their skin, made ornaments made of stones, shells, animal claws, and teeth. Overall it was an advanced and organized group which last Chester County member known as Indian Hannah (Hannah Freeman) lived from 1730 till 1802.	456	ENGLISH	1
Visit Website Not everyone benefited equally from the market revolution, least of all those nonwhites for whom it was an unmitigated disaster. He successfully led American forces in several battles during his career, most prominently in the Battle of New Orleans. Andrew Jackson became the seventh President of the United States in and served for two terms till He was an influential leader and his presidency is marked by the advent of what is known as the Jacksonian Era or Age of Jackson. Jacksonian Era, most importantly, led to greater democracy for the common man and was the most prominent political movement in U. Know more about the contribution of Andrew Jackson by studying his 10 major accomplishments and achievements. He successfully commanded the U. He is renowned for his bravery, leadership and success in its campaigns. His most famous contribution came at the Battle of New Orleans, fought between January 8 and January 18, Battle of New Orleans was the last major battle of the War of and the most one-sided. He received the most popular votes but not a majority. The election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams as president. However, whether it was corrupt is now debated. In the elections, Jackson won by a landslide becoming the seventh President of the United States. He also won the next elections comfortably. Andrew Jackson served as U. President from March 4, to March 4, However, it split and faded away in the s and aroundJackson and his supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. Jackson was thus the first Democratic President of U. The Democratic Party is the oldest political party in the world and remains one of the two major political parties in America. Official logo of the United States Democratic Party 5 Jacksonian Democracy led to greater democracy for the common man Andrew Jackson led a political movement primarily aimed at providing greater democracy for the common man, which became known as Jacksonian democracy. Jackson is credited for spreading political power from the established elites to the ordinary voters. Jacksonian democracy spread throughout American politics and was the most prominent issue till the rise of the slavery issue in the s. It is considered to be a vital movement in American democracy which inspired important later events and movements. The rise of Jacksonian democracy led to attitudes and state laws changing in favor of granting the right to vote to all white males. Universal white male suffrage was adopted in most states by the s with nearly all requirements to own property and pay taxes being dropped. This was of paramount importance as it led to better representation of poor citizens in the United States. Earl During the presidency of John Quincy Adams, the Tariff of was passed, which southerners believed benefited northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. The issue escalated to a major crisis with threat of secession from South Carolina and its passage of the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared the Tariff of and null and void within the state borders. The crisis was resolved by the Compromise Tariff with no need for the Force Bill. South Carolina Convention met and rescinded its nullification ordinance on March 15, There were also several treaties which settled claims and opened trade with several European, Asian and South American nations. Presidential investigations were conducted in all executive Cabinet offices and departments. Jackson asked Congress to reform embezzlement laws; reduce fraudulent applications for federal pensions; and pass laws to prevent evasion of custom duties and improve government accounting. His first Postmaster General had to resign when it was found that he engaged in corrupt practices. Jackson replaced him with Amos Kendall, who went on to implement much needed reforms in the Postal Service. Exploring Expedition was of major importance to the growth of science in the United States, in particular the field of oceanography. The Trail of Tears The most controversial and criticized action taken by Andrew Jackson as president was his relocation of Native Americans. In May,he signed into law the Indian Removal Act which authorized him to negotiate relocation of Native Americans to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands in Southeastern United States. Though in theory it was supposed to be voluntary, the Removal Act led to forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their traditional homelands, an event known as the Trail of Tears. The relocated people suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while on route, and more than ten thousand died before reaching their various destinations.Feb 18, · Watch video · Andrew Johnson was one of the most ill-equipped politicians to become president at a time of national crisis. Find out the circumstances that led to his impeachment, at grupobittia.com: Dec 29, At times, Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson’s adopted son, also served as his hostess. American presidential election, Results of the American presidential election, Source: United States Office of the Federal Register. In June , Jackson hesitantly resigned his commission in the U.S. Army to become the Military Governor of the Florida Territory. Talk of Presidency Begins From to , Jackson’s military career made him a national hero and brought to him increased wealth and opportunities. Dec 21, · Despite all his accomplishments, Jackson downplayed his past successes to suit the public's belief that Jackson was one of them. In reality Jackson was anything but common. The period from Jackson’s inauguration as president up to the Civil War is known as the Jacksonian Era or the Era of the Rise of the Common grupobittia.coms: In March following the inauguration of Martin Van Buren, who had been Jackson’s vice president in his second term, Jackson returned to his plantation, The Hermitage, outside Nashville, now worked by about slaves and run with the help of his adopted son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. Polk: James K. Polk, 11th president of the United States (–49). Key events in the life of James K. Polk. Encyclopædia Because he was a confirmed Democrat and an unfailing supporter of Andrew Jackson and because his style of political oratory became so popular that he was characterized as the “Napoleon of the.	<urn:uuid:1bf28300-2ef5-4979-aa95-66e14d9238af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bokewuqetolalaty.grupobittia.com/the-rise-of-andrew-jackson-to-presidency-and-his-key-successes-6563jw.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00391.warc.gz	en	0.984765	1,256	3.9375	4	[ -0.4717440605163574, 0.15513156354427338, 0.30060744285583496, -0.3329302668571472, -0.05377757549285889, 0.8614646792411804, -0.18880414962768555, 0.2465156614780426, 0.023527391254901886, 0.03250667452812195, -0.1754746437072754, 0.408974826335907, -0.08619873225688934, 0.001983052119612...	1	Visit Website Not everyone benefited equally from the market revolution, least of all those nonwhites for whom it was an unmitigated disaster. He successfully led American forces in several battles during his career, most prominently in the Battle of New Orleans. Andrew Jackson became the seventh President of the United States in and served for two terms till He was an influential leader and his presidency is marked by the advent of what is known as the Jacksonian Era or Age of Jackson. Jacksonian Era, most importantly, led to greater democracy for the common man and was the most prominent political movement in U. Know more about the contribution of Andrew Jackson by studying his 10 major accomplishments and achievements. He successfully commanded the U. He is renowned for his bravery, leadership and success in its campaigns. His most famous contribution came at the Battle of New Orleans, fought between January 8 and January 18, Battle of New Orleans was the last major battle of the War of and the most one-sided. He received the most popular votes but not a majority. The election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams as president. However, whether it was corrupt is now debated. In the elections, Jackson won by a landslide becoming the seventh President of the United States. He also won the next elections comfortably. Andrew Jackson served as U. President from March 4, to March 4, However, it split and faded away in the s and aroundJackson and his supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. Jackson was thus the first Democratic President of U. The Democratic Party is the oldest political party in the world and remains one of the two major political parties in America. Official logo of the United States Democratic Party 5 Jacksonian Democracy led to greater democracy for the common man Andrew Jackson led a political movement primarily aimed at providing greater democracy for the common man, which became known as Jacksonian democracy. Jackson is credited for spreading political power from the established elites to the ordinary voters. Jacksonian democracy spread throughout American politics and was the most prominent issue till the rise of the slavery issue in the s. It is considered to be a vital movement in American democracy which inspired important later events and movements. The rise of Jacksonian democracy led to attitudes and state laws changing in favor of granting the right to vote to all white males. Universal white male suffrage was adopted in most states by the s with nearly all requirements to own property and pay taxes being dropped. This was of paramount importance as it led to better representation of poor citizens in the United States. Earl During the presidency of John Quincy Adams, the Tariff of was passed, which southerners believed benefited northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. The issue escalated to a major crisis with threat of secession from South Carolina and its passage of the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared the Tariff of and null and void within the state borders. The crisis was resolved by the Compromise Tariff with no need for the Force Bill. South Carolina Convention met and rescinded its nullification ordinance on March 15, There were also several treaties which settled claims and opened trade with several European, Asian and South American nations. Presidential investigations were conducted in all executive Cabinet offices and departments. Jackson asked Congress to reform embezzlement laws; reduce fraudulent applications for federal pensions; and pass laws to prevent evasion of custom duties and improve government accounting. His first Postmaster General had to resign when it was found that he engaged in corrupt practices. Jackson replaced him with Amos Kendall, who went on to implement much needed reforms in the Postal Service. Exploring Expedition was of major importance to the growth of science in the United States, in particular the field of oceanography. The Trail of Tears The most controversial and criticized action taken by Andrew Jackson as president was his relocation of Native Americans. In May,he signed into law the Indian Removal Act which authorized him to negotiate relocation of Native Americans to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands in Southeastern United States. Though in theory it was supposed to be voluntary, the Removal Act led to forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their traditional homelands, an event known as the Trail of Tears. The relocated people suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while on route, and more than ten thousand died before reaching their various destinations.Feb 18, · Watch video · Andrew Johnson was one of the most ill-equipped politicians to become president at a time of national crisis. Find out the circumstances that led to his impeachment, at grupobittia.com: Dec 29, At times, Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson’s adopted son, also served as his hostess. American presidential election, Results of the American presidential election, Source: United States Office of the Federal Register. In June , Jackson hesitantly resigned his commission in the U.S. Army to become the Military Governor of the Florida Territory. Talk of Presidency Begins From to , Jackson’s military career made him a national hero and brought to him increased wealth and opportunities. Dec 21, · Despite all his accomplishments, Jackson downplayed his past successes to suit the public's belief that Jackson was one of them. In reality Jackson was anything but common. The period from Jackson’s inauguration as president up to the Civil War is known as the Jacksonian Era or the Era of the Rise of the Common grupobittia.coms: In March following the inauguration of Martin Van Buren, who had been Jackson’s vice president in his second term, Jackson returned to his plantation, The Hermitage, outside Nashville, now worked by about slaves and run with the help of his adopted son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. Polk: James K. Polk, 11th president of the United States (–49). Key events in the life of James K. Polk. Encyclopædia Because he was a confirmed Democrat and an unfailing supporter of Andrew Jackson and because his style of political oratory became so popular that he was characterized as the “Napoleon of the.	1,241	ENGLISH	1
Kolkata, Nov 29: Fear, stigma and ignorance. That is what defined the HIV epidemic that raged through the world in the 1980s, killing thousands of people who may only have had a few weeks or months from diagnosis to death - if they even managed to be diagnosed before they died. “With no effective treatment available in the 1980s, there was little hope for those diagnosed with HIV, facing debilitating illness and certain death within years,” says Dr Gottfried Hirnschall, Director of the HIV department at WHO. December 1, 2018 marks the 30th anniversary of World AIDS Day – a day created to raise awareness about HIV and the resulting AIDS epidemics. Since the beginning of the epidemic, more than 70 million people have acquired the infection, and about 35 million people have died. Today, around 37 million worldwide live with HIV, of whom 22 million are on treatment. When World AIDS Day was first established in 1988, the world looked very different to how it is today. Now, we have easily accessible testing, treatment, a range of prevention options, including pre-exposure prophylaxis of PrEP, and services that can reach vulnerable communities. In the late 1980s, however, “the outlook for people with HIV was pretty grim,” says Dr Rachel Baggaley, coordinator of HIV testing and prevention at WHO. “Antiretrovirals weren’t yet available, so although we could offer treatment for opportunistic infections there was no treatment for their HIV. It was a very sad and difficult time.” With increasing awareness that AIDS was emerging as a global public health threat, the first International AIDS Conference was held in Atlanta in 1985. “In those early days, with no treatment on the horizon, extraordinary prevention, care and awareness-raising efforts were mobilized by communities around the world – research programmes were accelerated, condom access was expanded, harm reduction programmes were established and support services reached out to those who were sick,” says Dr Andrew Ball, senior adviser on HIV at WHO. (UNI)	<urn:uuid:6d31717e-1aca-4a40-9608-23f5f713f2dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pennews.net/health/2018/11/29/world-aids-day-created-to-raise-awareness-about-hiv-and-resulting-aids-epidemics	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00496.warc.gz	en	0.982704	427	3.5625	4	[ -0.061947520822286606, 0.36954107880592346, 0.48713237047195435, 0.1898661106824875, 0.2143782526254654, 0.35407885909080505, 0.3579251170158386, 0.282505065202713, 0.24219487607479095, 0.0005328842671588063, 0.45161283016204834, 0.3171883821487427, 0.3812029957771301, 0.556544840335846, ...	2	Kolkata, Nov 29: Fear, stigma and ignorance. That is what defined the HIV epidemic that raged through the world in the 1980s, killing thousands of people who may only have had a few weeks or months from diagnosis to death - if they even managed to be diagnosed before they died. “With no effective treatment available in the 1980s, there was little hope for those diagnosed with HIV, facing debilitating illness and certain death within years,” says Dr Gottfried Hirnschall, Director of the HIV department at WHO. December 1, 2018 marks the 30th anniversary of World AIDS Day – a day created to raise awareness about HIV and the resulting AIDS epidemics. Since the beginning of the epidemic, more than 70 million people have acquired the infection, and about 35 million people have died. Today, around 37 million worldwide live with HIV, of whom 22 million are on treatment. When World AIDS Day was first established in 1988, the world looked very different to how it is today. Now, we have easily accessible testing, treatment, a range of prevention options, including pre-exposure prophylaxis of PrEP, and services that can reach vulnerable communities. In the late 1980s, however, “the outlook for people with HIV was pretty grim,” says Dr Rachel Baggaley, coordinator of HIV testing and prevention at WHO. “Antiretrovirals weren’t yet available, so although we could offer treatment for opportunistic infections there was no treatment for their HIV. It was a very sad and difficult time.” With increasing awareness that AIDS was emerging as a global public health threat, the first International AIDS Conference was held in Atlanta in 1985. “In those early days, with no treatment on the horizon, extraordinary prevention, care and awareness-raising efforts were mobilized by communities around the world – research programmes were accelerated, condom access was expanded, harm reduction programmes were established and support services reached out to those who were sick,” says Dr Andrew Ball, senior adviser on HIV at WHO. (UNI)	443	ENGLISH	1
St. Edmund the Martyr The holy king had reigned fifteen years when the Danes infested his dominions. Hinguar and Hubba, two brothers, the most barbarous of all the Danish plunderers landing in England, wintered among the East-Angles; then, having made a truce with that nation, they in summer sailed to the north, and landing at the mouth of the Tweed, plundered with fire and sword Northumberland, and afterwards Mercia, directing their march through Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Cambridgeshire. Out of a lust of rage and cruelty, and the most implacable aversion to the Christian name, they everywhere destroyed the churches and monasteries; and, as it were in barbarous sport, massacred all priests and religious persons whom they met with. In the great monastery of Coldingham, beyond Berwick, the nuns, fearing not death but insults which might be offered to their chastity, at the instigation of St. Ebba, the holy abbess, cut off their noses and upper lips, that appearing to the barbarians frightful spectacles of horror, they might preserve their virtue from danger; the infidels accordingly were disconcerted at such a sight, and spared their virtue, but put them all to the sword. In their march, amongst other monasteries, those of Bardney, Crowland, Peterborough, Ely, and Huntingdon were levelled with the ground, and the religious inhabitants murdered. In the Cathedral of Peterborough is shown a monument (removed thither from a place without the building) called Monks'-Stone, on which are the effigies of an abbot and several monks. It stood over the pit in which fourscore monks of this house were interred, whom Hinguar and Hubba massacred in 870. The barbarians, reeking with blood, poured down upon St. Edmund's dominions, burning Thetford, the first town they met with, and laying waste all before them. The people, relying upon the faith of treaties, thought themselves secure, and were unprepared. However, the good king raised what forces he could, met the infidels, or at least a part of their army near Thetford, and discomfited them. But seeing them soon after reinforced with fresh numbers, against which his small body was not able to make any stand, and being unwilling to sacrifice the lives of his soldiers in vain, and grieving for the eternal loss of the souls of his enemies, who would be slain in a fruitless engagement, he disbanded his troops and retired himself towards his castle of Framlingham, in Suffolk. The barbarian had sent him proposals which were inconsistent both with religion and with the justice which he owed to his people. These the saint rejected, being resolved rather to die a victim of his faith and duty to God, than to do anything against his conscience and religion. In his flight he was over taken and surrounded by infidels at Oxon, upon the Waveney: he concealed himself for some short time, but, being discovered, was bound with heavy chains and conducted to the general's tent. Terms were again offered him equally prejudicial to religion and to his people, which the holy Icing refused to confirm, declaring that religion was dearer to him than his life, which he would never purchase by offending God. Hinguar, exasperated at this answer, in his barbarous rage caused him to be cruelly beaten with cudgels, then to be tied to a tree and torn a long time together with whips. All this he bore with invincible meekness and patience, never ceasing to call upon the name of Jesus. The infidels were the more exasperated, and as he stood bound to the tree, they made him a mark wantonly to shoot at, till his body was covered with arrows like a porcupine. Hinguar at length, in order to put an end to the butchery, commanded his head to be struck off. Thus the saint finished his martyrdom on the 20th of November, in 870, the fifteenth of his reign, and twenty-ninth of his age; the circumstances of which St. Dunstan learned from one who was armour-bearer to the saint and an eye-witness. The place was then called Henglesdun, now Hoxon, or Hoxne; a priory of monks was afterwards built there which bore the name of the martyr. KING AND MARTYR 841 probably at Nuremburg, Germany Hoxne, Suffolk, England 20 November 870 against plague, kings, torture victims, wolves Though from the time of King Egbert, in 802, the Kings of the West-Saxons were monarchs of all England, yet several kings reigned in certain parts after that time, in some measure subordinate to them. One Offa was King of the East-Angles, who, being desirous to end his days in penance and devotion to Rome, resigned his crown to St. Edmund, at that time only fifteen years of age, but a most virtuous prince, and descended from the old English-Saxon kings of this isle. The saint was placed on the throne of his ancestors, as Lydgate, Abbo, and others express themselves, and was crowned by Humbert, Bishop of Elman, on Christmas Day, in 855, at Burum, a royal villa on the Stour, now called Bures, or Buers. Though very young, he was by his piety, goodness, humility, and all other virtues, the model of good princes. He was a declared enemy of flatterers and informers, and would see with his own eyes and hear with his own ears, to avoid being surprised into a wrong judgment, or imposed upon by the passions or ill designs of others. The peace and happiness of his people were his whole concern, which he endeavoured to establish by an impartial administration of justice and religious regulations in his dominions. He was the father of his subjects, particularly of the poor, the protector of widows and orphans, and the support of the weak. Religion and piety were the most distinguishing part of his character. Monks and devout persons used to know the psalter without book, that they might recite the psalms at work, in travelling, and on every other occasion. To get it by heart St. Edmund lived in retirement a whole year in his royal tower at Hunstanton (which he had built for a country solitude), which place is now a village in Norfolk. The book which the saint used for that purpose was religiously kept at St. Edmundsbury till the dissolution of abbeys. The saint's head was carried by the infidels into a wood and thrown into a brake of bushes; but miraculously found by a pillar of light and deposited with the body at Hoxdon. These sacred remains were very soon after conveyed to Bedricsworth, or Kingston, since called St. Edmundsbury, because this place was St. Edmund's own town and private patrimony; not on account of his burial, for in the English-Saxon language signified a court or palace. A church of timber was erected over the place where he was interred, which was thus built according to the fashion of those times. Trunks of large trees were sawn lengthways in the middle and reared up with one end fixed in the ground, with the bark or rough side outermost. These trunks being made of an equal height and set up close to one another, and the interstices filled up with mud or mortar, formed the four walls, upon which was raised a thatched roof. Nor can we be surprised at the homeliness of this structure, since the same was the fabric of the royal rich abbey of Glastonbury, the work of the most munificent and powerful West-Saxon kings, till in latter ages it was built in a stately manner of stone. The precious remains of St. Edmund were honoured with many miracles. In 920, for fear of the barbarians under Turkil the Dane, in the reign of King Ethelred, they were conveyed to London by Alfun, bishop of that city, and the monk Egelwin, or Ailwin, the keeper of this sacred treasure, who never abandoned it. After remaining three years in the Church of St. Gregory, in London, it was translated again with honour to St. Edmundsbury in 923. The great church of timberwork stood till King Knute, or Canutus, to make reparation for the injuries his father Swein, or Sweno, had done to this place and to the relics of the martyr, built and founded there, in 1020, a new most magnificent church and abbey in honour of this holy martyr. The unparalleled piety, humility, meekness, and other virtues of St. Edmund are admirably set forth by our historians. This incomparable prince and holy martyr was considered by succeeding English kings as their special patron, and as an accomplished model of all royal virtues. The feast of St. Edmund is reckoned among the holidays of precept in this kingdom by the national council of Oxford in 1222; but is omitted in the constitutions of Archbishop Simon Islep, who retrenched certain holidays in 1362. SOURCE The Catholic Encyclopedia Image Share Google Image Share Google	<urn:uuid:06e9a1db-dffd-4187-b974-273d6a30d2fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholicnewsworld.com/2019_11_19_archive.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00203.warc.gz	en	0.984378	1,972	3.296875	3	[ 0.05689283087849617, 0.7570444941520691, 0.2281036674976349, -0.14033252000808716, 0.174309641122818, -0.2557046115398407, 0.10827554762363434, -0.07569651305675507, 0.5957915782928467, -0.08218856155872345, -0.16245102882385254, -0.5682405829429626, 0.25096452236175537, -0.048676960170269...	3	St. Edmund the Martyr The holy king had reigned fifteen years when the Danes infested his dominions. Hinguar and Hubba, two brothers, the most barbarous of all the Danish plunderers landing in England, wintered among the East-Angles; then, having made a truce with that nation, they in summer sailed to the north, and landing at the mouth of the Tweed, plundered with fire and sword Northumberland, and afterwards Mercia, directing their march through Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Cambridgeshire. Out of a lust of rage and cruelty, and the most implacable aversion to the Christian name, they everywhere destroyed the churches and monasteries; and, as it were in barbarous sport, massacred all priests and religious persons whom they met with. In the great monastery of Coldingham, beyond Berwick, the nuns, fearing not death but insults which might be offered to their chastity, at the instigation of St. Ebba, the holy abbess, cut off their noses and upper lips, that appearing to the barbarians frightful spectacles of horror, they might preserve their virtue from danger; the infidels accordingly were disconcerted at such a sight, and spared their virtue, but put them all to the sword. In their march, amongst other monasteries, those of Bardney, Crowland, Peterborough, Ely, and Huntingdon were levelled with the ground, and the religious inhabitants murdered. In the Cathedral of Peterborough is shown a monument (removed thither from a place without the building) called Monks'-Stone, on which are the effigies of an abbot and several monks. It stood over the pit in which fourscore monks of this house were interred, whom Hinguar and Hubba massacred in 870. The barbarians, reeking with blood, poured down upon St. Edmund's dominions, burning Thetford, the first town they met with, and laying waste all before them. The people, relying upon the faith of treaties, thought themselves secure, and were unprepared. However, the good king raised what forces he could, met the infidels, or at least a part of their army near Thetford, and discomfited them. But seeing them soon after reinforced with fresh numbers, against which his small body was not able to make any stand, and being unwilling to sacrifice the lives of his soldiers in vain, and grieving for the eternal loss of the souls of his enemies, who would be slain in a fruitless engagement, he disbanded his troops and retired himself towards his castle of Framlingham, in Suffolk. The barbarian had sent him proposals which were inconsistent both with religion and with the justice which he owed to his people. These the saint rejected, being resolved rather to die a victim of his faith and duty to God, than to do anything against his conscience and religion. In his flight he was over taken and surrounded by infidels at Oxon, upon the Waveney: he concealed himself for some short time, but, being discovered, was bound with heavy chains and conducted to the general's tent. Terms were again offered him equally prejudicial to religion and to his people, which the holy Icing refused to confirm, declaring that religion was dearer to him than his life, which he would never purchase by offending God. Hinguar, exasperated at this answer, in his barbarous rage caused him to be cruelly beaten with cudgels, then to be tied to a tree and torn a long time together with whips. All this he bore with invincible meekness and patience, never ceasing to call upon the name of Jesus. The infidels were the more exasperated, and as he stood bound to the tree, they made him a mark wantonly to shoot at, till his body was covered with arrows like a porcupine. Hinguar at length, in order to put an end to the butchery, commanded his head to be struck off. Thus the saint finished his martyrdom on the 20th of November, in 870, the fifteenth of his reign, and twenty-ninth of his age; the circumstances of which St. Dunstan learned from one who was armour-bearer to the saint and an eye-witness. The place was then called Henglesdun, now Hoxon, or Hoxne; a priory of monks was afterwards built there which bore the name of the martyr. KING AND MARTYR 841 probably at Nuremburg, Germany Hoxne, Suffolk, England 20 November 870 against plague, kings, torture victims, wolves Though from the time of King Egbert, in 802, the Kings of the West-Saxons were monarchs of all England, yet several kings reigned in certain parts after that time, in some measure subordinate to them. One Offa was King of the East-Angles, who, being desirous to end his days in penance and devotion to Rome, resigned his crown to St. Edmund, at that time only fifteen years of age, but a most virtuous prince, and descended from the old English-Saxon kings of this isle. The saint was placed on the throne of his ancestors, as Lydgate, Abbo, and others express themselves, and was crowned by Humbert, Bishop of Elman, on Christmas Day, in 855, at Burum, a royal villa on the Stour, now called Bures, or Buers. Though very young, he was by his piety, goodness, humility, and all other virtues, the model of good princes. He was a declared enemy of flatterers and informers, and would see with his own eyes and hear with his own ears, to avoid being surprised into a wrong judgment, or imposed upon by the passions or ill designs of others. The peace and happiness of his people were his whole concern, which he endeavoured to establish by an impartial administration of justice and religious regulations in his dominions. He was the father of his subjects, particularly of the poor, the protector of widows and orphans, and the support of the weak. Religion and piety were the most distinguishing part of his character. Monks and devout persons used to know the psalter without book, that they might recite the psalms at work, in travelling, and on every other occasion. To get it by heart St. Edmund lived in retirement a whole year in his royal tower at Hunstanton (which he had built for a country solitude), which place is now a village in Norfolk. The book which the saint used for that purpose was religiously kept at St. Edmundsbury till the dissolution of abbeys. The saint's head was carried by the infidels into a wood and thrown into a brake of bushes; but miraculously found by a pillar of light and deposited with the body at Hoxdon. These sacred remains were very soon after conveyed to Bedricsworth, or Kingston, since called St. Edmundsbury, because this place was St. Edmund's own town and private patrimony; not on account of his burial, for in the English-Saxon language signified a court or palace. A church of timber was erected over the place where he was interred, which was thus built according to the fashion of those times. Trunks of large trees were sawn lengthways in the middle and reared up with one end fixed in the ground, with the bark or rough side outermost. These trunks being made of an equal height and set up close to one another, and the interstices filled up with mud or mortar, formed the four walls, upon which was raised a thatched roof. Nor can we be surprised at the homeliness of this structure, since the same was the fabric of the royal rich abbey of Glastonbury, the work of the most munificent and powerful West-Saxon kings, till in latter ages it was built in a stately manner of stone. The precious remains of St. Edmund were honoured with many miracles. In 920, for fear of the barbarians under Turkil the Dane, in the reign of King Ethelred, they were conveyed to London by Alfun, bishop of that city, and the monk Egelwin, or Ailwin, the keeper of this sacred treasure, who never abandoned it. After remaining three years in the Church of St. Gregory, in London, it was translated again with honour to St. Edmundsbury in 923. The great church of timberwork stood till King Knute, or Canutus, to make reparation for the injuries his father Swein, or Sweno, had done to this place and to the relics of the martyr, built and founded there, in 1020, a new most magnificent church and abbey in honour of this holy martyr. The unparalleled piety, humility, meekness, and other virtues of St. Edmund are admirably set forth by our historians. This incomparable prince and holy martyr was considered by succeeding English kings as their special patron, and as an accomplished model of all royal virtues. The feast of St. Edmund is reckoned among the holidays of precept in this kingdom by the national council of Oxford in 1222; but is omitted in the constitutions of Archbishop Simon Islep, who retrenched certain holidays in 1362. SOURCE The Catholic Encyclopedia Image Share Google Image Share Google	2,002	ENGLISH	1
Today in class 2 we all voted on our favourite animal that Paddington bear could of seen on his journey to England from Peru. We also then used our equipment to make up our small charts to collect our data. Today in class 2 we had a look at what our plants in the classroom needed to stay alive. We all said that they definitely needed water and sunlight to grow and be strong. We then had to draw our plants that are growing in our classroom. Have you thought about what a plant needs to be strong? Today we looked at adding while partitioning, some of us went outside and used stones to do some practical outdoor learning. We had an amount and then needed to add another number to find the total. Have you been adding … Continue reading → Today in farming Friday class 2 made some famous marmalade sandwiches. They are famous because they are from our book character Paddington bear, we followed some instructions so we could get the best we could. Today in class 2 we have been doing some coding trying to help our friend get to the end of the road. We had to keep inputting code so our friend knew where he needed to move and how many … Continue reading → Today we have had a visit from Will. He gave us the opportunity to taste test some of Will’s salami that our year six’s made and helped with. We got to say which one we liked the best so that Will could make some more for other consumers. Which was your favourite salami that Will let you try? Today class 2 have been looking at adverbs. We said that an adverb describes the verb. “Paddington Bear was running fast”. We said lots of different things that Paddington was doing, also saying how he was doing it. Today in class 2 we have been practicing our bowling in P.E. We needed to follow instructions to make sure we didn’t throw the ball to far or too hard. We used our aim to make sure we threw the ball straight. Today some of class 2 went outside to create Paddington bears house. We had to think very hard about how big it needed to be, also what we should put inside for him. Maybe his favourite marmalade. What would you … Continue reading →	<urn:uuid:48ef6dc8-a3e9-4055-856a-76ece782feac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://class-two.wombridgeprimary.co.uk/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00185.warc.gz	en	0.984599	477	3.5625	4	[ -0.13077330589294434, -0.45139753818511963, 0.22665204107761383, -0.4291839301586151, 0.01748793013393879, -0.13944724202156067, -0.001426158007234335, 0.3854708969593048, -0.13766565918922424, 0.14980272948741913, -0.212063267827034, -1.0785542726516724, 0.04452947527170181, 0.37346258759...	1	Today in class 2 we all voted on our favourite animal that Paddington bear could of seen on his journey to England from Peru. We also then used our equipment to make up our small charts to collect our data. Today in class 2 we had a look at what our plants in the classroom needed to stay alive. We all said that they definitely needed water and sunlight to grow and be strong. We then had to draw our plants that are growing in our classroom. Have you thought about what a plant needs to be strong? Today we looked at adding while partitioning, some of us went outside and used stones to do some practical outdoor learning. We had an amount and then needed to add another number to find the total. Have you been adding … Continue reading → Today in farming Friday class 2 made some famous marmalade sandwiches. They are famous because they are from our book character Paddington bear, we followed some instructions so we could get the best we could. Today in class 2 we have been doing some coding trying to help our friend get to the end of the road. We had to keep inputting code so our friend knew where he needed to move and how many … Continue reading → Today we have had a visit from Will. He gave us the opportunity to taste test some of Will’s salami that our year six’s made and helped with. We got to say which one we liked the best so that Will could make some more for other consumers. Which was your favourite salami that Will let you try? Today class 2 have been looking at adverbs. We said that an adverb describes the verb. “Paddington Bear was running fast”. We said lots of different things that Paddington was doing, also saying how he was doing it. Today in class 2 we have been practicing our bowling in P.E. We needed to follow instructions to make sure we didn’t throw the ball to far or too hard. We used our aim to make sure we threw the ball straight. Today some of class 2 went outside to create Paddington bears house. We had to think very hard about how big it needed to be, also what we should put inside for him. Maybe his favourite marmalade. What would you … Continue reading →	463	ENGLISH	1
Today is the 150th Anniversary. William Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms. About the Writing WB Yeats was the first Irishman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 “for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation”. Yeats was a traditionalist who wrote sonnets for half a century. His knowledge of English form, Irish literature and Celtic mythology – inspired in part by summers at his mother’s home in County Sligo in the west of Ireland – resulted in an inspired body of work. If he had stopped at the end of the 19th Century he would have an impressive collection of nostalgic, pastoral poetry – but thankfully he didn’t, for his work in the 20th Century helped usher in modernism – and create a new language to understand modernity’s terror and beauty. It is this contribution that continues to resonate with poets today. Did You Know?.. Yeats was fascinated by the occult and mysticism. He joined the Golden Dawn, a secret society which practiced ritual magic, in 1890, progressing to its Inner Order in 1893, and remained an active member for most of his life. He also joined paranormal research organisation The Ghost Club in 1911. So, think you know Yeats? Why not try the Guardian’s quiz – here.	<urn:uuid:8d3ad34a-6d82-426a-a005-9c6294dd6765>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://new2writing.wordpress.com/2015/06/13/know-your-history-13th-june-wb-yeats-born/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00122.warc.gz	en	0.982494	320	3.609375	4	[ -0.16866979002952576, 0.16027408838272095, 0.4152282476425171, 0.046875741332769394, -0.27428296208381653, -0.0920092836022377, 0.17280563712120056, -0.09058037400245667, -0.45416560769081116, -0.21537074446678162, -0.4085921347141266, -0.3980332911014557, -0.06344131380319595, 0.396801203...	5	Today is the 150th Anniversary. William Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms. About the Writing WB Yeats was the first Irishman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 “for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation”. Yeats was a traditionalist who wrote sonnets for half a century. His knowledge of English form, Irish literature and Celtic mythology – inspired in part by summers at his mother’s home in County Sligo in the west of Ireland – resulted in an inspired body of work. If he had stopped at the end of the 19th Century he would have an impressive collection of nostalgic, pastoral poetry – but thankfully he didn’t, for his work in the 20th Century helped usher in modernism – and create a new language to understand modernity’s terror and beauty. It is this contribution that continues to resonate with poets today. Did You Know?.. Yeats was fascinated by the occult and mysticism. He joined the Golden Dawn, a secret society which practiced ritual magic, in 1890, progressing to its Inner Order in 1893, and remained an active member for most of his life. He also joined paranormal research organisation The Ghost Club in 1911. So, think you know Yeats? Why not try the Guardian’s quiz – here.	328	ENGLISH	1
Most penguins spend about ¾ of their time in the water. Their bodies are designed to easily adapt to the water. They have feathers that help them to move but also to keep the water from reaching their body. This is important as they have to keep their body temperature regulated. It is also helpful because it seems that the colder the water happens to be, the more their main food sources will be found in it. Penguins use what they have readily available on land too. For example they may use grass, rocks, sticks, and other debris to build nests and burrows. This is where they will lay their eggs as well as care for their young when they are born until they can go to the water to hunt for food on their own.	<urn:uuid:b9fc79b3-fd5f-41c2-b3be-f2f657c230d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://roans-art.com/en/shop-category/zoo/penguin-detail.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00176.warc.gz	en	0.994404	151	3.640625	4	[ -0.43848511576652527, -0.0881936177611351, 0.2054762989282608, -0.2770450711250305, 0.4328841269016266, 0.10269569605588913, 0.6545048952102661, 0.11507304012775421, -0.6118993759155273, 0.3086170256137848, -0.13498564064502716, -0.5956724882125854, 0.25888773798942566, 0.00868379697203636...	2	Most penguins spend about ¾ of their time in the water. Their bodies are designed to easily adapt to the water. They have feathers that help them to move but also to keep the water from reaching their body. This is important as they have to keep their body temperature regulated. It is also helpful because it seems that the colder the water happens to be, the more their main food sources will be found in it. Penguins use what they have readily available on land too. For example they may use grass, rocks, sticks, and other debris to build nests and burrows. This is where they will lay their eggs as well as care for their young when they are born until they can go to the water to hunt for food on their own.	151	ENGLISH	1
Dorothea Beale and the 1864 Schools' Inquiry Commission The description below is taken from Natalie English, The Teaching of Mathematics by Women in 19th Century Britain (B.Sc. Project, University of St Andrews, 2016): In 1864, the Schools' Inquiry Commission was set up to inquire into the condition of post-elementary education in the country and Miss Beale was summoned to give evidence before the Commission. The fact that girls' schools were included in the investigation highlights that the government supported the notion of reforming women's education. Beale was now considered to be an educational expert; organisations such as the Schoolmistresses' Associations had helped to foster this new measure of authority and assurance. Beale talked to the Commissioners about her teaching of mathematics and the, "principle to give as little help as possible, but to lead them to find out for themselves; under no circumstances to let them learn by heart, and to induce them to do without explanation as far as they can, so as to call out their own powers." She also spoke about how there should be no limit on mathematics, two of her pupils had taken algebra as far as the binomial theorem and were working on logarithms and one intended to go on to trigonometry. She said, "I do not see why we should limit it where we find a special taste." She also stated the importance of shared interests and experiences between boys and girls, "I think it is good for boys and girls to have similar tastes, that their minds may not be entirely bent in different ways, so that in their after life they should understand and be interested in the same things." However, she also remarked that girls and boys do not have the same educational capacity where mathematics is concerned, "I do not think that the mathematical powers of women enable them generally - (their physical strength I dare say has a great deal to do with it) - to go so far in the higher branches of mathematics as boys." Perhaps a surprising comment from Beale, but one based solely on speculation as girls were not allowed to go as far in the higher branches of mathematics as boys at this time. The Commission, however drew different conclusions from Cheltenham Ladies' College, stating that, "there is weighty evidence to the effect that the essential capacity for learning is the same, or nearly the same, in the two sexes." It was found that girls were not so quick and accurate in arithmetic, algebra, and Euclid as boys. However it was thought that the, "inferiority of female education may be owing to the want of due method and stimulus, and to no natural causes." In 1890, Philippa Fawcett became the first woman to achieve the top score in the Mathematical Tripos exams at Cambridge, spurring wide spread debate about girls' aptitude for mathematics and modifying ideas of male superiority. Although arithmetic was found to be the weak point in female teachers, women were still considered to be more natural teachers than their male counterparts due to their careful, patient and persevering qualities. In one of the Commissioners, Mr Bryce's report, he sensibly pointed out that, female teachers "have not themselves been well taught, and they do not know how to teach. Both of these defects are accidental, and may be remedied." Of course, he was correct and the lack of higher education for women was at the heart of the problems in girls' schools. The Schools' Inquiry Commission had concluded that in order to correct the low standards in girls' education, "the first remedy is to provide all English women of the middle class with the opportunity of higher liberal education". Overall the inquiry had a very beneficial effect on public opinion and in 1869 Girton College opened at Cambridge University, Britain's first residential college for women offering an education at degree level; Beale's evidence was central to this landmark moment.	<urn:uuid:5518eb8d-b6b8-4f29-9b11-95e9e6a1bf50>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Schools_Inquiry.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00321.warc.gz	en	0.984655	795	3.734375	4	[ 0.029503799974918365, -0.27782773971557617, 0.40233978629112244, -0.04729098826646805, -0.4528352618217468, -0.004369175061583519, -0.16832387447357178, 0.1964399218559265, 0.012090843170881271, 0.12624475359916687, 0.06888610124588013, -0.6366260647773743, 0.1387803703546524, 0.2428784668...	2	Dorothea Beale and the 1864 Schools' Inquiry Commission The description below is taken from Natalie English, The Teaching of Mathematics by Women in 19th Century Britain (B.Sc. Project, University of St Andrews, 2016): In 1864, the Schools' Inquiry Commission was set up to inquire into the condition of post-elementary education in the country and Miss Beale was summoned to give evidence before the Commission. The fact that girls' schools were included in the investigation highlights that the government supported the notion of reforming women's education. Beale was now considered to be an educational expert; organisations such as the Schoolmistresses' Associations had helped to foster this new measure of authority and assurance. Beale talked to the Commissioners about her teaching of mathematics and the, "principle to give as little help as possible, but to lead them to find out for themselves; under no circumstances to let them learn by heart, and to induce them to do without explanation as far as they can, so as to call out their own powers." She also spoke about how there should be no limit on mathematics, two of her pupils had taken algebra as far as the binomial theorem and were working on logarithms and one intended to go on to trigonometry. She said, "I do not see why we should limit it where we find a special taste." She also stated the importance of shared interests and experiences between boys and girls, "I think it is good for boys and girls to have similar tastes, that their minds may not be entirely bent in different ways, so that in their after life they should understand and be interested in the same things." However, she also remarked that girls and boys do not have the same educational capacity where mathematics is concerned, "I do not think that the mathematical powers of women enable them generally - (their physical strength I dare say has a great deal to do with it) - to go so far in the higher branches of mathematics as boys." Perhaps a surprising comment from Beale, but one based solely on speculation as girls were not allowed to go as far in the higher branches of mathematics as boys at this time. The Commission, however drew different conclusions from Cheltenham Ladies' College, stating that, "there is weighty evidence to the effect that the essential capacity for learning is the same, or nearly the same, in the two sexes." It was found that girls were not so quick and accurate in arithmetic, algebra, and Euclid as boys. However it was thought that the, "inferiority of female education may be owing to the want of due method and stimulus, and to no natural causes." In 1890, Philippa Fawcett became the first woman to achieve the top score in the Mathematical Tripos exams at Cambridge, spurring wide spread debate about girls' aptitude for mathematics and modifying ideas of male superiority. Although arithmetic was found to be the weak point in female teachers, women were still considered to be more natural teachers than their male counterparts due to their careful, patient and persevering qualities. In one of the Commissioners, Mr Bryce's report, he sensibly pointed out that, female teachers "have not themselves been well taught, and they do not know how to teach. Both of these defects are accidental, and may be remedied." Of course, he was correct and the lack of higher education for women was at the heart of the problems in girls' schools. The Schools' Inquiry Commission had concluded that in order to correct the low standards in girls' education, "the first remedy is to provide all English women of the middle class with the opportunity of higher liberal education". Overall the inquiry had a very beneficial effect on public opinion and in 1869 Girton College opened at Cambridge University, Britain's first residential college for women offering an education at degree level; Beale's evidence was central to this landmark moment.	805	ENGLISH	1
“I among the heghiest levels of the British “I would say to the house … ‘ I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat’. “1 2 Prime minister of England in WW2, a great British statesman, a Briliant historian who had published dozens of volumes on the history of England and Europe. He also has been noted as a master of elocution. He was awarded the Nobel Prize In 1953 for Literature because of his historical and biographical presentations and for the dazzling oratory in which he has stood forth as a defender of human values, this is Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill.3 4 Winston churchill was born on November 30 1874, in his grandfather’s palace, the Blenheim palace in Oxford 5 6. His family were among the heghiest levels of the British aristocracy7. His grandfather John Winston was the 7th duke of Marlborough8, while his father Lord Randolph who was a British politician and statesman9, and his mother was the American heiress Jennie Jerom.10 11 Churchill started his education path in Dublin where his nanny -Elizabeth Ann Everest- started teaching him how to read, write and and do simple math. Elizabeth was the babysitter and nurse who occupied his mother’s place. The relationship between him and his parents was very cold; he was rarely visited by his mother, and the same thing with his father, and it was said that Churchill talked to his dad a few times!12 13 When Churchill was 7 he began going to St. George’s school in Berkshire. However, he wasn’t the best student, as he had poor academic skills, and he was often punished by his teachers as he had a rebellious nature. Churchill changed his school, where his academic skills improved, He received a good education in English , and won a prize for reading aloud a portion of Thomas Macaulay’s (1800–1859). Many noticed that littel winston was always fascianated by military affairs; for how he looked while watching the military parade and marches that were passing through viceroy’s seat of interest and passion. “Politics is almost as exciting as war, and quite as dangerous. In war you can only be killed once, but in politics many times.”14 “Winston Churchill’s long political career began in October 1900, when he was elected to take the seat for Oldham as Member of Parliament or MP in the House of Commons. Later, Churchill represented, as MP, the areas of Manchester Northwest (1906-08); Dundee (1908-22); and Woodford (1924-64).”	<urn:uuid:2f8f40fd-64ff-4a37-af2b-bc8e442cda3f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://weatherbird.net/i-among-the-heghiest-levels-of-the-british/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00110.warc.gz	en	0.993759	575	3.34375	3	[ -0.36307570338249207, 0.5660734176635742, 0.4400307536125183, -0.16537076234817505, -0.2183220535516739, 0.06361638009548187, 0.4847084581851959, -0.06947685778141022, -0.13247473537921906, 0.23019033670425415, 0.02882590889930725, -0.3331282138824463, 0.3166736364364624, 0.615968465805053...	3	“I among the heghiest levels of the British “I would say to the house … ‘ I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat’. “1 2 Prime minister of England in WW2, a great British statesman, a Briliant historian who had published dozens of volumes on the history of England and Europe. He also has been noted as a master of elocution. He was awarded the Nobel Prize In 1953 for Literature because of his historical and biographical presentations and for the dazzling oratory in which he has stood forth as a defender of human values, this is Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill.3 4 Winston churchill was born on November 30 1874, in his grandfather’s palace, the Blenheim palace in Oxford 5 6. His family were among the heghiest levels of the British aristocracy7. His grandfather John Winston was the 7th duke of Marlborough8, while his father Lord Randolph who was a British politician and statesman9, and his mother was the American heiress Jennie Jerom.10 11 Churchill started his education path in Dublin where his nanny -Elizabeth Ann Everest- started teaching him how to read, write and and do simple math. Elizabeth was the babysitter and nurse who occupied his mother’s place. The relationship between him and his parents was very cold; he was rarely visited by his mother, and the same thing with his father, and it was said that Churchill talked to his dad a few times!12 13 When Churchill was 7 he began going to St. George’s school in Berkshire. However, he wasn’t the best student, as he had poor academic skills, and he was often punished by his teachers as he had a rebellious nature. Churchill changed his school, where his academic skills improved, He received a good education in English , and won a prize for reading aloud a portion of Thomas Macaulay’s (1800–1859). Many noticed that littel winston was always fascianated by military affairs; for how he looked while watching the military parade and marches that were passing through viceroy’s seat of interest and passion. “Politics is almost as exciting as war, and quite as dangerous. In war you can only be killed once, but in politics many times.”14 “Winston Churchill’s long political career began in October 1900, when he was elected to take the seat for Oldham as Member of Parliament or MP in the House of Commons. Later, Churchill represented, as MP, the areas of Manchester Northwest (1906-08); Dundee (1908-22); and Woodford (1924-64).”	582	ENGLISH	1
When Charlemagne was 26, he and his brother Carloman inherited the kingdom of the Franks. Upon Carloman’s death in 771, Charlemagne became sole ruler of the kingdom. At this time the Franks seemed to be leaving Romanised ways behind, reverting to the less sophisticated lifestyle of their pre-Roman ancestors. Determined to strengthen his realm and to bring order to Europe, in 772 Charlemagne launched a 30-year military campaign. The Franks had always been a warring people, but Charlemagne further reformed his army and methods of warfare until he was almost unbeatable. At the end of the 30 years, he was the undisputed ruler of Western Europe. Furthermore, he had recreated a central government in Western Europe, restoring much of the unity of the old Roman Empire; in doing so, he laid the foundation for the development of modern Europe. On Christmas Day 800, in St Peter's in Rome, Pope Leo III placed a golden crown on the bowed head of the king, thus crowning his achievements and showing the huge power he wielded, even over the Church. Men-at-Arms 150: The Age of Charlemagne is an authoritative and gripping study of the organization and history of the Carolingian army, written by David Nicolle and illustrated by the famed Angus McBride. The book examines the forces that underpinned the power of the empire and constituted one of the greatest forces in the evolution of medieval Europe. Nicolle and McBride have contributed several other titles on the peoples and armies of Charlemagne's world, notably Elite 6: The Normans, Men-at-Arms 125: The Armies of Islam 7th-11th Centuries, Men-at-Arms 255: Armies of the Muslim Conquest and Men-at-Arms 348: The Moors. The Life of Charlemagne One of our best sources on Charlemagne remains the Life of Charlemagne by Einhard. This text details both his public and private lives, including an extensive personal description: Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (his height is well known to have been seven times the length of his foot); the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting; although his neck was thick and somewhat short, and his belly rather prominent; but the symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect. His health was excellent, except during the four years preceding his death, when he was subject to frequent fevers; at the last he even limped a little with one foot. Even in those years he consulted rather his own inclinations than the advice of physicians, who were almost hateful to him, because they wanted him to give up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent exercise on horseback and in the chase, accomplishments in which scarcely any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed the exhalations from natural warm springs, and often practised swimming, in which he was such an adept that none could surpass him; and hence it was that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and lived there constantly during his latter years until his death. He used not only to invite his sons to his bath, but his nobles and friends, and now and then a troop of his retinue or body guard, so that a hundred or more persons sometimes bathed with him. He died on 28 January 814, from a 'high fever' that had afflicted him for a week, having a few months earlier transferred all his powers to his son, Louis. He was buried in the church he had had built, in Aix-la-Chapelle. Two extracts from Men-at-Arms 150: The Age of Charlemagne Offensive Strategy and Frontier Defence: Although Frankish wars took on an unprovoked expansionist character even under Pepin the Short, it was not until the time of Charlemagne that this was reflected in more ambitious strategy. Warfare was extremely frequent, and years without at least one campaign remained a rarity. The strategy employed by Carloman and Pepin was much like that of their father Charles Martel. It was characterised by the seizure and garrisoning of fortified places in the Romanised south, and raiding for booty and tribute in the non-urbanised north and beyond the Frankish frontiers into Spain and Italy. Charlemagne, by contrast, aimed for his enemy's heart. Political pressure sought to subvert the foe's military elite, and invasions headed for the enemy's capital or religious centre. Charlemagne's armies often attacked along two or more axes, making use of their habitual numerical superiority to force the foe to divide his forces or retreat in defence of his heartland. Speed and night marches were also characteristic of the best Carolingian armies. While strategy might have become more ambitious, battlefield tactics remained essentially the same, although discipline and control probably improved. Mounted men acted in most cases as light cavalry skirmishers, making repeated charges with spears and javelins. Infantry were either attached to, or were closely associated with, such units. Archery was primarily left to footsoldiers. A steady increase in the tactical importance of mounted troops led to a corresponding decline in the role of infantry until, by the end of the 9th century, Frankish wars were fought almost exclusively by cavalry. Equipment, Training and Morale: Spears were the most common and cheapest weapons for all warriors. Those Frankish followers of King Carloman's envoy Dodo, who sacked the Lateran Palace in 769AD, were seemingly only armed with spears, thought they also wore mail. Such weapons for both horsemen and infantry had large horizontal lugs or wings beneath their blades. These were not to stop the weapon from penetrating too deeply into its victim, nor were they particularly suited to cavalry warfare as has sometimes been suggested. Lugs first appeared on 4th century Germanic weapons, and probably indicated a parrying, almost fencing use of the spear. By Carolingian times the Frankish throwing axe or frankisha had been abandoned in favour of the seax, a single-edged short-sword or large dagger. This may again have been of nomadic Asiatic inspiration, as was the contemporary Islamic khanjar. While in Scandinavia the seax developed into a sizeable single-edged sword, in Frankish Europe it became a shorter dagger known as a scramasax. The most expensive weapon was the sword. Its manufacture made the greatest demands on available technology, and it remained an essentially noble item of equipment. As true welding was unknown, rods of iron were twisted together, flattened, soft-soldered and then ground down. This so-called pattern-welding was not the same technique as that used in the 'damascened' blades of the Middle East, nor in the cast blades already being made in Central Asia. Some pattern-welded blades had harder, more carbonised metal at the centre than at their edges. In others the reverse is true; and in neither case is it certain that this was intentional. Nor is it confirmed that pattern-welded blades were stronger than those which were single-forged. It does, however, seem to have been easier for early medieval smiths to make good quality slag-free iron in small strips. A really fine sword with modest decoration probably took at least 200 man-hours to make, and its forging required from two to three hundredweights of charcoal. Small wonder that such costly weapons were kept rust-free in scabbards lined with oil-soaked fur or hair. Carolingian archery saw more changes than most other forms of warfare. It was of major tactical importance on the eastern frontier in the first decade of the 9th century. Here Carolingian troops faced enemies either of Central Asian origin, or who had been influenced by Asiatic horse-archery techniques. Frankish horse-archers from the Abbey of Fulda are even mentioned, though such men were probably mounted infantry who dismounted to shoot and fight. In the 8th century Alemannic warriors used longbows of yew which were taller than a man. Such weapons were clearly for footsoldiers. Frankish settlers in Gaul had earlier adopted late Roman double-convex composite bows, but by the end of the 9th century these weapons had fallen out of use, except perhaps in Italy and southern France. They were replaced by short flat-bows of simple construction. Along with mounted archery the Carolingians may also have adopted the wood-framed saddle with a raised pommel from their Avar foes. The Byzantines certainly did so, though a general adoption of such saddles might have waited the Magyar onslaught of the 10th century. These extracts from the biography by Einhard, his contemporary and friend, illustrate the scale of the achievements of Charlemagne and his army. Firstly, although it comes towards the end of his life, the astounding summary of his wars: Such are the wars, most skilfully planned and successfully fought, which this most powerful king waged during the forty-seven years of his reign. He so largely increased the Frank kingdom, which was already great and strong when he received it at his father's hands, that more than double its former territory was added to it. The authority of the Franks was formerly confined to that part of Gaul included between the Rhine and the Loire, the Ocean and the Balearic Sea; to that part of Germany which is inhabited by the so-called Eastern Franks, and is bounded by Saxony and the Danube, the Rhine and the Saale-this stream separates the Thuringians from the Sorabians; and to the country of the Alemanni and Bavarians. By the wars above mentioned he first made tributary Aquitania, Gascony, and the whole of the region of the Pyrenees as far as the River Ebro, which rises in the land of the Navarrese, flows through the most fertile districts of Spain, and empties into the Balearic Sea, beneath the walls of the city of Tortosa. He next reduced and made tributary all Italy from Aosta to Lower Calabria, where the boundary line runs between the Beneventans and the Greeks, a territory more than a thousand miles" long; then Saxony, which constitutes no small part of Germany, and is reckoned to be twice as wide as the country inhabited by the Franks, while about equal to it in length; in addition, both Pannonias, Dacia beyond the Danube, and Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia, except the cities on the coast, which he left to the Greek Emperor for friendship's sake, and because of the treaty that he had made with him. In fine, he vanquished and made tributary all the wild and barbarous tribes dwelling in Germany between the Rhine and the Vistula, the Ocean and the Danube, all of which speak very much the same language, but differ widely from one another in customs and dress. And also, the accounts of two of his most notable campaigns, the Saxon War: At the conclusion of this struggle, the Saxon war, that seems to have been only laid aside for the time, was taken up again. No war ever undertaken by the Frank nation was carried on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labour, because the Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce people, given to the worship of devils, and hostile to our religion, and did not consider it dishonourable to transgress and violate all law, human and divine ... In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with the Saxons. Accordingly war was begun against them, and was waged for thirty-three successive years with great fury; more, however, to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the King, promised to do what was enjoined upon them, without hesitation the required hostages, gave and received the officers sent them from the King. They were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to renounce the worship of devils, and to adopt Christianity, but they were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war without such changes on their part. But the King did not suffer his high purpose and steadfastness - firm alike in good and evil fortune - to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from the task that he had undertaken, on the contrary, he never allowed their faithless behaviour to go unpunished, but either took the field against them in person, or sent his counts with an army to wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction. At last, after conquering and subduing all who had offered resistance, he took ten thousand of those that lived on the banks of the Elbe, and settled them, with their wives and children, in many different bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people. Charles himself fought but two pitched battles in this war, although it was long protracted one on Mount Osning, at the place called Detmold, and again on the bank of the river Hase, both in the space of little more than a month. The enemy were so routed and overthrown in these two battles that they never afterwards ventured to take the offensive or to resist the attacks of the King, unless they were protected by a strong position. and war with the Huns: The war against the Avars, or Huns, followed, and, except the Saxon war, was the greatest that he waged; he took it up with more spirit than any of his other wars, and made far greater preparations for it. He conducted one campaign in person in Pannonia, of which the Huns then had possession. He entrusted all subsequent operations to his son, Pepin, and the governors of the provinces, to counts even, and lieutenants. Although they most vigorously prosecuted the war, it only came to a conclusion after a seven years' struggle. The utter depopulation of Pannonia, and the site of the Khan's palace, now a desert, where not a trace of human habitation is visible bear witness how many battles were fought in those years, and how much blood was shed. The entire body of the Hun nobility perished in this contest, and all its glory with it. All the money and treasure that had been years amassing was seized, and no war in which the Franks have ever engaged within the memory of man brought them such riches and such booty.	<urn:uuid:ccba35a5-f8f9-4c7a-b4af-21638f0218ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ospreypublishing.com/thisweekhistory/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00380.warc.gz	en	0.986804	3,250	3.3125	3	[ -0.3909217119216919, 0.8428624868392944, 0.5260881185531616, 0.16461139917373657, -0.4150148630142212, -0.018181830644607544, -0.21424362063407898, 0.27523666620254517, 0.08694428205490112, -0.20650817453861237, 0.08709299564361572, -0.5388020277023315, 0.12032169103622437, 0.0119030429050...	1	When Charlemagne was 26, he and his brother Carloman inherited the kingdom of the Franks. Upon Carloman’s death in 771, Charlemagne became sole ruler of the kingdom. At this time the Franks seemed to be leaving Romanised ways behind, reverting to the less sophisticated lifestyle of their pre-Roman ancestors. Determined to strengthen his realm and to bring order to Europe, in 772 Charlemagne launched a 30-year military campaign. The Franks had always been a warring people, but Charlemagne further reformed his army and methods of warfare until he was almost unbeatable. At the end of the 30 years, he was the undisputed ruler of Western Europe. Furthermore, he had recreated a central government in Western Europe, restoring much of the unity of the old Roman Empire; in doing so, he laid the foundation for the development of modern Europe. On Christmas Day 800, in St Peter's in Rome, Pope Leo III placed a golden crown on the bowed head of the king, thus crowning his achievements and showing the huge power he wielded, even over the Church. Men-at-Arms 150: The Age of Charlemagne is an authoritative and gripping study of the organization and history of the Carolingian army, written by David Nicolle and illustrated by the famed Angus McBride. The book examines the forces that underpinned the power of the empire and constituted one of the greatest forces in the evolution of medieval Europe. Nicolle and McBride have contributed several other titles on the peoples and armies of Charlemagne's world, notably Elite 6: The Normans, Men-at-Arms 125: The Armies of Islam 7th-11th Centuries, Men-at-Arms 255: Armies of the Muslim Conquest and Men-at-Arms 348: The Moors. The Life of Charlemagne One of our best sources on Charlemagne remains the Life of Charlemagne by Einhard. This text details both his public and private lives, including an extensive personal description: Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (his height is well known to have been seven times the length of his foot); the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting; although his neck was thick and somewhat short, and his belly rather prominent; but the symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect. His health was excellent, except during the four years preceding his death, when he was subject to frequent fevers; at the last he even limped a little with one foot. Even in those years he consulted rather his own inclinations than the advice of physicians, who were almost hateful to him, because they wanted him to give up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent exercise on horseback and in the chase, accomplishments in which scarcely any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed the exhalations from natural warm springs, and often practised swimming, in which he was such an adept that none could surpass him; and hence it was that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and lived there constantly during his latter years until his death. He used not only to invite his sons to his bath, but his nobles and friends, and now and then a troop of his retinue or body guard, so that a hundred or more persons sometimes bathed with him. He died on 28 January 814, from a 'high fever' that had afflicted him for a week, having a few months earlier transferred all his powers to his son, Louis. He was buried in the church he had had built, in Aix-la-Chapelle. Two extracts from Men-at-Arms 150: The Age of Charlemagne Offensive Strategy and Frontier Defence: Although Frankish wars took on an unprovoked expansionist character even under Pepin the Short, it was not until the time of Charlemagne that this was reflected in more ambitious strategy. Warfare was extremely frequent, and years without at least one campaign remained a rarity. The strategy employed by Carloman and Pepin was much like that of their father Charles Martel. It was characterised by the seizure and garrisoning of fortified places in the Romanised south, and raiding for booty and tribute in the non-urbanised north and beyond the Frankish frontiers into Spain and Italy. Charlemagne, by contrast, aimed for his enemy's heart. Political pressure sought to subvert the foe's military elite, and invasions headed for the enemy's capital or religious centre. Charlemagne's armies often attacked along two or more axes, making use of their habitual numerical superiority to force the foe to divide his forces or retreat in defence of his heartland. Speed and night marches were also characteristic of the best Carolingian armies. While strategy might have become more ambitious, battlefield tactics remained essentially the same, although discipline and control probably improved. Mounted men acted in most cases as light cavalry skirmishers, making repeated charges with spears and javelins. Infantry were either attached to, or were closely associated with, such units. Archery was primarily left to footsoldiers. A steady increase in the tactical importance of mounted troops led to a corresponding decline in the role of infantry until, by the end of the 9th century, Frankish wars were fought almost exclusively by cavalry. Equipment, Training and Morale: Spears were the most common and cheapest weapons for all warriors. Those Frankish followers of King Carloman's envoy Dodo, who sacked the Lateran Palace in 769AD, were seemingly only armed with spears, thought they also wore mail. Such weapons for both horsemen and infantry had large horizontal lugs or wings beneath their blades. These were not to stop the weapon from penetrating too deeply into its victim, nor were they particularly suited to cavalry warfare as has sometimes been suggested. Lugs first appeared on 4th century Germanic weapons, and probably indicated a parrying, almost fencing use of the spear. By Carolingian times the Frankish throwing axe or frankisha had been abandoned in favour of the seax, a single-edged short-sword or large dagger. This may again have been of nomadic Asiatic inspiration, as was the contemporary Islamic khanjar. While in Scandinavia the seax developed into a sizeable single-edged sword, in Frankish Europe it became a shorter dagger known as a scramasax. The most expensive weapon was the sword. Its manufacture made the greatest demands on available technology, and it remained an essentially noble item of equipment. As true welding was unknown, rods of iron were twisted together, flattened, soft-soldered and then ground down. This so-called pattern-welding was not the same technique as that used in the 'damascened' blades of the Middle East, nor in the cast blades already being made in Central Asia. Some pattern-welded blades had harder, more carbonised metal at the centre than at their edges. In others the reverse is true; and in neither case is it certain that this was intentional. Nor is it confirmed that pattern-welded blades were stronger than those which were single-forged. It does, however, seem to have been easier for early medieval smiths to make good quality slag-free iron in small strips. A really fine sword with modest decoration probably took at least 200 man-hours to make, and its forging required from two to three hundredweights of charcoal. Small wonder that such costly weapons were kept rust-free in scabbards lined with oil-soaked fur or hair. Carolingian archery saw more changes than most other forms of warfare. It was of major tactical importance on the eastern frontier in the first decade of the 9th century. Here Carolingian troops faced enemies either of Central Asian origin, or who had been influenced by Asiatic horse-archery techniques. Frankish horse-archers from the Abbey of Fulda are even mentioned, though such men were probably mounted infantry who dismounted to shoot and fight. In the 8th century Alemannic warriors used longbows of yew which were taller than a man. Such weapons were clearly for footsoldiers. Frankish settlers in Gaul had earlier adopted late Roman double-convex composite bows, but by the end of the 9th century these weapons had fallen out of use, except perhaps in Italy and southern France. They were replaced by short flat-bows of simple construction. Along with mounted archery the Carolingians may also have adopted the wood-framed saddle with a raised pommel from their Avar foes. The Byzantines certainly did so, though a general adoption of such saddles might have waited the Magyar onslaught of the 10th century. These extracts from the biography by Einhard, his contemporary and friend, illustrate the scale of the achievements of Charlemagne and his army. Firstly, although it comes towards the end of his life, the astounding summary of his wars: Such are the wars, most skilfully planned and successfully fought, which this most powerful king waged during the forty-seven years of his reign. He so largely increased the Frank kingdom, which was already great and strong when he received it at his father's hands, that more than double its former territory was added to it. The authority of the Franks was formerly confined to that part of Gaul included between the Rhine and the Loire, the Ocean and the Balearic Sea; to that part of Germany which is inhabited by the so-called Eastern Franks, and is bounded by Saxony and the Danube, the Rhine and the Saale-this stream separates the Thuringians from the Sorabians; and to the country of the Alemanni and Bavarians. By the wars above mentioned he first made tributary Aquitania, Gascony, and the whole of the region of the Pyrenees as far as the River Ebro, which rises in the land of the Navarrese, flows through the most fertile districts of Spain, and empties into the Balearic Sea, beneath the walls of the city of Tortosa. He next reduced and made tributary all Italy from Aosta to Lower Calabria, where the boundary line runs between the Beneventans and the Greeks, a territory more than a thousand miles" long; then Saxony, which constitutes no small part of Germany, and is reckoned to be twice as wide as the country inhabited by the Franks, while about equal to it in length; in addition, both Pannonias, Dacia beyond the Danube, and Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia, except the cities on the coast, which he left to the Greek Emperor for friendship's sake, and because of the treaty that he had made with him. In fine, he vanquished and made tributary all the wild and barbarous tribes dwelling in Germany between the Rhine and the Vistula, the Ocean and the Danube, all of which speak very much the same language, but differ widely from one another in customs and dress. And also, the accounts of two of his most notable campaigns, the Saxon War: At the conclusion of this struggle, the Saxon war, that seems to have been only laid aside for the time, was taken up again. No war ever undertaken by the Frank nation was carried on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labour, because the Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce people, given to the worship of devils, and hostile to our religion, and did not consider it dishonourable to transgress and violate all law, human and divine ... In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with the Saxons. Accordingly war was begun against them, and was waged for thirty-three successive years with great fury; more, however, to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the King, promised to do what was enjoined upon them, without hesitation the required hostages, gave and received the officers sent them from the King. They were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to renounce the worship of devils, and to adopt Christianity, but they were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war without such changes on their part. But the King did not suffer his high purpose and steadfastness - firm alike in good and evil fortune - to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from the task that he had undertaken, on the contrary, he never allowed their faithless behaviour to go unpunished, but either took the field against them in person, or sent his counts with an army to wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction. At last, after conquering and subduing all who had offered resistance, he took ten thousand of those that lived on the banks of the Elbe, and settled them, with their wives and children, in many different bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people. Charles himself fought but two pitched battles in this war, although it was long protracted one on Mount Osning, at the place called Detmold, and again on the bank of the river Hase, both in the space of little more than a month. The enemy were so routed and overthrown in these two battles that they never afterwards ventured to take the offensive or to resist the attacks of the King, unless they were protected by a strong position. and war with the Huns: The war against the Avars, or Huns, followed, and, except the Saxon war, was the greatest that he waged; he took it up with more spirit than any of his other wars, and made far greater preparations for it. He conducted one campaign in person in Pannonia, of which the Huns then had possession. He entrusted all subsequent operations to his son, Pepin, and the governors of the provinces, to counts even, and lieutenants. Although they most vigorously prosecuted the war, it only came to a conclusion after a seven years' struggle. The utter depopulation of Pannonia, and the site of the Khan's palace, now a desert, where not a trace of human habitation is visible bear witness how many battles were fought in those years, and how much blood was shed. The entire body of the Hun nobility perished in this contest, and all its glory with it. All the money and treasure that had been years amassing was seized, and no war in which the Franks have ever engaged within the memory of man brought them such riches and such booty.	3,271	ENGLISH	1
The history of English can be divided into three periods: Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Middle English and Modern English. While the language’s evolution was gradual, events in the area of Britain throughout its history caused major changes at three points: around 700 A.D., 1100 A.D. and 1500 A.D. A group of West Germanic tribes – the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes – arrived in Britain as invaders between 500 and 700 A.D. The Celts who lived in Britain at that time were pushed north and west into what is now Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The Germanic peoples spoke what became Old English, which lasted until 1066 when William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. After the Norman conquest, Old English evolved into Middle English with the influences of French (and Latin, by way of French) brought by the Normans. For a while there was a class division, with the lower classes speaking English and the ruling and business classes speaking French. Middle English was spoken for around 400 years, from 1100-1500. Early Modern English is what was spoken during Shakespeare’s time and is dated from around 1500. Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) began. Every English vowel underwent changes in how it was normally pronounced. From the 16th century onward, the British had more and more contact with the outside world. Along with the Renaissance period, this contact meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that more words were written down. Books became cheaper, so more people learned how to read. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. Late Modern English, what we speak today, is really only different from Early Modern English in terms of vocabulary. We have a much larger vocabulary now than we did 500 years ago. This is due in large part to the industrial revolution, when new words were invented to name objects, processes and more that just didn’t exist in Shakespeare’s time. American English, incidentally, is much closer to Early Modern English than modern British English. In many ways, the language was “frozen” when it was brought to the new world. A lot of words that are now considered “Americanisms” are actually left over from 17th century English, and while they were dropped by the British, we hung onto them. For example, “trash” is now referred to as “rubbish” by the British, “fall” as “autumn,” and “loan” as “lend.” Mostly because of the United States’ global influence, English has become sort of the “lingua franca” of the modern age. It is the most-spoken language in the world, and in 3rd place (after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish) for native speakers.	<urn:uuid:dca1203c-50bf-41f9-863a-b8710631d6cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://flaunttherules.wordpress.com/2016/09/01/this-and-that-thursday-where-did-english-come-from-anyway/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00184.warc.gz	en	0.98033	640	4.25	4	[ -0.2638319730758667, -0.1442258059978485, 0.6636672019958496, -0.01454573217779398, -0.28745317459106445, -0.04580617696046829, -0.27822718024253845, -0.22829434275627136, 0.07044120877981186, -0.1579684019088745, -0.09353343397378922, -0.28498953580856323, -0.11940349638462067, 0.21071240...	2	The history of English can be divided into three periods: Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Middle English and Modern English. While the language’s evolution was gradual, events in the area of Britain throughout its history caused major changes at three points: around 700 A.D., 1100 A.D. and 1500 A.D. A group of West Germanic tribes – the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes – arrived in Britain as invaders between 500 and 700 A.D. The Celts who lived in Britain at that time were pushed north and west into what is now Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The Germanic peoples spoke what became Old English, which lasted until 1066 when William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. After the Norman conquest, Old English evolved into Middle English with the influences of French (and Latin, by way of French) brought by the Normans. For a while there was a class division, with the lower classes speaking English and the ruling and business classes speaking French. Middle English was spoken for around 400 years, from 1100-1500. Early Modern English is what was spoken during Shakespeare’s time and is dated from around 1500. Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) began. Every English vowel underwent changes in how it was normally pronounced. From the 16th century onward, the British had more and more contact with the outside world. Along with the Renaissance period, this contact meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that more words were written down. Books became cheaper, so more people learned how to read. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. Late Modern English, what we speak today, is really only different from Early Modern English in terms of vocabulary. We have a much larger vocabulary now than we did 500 years ago. This is due in large part to the industrial revolution, when new words were invented to name objects, processes and more that just didn’t exist in Shakespeare’s time. American English, incidentally, is much closer to Early Modern English than modern British English. In many ways, the language was “frozen” when it was brought to the new world. A lot of words that are now considered “Americanisms” are actually left over from 17th century English, and while they were dropped by the British, we hung onto them. For example, “trash” is now referred to as “rubbish” by the British, “fall” as “autumn,” and “loan” as “lend.” Mostly because of the United States’ global influence, English has become sort of the “lingua franca” of the modern age. It is the most-spoken language in the world, and in 3rd place (after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish) for native speakers.	641	ENGLISH	1
October 18th, 2017 \| On Jan. 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, an employee of John A. Sutter, discovered gold in the tail race of a mill he was building for Sutter. News spread slowly in those days, and gold had been seen in California earlier, but news of Marshall’s discovery sparked more interest. Since most people could not get to California in less than 5 months, few were able to arrive in 1848. \| 1849, however, would prove to be the beginning of the Gold Rush. Among those leaving for California in Jan. 1849, was a 49 year-old man from the address Will County (near Joliet), Illinois. Joe Zumwalt came west to seek his fortune. While passing through Bowling Green (Pike County), Missouri, Joe and his partner C.W. Wright stopped at a newspaper office to ask about the condition of the road to California. While there, they picked up some copies of the ritual of “E Clampus Vitus.” Some 8 months after leaving Illinois, the party reached the Diggins in Sept. 1849. Settling his family in Sacramento, Joe and others returned to the Diggins. Joe Zumwalt visited Camptonville, Downieville, Sierra City, Hangtown and many other locations. He tried to start Chapters of E Clampus Vitus in some of these places, but due to the restlessness of the miners, no success was attained. As the Placer mining became harder, and the focus of the search for gold turned from the rivers and streams to the quartz outcroppings from which the gold came, partnerships were formed, companies became employers and many men worked for others, rather than trying their luck on their own. The miners were finally coming together and settling down. In 1851, at Mokelumne Hill, Chapter 1001 of E Clampus Vitus was formed. Perhaps it was the more stationary population, but check this time the idea took. Soon, Chapters were springing up all along the Mother Lode and all over California. Delivered to the brethren, this date, October 18th, 6022 by “Who Me” John A. Sutter Chapter Historian Submitted by NGH Paul “Sparks” Laue on October 19th, 6022	<urn:uuid:bfd24bbe-ba06-414f-8bfc-ba8ee4d0e37c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ecv1841.com/wp/2019/01/04/the-story-of-james-w-marshall/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00375.warc.gz	en	0.980739	493	3.328125	3	[ -0.2254672646522522, -0.0032816934399306774, 0.2803061008453369, 0.24643369019031525, -0.26000067591667175, -0.04614008590579033, 0.01780732534825802, 0.3575538098812103, -0.41612011194229126, 0.0757022276520729, 0.4847794771194458, -0.32857194542884827, -0.10223852843046188, 0.19189098477...	11	October 18th, 2017 \| On Jan. 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, an employee of John A. Sutter, discovered gold in the tail race of a mill he was building for Sutter. News spread slowly in those days, and gold had been seen in California earlier, but news of Marshall’s discovery sparked more interest. Since most people could not get to California in less than 5 months, few were able to arrive in 1848. \| 1849, however, would prove to be the beginning of the Gold Rush. Among those leaving for California in Jan. 1849, was a 49 year-old man from the address Will County (near Joliet), Illinois. Joe Zumwalt came west to seek his fortune. While passing through Bowling Green (Pike County), Missouri, Joe and his partner C.W. Wright stopped at a newspaper office to ask about the condition of the road to California. While there, they picked up some copies of the ritual of “E Clampus Vitus.” Some 8 months after leaving Illinois, the party reached the Diggins in Sept. 1849. Settling his family in Sacramento, Joe and others returned to the Diggins. Joe Zumwalt visited Camptonville, Downieville, Sierra City, Hangtown and many other locations. He tried to start Chapters of E Clampus Vitus in some of these places, but due to the restlessness of the miners, no success was attained. As the Placer mining became harder, and the focus of the search for gold turned from the rivers and streams to the quartz outcroppings from which the gold came, partnerships were formed, companies became employers and many men worked for others, rather than trying their luck on their own. The miners were finally coming together and settling down. In 1851, at Mokelumne Hill, Chapter 1001 of E Clampus Vitus was formed. Perhaps it was the more stationary population, but check this time the idea took. Soon, Chapters were springing up all along the Mother Lode and all over California. Delivered to the brethren, this date, October 18th, 6022 by “Who Me” John A. Sutter Chapter Historian Submitted by NGH Paul “Sparks” Laue on October 19th, 6022	514	ENGLISH	1
Towards the end of 1915, a combined Franco-British offensive at the place where the two armies met either side of the Somme river was being proposed by the Commander-in-Chief of the French Armies, General Joseph Joffre. Following the major German offensive against the French Army at Verdun in February pressure soon increased on British Commander-in-Chief Sir Douglas Haig to mount this large-scale operation to help relieve pressure on the besieged French at Verdun, as well as taking the lead as the French had to reduce their participation to a supporting role in the Somme operation as a result of the German attack. The intentions of Haig was to burst right through the German defences, sending his cavalry on to Bapaume, and rolling up the entire German position on the Western Front. The British planned for 11 divisions of General Rawlinson’s Fourth Army to attack on a 24km (15 miles) front between Serre, north of the River Ancre, and Curlu, north of the Somme. Five French divisions would attack a 13km (8 miles) front south of the Somme, towards Peronne. The Battle of the Somme would be the debut of the British New Army created by Lord Kitchener’s call for recruits at the start of the war. The summer 1916 Somme Offensive commenced with a seven day bombardment, the intensity of which had not been witnessed before on this battlefront. The bombardment was designed to cut through the German barbed wire defences and smash their front line trenches and rear supply routes, as well as wear down the morale and nerves of the German defenders. Unconcealed preparations for the assault and the week-long bombardment gave the Germans clear warning of a pending attack. Happy to remain on French soil, German trenches were heavily fortified and, furthermore, many of the British shells failed to explode. When the bombardment began, the Germans simply moved underground and waited. Reports about the state of the enemy wire were varied, and generally it appeared from these reports that the wire had been better cut on the right of the Fourth Army front, south of the Albert-Bapaume road, than on the left front. In order to knock out a number of key defensive positions in the German Front Line the British exploded eight large mines (image below taken from the Geoffrey Malins film of the mine at Hawthorn Ridge) minutes before Zero Hour. At 7.30 am on 1st July 1916, whistles blew to signal the start of the attack. With the shelling over, the Germans left their bunkers and set up their machine gun positions. As the 11 British divisions walked towards the German lines, the machine guns started and the slaughter began. [Wheat-field photograph below of the location of the British line in front of Thiepval Wood, taken in July 2016 and looking like many of the fields across which the men had to advance a century previous]. Casualties on the first day were the worst in the history of the British Army, with 57,470 British casualties, 19,240 of whom were killed. So began one of the bloodiest chapters of the First World War that would end in November, as a result of the appalling winter conditions, in stalemate with over a million casualties on all sides. The first day ended with a mixture of success and failure for the attacking British and French. To the south the French met with a high degree of success and so too, but at a lesser extent, the British to the south of the Albert – Bapaume road. However to the north of the road from their commanding positions the Germans were able to withstand the attack, with their positions more or less intact and able to inflict huge losses on the British. Against Joffre’s wishes, Haig abandoned the offensive north of the Albert – Bapaume road, to reinforce the success in the south, where the Anglo-French forces pressed forward towards the German second line, preparatory to a general attack on 14th July 1916 which, known as the Battle of Bazentin Ridge, marked the start of the second phase of the Battle of the Somme. The 14th July attack, conceived by Fourth Army Commander General Rawlinson bore little resemblance to the failed plan of 1st July, and learning from the mistakes of two weeks previous, saw marked changes in tactics. Firstly the attacking front was much narrower at 5 kms, about a quarter of the 1st July frontage, but with two-thirds of the artillery at their disposal. Also the artillery tactics changed with a lighter bombardment in the preceding days therefore not obviously signalling an attack, and with a ferocious hurricane bombardment lasting only five minutes before the attack, with a focus on counter-battery fire to eliminate the German guns. In addition this was a dawn attack enabling the attacking divisions to creep into No-Man’s Land and lie as close as possible to the German barbed wire and the barrage so that they could rush the line as soon as the barrage lifted. Each wave had its set objective, such that the first wave would stay and secure the first objective, allowing the second to pass through to the second objective and so on. The attack turned out to be successful seizing three kilometres of the German second line, however, like the first day, the British failed to exploit their advantage in the wake of the victory and as German resistance stiffened, a period of bloody attrition thus commenced. The British started to plan for a third general offensive on the Somme for mid-September which was to include a new secret weapon to be unveiled on the battlefield. Before this attack could be made however more limited and tactical operations would be required to secure the right flank around High Wood and Delville Wood, and on the left flank the pivotal village of Pozieres set on a ridge on the Albert – Bapaume road that had a commanding view over the battlefield and protected the German strongpoint at Thiepval to the north. In the original Somme battle plans, a confident General Haig had advocated taking the second line German defensive system that ran through Pozieres on the first day. General Rawlinson anticipating strong German defence was more cautious and indeed it was only to the right of the battle that the first line was breached. Further progress was made during the second general offensive on the 14th July where the second line was breached to the south of the Albert – Bapaume road. The village and ridge at Pozieres now stood a key obstacle to the British advance, and General Gough’s Reserve Army, originally to be used to push through to Bapaume was tasked to take Pozieres and turn north to outflank the German stronghold at Thiepval and the surrounding area that had thus far repulsed the British attacks. Following their move south from the Fleurbaix sector, the 1st, 2nd and 4th Australian Divisions of I Anzac Corps were now assigned to Gough’s Reserve Army for the attack on Pozieres. On the 19th July the systematic bombardment of Pozieres by heavy artillery began in preparation for the assault by the 1st Australian Division, the targets being roads and barricades, and two days later the houses, trenches and strong-points within the village. [Click link for geo-referenced Trench Map reproduced, along with trench map below, with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. Just after midnight on the 23rd July 1916, men and officers in the first wave, with the 1st Brigade on the left and the 3rd Brigade on the right crept forward from their jumping-off trenches in order to approach the German position before the final bombardment began. At 12.28 the 1st Division’s field artillery burst on the enemy trench immediately in front of the crouching infantry. At 12.30 the 1st Division guns lifted their fire to the line of the orchards and the infantry rushed for Pozieres Trench (running east -west south of the village) which was taken with little opposition, and the second line passed through the men of the first and lay up near the barrage ready to assault the second objective along the back hedges of the village. Only on the extreme right in the Old German (OG) Lines did the first attack meet with heavy resistance, and where 2053 Pte Leak (photograph right) of the 9th Battalion rushed forward throwing bombs to help clear the situation and was awarded the Victoria Cross. By 2.30 along the whole length of the village a new front line was being dug parallel and close to the Bapaume Road, to entrench themselves by day-break. The objectives in Pozieres had thus been taken without much resistance from the enemy, but in the OG Lines to the east the attack had been much more stubbornly opposed and was stopped 600 yards short of its objectives. For the Australians they had achieved their first victory of importance on the Western Front and their reputation, begun in Gallipoli, took hold in Europe. With reports that Pozieres had been abandoned, plans were now drawn up to capture the rest of Pozieres, with small parties venturing forward and climbing over the rubble, flushing the small groups of Germans and snipers from the dugouts and ruins, including over twenty men being taken prisoner in the ‘Gibraltar’ strong-point (photograph below) to the west of the village. By the early hours of the 24th July, Pozieres had thus been captured and the Australian position was strong from a defensive point of view. On the following day the enemy’s endeavour to retake OG 1 led to one of the most desperate bomb-fights in the history of the AIF. The range of the German bombers was greater than that of the Australians, and trying to remedy this by crossing open ground all but two of the regimental bombers of the 5th Battalion were either killed or wounded. Since the holding of the trench depended on maintaining the bomb supply, a large proportion of the reinforcements were engaged in carrying forward bombs as fast as they could. At the barricades hastily built in the trench the surviving bombers, being covered by riflemen and Lewis gunners, threw until their arms gave way. With the arrival of three platoons of the 7th Battalion the Germans were driven back along OG 1 to the railway, resulting in the Australians taking about a quarter of their intended objective. By the time of the relief by the 2nd Australian Division on the 26th July, with the exception of the OG Lines to the south of the Bapaume road, the 1st Division had met all its objectives but at a cost of 5,285 officers and men. The total loss was thus slightly less than that suffered by the 5th Division at Fromelles a few days earlier, but many positives were achieved including better communication and execution of plans, having liaison officers with artillery, engineers and flanking British brigades, accurate supporting artillery fire, the bold use of Lewis guns in forward positions, plus the fast support of pioneers to dig communication trenches, strong-points etc. Also, despite a constant barrage, all men in the front-line received water, ammunition and a certain amount of food. Finally through his inability to observe from the air, the enemy’s bombardment of the back area had been negligible, and the artillery slow to locate the new front as it advanced. However for the men this was a very harrowing experience. Although not faced by immediate danger from the German infantry, the artillery fire was relentless and with the trench system being no more than hastily dug ditches, men were being easily buried by the soil being lifted and frantic efforts thus followed in trying to extricate their mates. Many were killed by the bombardment and many others now succumbing to shell shock. With the arrival of the 2nd Australian Division, the 22nd and 24th Battalions of the 6th Brigade occupying the trenches bordering the east and north of the village were subjected to the dreadful bombardment that had been poured upon Pozieres for the past week. By the end of the month the village had been wiped away (photograph right), the shell pitted ground covered with powdered brick dust and soil, and under the summer heat resembled more like the Egyptian desert that they had previously been in. Trenches that had been dug were quickly filled in by the next shell, making navigation by night extremely difficult as the landscape kept changing. An attack to capture the OG Lines to the east of the village was attempted on the night of the 29th July and would be conducted by five battalions of the three Brigades of the 2nd Australian Division. [Click on link for geo-referenced trench map reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. No other important attack was being launched that night in any part of the Somme battlefield. An intense bombardment of OG 1 occurred at 12.14am and a minute later lifted to OG 2 as the infantry attacked. The continued presence of red enemy flares over the front-line from German commanders to their artillery indicated to the 2nd Australian Division commanders that the attack was not preceding well, and later it was apparent that only the 23rd Battalion on the far left had succeeded in its objectives, despite the loss of seven officers and 326 other ranks. It turned out that the Germans had been well warned of the attack, first by the severe artillery fire during the day, later by reports of Australian troop concentration in Pozieres and finally by detection of the 5th Brigade deploying. The main cause for failure was the rushed preparations and lack of time, together with a complete lack of surprise. Also the lack of a close enough Jumping Off Trench meant that the attacking forces had far too much open ground to cover thus subject to withering machine gun fire, and when they reached the OG 1 they found that in many places the wire entanglements had not been cut. The first attempt to take the OG Lines had thus failed, with a loss of 2,000 men from the 2nd Division on top of the 1,500 in holding the front during the previous two days. During the day stretcher-bearers from both sides tended to the Australian wounded out by the wire and in No-Man’s Land. For this failure, Generals Birdwood and White of I Anzac Corps received a serious reprimand from Field Marshal Haig. In preparation for the next attack the demolition of the OG Lines was to be carried out in four heavy bombardments of an hour by the heavy howitzers of I Anzac and II Corps, the first commencing at 6pm on the 31st July, with subsequent bombardments over the next days. In addition the field artillery took part in separate hurricane barrages designed to mystify and harass the enemy and to practice the field artillery for the actual attack. The problem for the Pioneers, Engineers and other troops tasked with digging the important new communication and jumping off trenches, each time a bombardment occurred the Germans were likely to respond in kind, therefore making their job even more precarious. Sometimes the response was so fierce that many thought that it signalled a counter-attack from the Germans. As Bean wrote of the bombardment ‘in a single tour of this battle, divisions were subjected to greater stress than in the whole of the Gallipoli campaign.’ On the evening of the 4th August the 2nd Division mounted an attack in four waves on OG 1 (photograph left) and OG 2. To the south of the Bapaume road two battalions of the 5th Brigade had by the time darkness had fallen secured OG 1 and were digging in on the site of OG 2 with their Lewis guns out in front. Protected by a smoke screen covering its southern flank the casualties of the 5th Brigade were light. The advance of the 7th Brigade in the centre succeeded almost as swiftly as that of the 5th, despite delays caused by the incompleteness of the Jumping Off Trench meaning that the 25th Battalion were forced to wait in the crowded communication trench, which in turn blocked the passage of the second wave of the 27th Battalion. Success for the 7th Brigade was delivered by following very close on the barrage, and caught many of the enemy in their dugouts before they had time to remount their machine-guns. Around midnight the German barrage increased its focus on the OG Lines. Casualties amongst the attacking battalions increased so much that few officers were left to organise and direct consolidation, with NCO’s and even privates doing officers work. German counter-attacks followed in the direction of the lines held by the 25th and 27th Battalions but they were repulsed by machine gun fire. To the north and on the left flank a counter-attack was directed towards the 22nd and 26th Battalions and the men scrambled onto the parapet and fired at them. Further west the British 12th Division had pushed forward thus linking up with the Australian left position, and at the other end of the line the 18th Battalion had linked up with 7th Brigade at the Windmill, thus completing the attainment of the 2nd Division objective. The Pozieres Heights had been won, and a position of much importance gained. For the Germans it represented a serious loss, and plans were put in place for its re-capture. The bombardment now falling on the whole line was becoming more accurate as the enemy’s batteries were registered on the new front line, which as a result of the action was now a salient and upon which the Germans could fire from three sides. Furthermore both lines were visible to the enemy, OG 2 from front and flank, and OG1 from the left rear from the direction of Thiepval. Batteries close to the Thiepval Ridge were now able to ‘snipe’ at even solitary men making their way across the crater-field to the rear of the lines. The German artillery was thus able to systematically work up and down trench lines and communication trenches. In OG 1 men were able to take shelter in the dugouts, but not so in OG 2 where few officers now survived and the Lewis guns were gradually being destroyed. In an attempt to reduce casualties orders had already been received to thin out the garrison to a minimum to defend the position, and the 27th Battalion withdrew to OG 1. Meanwhile the 4th and 12th Brigades of the 4th Australian Division were being readied to effect the relief of the three brigades of the 2nd Australian Division. The bombardment on the night of 5th/6th August took a heavy toll on men of both Divisions, particularly in K Trench to the west of the village. Dead and wounded lay everywhere, some killed on their stretchers with stretcher bearers lying amongst them. During its twelve days of practically continuous bombardment the 2nd Australian Division endured conditions seldom experienced elsewhere. In all, the Division lost 6,846 men killed, wounded or missing. Many of the wounded were suffering from shock in addition to their physical wounds – an eyewitness recorded that of many later sitting in front of Vadencourt Chateau to have their wounds seen to were shaking like a leaf. At about 4am on the 7th August the enemy barrage suddenly ceased on the Australians in the OG Lines and began to fall heavily far back beyond Pozieres. The forward posts immediately began to observe men moving towards them up the slope from Courcelette. On the Australian left, OG 2 Line was still be manned by the 14th and 15th Battalions and as the Germans passed to their right towards OG 1 rapid fire was poured into the advancing column. Some of the outposts were overrun and about 40 men of the 48th Battalion were captured and taken prisoner. The Germans continued to pour past the OG Lines in the centre, throwing bombs into the dugouts one of which contained Lieutenant Jacka (photograph right), the first Australian Victoria Cross recipient in Gallipoli, who with the remnants of his platoon having been roused by the deafening explosion, emerged into open to see that a large number of Germans were now between his position and Pozieres. Jacka lined up his men and decided to dash through the enemy back to Pozieres. No sooner had he done this then he encountered the line of 48th prisoners who seeing what was going on then entered the fight, some being shot by their guards, with others overcoming their captors. Other Australians in the surrounding shell holes also rushed forward and what followed was a series of one-on-one life or death battles, with bayonets crossing and men being shot at point blank range. Jacka threw himself into a shell hole in which German bombers were situated, and despite being shot three times, killed or captured his attackers. As Bean wrote, Jacka’s counter-attack stands as the most dramatic and effective act of individual audacity in the history of the AIF, though strangely was awarded just the Military Cross for this action. The bombardment that the 48th Battalion suffered resulted in the loss of 20 officers and 578 other ranks, and the 45th Battalion south of the road 5 officers and 340 men. After this action only four men remained unwounded in Jacka’s platoon in the 14th Battalion. Within an hour the area was clear of the enemy. This action of the 7th August was the last attempt by the enemy to recapture the crest east of Pozieres. With the Pozieres Heights secure, plans were now put in place for the second phase with the push northwards from the Pozieres salient to Mouquet Farm and then to outflank the German stronghold at Thiepval. With this new captured position came the dangers inherent of being visible on three sides by enemy artillery observers, and it did not take long before the Germans realised that the point of each attack on a narrow frontage was the farm, thus they could concentrate their fire. To help alleviate part of this problem, each time there was an attack the right flanking battalion was tasked with pushing right and eastward in order to widen the frontage. On the night of the 8th August the 15th Battalion along with the Suffolk Battalion on the left attacked and commenced the advance northwards. Having made gains, the 15th Battalion found itself in front of the objective but was forced to withdraw. Thus began a series of attacks over the coming weeks to seize the farm and surrounding area in preparation for Haig’s third major offensive scheduled for mid-September. [Click on following link for geo-referenced map reproduced with permission from the National Library of Scotland] The formal second stage of the advance of I Anzac and II Corps of the Reserve Army to the line of Mouquet Farm was to be conducted by the British 12th Division to the west and 4th Australian Division’s 4th Brigade to the east assisted by the 50th Battalion, 13th Brigade. As with many before, the passage to the front was fraught with danger and by the time the last company of the 50th Battalion got through they had suffered considerable losses, especially of officers and NCO’s, from the bombardment. The advance of the 50th and 13th Battalions commenced at 10.30pm under a creeping barrage and reports soon came in stating that objectives had been reached. Thus within three and a half days the Australians had advanced a third of a mile along the ridge and the line to the west had come up level with them and making good progress to getting to the rear of Thiepval. Orders were given for the capture of objectives of Mouquet Farm (photograph left) and the Fabeck Trench on the ridge behind the farm. However, British documents or papers stating the importance of taking Mouquet Farm had found themselves into German hands around Thiepval and as a result the German Army was expecting a move from the south by the Australians and prepared accordingly. A furious bombardment was placed on the Australians for many hours before their assault scheduled at 10pm on the 14th August. Messages from the three attacking battalions, the 50th, 13th and 51st all recommended a postponement of the attack, but these were overruled. All three battalions pressed on but met stiff resistance and neither the 50th on the left or 51st on the right could make contact with the 13th in the centre, meaning that all were potential subjects of flanking attacks, thus the decision was taken to withdraw. Faced with a strong and continuous defence line through Mouquet Farm, Gough’s and I Anzac’s northward advance had met its first check. All three battalions were worn out, and the 51st had lost some 300 officers and men, the 13th (including earlier engagements) 386 and the 50th 414. The relief of the 4th Australian Division by the 1st Australian Division which had already been brought back to Albert, was therefore begun at once. With the return of the 1st Australian Division the Australian 1st and 2nd Brigades launched an attack to coincide with other British attacks taking place on the 18th August elsewhere on the Somme. The 7th and 8th Battalions of the 2nd Brigade were to attack eastwards, south of the Bapaume road. Due to difficulties in communication the exact timing of the barrages had not reached the Brigade headquarters, and despite the attack appearing to follow the creeping barrage they were probably too far behind thus giving the enemy too much time to recover once the barrage had lifted. Some men entered the trenches, and with many killed they could not hold on. After the attack the new trenches dug were heavily shelled. By the time that the 2nd Brigade was relieved by the 5th Brigade (2nd Division) on 21st August it had lost 915 of the 3,750 strength that it had when it resumed this tour six days previously. For the 1st Brigade to the north, difficulties had arisen in the exact location of the front-line, and when the pre-attack bombardment came numerous shells were landing on the front line of the 3rd Battalion causing casualties. Parties were sent out but driven back. The 4th Battalion further west had more success and posts were established in the taken trench. However this was now the second operation of great difficulty at Mouquet Farm and had resulted in just one comparatively trivial gain. The 3rd Battalion had lost 9 of its officers and 151 other ranks, at least half by bombardment of its own side; the 4th Battalion had lost 9 officers and 279 other ranks. Immediately to the left of the 1st Brigade the British had successes thus the Mouquet Farm salient was now a little less pronounced, and immediately to the right of the 2nd Brigade the Scots recorded successes in Munster Alley. Elsewhere during this coordinated attack there were also successes further along the line at Guillemont though operations at High Wood had failed. The next attack of the 3rd Brigade on the 21st August took place in broad daylight, the first time that the Australians had done this on the Somme. The attacking force was strengthened by two parties from the 11th Battalion but needing to come from way back as Sausage Valley (photograph right) they were seen by the enemy who put down a barrage on the reserve company of the 12th moving up K Trench. To finally get to the front line men had to rush open ground, in view of the enemy. Thus all chance of surprise had gone, and the Germans put down a barrage and within one hour the 10th Battalion had lost 120 of its 620 officers and men. The attacking waves proceeded but with the enemy behind both flanks the 10th Battalion fell back. Some of those that went farthest attempted to retire but without support and surrounded the survivors surrendered. The 12th Battalion though had more success and had created a small salient almost touching the south-eastern corner of the farm. Overall the 1st Australian Division in its second tour had lost 92 officers and 2,558 other ranks. The progress that had been made was miniscule, and the fruitless task was then handed back over to the 2nd Australian Division. By the time the 2nd Australian Division had arrived for its second tour, lessons were being learnt not to overcrowd the front line and provide defence through staggered lines and increased artillery. In Pozieres, half a mile behind the front line support companies were in places like K Trench and Centre Way whereas the reserve battalion, usually assigned carrying duties, were in the rear in Sausage Valley or at La Boisselle. In attack, the trend was moving towards effective bombardment with a smaller attacking force which by its very nature had the greater chance of achieving surprise. The 6th Brigade having suffered the least in the first tour was selected as the next attacking battering ram against the farm. These weeks were marked by great aeroplane activity over the battlefield, the Allies – on some days with at least fifty machines simultaneously in the sky – endeavouring to maintain their local superiority. The day of the relief was one such day and as a result the columns moving north were spotted and an intense barrage of shrapnel and high explosive followed, and the 24th Battalion which had suffered heavily in K Trench four weeks earlier, was again caught. 6th Brigade’s Major-General Gellibrand chose to attack, for the first time by the Australians on the Somme, at dawn enabling the attackers the ability to move into position during the dark but allowing them to see the lie of the land for mobility and navigation. In consultation with Divisional headquarters the time of the attack was set at 4.45 on the 26th August, with the 21st Battalion attacking west of the farm, the 24th Battalion to secure the dugouts to the east and a company of the 22nd Battalion to protect the left flank by dropping its platoons one at a time at flanking posts. Though the ground was rough with shell holes they were dimly lit and the troops were able to keep up with the line of shells and made progress towards the farm and managed to seize the trench. To the east the 24th was also making progress and began bombing the cellars, rousing the defenders who started to set up their machine gun rendering digging and further bombing impossible. On the left flank the 21st Battalion encountered a series of deep dugouts from which came many Germans that had been sheltering and starting firing into the party from the rear. The 22nd Battalion on the left flank however became exposed as the 21st had in fact veered too far to the north-east during its attack. Pockets of men were having to fight off counter-attacks from shell-holes. The attack had come up against a considerably strengthened enemy, and the 21st lost 13 officers and 444 men, and the 6th Brigade out of a fighting strength of about 2,500 lost 896. About sixty men were captured on the night of the 26th August and a few others the next day or so, though some men were able to make their way through German lines and made their way safely through to the British lines at Thiepval. After dark the 4th Brigade of the 4th Australian Division relieved the 6th Brigade. On the 29th August orders were given to the 4th Brigade for a renewed attack (the sixth) on the farm. Rain fell heavily that turned every shell-hole into a slimy pool and mud covered the men as they prepared to attack. One of the 13th Battalion’s objectives, Kollman Trench was easily taken, but as they pushed on to the Fabeck Graben they came under attack in front of the thin wire entanglement and could not respond as their rifles and Lewis guns became choked with mud, and even the bombs could not be used as the pins could not be pulled. As a result the survivors had to struggle back to the front line from which they had attacked. The 16th Battalion did not fare any better to the left. The two battalions were relieved the next day with the 13th Battalion having lost 10 officers and 221 other ranks, and the 16th 9 officers and 219 other ranks. With daylight the stretcher-bearers of both sides (photograph above) came out under large red cross flags to search the mud. In front of the 13th Battalion the stretcher-bearers divided No-Man’s Land between them, each handing over any of the others wounded that they had found. Corps HQ, and indeed the German High Command were concerned that the enemy could misuse the collection of wounded to recover guns or conduct fatigues, and both sides sought to limit the amount of stretcher-bearers that could go into No-Man’s Land. Just after dawn on 3rd September the British Reserve Army attacked towards Thiepval from three directions, with the 4th Australian Division resuming the attack at Mouquet Farm. Further to the right and east the British Fourth Army and the French Sixth Army would at noon launch the main effort preparatory to the mid-September offensive, towards Guillemont and the Combles area. The attack on Fabeck Graben to the east of the farm was conducted by the 49th Battalion, with the 52nd to their left and the 51st attacking the farm itself. Good progress was made and as the 51st entered into the farm they stopped to bomb all discoverable entrances to the underground works. By 7.30am brigade headquarters had heard that Mouquet Farm had been taken with the exception of a few dugouts that were being dealt with. Beyond the farm progress was being halted by increasing German resistance and machine gunners that not have the luxury of deep dugouts (photoraph above) in which to hide from bombardments, were able to fire quickly into the advancing Australian infantry. The 52nd Battalion began to fall back, and seeing this the 51st Battalion retreated to the farm as the Germans bombed forward, and with the Germans now regaining access to the underground tunnels soon had the place surrounded. With the exception of the 49th Battalion on the crest of the ridge, the Australian thrust had again been defeated. At 6.30pm, having been informed that all efforts by the Reserve Army had failed, General Gough suspended all other operations with the exception of safeguarding the higher ground captured by the 49th with two companies of the Canadian 13th. The following day of the attack saw German counter-attacks and bombardments, but the 49th Battalion though greatly reduced in number held on to this position. The fighting on these two days were some of the hardest fought by the AIF, but part of the Fabeck Graben was held, the only success in Gough’s encircling attack on Thiepval. The 13th Brigade lost 41 officers and 1,305 men, but the men were conscious that they had won and held what was considered an important objective. With the relief of the 13th Brigade the participation of the Australians in this phase of the Somme battle had come to an end. The Fourth Army to the right had succeeded at Guillemont, but on the orders of General Haig the Reserve Army’s attempt at securing Thiepval before the mid-September offensive was given up. Seven times the Australians had launched against Mouquet Farm and only on the last and with the greatest effort was any success made. However this was on a front so narrow that it would not hold a deliberate counter-offensive which inevitably came on the 8th September causing terrible loses for the Canadians, and resulting in the Germans retaking the Fabeck Graben. Pozieres set the standard by which enemy shell fire was ever afterwards measured in the AIF as ‘better or worse than Pozieres’. No village in the Somme area was so completely erased as Pozieres. In the following years, visitors to the battlefield would not have suspected that a village once existed there, in its place just open moorland. The proportion of casualties to the numbers engaged in the fighting at Pozieres was the greatest suffered by I Anzac Corps. I Anzac Corps had lost in this battle 23,000 officers and men, with the 1st Australian Division 7,654, the 2nd Australian Division 8,114 and the 4th Australian Division 7,058. The rate loss was just slightly higher than the average from the other forty-one British Divisions that fought in the Somme during this time, but when you add the 5,533 casualties of the 5th Australian Division at Fromelles this meant that Australian army in France was faced with the immediate problem of replenishment. The numbers of reinforcements in training in England, or the returning sick and wounded, or on their way from Australia would not be enough to bring the Australian infantry divisions up to strength either in the near future and perhaps not by the end of the year if more tough fighting needed to be undertaken. As a result the move towards the adoption of conscription began to gather pace, leading to the vote in October. The subjection of a second tour for the 1st & 2nd Australian Divisions so soon after the devastating first was unwise putting a great strain on the soldiers, and should have been avoided if the true conditions were understood. Through the relentless bombardments a number of men would succumb to shell shock that would see them suffer terribly. In addition to the physical and psychological effects of the fighting on the men, they also started to question the effectiveness of the senior British command that under Haig’s orders was to keep the pressure on the enemy by a series of narrow frontage and limited objectives leading up to the major offensive in mid-September. Although German High Command originally decreed the need to retake all trenches that had been lost, the change to that of a more defensive stance utilising the advantages of the deep dugouts and underground passages meant that the attackers were almost always likely to take more casualties. Furthermore, these limited attacks at Pozieres and Mouquet Farm were often the only activity taking place in this sector meaning that the German guns from the north and east could be focused on the men in the salient and its approaches. The taking of the Pozieres Heights and the village did achieve the objective of preparing the ground for the third major British offensive on the Somme on the 15th September between Flers – Courcelette, the successful battle which saw the introduction of the tank on the battlefield. However the attack on Mouquet Farm proved to be fruitless and a waste of many a good man and resources. Indeed Mouquet Farm would not fall until the Battle of Thiepval on 26th September, which saw the village being taken by a frontal attack rendering the plan of the flanking attack via Mouquet Farm a misguided concept. The Australian Divisions would later return to the Somme in the Flers sector after having been re-equipped in Belgium, at a time when torrential rains in October turned the battlegrounds into a muddy quagmire. On the 18th November 1916 the Battle of the Somme ended, with the Allies having advanced only 8km (five miles). During this period the British suffered around 420,000 casualties, the French 195,000 and the Germans around 650,000. [Photograph right of the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing that contains the names of over 72,000 British servicemen that died during the 1916 Somme campaign and have no known grave]. Only in the sense of relieving the French at Verdun can the British have claimed any measure of success. However the battle did take a toll on the Germans. Falkenhayn was sacked and replaced by General Erich Ludendorff at the end of August 1916, and at a conference at Cambrai on 5th September, a decision was taken to build a new defensive line – the Hindenburg Line – well behind the Somme front to which the Germans, conscious of a dangerous lack of men and resources should a new Spring attack come in the new year, retreated to in February 1917. Today, two major monuments in the village stand to honour the bravery and memory of the men of I Anzac Corps during the fighting in Pozieres and Mouquet Farm – the 1st Australian Division monument to the south-west of the village next to the Gibraltar ruins (photograph above taken at the 2016 Centenary), and the Australian Memorial at the Windmill to the north-east of the village (photograph left). At the Windmill a stone commemorates the sacrifice of the Australians who fought here, in the words of Charles Bean ‘who fell more thickly on this ridge than any other battlefield of the war’. Published as ‘news’ 100 years on to the day, follow the 22nd Battalion on the project website and via Facebook and Twitter FIRST WORLD WAR TIMELINE	<urn:uuid:de67ce94-4379-494f-972e-7815c578fa6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://anzac-22nd-battalion.com/pozieres-mouquet-farm-aif-divisions/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00267.warc.gz	en	0.984173	8,375	3.703125	4	[ -0.01278790831565857, 0.5186327695846558, 0.15469983220100403, -0.07796168327331543, 0.2775135636329651, -0.007625993806868792, -0.4086722433567047, 0.36895832419395447, -0.0020127505995333195, -0.5123535990715027, -0.014018568210303783, -0.9037212133407593, -0.1764247715473175, 0.31561422...	11	Towards the end of 1915, a combined Franco-British offensive at the place where the two armies met either side of the Somme river was being proposed by the Commander-in-Chief of the French Armies, General Joseph Joffre. Following the major German offensive against the French Army at Verdun in February pressure soon increased on British Commander-in-Chief Sir Douglas Haig to mount this large-scale operation to help relieve pressure on the besieged French at Verdun, as well as taking the lead as the French had to reduce their participation to a supporting role in the Somme operation as a result of the German attack. The intentions of Haig was to burst right through the German defences, sending his cavalry on to Bapaume, and rolling up the entire German position on the Western Front. The British planned for 11 divisions of General Rawlinson’s Fourth Army to attack on a 24km (15 miles) front between Serre, north of the River Ancre, and Curlu, north of the Somme. Five French divisions would attack a 13km (8 miles) front south of the Somme, towards Peronne. The Battle of the Somme would be the debut of the British New Army created by Lord Kitchener’s call for recruits at the start of the war. The summer 1916 Somme Offensive commenced with a seven day bombardment, the intensity of which had not been witnessed before on this battlefront. The bombardment was designed to cut through the German barbed wire defences and smash their front line trenches and rear supply routes, as well as wear down the morale and nerves of the German defenders. Unconcealed preparations for the assault and the week-long bombardment gave the Germans clear warning of a pending attack. Happy to remain on French soil, German trenches were heavily fortified and, furthermore, many of the British shells failed to explode. When the bombardment began, the Germans simply moved underground and waited. Reports about the state of the enemy wire were varied, and generally it appeared from these reports that the wire had been better cut on the right of the Fourth Army front, south of the Albert-Bapaume road, than on the left front. In order to knock out a number of key defensive positions in the German Front Line the British exploded eight large mines (image below taken from the Geoffrey Malins film of the mine at Hawthorn Ridge) minutes before Zero Hour. At 7.30 am on 1st July 1916, whistles blew to signal the start of the attack. With the shelling over, the Germans left their bunkers and set up their machine gun positions. As the 11 British divisions walked towards the German lines, the machine guns started and the slaughter began. [Wheat-field photograph below of the location of the British line in front of Thiepval Wood, taken in July 2016 and looking like many of the fields across which the men had to advance a century previous]. Casualties on the first day were the worst in the history of the British Army, with 57,470 British casualties, 19,240 of whom were killed. So began one of the bloodiest chapters of the First World War that would end in November, as a result of the appalling winter conditions, in stalemate with over a million casualties on all sides. The first day ended with a mixture of success and failure for the attacking British and French. To the south the French met with a high degree of success and so too, but at a lesser extent, the British to the south of the Albert – Bapaume road. However to the north of the road from their commanding positions the Germans were able to withstand the attack, with their positions more or less intact and able to inflict huge losses on the British. Against Joffre’s wishes, Haig abandoned the offensive north of the Albert – Bapaume road, to reinforce the success in the south, where the Anglo-French forces pressed forward towards the German second line, preparatory to a general attack on 14th July 1916 which, known as the Battle of Bazentin Ridge, marked the start of the second phase of the Battle of the Somme. The 14th July attack, conceived by Fourth Army Commander General Rawlinson bore little resemblance to the failed plan of 1st July, and learning from the mistakes of two weeks previous, saw marked changes in tactics. Firstly the attacking front was much narrower at 5 kms, about a quarter of the 1st July frontage, but with two-thirds of the artillery at their disposal. Also the artillery tactics changed with a lighter bombardment in the preceding days therefore not obviously signalling an attack, and with a ferocious hurricane bombardment lasting only five minutes before the attack, with a focus on counter-battery fire to eliminate the German guns. In addition this was a dawn attack enabling the attacking divisions to creep into No-Man’s Land and lie as close as possible to the German barbed wire and the barrage so that they could rush the line as soon as the barrage lifted. Each wave had its set objective, such that the first wave would stay and secure the first objective, allowing the second to pass through to the second objective and so on. The attack turned out to be successful seizing three kilometres of the German second line, however, like the first day, the British failed to exploit their advantage in the wake of the victory and as German resistance stiffened, a period of bloody attrition thus commenced. The British started to plan for a third general offensive on the Somme for mid-September which was to include a new secret weapon to be unveiled on the battlefield. Before this attack could be made however more limited and tactical operations would be required to secure the right flank around High Wood and Delville Wood, and on the left flank the pivotal village of Pozieres set on a ridge on the Albert – Bapaume road that had a commanding view over the battlefield and protected the German strongpoint at Thiepval to the north. In the original Somme battle plans, a confident General Haig had advocated taking the second line German defensive system that ran through Pozieres on the first day. General Rawlinson anticipating strong German defence was more cautious and indeed it was only to the right of the battle that the first line was breached. Further progress was made during the second general offensive on the 14th July where the second line was breached to the south of the Albert – Bapaume road. The village and ridge at Pozieres now stood a key obstacle to the British advance, and General Gough’s Reserve Army, originally to be used to push through to Bapaume was tasked to take Pozieres and turn north to outflank the German stronghold at Thiepval and the surrounding area that had thus far repulsed the British attacks. Following their move south from the Fleurbaix sector, the 1st, 2nd and 4th Australian Divisions of I Anzac Corps were now assigned to Gough’s Reserve Army for the attack on Pozieres. On the 19th July the systematic bombardment of Pozieres by heavy artillery began in preparation for the assault by the 1st Australian Division, the targets being roads and barricades, and two days later the houses, trenches and strong-points within the village. [Click link for geo-referenced Trench Map reproduced, along with trench map below, with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. Just after midnight on the 23rd July 1916, men and officers in the first wave, with the 1st Brigade on the left and the 3rd Brigade on the right crept forward from their jumping-off trenches in order to approach the German position before the final bombardment began. At 12.28 the 1st Division’s field artillery burst on the enemy trench immediately in front of the crouching infantry. At 12.30 the 1st Division guns lifted their fire to the line of the orchards and the infantry rushed for Pozieres Trench (running east -west south of the village) which was taken with little opposition, and the second line passed through the men of the first and lay up near the barrage ready to assault the second objective along the back hedges of the village. Only on the extreme right in the Old German (OG) Lines did the first attack meet with heavy resistance, and where 2053 Pte Leak (photograph right) of the 9th Battalion rushed forward throwing bombs to help clear the situation and was awarded the Victoria Cross. By 2.30 along the whole length of the village a new front line was being dug parallel and close to the Bapaume Road, to entrench themselves by day-break. The objectives in Pozieres had thus been taken without much resistance from the enemy, but in the OG Lines to the east the attack had been much more stubbornly opposed and was stopped 600 yards short of its objectives. For the Australians they had achieved their first victory of importance on the Western Front and their reputation, begun in Gallipoli, took hold in Europe. With reports that Pozieres had been abandoned, plans were now drawn up to capture the rest of Pozieres, with small parties venturing forward and climbing over the rubble, flushing the small groups of Germans and snipers from the dugouts and ruins, including over twenty men being taken prisoner in the ‘Gibraltar’ strong-point (photograph below) to the west of the village. By the early hours of the 24th July, Pozieres had thus been captured and the Australian position was strong from a defensive point of view. On the following day the enemy’s endeavour to retake OG 1 led to one of the most desperate bomb-fights in the history of the AIF. The range of the German bombers was greater than that of the Australians, and trying to remedy this by crossing open ground all but two of the regimental bombers of the 5th Battalion were either killed or wounded. Since the holding of the trench depended on maintaining the bomb supply, a large proportion of the reinforcements were engaged in carrying forward bombs as fast as they could. At the barricades hastily built in the trench the surviving bombers, being covered by riflemen and Lewis gunners, threw until their arms gave way. With the arrival of three platoons of the 7th Battalion the Germans were driven back along OG 1 to the railway, resulting in the Australians taking about a quarter of their intended objective. By the time of the relief by the 2nd Australian Division on the 26th July, with the exception of the OG Lines to the south of the Bapaume road, the 1st Division had met all its objectives but at a cost of 5,285 officers and men. The total loss was thus slightly less than that suffered by the 5th Division at Fromelles a few days earlier, but many positives were achieved including better communication and execution of plans, having liaison officers with artillery, engineers and flanking British brigades, accurate supporting artillery fire, the bold use of Lewis guns in forward positions, plus the fast support of pioneers to dig communication trenches, strong-points etc. Also, despite a constant barrage, all men in the front-line received water, ammunition and a certain amount of food. Finally through his inability to observe from the air, the enemy’s bombardment of the back area had been negligible, and the artillery slow to locate the new front as it advanced. However for the men this was a very harrowing experience. Although not faced by immediate danger from the German infantry, the artillery fire was relentless and with the trench system being no more than hastily dug ditches, men were being easily buried by the soil being lifted and frantic efforts thus followed in trying to extricate their mates. Many were killed by the bombardment and many others now succumbing to shell shock. With the arrival of the 2nd Australian Division, the 22nd and 24th Battalions of the 6th Brigade occupying the trenches bordering the east and north of the village were subjected to the dreadful bombardment that had been poured upon Pozieres for the past week. By the end of the month the village had been wiped away (photograph right), the shell pitted ground covered with powdered brick dust and soil, and under the summer heat resembled more like the Egyptian desert that they had previously been in. Trenches that had been dug were quickly filled in by the next shell, making navigation by night extremely difficult as the landscape kept changing. An attack to capture the OG Lines to the east of the village was attempted on the night of the 29th July and would be conducted by five battalions of the three Brigades of the 2nd Australian Division. [Click on link for geo-referenced trench map reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. No other important attack was being launched that night in any part of the Somme battlefield. An intense bombardment of OG 1 occurred at 12.14am and a minute later lifted to OG 2 as the infantry attacked. The continued presence of red enemy flares over the front-line from German commanders to their artillery indicated to the 2nd Australian Division commanders that the attack was not preceding well, and later it was apparent that only the 23rd Battalion on the far left had succeeded in its objectives, despite the loss of seven officers and 326 other ranks. It turned out that the Germans had been well warned of the attack, first by the severe artillery fire during the day, later by reports of Australian troop concentration in Pozieres and finally by detection of the 5th Brigade deploying. The main cause for failure was the rushed preparations and lack of time, together with a complete lack of surprise. Also the lack of a close enough Jumping Off Trench meant that the attacking forces had far too much open ground to cover thus subject to withering machine gun fire, and when they reached the OG 1 they found that in many places the wire entanglements had not been cut. The first attempt to take the OG Lines had thus failed, with a loss of 2,000 men from the 2nd Division on top of the 1,500 in holding the front during the previous two days. During the day stretcher-bearers from both sides tended to the Australian wounded out by the wire and in No-Man’s Land. For this failure, Generals Birdwood and White of I Anzac Corps received a serious reprimand from Field Marshal Haig. In preparation for the next attack the demolition of the OG Lines was to be carried out in four heavy bombardments of an hour by the heavy howitzers of I Anzac and II Corps, the first commencing at 6pm on the 31st July, with subsequent bombardments over the next days. In addition the field artillery took part in separate hurricane barrages designed to mystify and harass the enemy and to practice the field artillery for the actual attack. The problem for the Pioneers, Engineers and other troops tasked with digging the important new communication and jumping off trenches, each time a bombardment occurred the Germans were likely to respond in kind, therefore making their job even more precarious. Sometimes the response was so fierce that many thought that it signalled a counter-attack from the Germans. As Bean wrote of the bombardment ‘in a single tour of this battle, divisions were subjected to greater stress than in the whole of the Gallipoli campaign.’ On the evening of the 4th August the 2nd Division mounted an attack in four waves on OG 1 (photograph left) and OG 2. To the south of the Bapaume road two battalions of the 5th Brigade had by the time darkness had fallen secured OG 1 and were digging in on the site of OG 2 with their Lewis guns out in front. Protected by a smoke screen covering its southern flank the casualties of the 5th Brigade were light. The advance of the 7th Brigade in the centre succeeded almost as swiftly as that of the 5th, despite delays caused by the incompleteness of the Jumping Off Trench meaning that the 25th Battalion were forced to wait in the crowded communication trench, which in turn blocked the passage of the second wave of the 27th Battalion. Success for the 7th Brigade was delivered by following very close on the barrage, and caught many of the enemy in their dugouts before they had time to remount their machine-guns. Around midnight the German barrage increased its focus on the OG Lines. Casualties amongst the attacking battalions increased so much that few officers were left to organise and direct consolidation, with NCO’s and even privates doing officers work. German counter-attacks followed in the direction of the lines held by the 25th and 27th Battalions but they were repulsed by machine gun fire. To the north and on the left flank a counter-attack was directed towards the 22nd and 26th Battalions and the men scrambled onto the parapet and fired at them. Further west the British 12th Division had pushed forward thus linking up with the Australian left position, and at the other end of the line the 18th Battalion had linked up with 7th Brigade at the Windmill, thus completing the attainment of the 2nd Division objective. The Pozieres Heights had been won, and a position of much importance gained. For the Germans it represented a serious loss, and plans were put in place for its re-capture. The bombardment now falling on the whole line was becoming more accurate as the enemy’s batteries were registered on the new front line, which as a result of the action was now a salient and upon which the Germans could fire from three sides. Furthermore both lines were visible to the enemy, OG 2 from front and flank, and OG1 from the left rear from the direction of Thiepval. Batteries close to the Thiepval Ridge were now able to ‘snipe’ at even solitary men making their way across the crater-field to the rear of the lines. The German artillery was thus able to systematically work up and down trench lines and communication trenches. In OG 1 men were able to take shelter in the dugouts, but not so in OG 2 where few officers now survived and the Lewis guns were gradually being destroyed. In an attempt to reduce casualties orders had already been received to thin out the garrison to a minimum to defend the position, and the 27th Battalion withdrew to OG 1. Meanwhile the 4th and 12th Brigades of the 4th Australian Division were being readied to effect the relief of the three brigades of the 2nd Australian Division. The bombardment on the night of 5th/6th August took a heavy toll on men of both Divisions, particularly in K Trench to the west of the village. Dead and wounded lay everywhere, some killed on their stretchers with stretcher bearers lying amongst them. During its twelve days of practically continuous bombardment the 2nd Australian Division endured conditions seldom experienced elsewhere. In all, the Division lost 6,846 men killed, wounded or missing. Many of the wounded were suffering from shock in addition to their physical wounds – an eyewitness recorded that of many later sitting in front of Vadencourt Chateau to have their wounds seen to were shaking like a leaf. At about 4am on the 7th August the enemy barrage suddenly ceased on the Australians in the OG Lines and began to fall heavily far back beyond Pozieres. The forward posts immediately began to observe men moving towards them up the slope from Courcelette. On the Australian left, OG 2 Line was still be manned by the 14th and 15th Battalions and as the Germans passed to their right towards OG 1 rapid fire was poured into the advancing column. Some of the outposts were overrun and about 40 men of the 48th Battalion were captured and taken prisoner. The Germans continued to pour past the OG Lines in the centre, throwing bombs into the dugouts one of which contained Lieutenant Jacka (photograph right), the first Australian Victoria Cross recipient in Gallipoli, who with the remnants of his platoon having been roused by the deafening explosion, emerged into open to see that a large number of Germans were now between his position and Pozieres. Jacka lined up his men and decided to dash through the enemy back to Pozieres. No sooner had he done this then he encountered the line of 48th prisoners who seeing what was going on then entered the fight, some being shot by their guards, with others overcoming their captors. Other Australians in the surrounding shell holes also rushed forward and what followed was a series of one-on-one life or death battles, with bayonets crossing and men being shot at point blank range. Jacka threw himself into a shell hole in which German bombers were situated, and despite being shot three times, killed or captured his attackers. As Bean wrote, Jacka’s counter-attack stands as the most dramatic and effective act of individual audacity in the history of the AIF, though strangely was awarded just the Military Cross for this action. The bombardment that the 48th Battalion suffered resulted in the loss of 20 officers and 578 other ranks, and the 45th Battalion south of the road 5 officers and 340 men. After this action only four men remained unwounded in Jacka’s platoon in the 14th Battalion. Within an hour the area was clear of the enemy. This action of the 7th August was the last attempt by the enemy to recapture the crest east of Pozieres. With the Pozieres Heights secure, plans were now put in place for the second phase with the push northwards from the Pozieres salient to Mouquet Farm and then to outflank the German stronghold at Thiepval. With this new captured position came the dangers inherent of being visible on three sides by enemy artillery observers, and it did not take long before the Germans realised that the point of each attack on a narrow frontage was the farm, thus they could concentrate their fire. To help alleviate part of this problem, each time there was an attack the right flanking battalion was tasked with pushing right and eastward in order to widen the frontage. On the night of the 8th August the 15th Battalion along with the Suffolk Battalion on the left attacked and commenced the advance northwards. Having made gains, the 15th Battalion found itself in front of the objective but was forced to withdraw. Thus began a series of attacks over the coming weeks to seize the farm and surrounding area in preparation for Haig’s third major offensive scheduled for mid-September. [Click on following link for geo-referenced map reproduced with permission from the National Library of Scotland] The formal second stage of the advance of I Anzac and II Corps of the Reserve Army to the line of Mouquet Farm was to be conducted by the British 12th Division to the west and 4th Australian Division’s 4th Brigade to the east assisted by the 50th Battalion, 13th Brigade. As with many before, the passage to the front was fraught with danger and by the time the last company of the 50th Battalion got through they had suffered considerable losses, especially of officers and NCO’s, from the bombardment. The advance of the 50th and 13th Battalions commenced at 10.30pm under a creeping barrage and reports soon came in stating that objectives had been reached. Thus within three and a half days the Australians had advanced a third of a mile along the ridge and the line to the west had come up level with them and making good progress to getting to the rear of Thiepval. Orders were given for the capture of objectives of Mouquet Farm (photograph left) and the Fabeck Trench on the ridge behind the farm. However, British documents or papers stating the importance of taking Mouquet Farm had found themselves into German hands around Thiepval and as a result the German Army was expecting a move from the south by the Australians and prepared accordingly. A furious bombardment was placed on the Australians for many hours before their assault scheduled at 10pm on the 14th August. Messages from the three attacking battalions, the 50th, 13th and 51st all recommended a postponement of the attack, but these were overruled. All three battalions pressed on but met stiff resistance and neither the 50th on the left or 51st on the right could make contact with the 13th in the centre, meaning that all were potential subjects of flanking attacks, thus the decision was taken to withdraw. Faced with a strong and continuous defence line through Mouquet Farm, Gough’s and I Anzac’s northward advance had met its first check. All three battalions were worn out, and the 51st had lost some 300 officers and men, the 13th (including earlier engagements) 386 and the 50th 414. The relief of the 4th Australian Division by the 1st Australian Division which had already been brought back to Albert, was therefore begun at once. With the return of the 1st Australian Division the Australian 1st and 2nd Brigades launched an attack to coincide with other British attacks taking place on the 18th August elsewhere on the Somme. The 7th and 8th Battalions of the 2nd Brigade were to attack eastwards, south of the Bapaume road. Due to difficulties in communication the exact timing of the barrages had not reached the Brigade headquarters, and despite the attack appearing to follow the creeping barrage they were probably too far behind thus giving the enemy too much time to recover once the barrage had lifted. Some men entered the trenches, and with many killed they could not hold on. After the attack the new trenches dug were heavily shelled. By the time that the 2nd Brigade was relieved by the 5th Brigade (2nd Division) on 21st August it had lost 915 of the 3,750 strength that it had when it resumed this tour six days previously. For the 1st Brigade to the north, difficulties had arisen in the exact location of the front-line, and when the pre-attack bombardment came numerous shells were landing on the front line of the 3rd Battalion causing casualties. Parties were sent out but driven back. The 4th Battalion further west had more success and posts were established in the taken trench. However this was now the second operation of great difficulty at Mouquet Farm and had resulted in just one comparatively trivial gain. The 3rd Battalion had lost 9 of its officers and 151 other ranks, at least half by bombardment of its own side; the 4th Battalion had lost 9 officers and 279 other ranks. Immediately to the left of the 1st Brigade the British had successes thus the Mouquet Farm salient was now a little less pronounced, and immediately to the right of the 2nd Brigade the Scots recorded successes in Munster Alley. Elsewhere during this coordinated attack there were also successes further along the line at Guillemont though operations at High Wood had failed. The next attack of the 3rd Brigade on the 21st August took place in broad daylight, the first time that the Australians had done this on the Somme. The attacking force was strengthened by two parties from the 11th Battalion but needing to come from way back as Sausage Valley (photograph right) they were seen by the enemy who put down a barrage on the reserve company of the 12th moving up K Trench. To finally get to the front line men had to rush open ground, in view of the enemy. Thus all chance of surprise had gone, and the Germans put down a barrage and within one hour the 10th Battalion had lost 120 of its 620 officers and men. The attacking waves proceeded but with the enemy behind both flanks the 10th Battalion fell back. Some of those that went farthest attempted to retire but without support and surrounded the survivors surrendered. The 12th Battalion though had more success and had created a small salient almost touching the south-eastern corner of the farm. Overall the 1st Australian Division in its second tour had lost 92 officers and 2,558 other ranks. The progress that had been made was miniscule, and the fruitless task was then handed back over to the 2nd Australian Division. By the time the 2nd Australian Division had arrived for its second tour, lessons were being learnt not to overcrowd the front line and provide defence through staggered lines and increased artillery. In Pozieres, half a mile behind the front line support companies were in places like K Trench and Centre Way whereas the reserve battalion, usually assigned carrying duties, were in the rear in Sausage Valley or at La Boisselle. In attack, the trend was moving towards effective bombardment with a smaller attacking force which by its very nature had the greater chance of achieving surprise. The 6th Brigade having suffered the least in the first tour was selected as the next attacking battering ram against the farm. These weeks were marked by great aeroplane activity over the battlefield, the Allies – on some days with at least fifty machines simultaneously in the sky – endeavouring to maintain their local superiority. The day of the relief was one such day and as a result the columns moving north were spotted and an intense barrage of shrapnel and high explosive followed, and the 24th Battalion which had suffered heavily in K Trench four weeks earlier, was again caught. 6th Brigade’s Major-General Gellibrand chose to attack, for the first time by the Australians on the Somme, at dawn enabling the attackers the ability to move into position during the dark but allowing them to see the lie of the land for mobility and navigation. In consultation with Divisional headquarters the time of the attack was set at 4.45 on the 26th August, with the 21st Battalion attacking west of the farm, the 24th Battalion to secure the dugouts to the east and a company of the 22nd Battalion to protect the left flank by dropping its platoons one at a time at flanking posts. Though the ground was rough with shell holes they were dimly lit and the troops were able to keep up with the line of shells and made progress towards the farm and managed to seize the trench. To the east the 24th was also making progress and began bombing the cellars, rousing the defenders who started to set up their machine gun rendering digging and further bombing impossible. On the left flank the 21st Battalion encountered a series of deep dugouts from which came many Germans that had been sheltering and starting firing into the party from the rear. The 22nd Battalion on the left flank however became exposed as the 21st had in fact veered too far to the north-east during its attack. Pockets of men were having to fight off counter-attacks from shell-holes. The attack had come up against a considerably strengthened enemy, and the 21st lost 13 officers and 444 men, and the 6th Brigade out of a fighting strength of about 2,500 lost 896. About sixty men were captured on the night of the 26th August and a few others the next day or so, though some men were able to make their way through German lines and made their way safely through to the British lines at Thiepval. After dark the 4th Brigade of the 4th Australian Division relieved the 6th Brigade. On the 29th August orders were given to the 4th Brigade for a renewed attack (the sixth) on the farm. Rain fell heavily that turned every shell-hole into a slimy pool and mud covered the men as they prepared to attack. One of the 13th Battalion’s objectives, Kollman Trench was easily taken, but as they pushed on to the Fabeck Graben they came under attack in front of the thin wire entanglement and could not respond as their rifles and Lewis guns became choked with mud, and even the bombs could not be used as the pins could not be pulled. As a result the survivors had to struggle back to the front line from which they had attacked. The 16th Battalion did not fare any better to the left. The two battalions were relieved the next day with the 13th Battalion having lost 10 officers and 221 other ranks, and the 16th 9 officers and 219 other ranks. With daylight the stretcher-bearers of both sides (photograph above) came out under large red cross flags to search the mud. In front of the 13th Battalion the stretcher-bearers divided No-Man’s Land between them, each handing over any of the others wounded that they had found. Corps HQ, and indeed the German High Command were concerned that the enemy could misuse the collection of wounded to recover guns or conduct fatigues, and both sides sought to limit the amount of stretcher-bearers that could go into No-Man’s Land. Just after dawn on 3rd September the British Reserve Army attacked towards Thiepval from three directions, with the 4th Australian Division resuming the attack at Mouquet Farm. Further to the right and east the British Fourth Army and the French Sixth Army would at noon launch the main effort preparatory to the mid-September offensive, towards Guillemont and the Combles area. The attack on Fabeck Graben to the east of the farm was conducted by the 49th Battalion, with the 52nd to their left and the 51st attacking the farm itself. Good progress was made and as the 51st entered into the farm they stopped to bomb all discoverable entrances to the underground works. By 7.30am brigade headquarters had heard that Mouquet Farm had been taken with the exception of a few dugouts that were being dealt with. Beyond the farm progress was being halted by increasing German resistance and machine gunners that not have the luxury of deep dugouts (photoraph above) in which to hide from bombardments, were able to fire quickly into the advancing Australian infantry. The 52nd Battalion began to fall back, and seeing this the 51st Battalion retreated to the farm as the Germans bombed forward, and with the Germans now regaining access to the underground tunnels soon had the place surrounded. With the exception of the 49th Battalion on the crest of the ridge, the Australian thrust had again been defeated. At 6.30pm, having been informed that all efforts by the Reserve Army had failed, General Gough suspended all other operations with the exception of safeguarding the higher ground captured by the 49th with two companies of the Canadian 13th. The following day of the attack saw German counter-attacks and bombardments, but the 49th Battalion though greatly reduced in number held on to this position. The fighting on these two days were some of the hardest fought by the AIF, but part of the Fabeck Graben was held, the only success in Gough’s encircling attack on Thiepval. The 13th Brigade lost 41 officers and 1,305 men, but the men were conscious that they had won and held what was considered an important objective. With the relief of the 13th Brigade the participation of the Australians in this phase of the Somme battle had come to an end. The Fourth Army to the right had succeeded at Guillemont, but on the orders of General Haig the Reserve Army’s attempt at securing Thiepval before the mid-September offensive was given up. Seven times the Australians had launched against Mouquet Farm and only on the last and with the greatest effort was any success made. However this was on a front so narrow that it would not hold a deliberate counter-offensive which inevitably came on the 8th September causing terrible loses for the Canadians, and resulting in the Germans retaking the Fabeck Graben. Pozieres set the standard by which enemy shell fire was ever afterwards measured in the AIF as ‘better or worse than Pozieres’. No village in the Somme area was so completely erased as Pozieres. In the following years, visitors to the battlefield would not have suspected that a village once existed there, in its place just open moorland. The proportion of casualties to the numbers engaged in the fighting at Pozieres was the greatest suffered by I Anzac Corps. I Anzac Corps had lost in this battle 23,000 officers and men, with the 1st Australian Division 7,654, the 2nd Australian Division 8,114 and the 4th Australian Division 7,058. The rate loss was just slightly higher than the average from the other forty-one British Divisions that fought in the Somme during this time, but when you add the 5,533 casualties of the 5th Australian Division at Fromelles this meant that Australian army in France was faced with the immediate problem of replenishment. The numbers of reinforcements in training in England, or the returning sick and wounded, or on their way from Australia would not be enough to bring the Australian infantry divisions up to strength either in the near future and perhaps not by the end of the year if more tough fighting needed to be undertaken. As a result the move towards the adoption of conscription began to gather pace, leading to the vote in October. The subjection of a second tour for the 1st & 2nd Australian Divisions so soon after the devastating first was unwise putting a great strain on the soldiers, and should have been avoided if the true conditions were understood. Through the relentless bombardments a number of men would succumb to shell shock that would see them suffer terribly. In addition to the physical and psychological effects of the fighting on the men, they also started to question the effectiveness of the senior British command that under Haig’s orders was to keep the pressure on the enemy by a series of narrow frontage and limited objectives leading up to the major offensive in mid-September. Although German High Command originally decreed the need to retake all trenches that had been lost, the change to that of a more defensive stance utilising the advantages of the deep dugouts and underground passages meant that the attackers were almost always likely to take more casualties. Furthermore, these limited attacks at Pozieres and Mouquet Farm were often the only activity taking place in this sector meaning that the German guns from the north and east could be focused on the men in the salient and its approaches. The taking of the Pozieres Heights and the village did achieve the objective of preparing the ground for the third major British offensive on the Somme on the 15th September between Flers – Courcelette, the successful battle which saw the introduction of the tank on the battlefield. However the attack on Mouquet Farm proved to be fruitless and a waste of many a good man and resources. Indeed Mouquet Farm would not fall until the Battle of Thiepval on 26th September, which saw the village being taken by a frontal attack rendering the plan of the flanking attack via Mouquet Farm a misguided concept. The Australian Divisions would later return to the Somme in the Flers sector after having been re-equipped in Belgium, at a time when torrential rains in October turned the battlegrounds into a muddy quagmire. On the 18th November 1916 the Battle of the Somme ended, with the Allies having advanced only 8km (five miles). During this period the British suffered around 420,000 casualties, the French 195,000 and the Germans around 650,000. [Photograph right of the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing that contains the names of over 72,000 British servicemen that died during the 1916 Somme campaign and have no known grave]. Only in the sense of relieving the French at Verdun can the British have claimed any measure of success. However the battle did take a toll on the Germans. Falkenhayn was sacked and replaced by General Erich Ludendorff at the end of August 1916, and at a conference at Cambrai on 5th September, a decision was taken to build a new defensive line – the Hindenburg Line – well behind the Somme front to which the Germans, conscious of a dangerous lack of men and resources should a new Spring attack come in the new year, retreated to in February 1917. Today, two major monuments in the village stand to honour the bravery and memory of the men of I Anzac Corps during the fighting in Pozieres and Mouquet Farm – the 1st Australian Division monument to the south-west of the village next to the Gibraltar ruins (photograph above taken at the 2016 Centenary), and the Australian Memorial at the Windmill to the north-east of the village (photograph left). At the Windmill a stone commemorates the sacrifice of the Australians who fought here, in the words of Charles Bean ‘who fell more thickly on this ridge than any other battlefield of the war’. Published as ‘news’ 100 years on to the day, follow the 22nd Battalion on the project website and via Facebook and Twitter FIRST WORLD WAR TIMELINE	8,754	ENGLISH	1
The live-ball era, also referred to as the lively ball era, is the period in Major League Baseball beginning in 1920 (and continuing to the present day), contrasting with the pre-1920 period known as the "dead-ball era". The name "live-ball era" comes from the dramatic rise in offensive statistics, a direct result of a series of rule changes (introduced in 1920) that were colloquially said to have made the ball more "lively". The live-ball era was the era in which baseball regained relevance and exploded in popularity. Prior to the rule changes in 1920, the same ball would often be used throughout an entire game, only being replaced if it began to unravel. Pitchers were also allowed to deface or scuff the ball, apply foreign substances to it (such as dirt or spit), and cut into the ball with an emery board. Balls would not even be replaced after a foul ball or home run, with fans instead throwing the ball back onto the field to be re-used. As a result, the ball would become increasingly dirty and worn as the game progressed, making it difficult to see and making its movement erratic. Furthermore, the physical wear on the ball reduced its elasticity as the game progressed, making it increasingly difficult to hit for distance. These factors ultimately gave pitchers a major advantage over batters, resulting in retrospectively low-scoring games. There were also rule changes prior to 1920 that contributed to the low-scoring games. In 1901, the National League adopted the "foul-strike rule," which counted foul balls as strikes. Before this rule, batters could safely swing at many marginal pitches, which not only tired out the pitcher but also allowed for more hits because a "flukey" hit could land in play. With the introduction of the foul-strike rule, the batter had to let many more pitches "go" without being swung on, dramatically reducing the total number of hits. The American League followed suit in 1903, making the rule universal. The dead-ball era came to an end after the fatal beaning of Cleveland Indians player Ray Chapman during the 1920 season. Chapman was killed by a submarine pitch from Carl Mays in the 5th inning of a twilight game against the New York Yankees. Witnesses stated that Chapman never moved to get out of the way of the ball, and it is assumed he simply couldn't see it. The new Commissioner of Baseball, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, instituted several new rules during that season, in response to Chapman's death as well as in an effort to liven up the game. Rather than change the construction of the balls, which remained consistent between the transition from the "dead-" to "live-ball eras", rule changes were instituted around how the balls were treated. Starting in 1920, balls were replaced at the first sign of wear, resulting in a ball that was much brighter and easier for a hitter to see. Additionally, pitchers were no longer allowed to deface, scuff, or apply foreign substances to the ball. The impact of the rule changes was felt almost immediately. In 1920, the game changed from typically low-scoring to high-scoring games, with a newfound reliance on the home run. That year, Babe Ruth set a record for slugging percentage and hit 54 home runs (smashing his old record of 29). Aiding in Ruth's success was the fact that he held the bat lower and swung with an uppercut, essentially trying to hit home runs. His 54 home runs in 1920 were a total greater than 14 of the other 15 teams at the time, and it nearly tripled fellow slugger George Sisler's second-highest total of 19 that season. Seeing his success (and his popularity that followed), young players who debuted in the 1920s, including Lou Gehrig and Mel Ott, followed Ruth's example. The home run has been a significant part of baseball since. Ruth broke his own record in 1921, hitting 59 home runs; six years later, he passed his own mark once again by hitting 60 home runs, a single-season record that stood for 34 years. While the rule changes instituted in 1920 were a major factor in the increased scoring and number of home runs seen in Major League Baseball, established sluggers who had been successful prior to 1920 (including Sisler, Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker) were able to maintain their previous successful hitting styles into the 1920s. Such success is attributed to Sisler (and others) choking up on the bat, resulting in fewer strikeouts and more doubles. In 1920, George Sisler also set his long-standing record of 257 hits in a single season, which would not be eclipsed until 84 years later in 2004 when the Seattle Mariners' Ichiro Suzuki hit 262. The live-ball era also had a lasting impact on pitchers. Between 1910 and 1920, the last decade of the dead-ball era, eight pitchers had 30-win seasons. Since the beginning of the 1921 season, the first full season of the live-ball era, only three pitchers have had 30-win seasons: (Lefty Grove in 1931; Dizzy Dean in 1934; and Denny McLain in 1968).	<urn:uuid:4f21195c-ae42-49d3-8db3-adcc59b27eab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=Live-ball_era	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00517.warc.gz	en	0.982303	1,064	3.859375	4	[ -0.4581271708011627, 0.0011902046389877796, 0.4042288064956665, -0.13792745769023895, 0.35650771856307983, 0.2278575301170349, 0.24183157086372375, -0.04011979699134827, 0.08418852090835571, 0.06211485341191292, 0.3127080500125885, 0.2055167257785797, 0.21280845999717712, 0.056758936494588...	1	The live-ball era, also referred to as the lively ball era, is the period in Major League Baseball beginning in 1920 (and continuing to the present day), contrasting with the pre-1920 period known as the "dead-ball era". The name "live-ball era" comes from the dramatic rise in offensive statistics, a direct result of a series of rule changes (introduced in 1920) that were colloquially said to have made the ball more "lively". The live-ball era was the era in which baseball regained relevance and exploded in popularity. Prior to the rule changes in 1920, the same ball would often be used throughout an entire game, only being replaced if it began to unravel. Pitchers were also allowed to deface or scuff the ball, apply foreign substances to it (such as dirt or spit), and cut into the ball with an emery board. Balls would not even be replaced after a foul ball or home run, with fans instead throwing the ball back onto the field to be re-used. As a result, the ball would become increasingly dirty and worn as the game progressed, making it difficult to see and making its movement erratic. Furthermore, the physical wear on the ball reduced its elasticity as the game progressed, making it increasingly difficult to hit for distance. These factors ultimately gave pitchers a major advantage over batters, resulting in retrospectively low-scoring games. There were also rule changes prior to 1920 that contributed to the low-scoring games. In 1901, the National League adopted the "foul-strike rule," which counted foul balls as strikes. Before this rule, batters could safely swing at many marginal pitches, which not only tired out the pitcher but also allowed for more hits because a "flukey" hit could land in play. With the introduction of the foul-strike rule, the batter had to let many more pitches "go" without being swung on, dramatically reducing the total number of hits. The American League followed suit in 1903, making the rule universal. The dead-ball era came to an end after the fatal beaning of Cleveland Indians player Ray Chapman during the 1920 season. Chapman was killed by a submarine pitch from Carl Mays in the 5th inning of a twilight game against the New York Yankees. Witnesses stated that Chapman never moved to get out of the way of the ball, and it is assumed he simply couldn't see it. The new Commissioner of Baseball, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, instituted several new rules during that season, in response to Chapman's death as well as in an effort to liven up the game. Rather than change the construction of the balls, which remained consistent between the transition from the "dead-" to "live-ball eras", rule changes were instituted around how the balls were treated. Starting in 1920, balls were replaced at the first sign of wear, resulting in a ball that was much brighter and easier for a hitter to see. Additionally, pitchers were no longer allowed to deface, scuff, or apply foreign substances to the ball. The impact of the rule changes was felt almost immediately. In 1920, the game changed from typically low-scoring to high-scoring games, with a newfound reliance on the home run. That year, Babe Ruth set a record for slugging percentage and hit 54 home runs (smashing his old record of 29). Aiding in Ruth's success was the fact that he held the bat lower and swung with an uppercut, essentially trying to hit home runs. His 54 home runs in 1920 were a total greater than 14 of the other 15 teams at the time, and it nearly tripled fellow slugger George Sisler's second-highest total of 19 that season. Seeing his success (and his popularity that followed), young players who debuted in the 1920s, including Lou Gehrig and Mel Ott, followed Ruth's example. The home run has been a significant part of baseball since. Ruth broke his own record in 1921, hitting 59 home runs; six years later, he passed his own mark once again by hitting 60 home runs, a single-season record that stood for 34 years. While the rule changes instituted in 1920 were a major factor in the increased scoring and number of home runs seen in Major League Baseball, established sluggers who had been successful prior to 1920 (including Sisler, Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker) were able to maintain their previous successful hitting styles into the 1920s. Such success is attributed to Sisler (and others) choking up on the bat, resulting in fewer strikeouts and more doubles. In 1920, George Sisler also set his long-standing record of 257 hits in a single season, which would not be eclipsed until 84 years later in 2004 when the Seattle Mariners' Ichiro Suzuki hit 262. The live-ball era also had a lasting impact on pitchers. Between 1910 and 1920, the last decade of the dead-ball era, eight pitchers had 30-win seasons. Since the beginning of the 1921 season, the first full season of the live-ball era, only three pitchers have had 30-win seasons: (Lefty Grove in 1931; Dizzy Dean in 1934; and Denny McLain in 1968).	1,171	ENGLISH	1
Martha Washington was an amazing woman. She grew up in a slightly better than average lifestyle. Then she became a wife, mother, and then a widow. Martha also became one of the richest women in Virginia. Then she became George Washington’s wife and went on to become the first first lady. She lived to the age of seventy and managed to outlive her husband and many others. Martha Washington also was a part of the American Revolution and helped her husband throughout the war. She did all this and much more. Martha Dandridge was born on June 2, 1731, to Frances Jones Dandridge and Colonel John Dandridge. She was the eldest of seven brothers and sisters to come. Martha was born in New Kent County, Virginia on the Chestnut Grove plantation. She grew up among other plantation families of the Tidewater region of eastern Virginia. Martha did not receive any formal education; however, she did receive the traditional education for young women of her time. This included domestic skills and the arts rather than science and math. The skills that she learned were the skills needed to run a household. Unlike other young women in her time, Martha did learn how to read and write as a child. She had several hobbies too; such as: horseback riding, sewing, and dancing. Martha Dandridge married Daniel Parke Custis on May 15, 1750, at the age of eighteen. Daniel was supposedly twenty years older than her and he was also one of the wealthiest men in Virginia. Their first son, Daniel Parke Custis, was born on September 19, 1751. Then their daughter, Frances Parke Custis, was born in April of 1753. Martha’s son, Daniel, died in 1957; her daughter, Frances, died in 1757. Neither of them had reached the age of five. Her second son, John Parke Custis, was born in 1754. Her second daughter, Martha Parke Custis, was born in 1756. They were nicknames “Jacky” and “Patsy.” Martha’s husband, Daniel, died on July 8, 1757; Martha was twenty-six at the time and was already a widow and had two small children to take care of. She took control, however, and received a third of her husband’s estate. This made her one of the richest women in Virginia. On January 6, 1759, Martha Dandridge Custis married George Washington. They moved to Mount Vernon around April of 1759. Washington treated Martha’s children as his own. At the age of twelve, though, “Patsy” began having violent seizures and died on June 19, 1773, at the age of seventeen. “Jacky” married on February 3, 1774, at the age of nineteen; he and his wife, Eleanor, had four children. Unfortunately, he died on November 5, 1781, at the age of twenty-six. His wife and their four children stayed at Mount Vernon after he died. During the 1760’s, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington settled down and her life revolved around her home and her family. As tensions with Britain rose, she became a target and Washington convinced her to leave Mount Vernon. She would spend time with family and friends while moving from location to location....	<urn:uuid:f1ece505-016d-4036-834a-61e2cc48450a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/martha-dandridge-custis-washington	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00282.warc.gz	en	0.994367	700	3.328125	3	[ -0.4178805947303772, 0.3399152159690857, 0.09044571220874786, 0.10912580043077469, -0.28932636976242065, 0.6706395149230957, 0.04461418092250824, 0.08958032727241516, 0.0008360844803974032, 0.13322308659553528, 0.3810132145881653, 0.057652201503515244, -0.11414037644863129, 0.3846688568592...	1	Martha Washington was an amazing woman. She grew up in a slightly better than average lifestyle. Then she became a wife, mother, and then a widow. Martha also became one of the richest women in Virginia. Then she became George Washington’s wife and went on to become the first first lady. She lived to the age of seventy and managed to outlive her husband and many others. Martha Washington also was a part of the American Revolution and helped her husband throughout the war. She did all this and much more. Martha Dandridge was born on June 2, 1731, to Frances Jones Dandridge and Colonel John Dandridge. She was the eldest of seven brothers and sisters to come. Martha was born in New Kent County, Virginia on the Chestnut Grove plantation. She grew up among other plantation families of the Tidewater region of eastern Virginia. Martha did not receive any formal education; however, she did receive the traditional education for young women of her time. This included domestic skills and the arts rather than science and math. The skills that she learned were the skills needed to run a household. Unlike other young women in her time, Martha did learn how to read and write as a child. She had several hobbies too; such as: horseback riding, sewing, and dancing. Martha Dandridge married Daniel Parke Custis on May 15, 1750, at the age of eighteen. Daniel was supposedly twenty years older than her and he was also one of the wealthiest men in Virginia. Their first son, Daniel Parke Custis, was born on September 19, 1751. Then their daughter, Frances Parke Custis, was born in April of 1753. Martha’s son, Daniel, died in 1957; her daughter, Frances, died in 1757. Neither of them had reached the age of five. Her second son, John Parke Custis, was born in 1754. Her second daughter, Martha Parke Custis, was born in 1756. They were nicknames “Jacky” and “Patsy.” Martha’s husband, Daniel, died on July 8, 1757; Martha was twenty-six at the time and was already a widow and had two small children to take care of. She took control, however, and received a third of her husband’s estate. This made her one of the richest women in Virginia. On January 6, 1759, Martha Dandridge Custis married George Washington. They moved to Mount Vernon around April of 1759. Washington treated Martha’s children as his own. At the age of twelve, though, “Patsy” began having violent seizures and died on June 19, 1773, at the age of seventeen. “Jacky” married on February 3, 1774, at the age of nineteen; he and his wife, Eleanor, had four children. Unfortunately, he died on November 5, 1781, at the age of twenty-six. His wife and their four children stayed at Mount Vernon after he died. During the 1760’s, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington settled down and her life revolved around her home and her family. As tensions with Britain rose, she became a target and Washington convinced her to leave Mount Vernon. She would spend time with family and friends while moving from location to location....	732	ENGLISH	1
The Romans realised that wool provided a wonderful natural resource from which to make clothing. In modern society, clothing is very important to all of us. The importance of clothing was recognised at an early stage in the development of human life. By the time that the Roman Empire was at its peak, clothes were seen as a means of keeping warm, as a way of identifying one's rank in society and, of course, as a way of making a fashion statement. Today, it's clear to see that many of these themes still occur. In the case of woollen clothes, such as jumpers, many of us may choose to buy them because we know that they will keep us warm. It's no surprise that wool has the necessary properties to provide warmth. This is, after all, its primary role when found naturally on sheep and goats. We also use clothing as a means of expressing our role within society. This is particularly clear in the workplace, where clothing might point to rank or to the role that we play within an organisation. Finally, of course, we still see the importance of clothing in fashion. Some might argue that we have never been more fashion conscious than is currently the case. Magazines, websites and television programmes are all aimed at making us aware of the latest trends. Barely a day seems to go by when another new designer outfit is not on display. Wool played an important role in the early developments of fashion, largely because it was so easy to dye. This meant that individuals were able to wear a range of different colours, allowing them to stand out from the crowd. In the twenty-first century, it's clear that fashion will continue to be of importance. There seems little doubt that wool will have a role to play.	<urn:uuid:e0cafe0f-2599-4e50-a8b8-a3f241f01526>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ebusinessknowledge.com/articles_8b81ca.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00450.warc.gz	en	0.982857	372	3.484375	3	[ -0.18360422551631927, 0.3687247335910797, 0.4165528416633606, -0.27920591831207275, 0.6209303736686707, 0.48184341192245483, 0.03627123683691025, 0.18260467052459717, -0.36399972438812256, -0.3118647336959839, 0.15686701238155365, -0.27206680178642273, 0.13974101841449738, 0.38480755686759...	2	The Romans realised that wool provided a wonderful natural resource from which to make clothing. In modern society, clothing is very important to all of us. The importance of clothing was recognised at an early stage in the development of human life. By the time that the Roman Empire was at its peak, clothes were seen as a means of keeping warm, as a way of identifying one's rank in society and, of course, as a way of making a fashion statement. Today, it's clear to see that many of these themes still occur. In the case of woollen clothes, such as jumpers, many of us may choose to buy them because we know that they will keep us warm. It's no surprise that wool has the necessary properties to provide warmth. This is, after all, its primary role when found naturally on sheep and goats. We also use clothing as a means of expressing our role within society. This is particularly clear in the workplace, where clothing might point to rank or to the role that we play within an organisation. Finally, of course, we still see the importance of clothing in fashion. Some might argue that we have never been more fashion conscious than is currently the case. Magazines, websites and television programmes are all aimed at making us aware of the latest trends. Barely a day seems to go by when another new designer outfit is not on display. Wool played an important role in the early developments of fashion, largely because it was so easy to dye. This meant that individuals were able to wear a range of different colours, allowing them to stand out from the crowd. In the twenty-first century, it's clear that fashion will continue to be of importance. There seems little doubt that wool will have a role to play.	354	ENGLISH	1
The war of 1812 Triggers and Effects of the Warfare of 1812 The British and Americans had a tenuous romance in the America's early years as a nation. There was still a large number of unresolved issues after the war leading to the war of 1812. A reason for the happening with this war was because the United kingdom continued to hassle and terrorize the American trading ships, and taking the guys off their very own ships. This kind of impressment was uncalled intended for considering that the United States were looking to remain simple. This work of being fairly neutral did not last long. Another trigger was this was when Great britain had violated America's sovereignty by refusing to surrender western articles as promised by theTreaty of Rome which they experienced violated. This caused the president during the time, James Madison, to declare war up against the British about June 18, 1812 and would ultimately end three years later. It was a very dirty and unforgiving war. A reason of the dirtiness was when the Americans established flame to York and blew up a majority of their particular militia. The uk did not have lightly to this rebellion as well as the Americans will pay significantly for this. This was a dirty and unforgiving war that emaciated the east coast and Canadian edge. About June 18th, 1812, James Madison reported war on the British. This kind of caused a three year period of pain and despair. Even though the Americans won it left a trek of grieving and a chance to repair the particular British acquired taken from all of us. This could had been avoided if the British weren't so uncooperative. Not only would they terrorize our trading ships, in addition they violated the Treaty of Paris by refusing to surrender all their western articles. This conflict ended in February 18, 1815 The British violated the Treaty of Paris because they will felt the Americans did not live up to their promise of to compensate the loyalists intended for confiscated house. The English remained preserved control of this area arguing which the Americans did not fulfill all their bargain. They will used their very own influence from the Natives to destabilize areas. The...	<urn:uuid:7b8cf7b7-3dc8-4d4f-84c7-48c915ad69bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bsuatindianauniversity.com/the-war-of-1812/17597-the-war-of-1812-essay.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00201.warc.gz	en	0.983805	440	3.296875	3	[ -0.26102975010871887, -0.015253973193466663, 0.8953413963317871, 0.0157630518078804, 0.04709222912788391, -0.2979383170604706, 0.02223007008433342, 0.1967267394065857, -0.05950489267706871, -0.025858039036393166, 0.27609553933143616, -0.08135930448770523, -0.1408885419368744, 0.26408556103...	1	The war of 1812 Triggers and Effects of the Warfare of 1812 The British and Americans had a tenuous romance in the America's early years as a nation. There was still a large number of unresolved issues after the war leading to the war of 1812. A reason for the happening with this war was because the United kingdom continued to hassle and terrorize the American trading ships, and taking the guys off their very own ships. This kind of impressment was uncalled intended for considering that the United States were looking to remain simple. This work of being fairly neutral did not last long. Another trigger was this was when Great britain had violated America's sovereignty by refusing to surrender western articles as promised by theTreaty of Rome which they experienced violated. This caused the president during the time, James Madison, to declare war up against the British about June 18, 1812 and would ultimately end three years later. It was a very dirty and unforgiving war. A reason of the dirtiness was when the Americans established flame to York and blew up a majority of their particular militia. The uk did not have lightly to this rebellion as well as the Americans will pay significantly for this. This was a dirty and unforgiving war that emaciated the east coast and Canadian edge. About June 18th, 1812, James Madison reported war on the British. This kind of caused a three year period of pain and despair. Even though the Americans won it left a trek of grieving and a chance to repair the particular British acquired taken from all of us. This could had been avoided if the British weren't so uncooperative. Not only would they terrorize our trading ships, in addition they violated the Treaty of Paris by refusing to surrender all their western articles. This conflict ended in February 18, 1815 The British violated the Treaty of Paris because they will felt the Americans did not live up to their promise of to compensate the loyalists intended for confiscated house. The English remained preserved control of this area arguing which the Americans did not fulfill all their bargain. They will used their very own influence from the Natives to destabilize areas. The...	462	ENGLISH	1
There are three definite periods which mark the growth of the Roman State. First, there was the monarchic City-State. The royal period lasted from the foundation of Rome about 753 B.C. to 510 B.C. At the head of the State was the king who was at once the hereditary and patriarchal chief of the people, the chief priest of the community, and the elected ruler of the State. On the death of the King, the sovereignty of the State reverted to the Council of Elders. The Elders appointed a temporary King for five days who, in his turn, nominated another Elder. This Elder actually named the new King subject to the approval of the assembled people. “The vote of the people was ratified by the approval of the gods, as given in the ceremony of inauguration.” The powers of the King were described as “emporium” and were technically unlimited, both in times of peace and war. But there were two customary limitations to these powers. First, the King was expected to consult the Council of Elders and to follow their advice. Secondly, all cases involving capital punishment were submitted to the people for their final decision. During the monarchical period only the nobility, called the patricians, had a share in political authority. The landless, property less common people, known as the plebeians, had no share in the governance of the country and they enjoyed no political rights. But later on they acquired some privileges. Monarchy in Rome came to an end in 510 B.C. in the same way as when the Greeks expelled their “tyrants.” It was substituted by a Republic. Civil and military powers were vested in two officers called the Consuls, elected annually. But it did not mean equal political rights for all citizens. The plebians were subject to political, economic and social disabilities. They could not hold any public office. The patricians had entire control of the administration of law. The public land and pastures were allotted only to them. The plebians were also legally prohibited from marrying among the patricians. The former struggled for the removal of their disabilities and they eventually succeeded in getting all the three disabilities removed one by one. The constitution of the Republican Rome rested on four principles: divided authority; a short tenure of office for magistrates; the people were the final authority on all important matters; and the military authority of all magistrates was limited. But by the middle of the second century these principles were very often violated and the Republic came into disrepute. Division of authority disappeared and despotism began to reign. By this time Rome had extended her dominions over vast and distant lands. The Republic gave way to an Empire and the form of government adapted to a City-State was found incongruous with the administrative needs of the time. The Roman Empire at one stage extended over England, France, Germany, Spain, Austria, the Balkans, Grece, Asia Minor, the whole of the Mediterranean coast and its hinterland. The governors sent to rule the distant parts of the Empire enjoyed wide discretionary powers and were practically independent of the Home Government. The only check on their authority was the possibility of impeachment at home on retirement. But it was just a nominal check. In Rome itself despotism of the extreme type was established. The Emperor became all-powerful and his word was law. The popular assemblies ceased to function and the old political maxim that the ruler received his power from the people gave place to the Divine Origin Theory. The authority of the Emperor was interpreted to have divinely originated and for a time he was worshipped as God. When Christianity was accepted as State religion, the Divine Origin Theory was explained to mean that the Emperor was the deputy of God on earth and unflinching obedience to his authority was obedience to God. In this way, the Republican Roman City-State became the centralised autocratic world- empire, thereby shifting the emphasis from the Greek ideals of liberty, democracy, and local independence to the Romans’ ideals of unity, order, universal law, and cosmopolitanism. The World Roman Empire at the height of its political glory made some very important contributions to political institutions. The Romans were not a brilliant people. They did but little work in art and philosophy, but they possessed in full measure the practical qualities in which the Greeks were deficient. They were patient, methodical, and skilful in arranging compromises and in devising legal forms. The Greeks pursued their ideal of “liberty and equal laws” disregarding authority and discipline. The Romans held fast to authority, in the family and in the State. At the same time, they were ready to concede rights to all kinds of subject persons by extending to them the right of full Roman citizenship. While they were reducing one country after another to subjection and order, they were also developing their law on rational principles. The Romans studied the institutions and customs of the heterogeneous people over whom their authority extended and found a common element of equity and convenience for all. This Law of Nations, as they called it, was a great step forward, which widened the notions of lawyers and statesmen. They also applied the Greek notion of the Law of Nature to their legal system. But the Roman Empire could not endure long. Among the causes which led to her decline and downfall “were the sacrifice of individual liberty for the sake of securing unity, the soulless efficiency which characterised her administration, the moral depravity of the upper classes, devastating pestilence, the unsound economic basis of the empire, failure to make rules for the succession of emperors, religious disintegration, and the invasion of barbarian hordes.” In a word, the weakness of the Roman Imperial system was that “it remained too Roman, too centralised, too much dominated by the desires and interests of Rome, too dependent on the personality of the emperor of the day.” Though Rome fell, yet she gave to the world the first well-organised and well-governed State. She also contributed importantly too many systems of law and her influence may be seen in the development of international law and world organization like the United Nations. Colonial administration is another contribution of the Roman Empire.	<urn:uuid:d49d0a4b-e70e-485a-8bc8-643a5758583d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/1105-words-essay-on-roman-empire/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00032.warc.gz	en	0.98349	1,294	4.4375	4	[ -0.38336944580078125, 0.5120357275009155, 0.48227205872535706, 0.09196808934211731, -0.46942996978759766, 0.017125867307186127, -0.18471762537956238, 0.07934769988059998, 0.16750219464302063, 0.07777056097984314, 0.041006408631801605, -0.1368321031332016, 0.023167766630649567, 0.1211511567...	1	There are three definite periods which mark the growth of the Roman State. First, there was the monarchic City-State. The royal period lasted from the foundation of Rome about 753 B.C. to 510 B.C. At the head of the State was the king who was at once the hereditary and patriarchal chief of the people, the chief priest of the community, and the elected ruler of the State. On the death of the King, the sovereignty of the State reverted to the Council of Elders. The Elders appointed a temporary King for five days who, in his turn, nominated another Elder. This Elder actually named the new King subject to the approval of the assembled people. “The vote of the people was ratified by the approval of the gods, as given in the ceremony of inauguration.” The powers of the King were described as “emporium” and were technically unlimited, both in times of peace and war. But there were two customary limitations to these powers. First, the King was expected to consult the Council of Elders and to follow their advice. Secondly, all cases involving capital punishment were submitted to the people for their final decision. During the monarchical period only the nobility, called the patricians, had a share in political authority. The landless, property less common people, known as the plebeians, had no share in the governance of the country and they enjoyed no political rights. But later on they acquired some privileges. Monarchy in Rome came to an end in 510 B.C. in the same way as when the Greeks expelled their “tyrants.” It was substituted by a Republic. Civil and military powers were vested in two officers called the Consuls, elected annually. But it did not mean equal political rights for all citizens. The plebians were subject to political, economic and social disabilities. They could not hold any public office. The patricians had entire control of the administration of law. The public land and pastures were allotted only to them. The plebians were also legally prohibited from marrying among the patricians. The former struggled for the removal of their disabilities and they eventually succeeded in getting all the three disabilities removed one by one. The constitution of the Republican Rome rested on four principles: divided authority; a short tenure of office for magistrates; the people were the final authority on all important matters; and the military authority of all magistrates was limited. But by the middle of the second century these principles were very often violated and the Republic came into disrepute. Division of authority disappeared and despotism began to reign. By this time Rome had extended her dominions over vast and distant lands. The Republic gave way to an Empire and the form of government adapted to a City-State was found incongruous with the administrative needs of the time. The Roman Empire at one stage extended over England, France, Germany, Spain, Austria, the Balkans, Grece, Asia Minor, the whole of the Mediterranean coast and its hinterland. The governors sent to rule the distant parts of the Empire enjoyed wide discretionary powers and were practically independent of the Home Government. The only check on their authority was the possibility of impeachment at home on retirement. But it was just a nominal check. In Rome itself despotism of the extreme type was established. The Emperor became all-powerful and his word was law. The popular assemblies ceased to function and the old political maxim that the ruler received his power from the people gave place to the Divine Origin Theory. The authority of the Emperor was interpreted to have divinely originated and for a time he was worshipped as God. When Christianity was accepted as State religion, the Divine Origin Theory was explained to mean that the Emperor was the deputy of God on earth and unflinching obedience to his authority was obedience to God. In this way, the Republican Roman City-State became the centralised autocratic world- empire, thereby shifting the emphasis from the Greek ideals of liberty, democracy, and local independence to the Romans’ ideals of unity, order, universal law, and cosmopolitanism. The World Roman Empire at the height of its political glory made some very important contributions to political institutions. The Romans were not a brilliant people. They did but little work in art and philosophy, but they possessed in full measure the practical qualities in which the Greeks were deficient. They were patient, methodical, and skilful in arranging compromises and in devising legal forms. The Greeks pursued their ideal of “liberty and equal laws” disregarding authority and discipline. The Romans held fast to authority, in the family and in the State. At the same time, they were ready to concede rights to all kinds of subject persons by extending to them the right of full Roman citizenship. While they were reducing one country after another to subjection and order, they were also developing their law on rational principles. The Romans studied the institutions and customs of the heterogeneous people over whom their authority extended and found a common element of equity and convenience for all. This Law of Nations, as they called it, was a great step forward, which widened the notions of lawyers and statesmen. They also applied the Greek notion of the Law of Nature to their legal system. But the Roman Empire could not endure long. Among the causes which led to her decline and downfall “were the sacrifice of individual liberty for the sake of securing unity, the soulless efficiency which characterised her administration, the moral depravity of the upper classes, devastating pestilence, the unsound economic basis of the empire, failure to make rules for the succession of emperors, religious disintegration, and the invasion of barbarian hordes.” In a word, the weakness of the Roman Imperial system was that “it remained too Roman, too centralised, too much dominated by the desires and interests of Rome, too dependent on the personality of the emperor of the day.” Though Rome fell, yet she gave to the world the first well-organised and well-governed State. She also contributed importantly too many systems of law and her influence may be seen in the development of international law and world organization like the United Nations. Colonial administration is another contribution of the Roman Empire.	1,266	ENGLISH	1
Race and Racism 545 Fall 2014 (A. Nouvet) About this class Champlain College, Fall 2014 This course will introduce students to the concept of race from the perspective of biological and cultural anthropology. The first part of the course focuses on the distribution of human biological variation and compares this variation to contemporary ideas about race. The second part traces the historical development of the concept of race, the role that slavery, colonialism and science have played in the dissemination of the belief in race, as well as modern ideas of race. The third part of the course will explore the reality of racism through case studies from various countries, with a focus on Canada. A consideration of the effects of white privilege and how racism can continue to exist in democratic societies will also be undertaken. There are no postings in your class First of all, I am writing here because the sports industry is something that interests me very much. I also agree with the idea that the coach is doing very good work with the sports community, and it is important that this is recognized. Racism does sadly occur even within sports, and it is something that should not have its place at all. Although this occurred in the past, it is never too late to take a stand. One person can indeed make a difference and have a voice that may inspire others. Furthermore, as seen in class, it can also have an impact on children. Children tend to watch sports at a very young age with their families, for example, and the media tends to be very influential on children. Although children are not seen as being colourblind according to Erin Winkler, they interpret what they see they way they see it. Therefore, it is also important to realize how beneficial this action is for children, since it can also help show them how important it is to stand up for themselves in live and to be heard rather than to fade into the silence. To conclude, this article was very powerful, and this man is very inspirational, and he will be hopefully one of many to fight for change. This comment is to add to your conclusion that the advertisement is hypersexualising women and is making negative impacts on women in society. To add to this article, I would like to ask if there are any colored women I these adds? If not this means there is an even bigger negative impact on society in general it isn't only regressing women in society but also it becomes in some sort racist. As we saw in class women of color have a bigger task in trying to get accepted in big fashion companies. This is all because of the beauty standards set y the companies and by the population. What we like to see and we don't like to see. As said in one documentary watched in class Fashion companies like having lets say Black women in their company but they need to be a white women dipped in Chocolate. This means that they want a black colored skin women but with white women traits such as thin nose blablabla... These two problems must be fixed by society with drastic measures. We need to start changing our ways of thinking and try to help out women in the fashion industry by saying you don't need to always be half naked to be attractive and you don't need to to be white to be a successful model. Many beauty standards are set such as being very petite but we are seing that fashion companies are trying to move onto something new because the population is starting to see their own beauty, the beauty in the natural body of a women. First of all, I am commenting here because I watched a Ted Talk in my Myth of Race and The Reality of Racism class with a similar topic, which I found very interesting. I personally agree with your point of view, and it is important to realize how high the expectations are in men. However, from another point of view, it could also be interesting to incorporate races or racial categories into this equation. For example, when looking at the 'man box', it is indeed true that most men feel as though they are trapped in a box full of responsibilities and restraints at a very young age. If this were to be looked at with race, people from minority groups may tend to feel much more trapped than people from a majority group. When children grow up, they tend to suffer much pressure from their surroundings, in order to ensure they remain safe and smart. Then there comes the issue of minority groups, who suffer much more pressure due to the stereotypes they may face due to their culture. For example, a black child may be much more restricted in performing certain behaviours because they are seen as dangerous or as robbers, while mexicans or latinos will be seen as being involved in drugs, These are stereotypes that are sadly seen in today's society, and as we have seen in class, children are not colourblind, and can quickly pick up on these racial issues, which I do not believe is something we would like our children to face later on in life. To conclude, although racial stereotypes may still exist, the 'man box' is seen differently for men depending of their race, and this is something that could be changed, since all men are the same despite where they come from. I responded to this article because I love sports and always interested of learning the racist aspects inside sports. I am surprised of the information given on Michael Jordan's life and the racist side of him. Not because he was an awesome basketball player but also he is known around thee world because of his brand. He is a Multi-millionaire because of the Jordan brand, he is public figure to all sport and clothing fans. People buy because of his basketball fame and because of his marketing name. He is also proactive inside schools and sport teams, where he tells his life story of how he persevered to get where he is now. This man has accomplished so much and is probably one of the most known athletes out there. The fact that he confirmed being racist when he was a teenager doesn't show the right example to all his fans out there. Especially with todays media they always try to make the story more dramatical than it really is, so they wont explain why he was racist but just say that he was racist. It is very understandable why he was racist but he also generalized that all white people are racist, yes at that time their were a lot of racist white people but their was people white people who had their heart at the right place and would accept Blacks. These days there still is a lot of racism but people might not show it as much but still find ways to be racist. Racism is a part of life everywhere, blacks in our society have less advantages, they are looked at by the authorities differently. Michael might not of approached the situation he was thrown in the right way, he maybe should of thought about what happened to him and not generalize. But looking at it from his eyes it is very understandable that he got mad and was pushed to the limit, I am pretty sure he had previous events where racism was a part of and made this last event more drastic, he hit his limit point. Personally I am totally against any kind of racism, yes sometimes people slip and say something that might be racist without wanting to hurt anybody, we all need to be careful of what we say and do. Michael Jordan shares this story and it is very relevant to all where it can educate us to maybe not accept what happens to you but also not generalize what happened. We all have different views on "Race" and shouldn't be thrown into the same pot. Firstly, I am commenting here because the title was strongly appealing to me. It is also a very interesting topic, and it is important to realize that this is still an issue in today's society. It is very disturbing to see how a landlord or a janitor can be racist against a particular group. Racism has been present in the native community for quite some time, and we should definitely put an end to it. People who have the finances and that are able to afford an apartment should be allowed to rent one no strings attached. Being racist against other minority groups could lead to poverty in extreme cases, where people would have to live on the street because they would have no where else to go. The thought of this is excruciating, which is why things must definitely change for the better, and soon. People need to become more involved indeed, help further identify the problem, and welcome the minorities with open arms rather than with closed doors. Although it may be difficult to do at first, it is important to realize that there are many different races all around us, and that race or skin color does not in any way define a person or what they are. To begin, I am commenting on this article because I used the same topic, and found this article very interesting and similar to mine. This is a very saddening topic, and it is quite shocking that there was no action taken before this specific outburst from Mulcair that these types of things must stop. I also agree that this is a very large crisis, and clearly a very bright case of racism. This issue has been around for much longer than we believe, but it is very reassuring indeed to see how we are finally taking a step forward towards change. This will help families grieve, but it will also help support the idea that today, in 2015, we are a very open and multicultural society, and that we support all races. This debate being done during the political debate is a very important social issue, because it shows how we are not oblivious to racism, and how it still occurs in our society today. However, will change be made? Will we be able to stop these racist behaviours, and stop being blind to it or pretending that it is not around us? Hopefully someday this will end, because we miss so many opportunities in life by excluding people simply because they are different. I chose to answer to this article because I was wondering how can a natural disaster create racism within a population? The fact that the two "Races" in this article have both completelycompletely different opinions on how there life style is now is very bad. Yes, probably most of those who where in a location might of have already been poor which means that they have had a harder time with recuperating but there is no reason why the should be saying that they haven't improved. The city should of pushed to have mixed neighborhoods and create less of a racial disparity. Now both "Races" are completely separated which makes.it even worse because you just see the poor Black neighborhoods and The rich white neighborhoods. As spoken about in class, the blacks in general aren't poor because they are stupid but because of slavery and segregation they had less time and less of an opportunity to learn and get good jobs. Compared to whites who always had the opportunity to go to school and get good jobs. They community of New Orleans is very diverse, what I think is that the Blacks have a reason to not be happy about the process of rebuilding, and whites have a easy time with their money and the government helping them out more. You are right by saying that the article should be on the area of where the people live and not of their "Race". Your post was short and concise which made for a good interesting read. Strong statistics were used to back up your statements. Virtue ethics is basing ethical behavior on the virtues held by the individual, for example honesty. How to judge morality can fluctuate between different cases. Intentions and benefits to the group or individual are taking into account. In this case, where we are seeing high school dropouts as a problem, morality would depend on the individual and taking consideration the benefits for them and society in this case. I believe that graduating would benefit the individual and society in the long run because they would be setting themselves up to be more successful. I believe that your opinion is strongly emphasized and that your summary is clearly explained, well done! Interestingly enough, you seem to be a deontologist by what you are saying, as you are focusing more on the action that is being done to Mr. Badawi and how they are stripping him of his freedoms of speech and religion, which you have stated is morally wrong. Using Kant’s principle of ends, you can argue that everyone should be treated as an end and not as a means and that there should ultimately be mutual respect among all people. Consequently, Mr. Badawi’s rights of freedom of speech and religion should be valued and respected, as it is a moral duty to respect all people as we would respect ourselves, making it immoral not to do so. Excellent job at getting your point across, your position on this matter is indeed a strong one. As you mentioned, your position on this issue is indeed that of a utilitarian, specifically that of an act utilitarian, as you are examining the consequences of smoking for the collective, and ultimately banning smoking would maximize everyone’s happiness, as they would no longer be affected by it such as no longer running the risk of developing lung cancer or watching others they know and love dying from such a disease. By what you are stating as an act utilitarian, you seem to be following Bentham’s principle of utility, which basically states that consequences do indeed matter, as actions that promote happiness/pleasure are indeed moral and actions that promote unhappiness/pain are therefore immoral. - 1 of 15 - suivant › There no collaborative classes	<urn:uuid:65e7c591-3ee1-49e8-904d-77e8445d57ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://newsactivist.com/fr/node/6077	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00545.warc.gz	en	0.985837	2,740	3.421875	3	[ -0.1506294161081314, 0.1368127167224884, -0.2252047210931778, -0.12015096843242645, -0.045113883912563324, 0.5915824174880981, -0.10170721262693405, 0.4371876120567322, 0.08339939266443253, -0.01596919074654579, 0.28305813670158386, -0.35816746950149536, -0.06641928851604462, 0.21064622700...	4	Race and Racism 545 Fall 2014 (A. Nouvet) About this class Champlain College, Fall 2014 This course will introduce students to the concept of race from the perspective of biological and cultural anthropology. The first part of the course focuses on the distribution of human biological variation and compares this variation to contemporary ideas about race. The second part traces the historical development of the concept of race, the role that slavery, colonialism and science have played in the dissemination of the belief in race, as well as modern ideas of race. The third part of the course will explore the reality of racism through case studies from various countries, with a focus on Canada. A consideration of the effects of white privilege and how racism can continue to exist in democratic societies will also be undertaken. There are no postings in your class First of all, I am writing here because the sports industry is something that interests me very much. I also agree with the idea that the coach is doing very good work with the sports community, and it is important that this is recognized. Racism does sadly occur even within sports, and it is something that should not have its place at all. Although this occurred in the past, it is never too late to take a stand. One person can indeed make a difference and have a voice that may inspire others. Furthermore, as seen in class, it can also have an impact on children. Children tend to watch sports at a very young age with their families, for example, and the media tends to be very influential on children. Although children are not seen as being colourblind according to Erin Winkler, they interpret what they see they way they see it. Therefore, it is also important to realize how beneficial this action is for children, since it can also help show them how important it is to stand up for themselves in live and to be heard rather than to fade into the silence. To conclude, this article was very powerful, and this man is very inspirational, and he will be hopefully one of many to fight for change. This comment is to add to your conclusion that the advertisement is hypersexualising women and is making negative impacts on women in society. To add to this article, I would like to ask if there are any colored women I these adds? If not this means there is an even bigger negative impact on society in general it isn't only regressing women in society but also it becomes in some sort racist. As we saw in class women of color have a bigger task in trying to get accepted in big fashion companies. This is all because of the beauty standards set y the companies and by the population. What we like to see and we don't like to see. As said in one documentary watched in class Fashion companies like having lets say Black women in their company but they need to be a white women dipped in Chocolate. This means that they want a black colored skin women but with white women traits such as thin nose blablabla... These two problems must be fixed by society with drastic measures. We need to start changing our ways of thinking and try to help out women in the fashion industry by saying you don't need to always be half naked to be attractive and you don't need to to be white to be a successful model. Many beauty standards are set such as being very petite but we are seing that fashion companies are trying to move onto something new because the population is starting to see their own beauty, the beauty in the natural body of a women. First of all, I am commenting here because I watched a Ted Talk in my Myth of Race and The Reality of Racism class with a similar topic, which I found very interesting. I personally agree with your point of view, and it is important to realize how high the expectations are in men. However, from another point of view, it could also be interesting to incorporate races or racial categories into this equation. For example, when looking at the 'man box', it is indeed true that most men feel as though they are trapped in a box full of responsibilities and restraints at a very young age. If this were to be looked at with race, people from minority groups may tend to feel much more trapped than people from a majority group. When children grow up, they tend to suffer much pressure from their surroundings, in order to ensure they remain safe and smart. Then there comes the issue of minority groups, who suffer much more pressure due to the stereotypes they may face due to their culture. For example, a black child may be much more restricted in performing certain behaviours because they are seen as dangerous or as robbers, while mexicans or latinos will be seen as being involved in drugs, These are stereotypes that are sadly seen in today's society, and as we have seen in class, children are not colourblind, and can quickly pick up on these racial issues, which I do not believe is something we would like our children to face later on in life. To conclude, although racial stereotypes may still exist, the 'man box' is seen differently for men depending of their race, and this is something that could be changed, since all men are the same despite where they come from. I responded to this article because I love sports and always interested of learning the racist aspects inside sports. I am surprised of the information given on Michael Jordan's life and the racist side of him. Not because he was an awesome basketball player but also he is known around thee world because of his brand. He is a Multi-millionaire because of the Jordan brand, he is public figure to all sport and clothing fans. People buy because of his basketball fame and because of his marketing name. He is also proactive inside schools and sport teams, where he tells his life story of how he persevered to get where he is now. This man has accomplished so much and is probably one of the most known athletes out there. The fact that he confirmed being racist when he was a teenager doesn't show the right example to all his fans out there. Especially with todays media they always try to make the story more dramatical than it really is, so they wont explain why he was racist but just say that he was racist. It is very understandable why he was racist but he also generalized that all white people are racist, yes at that time their were a lot of racist white people but their was people white people who had their heart at the right place and would accept Blacks. These days there still is a lot of racism but people might not show it as much but still find ways to be racist. Racism is a part of life everywhere, blacks in our society have less advantages, they are looked at by the authorities differently. Michael might not of approached the situation he was thrown in the right way, he maybe should of thought about what happened to him and not generalize. But looking at it from his eyes it is very understandable that he got mad and was pushed to the limit, I am pretty sure he had previous events where racism was a part of and made this last event more drastic, he hit his limit point. Personally I am totally against any kind of racism, yes sometimes people slip and say something that might be racist without wanting to hurt anybody, we all need to be careful of what we say and do. Michael Jordan shares this story and it is very relevant to all where it can educate us to maybe not accept what happens to you but also not generalize what happened. We all have different views on "Race" and shouldn't be thrown into the same pot. Firstly, I am commenting here because the title was strongly appealing to me. It is also a very interesting topic, and it is important to realize that this is still an issue in today's society. It is very disturbing to see how a landlord or a janitor can be racist against a particular group. Racism has been present in the native community for quite some time, and we should definitely put an end to it. People who have the finances and that are able to afford an apartment should be allowed to rent one no strings attached. Being racist against other minority groups could lead to poverty in extreme cases, where people would have to live on the street because they would have no where else to go. The thought of this is excruciating, which is why things must definitely change for the better, and soon. People need to become more involved indeed, help further identify the problem, and welcome the minorities with open arms rather than with closed doors. Although it may be difficult to do at first, it is important to realize that there are many different races all around us, and that race or skin color does not in any way define a person or what they are. To begin, I am commenting on this article because I used the same topic, and found this article very interesting and similar to mine. This is a very saddening topic, and it is quite shocking that there was no action taken before this specific outburst from Mulcair that these types of things must stop. I also agree that this is a very large crisis, and clearly a very bright case of racism. This issue has been around for much longer than we believe, but it is very reassuring indeed to see how we are finally taking a step forward towards change. This will help families grieve, but it will also help support the idea that today, in 2015, we are a very open and multicultural society, and that we support all races. This debate being done during the political debate is a very important social issue, because it shows how we are not oblivious to racism, and how it still occurs in our society today. However, will change be made? Will we be able to stop these racist behaviours, and stop being blind to it or pretending that it is not around us? Hopefully someday this will end, because we miss so many opportunities in life by excluding people simply because they are different. I chose to answer to this article because I was wondering how can a natural disaster create racism within a population? The fact that the two "Races" in this article have both completelycompletely different opinions on how there life style is now is very bad. Yes, probably most of those who where in a location might of have already been poor which means that they have had a harder time with recuperating but there is no reason why the should be saying that they haven't improved. The city should of pushed to have mixed neighborhoods and create less of a racial disparity. Now both "Races" are completely separated which makes.it even worse because you just see the poor Black neighborhoods and The rich white neighborhoods. As spoken about in class, the blacks in general aren't poor because they are stupid but because of slavery and segregation they had less time and less of an opportunity to learn and get good jobs. Compared to whites who always had the opportunity to go to school and get good jobs. They community of New Orleans is very diverse, what I think is that the Blacks have a reason to not be happy about the process of rebuilding, and whites have a easy time with their money and the government helping them out more. You are right by saying that the article should be on the area of where the people live and not of their "Race". Your post was short and concise which made for a good interesting read. Strong statistics were used to back up your statements. Virtue ethics is basing ethical behavior on the virtues held by the individual, for example honesty. How to judge morality can fluctuate between different cases. Intentions and benefits to the group or individual are taking into account. In this case, where we are seeing high school dropouts as a problem, morality would depend on the individual and taking consideration the benefits for them and society in this case. I believe that graduating would benefit the individual and society in the long run because they would be setting themselves up to be more successful. I believe that your opinion is strongly emphasized and that your summary is clearly explained, well done! Interestingly enough, you seem to be a deontologist by what you are saying, as you are focusing more on the action that is being done to Mr. Badawi and how they are stripping him of his freedoms of speech and religion, which you have stated is morally wrong. Using Kant’s principle of ends, you can argue that everyone should be treated as an end and not as a means and that there should ultimately be mutual respect among all people. Consequently, Mr. Badawi’s rights of freedom of speech and religion should be valued and respected, as it is a moral duty to respect all people as we would respect ourselves, making it immoral not to do so. Excellent job at getting your point across, your position on this matter is indeed a strong one. As you mentioned, your position on this issue is indeed that of a utilitarian, specifically that of an act utilitarian, as you are examining the consequences of smoking for the collective, and ultimately banning smoking would maximize everyone’s happiness, as they would no longer be affected by it such as no longer running the risk of developing lung cancer or watching others they know and love dying from such a disease. By what you are stating as an act utilitarian, you seem to be following Bentham’s principle of utility, which basically states that consequences do indeed matter, as actions that promote happiness/pleasure are indeed moral and actions that promote unhappiness/pain are therefore immoral. - 1 of 15 - suivant › There no collaborative classes	2,742	ENGLISH	1
Breeding biology of the Magpie Goose A breeding pair of Magpie Geese was studied at the Wildfowl Trust during one breeding season and part of a second. Nest-building was performed by both sexes and was done in the typical anatid fashion of passing material back over the shoulders. Nests were built on land of sticks and green vegetation. Two copulations were observed, both of which occurred on the nest, and precopulatory as well as postcopulatory behaviour appears to differ greatly from the typical anatid patterns. Eggs were laid at approximate day-and-a-half intervals, and the nest was guarded by both sexes. Incubation was also performed by both sexes, with the male normally sitting during the night. A simple nest-relief ceremony is present. The eggs hatched after 28 to 30 days, and the goslings left the nest the morning after hatching. Unlike all other Anatidae so far studied, the goslings, in addition to foraging independently, are fed directly by their parents and a special whistling begging call associated with a gaping posture is present. It is suggested that the bright bill colouration and unusual cinnamon-coloured heads of downy Magpie Geese are also related to this parental feeding. The parents constructed a 'brood nest' of herbaceous vegetation that the goslings rested and slept on, which is also unique among the Anatidae. Family bonds are strong, and a rudimentary form of 'triumph ceremony' is present. Development of the young and moulting sequences of downy, juvenal, and immature plumages are described; the presence of separate juvenal and immature plumages which are distinct from the adult plumage is apparently unique. It was also found that the juvenal rectrices are moulted shortly after fledging, which occurred on the 84th day, and the first remiges are moulted during the seventh and eighth months rather than at the end of the first year as is the usual anatid situation. A fully adult appearance, and presumably sexual maturity, is reached before the third year. - There are currently no refbacks. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.	<urn:uuid:e6a7ff25-99ba-4a3d-896c-90e53e623248>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wildfowl.wwt.org.uk/index.php/wildfowl/article/view/148	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00297.warc.gz	en	0.98096	452	3.359375	3	[ 0.35566139221191406, -0.20949816703796387, -0.18071480095386505, -0.2440759688615799, 0.33398932218551636, 0.35864102840423584, 0.2726081311702728, -0.054022397845983505, -0.1493024379014969, -0.29168328642845154, -0.37464961409568787, -0.7421557307243347, 0.3369590640068054, 0.11468400806...	3	Breeding biology of the Magpie Goose A breeding pair of Magpie Geese was studied at the Wildfowl Trust during one breeding season and part of a second. Nest-building was performed by both sexes and was done in the typical anatid fashion of passing material back over the shoulders. Nests were built on land of sticks and green vegetation. Two copulations were observed, both of which occurred on the nest, and precopulatory as well as postcopulatory behaviour appears to differ greatly from the typical anatid patterns. Eggs were laid at approximate day-and-a-half intervals, and the nest was guarded by both sexes. Incubation was also performed by both sexes, with the male normally sitting during the night. A simple nest-relief ceremony is present. The eggs hatched after 28 to 30 days, and the goslings left the nest the morning after hatching. Unlike all other Anatidae so far studied, the goslings, in addition to foraging independently, are fed directly by their parents and a special whistling begging call associated with a gaping posture is present. It is suggested that the bright bill colouration and unusual cinnamon-coloured heads of downy Magpie Geese are also related to this parental feeding. The parents constructed a 'brood nest' of herbaceous vegetation that the goslings rested and slept on, which is also unique among the Anatidae. Family bonds are strong, and a rudimentary form of 'triumph ceremony' is present. Development of the young and moulting sequences of downy, juvenal, and immature plumages are described; the presence of separate juvenal and immature plumages which are distinct from the adult plumage is apparently unique. It was also found that the juvenal rectrices are moulted shortly after fledging, which occurred on the 84th day, and the first remiges are moulted during the seventh and eighth months rather than at the end of the first year as is the usual anatid situation. A fully adult appearance, and presumably sexual maturity, is reached before the third year. - There are currently no refbacks. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.	459	ENGLISH	1
Charles Dickens is an extremely influential British author. From novels such as A Tale of Two Cities, to the Christmas classic, A Christmas Carol, his works are renowned. Dickens' stories have been passed down through generations, and will continue. He is timeless. In this essay, I will discuss how the life of Charles Dickens was portrayed through his works, and how his tales have influenced British Literature. Dickens was born February 7, 1812 to John and Elizabeth Dickens in Portsea, England. He was the second of six children in their family. Dickens has said that he was "born an actor, and as a child became an astute singer of comic songs with all the actions and all the attitudes- ( Ackroyd 9). Charles Dickens was born with creativity and ambition. That was soon taken away from him when hard times struck his family. They were forced to move to the suburbs of London, which were places of poverty. His parents could no longer provide education for him. John Dickens was placed in jail for debt reasons, and Elizabeth forced Charles to become a thief. Dickens began to use these experiences when he started writing. Many of the people that he came into contact with were later portrayed as characters. For example, Charles held a strong grudge against his mother for forcing him to become a thief. Because of this rage, he portrayed her as Mrs. Nickelby. After reading the novel herself, Charles and Elizabeth Dickens were no longer close. . He also knew what it was really like to live the life of his characters Fargin and the Artful Dodger. These characters were true to the life that Dickens faced as he was growing up. He actually knew a man named Fargin, who helped Dickens when he became ill while working at the factory. Charles Dickens later wrote for a parliamentary newspaper, where he made the most tragic situations humorous to the common people of London. This was not done mainly through words, but with sketches.	<urn:uuid:45cdbed4-9217-41a9-abef-e844186e14ff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/33318.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00058.warc.gz	en	0.996035	399	3.671875	4	[ 0.2458558827638626, 0.10109694302082062, 0.45885804295539856, 0.00039457532693631947, 0.04953395202755928, -0.3718755543231964, 0.2749224007129669, 0.16123703122138977, -0.20754098892211914, -0.008278264664113522, -0.21618463099002838, -0.014288689009845257, 0.22564572095870972, 0.11941686...	4	Charles Dickens is an extremely influential British author. From novels such as A Tale of Two Cities, to the Christmas classic, A Christmas Carol, his works are renowned. Dickens' stories have been passed down through generations, and will continue. He is timeless. In this essay, I will discuss how the life of Charles Dickens was portrayed through his works, and how his tales have influenced British Literature. Dickens was born February 7, 1812 to John and Elizabeth Dickens in Portsea, England. He was the second of six children in their family. Dickens has said that he was "born an actor, and as a child became an astute singer of comic songs with all the actions and all the attitudes- ( Ackroyd 9). Charles Dickens was born with creativity and ambition. That was soon taken away from him when hard times struck his family. They were forced to move to the suburbs of London, which were places of poverty. His parents could no longer provide education for him. John Dickens was placed in jail for debt reasons, and Elizabeth forced Charles to become a thief. Dickens began to use these experiences when he started writing. Many of the people that he came into contact with were later portrayed as characters. For example, Charles held a strong grudge against his mother for forcing him to become a thief. Because of this rage, he portrayed her as Mrs. Nickelby. After reading the novel herself, Charles and Elizabeth Dickens were no longer close. . He also knew what it was really like to live the life of his characters Fargin and the Artful Dodger. These characters were true to the life that Dickens faced as he was growing up. He actually knew a man named Fargin, who helped Dickens when he became ill while working at the factory. Charles Dickens later wrote for a parliamentary newspaper, where he made the most tragic situations humorous to the common people of London. This was not done mainly through words, but with sketches.	398	ENGLISH	1
The Thomas Asylum for Orphan and Destitute Indian Children was incorporated in 1855 as a private institution receiving State aid. The asylum was located within the Cattaraugus Indian Reservation in Erie County, NY and was charged to receive destitute and orphaned children from all Indian reservations in the State. It was named for Philip E. Thomas, a benefactor of New York’s Native Americans and early financial backer of the asylum. In 1875 ownership of the asylum was transferred to the State and it was made subject to the supervision and control of the State Board of Charities. As a State institution, its purpose was to furnish resident Native American children with “care, moral training and education, and instruction in husbandry and the arts of civilization.” Boys were trained for industrial work, and girls for domestic tasks. To reflect its emphasis on education the asylum’s name was changed in 1905 to Thomas Indian School. Ownership of the asylum later transferred to the state of New York , and its State Board of Charities provided oversight. The state of New York closed the Thomas school in 1957.	<urn:uuid:e3b08210-b694-4bec-9db4-f6e14af21b56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/1918/thomas-assylum-indigent-orphan-indians	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00456.warc.gz	en	0.981656	230	3.296875	3	[ 0.01534474641084671, -0.19744493067264557, 0.24515244364738464, -0.1340734362602234, -0.056300632655620575, -0.33839964866638184, 0.19695742428302765, 0.16388024389743805, -0.2682337760925293, -0.024071689695119858, 0.42295941710472107, -0.0029739593155682087, -0.31755873560905457, 0.30270...	2	The Thomas Asylum for Orphan and Destitute Indian Children was incorporated in 1855 as a private institution receiving State aid. The asylum was located within the Cattaraugus Indian Reservation in Erie County, NY and was charged to receive destitute and orphaned children from all Indian reservations in the State. It was named for Philip E. Thomas, a benefactor of New York’s Native Americans and early financial backer of the asylum. In 1875 ownership of the asylum was transferred to the State and it was made subject to the supervision and control of the State Board of Charities. As a State institution, its purpose was to furnish resident Native American children with “care, moral training and education, and instruction in husbandry and the arts of civilization.” Boys were trained for industrial work, and girls for domestic tasks. To reflect its emphasis on education the asylum’s name was changed in 1905 to Thomas Indian School. Ownership of the asylum later transferred to the state of New York , and its State Board of Charities provided oversight. The state of New York closed the Thomas school in 1957.	236	ENGLISH	1
With everyone’s mind and opinions being different, it is impossible to come to a clear answer to the question at hand. However, there are multiple points in Julius Caesar that lead me to the obvious conclusion that Marcus Brutus was, in fact, a betrayer. Some that read this play may see that Brutus would never do anything that he thought would harm the people of Rome. Others argue that the killing of Julius Caesar was necessary to put an end to the suffering he caused and point to the fact that Rome would not be in the state it’s in today if not for the assassination of Caesar. While all of these claims hold truth, they do not change the moral decision of taking someone’s life to ‘improve’ civilization. Looking back in real life history, there is usually always a better route. However, even if there was no better route to this particular case, Marcus Brutus failed to exhaust all other routes. He was so easily persuaded and manipulated by Cassius to kill his best friend that it makes one wonder how great of a person Brutus truly was. History would be different, yes. Essay due? We'll write it for you! There is no way to know for sure what might’ve happened if Caesar was not killed by the conspirators. However, it is safe to assume that Rome most likely would still have turned out similarly to the Rome we know today if another, less violent route was taken. Without the death of Julius Caesar, history would be slightly less stained red. Brutus was doing what he thought was personally right, there’s no doubt about this. However, there is also no way to know exactly what his thought process was. On the ‘Ides of March’, Julius Caesar was stabbed 23 times by people whom he considered to be friends, if not brothers. They claimed that it was ultimately for the betterment of Rome, and the improvement of civilian’s lives. Even so, many lives were lost in the Battle of Philippi, and most common folk strongly disagreed with what Brutus and the other conspirators had done. One more thing to ponder is the question of morality. If this situation were to be played out in a modern setting, it would never have been able to progress past a mere attempt. For example, people that have disagreed with United States presidents in the past to such an extreme degree as to turn to violence and attempt to assassinate them are highly frowned upon in our modern age. Take the shooting of JFK for example. This event caused most of the country to mourn for him at that point in time onwards to modern day America. While this play is a work of fiction, in order to determine the deeper theme behind it, one must put themselves into the shoes of a bystander and attempt to truly understand what it would have been like to be there in that very moment. Take into consideration hearing a man you had trusted to be close friends with your ruler, come out soaked in blood and say, “it’s not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” There is absolutely no way that a sane person would look at someone that has done something as horrible as murdering their best friend in the name of their country and call them a hero. On the whole, Brutus was never a patriot. He consciously betrayed the trust and love of his best friend for the sake of his own opinion on how things should be run, along with the gentle manipulation of his peers. Take for example, this line by Julius Caesar himself from act three, scene one; “Et tu, Bruté?—Then fall, Caesar.” This powerful line translates to, “And you too, Brutus? In that case, die, Caesar.” Muttered before his death, Caesar is making his shock clear to Brutus. He cannot believe, of all people, Marcus Brutus would be the one to betray him. In the second part of this line, he states the obvious; he’s fallen as the ruler of Rome. However, he’s also stating that he’s fallen as a man. What more does one have to live for after one of the few people you trust betrays you in such a way as gruesome as a public murder? After all of these events played out including the fallout, the public despising him, war on the horizon, until his own death, even Brutus himself thought what he did was right, with only brief traces left of guilt and remorse. It is obvious that when looked at with the cold hard facts laid out for you, he was nothing but a violent betrayer. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	<urn:uuid:f53cc588-e64f-4252-bbab-bc3bdf976f03>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/was-marcus-brutus-a-violent-betrayer/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00350.warc.gz	en	0.981574	1,066	3.328125	3	[ -0.35477370023727417, -0.03426238149404526, 0.19212821125984192, 0.2884218692779541, -0.15611720085144043, 0.14101998507976532, 0.3599261939525604, 0.5714060068130493, 0.35495156049728394, -0.16615331172943115, 0.1194828450679779, -0.1299978643655777, -0.334951251745224, 0.4060413837432861...	1	With everyone’s mind and opinions being different, it is impossible to come to a clear answer to the question at hand. However, there are multiple points in Julius Caesar that lead me to the obvious conclusion that Marcus Brutus was, in fact, a betrayer. Some that read this play may see that Brutus would never do anything that he thought would harm the people of Rome. Others argue that the killing of Julius Caesar was necessary to put an end to the suffering he caused and point to the fact that Rome would not be in the state it’s in today if not for the assassination of Caesar. While all of these claims hold truth, they do not change the moral decision of taking someone’s life to ‘improve’ civilization. Looking back in real life history, there is usually always a better route. However, even if there was no better route to this particular case, Marcus Brutus failed to exhaust all other routes. He was so easily persuaded and manipulated by Cassius to kill his best friend that it makes one wonder how great of a person Brutus truly was. History would be different, yes. Essay due? We'll write it for you! There is no way to know for sure what might’ve happened if Caesar was not killed by the conspirators. However, it is safe to assume that Rome most likely would still have turned out similarly to the Rome we know today if another, less violent route was taken. Without the death of Julius Caesar, history would be slightly less stained red. Brutus was doing what he thought was personally right, there’s no doubt about this. However, there is also no way to know exactly what his thought process was. On the ‘Ides of March’, Julius Caesar was stabbed 23 times by people whom he considered to be friends, if not brothers. They claimed that it was ultimately for the betterment of Rome, and the improvement of civilian’s lives. Even so, many lives were lost in the Battle of Philippi, and most common folk strongly disagreed with what Brutus and the other conspirators had done. One more thing to ponder is the question of morality. If this situation were to be played out in a modern setting, it would never have been able to progress past a mere attempt. For example, people that have disagreed with United States presidents in the past to such an extreme degree as to turn to violence and attempt to assassinate them are highly frowned upon in our modern age. Take the shooting of JFK for example. This event caused most of the country to mourn for him at that point in time onwards to modern day America. While this play is a work of fiction, in order to determine the deeper theme behind it, one must put themselves into the shoes of a bystander and attempt to truly understand what it would have been like to be there in that very moment. Take into consideration hearing a man you had trusted to be close friends with your ruler, come out soaked in blood and say, “it’s not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” There is absolutely no way that a sane person would look at someone that has done something as horrible as murdering their best friend in the name of their country and call them a hero. On the whole, Brutus was never a patriot. He consciously betrayed the trust and love of his best friend for the sake of his own opinion on how things should be run, along with the gentle manipulation of his peers. Take for example, this line by Julius Caesar himself from act three, scene one; “Et tu, Bruté?—Then fall, Caesar.” This powerful line translates to, “And you too, Brutus? In that case, die, Caesar.” Muttered before his death, Caesar is making his shock clear to Brutus. He cannot believe, of all people, Marcus Brutus would be the one to betray him. In the second part of this line, he states the obvious; he’s fallen as the ruler of Rome. However, he’s also stating that he’s fallen as a man. What more does one have to live for after one of the few people you trust betrays you in such a way as gruesome as a public murder? After all of these events played out including the fallout, the public despising him, war on the horizon, until his own death, even Brutus himself thought what he did was right, with only brief traces left of guilt and remorse. It is obvious that when looked at with the cold hard facts laid out for you, he was nothing but a violent betrayer. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	1,023	ENGLISH	1
Asian Indians Fight for U.S. in World War I Nearly a quarter of the men who fought for America in World War I were foreign born, including many Asian Indians who arrived in the U.S. seeking education, a better life, and freedom from British domination of India. It is no surprise that people from India made their way to the United States. Goods from that part of the world, including cotton, indigo, silk, maize, tobacco, spices, and opium, were imported from there as early as the colonial era. It was only natural that the people would come, too. Why They Served Almost 40 different ethnic groups served in the U.S. military during World War I. Each group had their own reasons for answering America’s call. For Asian Indians in America, military service to protect civil life was part of India’s heritage. It was felt that the rigors of military training taught punctuality, courtesy, dignity, faithfulness in performing duties, and thereby, established good character. (The Reveille, January 1909.) In another publication, the editor of Young India (October 1918, volume #10) wrote: “We hope the majority will not shrink from joining the army.” The British Consulate announced that exemptions from service could be made for British citizens in the U.S., but the editorial noted: “There is nothing like being a unit of a democratic force, fighting for democracy, with equal chances of promotion and advancement regardless of colour, creed, and caste.” Representing a different interest, press baron William Randolph Hearst used his newspaper empire to advocate that newcomers should go to war for their new country to spare Americans. Hearst wrote that if we send “All-American” boys to the Western Front, these “birds of passage” — will take American jobs and toil in profitable safety while “real Americans” die in France. Others saw service as a tool of assimilation. Franklin D. Roosevelt, then assistant secretary of the Navy, said: “The military tent will rank next to the public school among the great agents of democratization.” In his work for the World War I Commission, Tanveer Kalo assembled names of many soldiers who served the U.S. during the war. Many of the Asian Indians went on to be dignified members of their community—the kind of people who represent all that is good in this country. Here are three of their stories: Dr. Karm Chandra Kerwell: Physician Dr. Karm Chandra (K. C.) Kerwell was born in 1889 in Lahore, Punjab, British India. He came to the United States to study medicine, enrolling in the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. While still a medical student, Kerwell signed up for the Michigan National Guard. During that time, he was sent with his unit to serve along the Mexican border. Later, when the U.S. was clearly going to enter World War I, Kerwell enlisted in the U.S. military (July 1917). By then he was 28. After the war, Kerwell returned to Ann Arbor to complete his degree, and he heard of a job opening in the upper peninsula of Michigan. The Spanish flu was spreading throughout the U.S., and a doctor in Stephenson, Michigan, needed help. Dr. Kerwell remember the date of his arrival in Stephenson—December 14, 1919. He noted that the temperature was 15 degrees below zero, and the ground was covered with four feet of snow. In an article published in a Green Bay newspaper (Green Bay Press-Gazette) Kerwell told the reporter he had planned to stay for a couple of years and “then look for a job in a better climate.” As it happened, he stayed for a lifetime. What Kerwell Found in Stephenson The Green Bay Press-Gazette featured an extensive interview with Dr. Kerwell in 1970. The community was honoring him for a lifetime of service. In the article, Kerwell reminisces about what Stephenson was like when he arrived in 1920. The town was a remote logging town that was hard hit by the Spanish flu then. But pneumonia, logging accidents, and new babies also kept Dr. Kerwell and his employer, Dr. Sawbridge, busy. Kerwell was proud of owning a Model T in the early 1920s, but he rarely got to use it. Though house calls were the norm at that time, roads were bad. Dr. Kerwell and Dr. Sawbridge frequently traveled by horse and cutter in the winter or by team and surrey in better weather. Because of travel difficulties, surgery and births were generally managed in the home. The doctors always carried their surgical equipment with them. They would then rig up the best lighting available and carry out the procedure, usually in the kitchen. Getting the Doctor In 1920, Stephenson did not yet have telephone service. Word had to be sent to town, or sometimes when the doctor arrived at one house, he would be told that another neighbor also needed him. Occasionally, train crews carried messages from station to station until the information reached Stephenson. Only then would the doctor know to start his trip to see the patient. In 1931, one of Kerwell’s cases made news. In an incident reminiscent of William Tell, a younger sibling agreed to let his 17-year-old brother shoot a glass bottle off his head. The older brother marked off 10 paces and turned to fire his rifle. He missed the bottle but not by much. The bullet grazed the head of the younger boy, embedding in his scalp. Dr. Kerwell treated the wound, and the boy recovered. (Ironwood Daily Globe) Despite his original intention to move on, Dr. Kerwell came to love the area. He joined the Mid-County Men’s Club, the Twin City Medical Society, Stephenson Masonic Order, and the Michigan Medical Society. He married in 1932, and in 1937, he and his wife adopted twins. They owned a cottage near Shaker Lakes where he loved to hunt and fish. Dr. K.C. Kerwell died at age of 83 on October 6, 1972. He is buried at the Stephenson Township Cemetery. Colonel Pashupati Joseph Sarma: Surgeon Colonel Pashupati Joseph Sarma was born 1893 in Calcutta, British India. During his teen years in India, he became politically active, writing and speaking out against British rule. The British police, aware of Sarma’s published writings, pursued him. Sarma knew he was in imminent danger, so without telling his family, he traveled to Bombay and found work aboard a ship sailing for Europe. Just before departure, he was able to get a letter off to his mother, explaining where he was and promising that he would bring honor to the family. The overseas trip on the ship, the Mauretania, changed his life. According to his grandniece who shared memories of her relative with Tanveer Kalo of the World War I Commission, Sarma was befriended on the trip by a British doctor. The doctor was on his way to America, and encouraged Sarma to continue on rather than debarking in England as Sarma intended. The doctor assured Sarma that the United States offered more opportunity. Arrival in New York Sarma was 20 in 1912 when he arrived in New York. He knew an education was important and found work to pay for college and medical school. In 1916, he graduated from Hahnemann Medical School in Philadelphia with training as a surgeon. He served in the medical corps of the U.S. Army during World War I. By the time of his discharge, he was a First Lieutenant. He also opted to remain in the military reserves. After the war, he lived in Chicago. He married, had a private surgical practice, and was on staff at various medical institutions in the area, including Loyola Medical Center and later, the University of Illinois College of Medicine, among others. Sarma and his wife remained in close contact with his family in Calcutta. They provided financial help for several members of the family to come to the U.S. for an education. In 1941, Sarma was among the reservists called to active duty. He was sent to Camp Barkeley Hospital at Fort Sam Houston in Texas, to be in charge of the surgical department. The hospital was one of the largest military hospitals in the U.S. during the war. In late 1942 while still serving in Texas, Colonel Sarma had a heart attack and he died on January 21, 1943. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. Nikanth Chavre: Automotive Engineer and Business Speaker Nikanth Ramchadra Chavre was born in Vaduj (a small village near Kolhapur), British India in 1895. He arrived in the United States in February of 1916. Chavre made his way to Ann Arbor, Michigan where he studied engineering at the College of Engineering and Architecture at the University of Michigan. In 1917, Chavre, still an engineering student, registered for the draft and joined the Student Army Training Corps. After the war, Chavre returned to Michigan and got a job working for the Columbia Motor Company in Detroit. He married around that time, and he and his wife soon departed for a two-year stint in Bombay, British India. His return to India led to a connection with Mathatma Gandhi, who was working to liberate India from British rule. This gave him fresh perspective and knowledge of the country of his birth. Later, he brought this perspective as a speaker back to the U.S. Upon returning to Michigan, he was recruited by Ford Motor Company for a five-year project in the Soviet Union. He was hired to travel there to provide technical support in building the Gorkovsky automobile manufacturing plant. After this assignment, Chavre returned to the U.S., this time settling in Foster, Ohio, where he worked as a civil engineer. In Ohio, he became active with the local Rotary Club. During the 1940s and 1950s, he traveled on behalf of the club, speaking to other Rotary Clubs on international business issues, and also conducting leadership training on these trips. Chavre also created a scholarship program for Indian women to come to the University of Michigan to study engineering. Nilkanth Ramchandra Chavre died in Seattle, Washington, in December of 1972. They Are Patriots In reading about just three of the many foreign immigrants that served the U.S. in World War I, we are reminded of the words of the late John McCain: “We should all be guided by the principle that any American who wants to serve our country and is able to meet the standards should have the opportunity to do so – and should be treated as the patriots they are.” For more information on some of the immigrants who served in World War I, click here. And to read about other soldiers from WWI who are featured on this site, start with Henry Johnson. View sources » Bill Mauldin: WWII Cartoonist Won 2 Pulitzer Prizes Bill Mauldin was a young artist in World War II who created a cartoon featuring two mud-covered, combat-weary infantrymen, Willie and Joe. Mauldin’s work appeared... » Gideon Sundback’s Invention of the Zipper Gideon Sundback is credited with inventing the first zipper, but he was not the first to patent the device. Sundback, however, created the first zipper... » Phineas Banning, Father of the L.A. Harbor Phineas Banning is known as the “Father of the Los Angeles Harbor.” He deserves that title and more.... » A Dalmatian in the Civil War A handsome dalmatian followed Quartermaster General Rufus Ingalls wherever he went at Army headquarters at City Point, Virginia. General Ingalls (1818-1893) returned from a short... »	<urn:uuid:ab9433d3-4a9c-4e71-b2ca-5cc15b87ecfb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://americacomesalive.com/2018/10/09/asian-indians-fight-for-u-s-in-world-war-i/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00241.warc.gz	en	0.980933	2,532	3.65625	4	[ -0.2866321802139282, 0.23414266109466553, 0.11483826488256454, -0.24582436680793762, -0.11367198824882507, 0.13264858722686768, 0.1194513738155365, 0.18481633067131042, -0.1479165256023407, 0.05516239255666733, 0.27965107560157776, 0.04905097186565399, 0.1210414320230484, 0.517542600631713...	1	Asian Indians Fight for U.S. in World War I Nearly a quarter of the men who fought for America in World War I were foreign born, including many Asian Indians who arrived in the U.S. seeking education, a better life, and freedom from British domination of India. It is no surprise that people from India made their way to the United States. Goods from that part of the world, including cotton, indigo, silk, maize, tobacco, spices, and opium, were imported from there as early as the colonial era. It was only natural that the people would come, too. Why They Served Almost 40 different ethnic groups served in the U.S. military during World War I. Each group had their own reasons for answering America’s call. For Asian Indians in America, military service to protect civil life was part of India’s heritage. It was felt that the rigors of military training taught punctuality, courtesy, dignity, faithfulness in performing duties, and thereby, established good character. (The Reveille, January 1909.) In another publication, the editor of Young India (October 1918, volume #10) wrote: “We hope the majority will not shrink from joining the army.” The British Consulate announced that exemptions from service could be made for British citizens in the U.S., but the editorial noted: “There is nothing like being a unit of a democratic force, fighting for democracy, with equal chances of promotion and advancement regardless of colour, creed, and caste.” Representing a different interest, press baron William Randolph Hearst used his newspaper empire to advocate that newcomers should go to war for their new country to spare Americans. Hearst wrote that if we send “All-American” boys to the Western Front, these “birds of passage” — will take American jobs and toil in profitable safety while “real Americans” die in France. Others saw service as a tool of assimilation. Franklin D. Roosevelt, then assistant secretary of the Navy, said: “The military tent will rank next to the public school among the great agents of democratization.” In his work for the World War I Commission, Tanveer Kalo assembled names of many soldiers who served the U.S. during the war. Many of the Asian Indians went on to be dignified members of their community—the kind of people who represent all that is good in this country. Here are three of their stories: Dr. Karm Chandra Kerwell: Physician Dr. Karm Chandra (K. C.) Kerwell was born in 1889 in Lahore, Punjab, British India. He came to the United States to study medicine, enrolling in the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. While still a medical student, Kerwell signed up for the Michigan National Guard. During that time, he was sent with his unit to serve along the Mexican border. Later, when the U.S. was clearly going to enter World War I, Kerwell enlisted in the U.S. military (July 1917). By then he was 28. After the war, Kerwell returned to Ann Arbor to complete his degree, and he heard of a job opening in the upper peninsula of Michigan. The Spanish flu was spreading throughout the U.S., and a doctor in Stephenson, Michigan, needed help. Dr. Kerwell remember the date of his arrival in Stephenson—December 14, 1919. He noted that the temperature was 15 degrees below zero, and the ground was covered with four feet of snow. In an article published in a Green Bay newspaper (Green Bay Press-Gazette) Kerwell told the reporter he had planned to stay for a couple of years and “then look for a job in a better climate.” As it happened, he stayed for a lifetime. What Kerwell Found in Stephenson The Green Bay Press-Gazette featured an extensive interview with Dr. Kerwell in 1970. The community was honoring him for a lifetime of service. In the article, Kerwell reminisces about what Stephenson was like when he arrived in 1920. The town was a remote logging town that was hard hit by the Spanish flu then. But pneumonia, logging accidents, and new babies also kept Dr. Kerwell and his employer, Dr. Sawbridge, busy. Kerwell was proud of owning a Model T in the early 1920s, but he rarely got to use it. Though house calls were the norm at that time, roads were bad. Dr. Kerwell and Dr. Sawbridge frequently traveled by horse and cutter in the winter or by team and surrey in better weather. Because of travel difficulties, surgery and births were generally managed in the home. The doctors always carried their surgical equipment with them. They would then rig up the best lighting available and carry out the procedure, usually in the kitchen. Getting the Doctor In 1920, Stephenson did not yet have telephone service. Word had to be sent to town, or sometimes when the doctor arrived at one house, he would be told that another neighbor also needed him. Occasionally, train crews carried messages from station to station until the information reached Stephenson. Only then would the doctor know to start his trip to see the patient. In 1931, one of Kerwell’s cases made news. In an incident reminiscent of William Tell, a younger sibling agreed to let his 17-year-old brother shoot a glass bottle off his head. The older brother marked off 10 paces and turned to fire his rifle. He missed the bottle but not by much. The bullet grazed the head of the younger boy, embedding in his scalp. Dr. Kerwell treated the wound, and the boy recovered. (Ironwood Daily Globe) Despite his original intention to move on, Dr. Kerwell came to love the area. He joined the Mid-County Men’s Club, the Twin City Medical Society, Stephenson Masonic Order, and the Michigan Medical Society. He married in 1932, and in 1937, he and his wife adopted twins. They owned a cottage near Shaker Lakes where he loved to hunt and fish. Dr. K.C. Kerwell died at age of 83 on October 6, 1972. He is buried at the Stephenson Township Cemetery. Colonel Pashupati Joseph Sarma: Surgeon Colonel Pashupati Joseph Sarma was born 1893 in Calcutta, British India. During his teen years in India, he became politically active, writing and speaking out against British rule. The British police, aware of Sarma’s published writings, pursued him. Sarma knew he was in imminent danger, so without telling his family, he traveled to Bombay and found work aboard a ship sailing for Europe. Just before departure, he was able to get a letter off to his mother, explaining where he was and promising that he would bring honor to the family. The overseas trip on the ship, the Mauretania, changed his life. According to his grandniece who shared memories of her relative with Tanveer Kalo of the World War I Commission, Sarma was befriended on the trip by a British doctor. The doctor was on his way to America, and encouraged Sarma to continue on rather than debarking in England as Sarma intended. The doctor assured Sarma that the United States offered more opportunity. Arrival in New York Sarma was 20 in 1912 when he arrived in New York. He knew an education was important and found work to pay for college and medical school. In 1916, he graduated from Hahnemann Medical School in Philadelphia with training as a surgeon. He served in the medical corps of the U.S. Army during World War I. By the time of his discharge, he was a First Lieutenant. He also opted to remain in the military reserves. After the war, he lived in Chicago. He married, had a private surgical practice, and was on staff at various medical institutions in the area, including Loyola Medical Center and later, the University of Illinois College of Medicine, among others. Sarma and his wife remained in close contact with his family in Calcutta. They provided financial help for several members of the family to come to the U.S. for an education. In 1941, Sarma was among the reservists called to active duty. He was sent to Camp Barkeley Hospital at Fort Sam Houston in Texas, to be in charge of the surgical department. The hospital was one of the largest military hospitals in the U.S. during the war. In late 1942 while still serving in Texas, Colonel Sarma had a heart attack and he died on January 21, 1943. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. Nikanth Chavre: Automotive Engineer and Business Speaker Nikanth Ramchadra Chavre was born in Vaduj (a small village near Kolhapur), British India in 1895. He arrived in the United States in February of 1916. Chavre made his way to Ann Arbor, Michigan where he studied engineering at the College of Engineering and Architecture at the University of Michigan. In 1917, Chavre, still an engineering student, registered for the draft and joined the Student Army Training Corps. After the war, Chavre returned to Michigan and got a job working for the Columbia Motor Company in Detroit. He married around that time, and he and his wife soon departed for a two-year stint in Bombay, British India. His return to India led to a connection with Mathatma Gandhi, who was working to liberate India from British rule. This gave him fresh perspective and knowledge of the country of his birth. Later, he brought this perspective as a speaker back to the U.S. Upon returning to Michigan, he was recruited by Ford Motor Company for a five-year project in the Soviet Union. He was hired to travel there to provide technical support in building the Gorkovsky automobile manufacturing plant. After this assignment, Chavre returned to the U.S., this time settling in Foster, Ohio, where he worked as a civil engineer. In Ohio, he became active with the local Rotary Club. During the 1940s and 1950s, he traveled on behalf of the club, speaking to other Rotary Clubs on international business issues, and also conducting leadership training on these trips. Chavre also created a scholarship program for Indian women to come to the University of Michigan to study engineering. Nilkanth Ramchandra Chavre died in Seattle, Washington, in December of 1972. They Are Patriots In reading about just three of the many foreign immigrants that served the U.S. in World War I, we are reminded of the words of the late John McCain: “We should all be guided by the principle that any American who wants to serve our country and is able to meet the standards should have the opportunity to do so – and should be treated as the patriots they are.” For more information on some of the immigrants who served in World War I, click here. And to read about other soldiers from WWI who are featured on this site, start with Henry Johnson. View sources » Bill Mauldin: WWII Cartoonist Won 2 Pulitzer Prizes Bill Mauldin was a young artist in World War II who created a cartoon featuring two mud-covered, combat-weary infantrymen, Willie and Joe. Mauldin’s work appeared... » Gideon Sundback’s Invention of the Zipper Gideon Sundback is credited with inventing the first zipper, but he was not the first to patent the device. Sundback, however, created the first zipper... » Phineas Banning, Father of the L.A. Harbor Phineas Banning is known as the “Father of the Los Angeles Harbor.” He deserves that title and more.... » A Dalmatian in the Civil War A handsome dalmatian followed Quartermaster General Rufus Ingalls wherever he went at Army headquarters at City Point, Virginia. General Ingalls (1818-1893) returned from a short... »	2,556	ENGLISH	1
XV: North Dakota For most of the last 2.5 million years, North Dakota has been covered by a sheet of ice over 5000 feet thick. In more recent times as the ice began to melt, a massive lake covered the eastern part of the state. At its largest extent, Lake Agassiz had a surface area of 110,000 square miles, far larger than all of the current great lakes combined, and it spread out over eastern North Dakota, northwest Minnesota, and parts of Ontario and Manitoba. Until about 8,000 years ago, its outlet to the north was blocked by the massive Laurentide Ice Sheet, so it emptied to the south, carving out the Minnesota and Mississippi River Valleys. As the ice sheet melted, the lake became separated from Hudson Bay by a thinner and thinner bridge of ice and about 8,000 years ago this bridge of ice burst and a torrent of fresh water was released into the north Atlantic. In a very short period of time this affected the level of the oceans worldwide. There have been theories postulated that it was responsible for the filling in of the English Channel, making Britain an island and it was also then that the Mediterrean Sea overflowed into the basin that became the Black Sea. The Red River system ultimately developed which would drain this entire region north to Hudson Bay. Remnants of the great lake remain today as Lake Winnipeg, Lake Winnipegosis, Lake Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.146 The lakebed, when it dried out, became the flat, fertile Red River Valley of the North. Its western shore became the Pembina Ridge, and from there, westward, the land slopes gradually up to the drift plains, low, undulating hills, shaped like drifts of snow.147 The climate gradually warmed enough for a sea of prairie grass to grow. The semiarid climate limited trees to the banks of streams, and the grasslands stretched as far as the eye could see. The grass attracted great herds of buffalo, herds so massive that the ground would seem to shake, and it would sound like thunder when they would stampede. Still later, American Indians would brave the severe climate to base their whole survival on following and hunting these animals.148 Just as in the Ohio Valley, the French were the first Europeans to visit and lay claim to this land. In the 1730s, Pierre Gaultier de Varnnes, sieur de la Verendrye, discovered a canoe route from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, and opened Manitoba to the fur trade. In 1738 he led an expedition into North Dakota, but there were never any permanent French settlements. In 1762, the French ceded their North American holdings west of the Mississippi River to Spain, and the following year with the conclusion of the French and Indian War, the lands east of the Mississippi and all of Canada were turned over to the British. In what is now North Dakota the areas drained by the Mouse and Red Rivers were British. The rest of the state, drained by the Missouri River was Spanish. The British from Fort Garry (Winnipeg) in Manitoba established trading posts along the Missouri River at the mouth of the Knife River, even though this was technically Spanish, French or, after 1803, American land. In 1812 a group of settlers from Manitoba, established the first permanent white settlement at Pembina.149 By 1800, French power had again greatly increased under the leadership of Napoleon, and they had persuaded the Spanish to cede back this land, to France. Alarmed that the French may hinder American shipping through the port of New Orleans, President Thomas Jefferson began to bargain with the French government, and in 1803, the French, increasingly short of money because of their struggle with Great Britain, agreed to sell the entire property, called Louisiana, to the United States. 150 The boundary, between the British and the Americans, was finally fixed by the Treaty of Paris which followed a few years after the War of 1812. It was signed in 1818 and established the 49th parallel as the border between British and American territory from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains.151 Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed through the state on their way up the Missouri River. They found the British trading post, but otherwise no other European influences. It is in North Dakota that the Shoshone woman, Sakajawea, joins the expedition as a guide. After Lewis and Clark returned home, the area they had explored became of much more interest to Americans. Although it would still be a long time before many permanent settlers would come, fur traders and trappers were soon scouring the territory for animal pelts, which they would bring back to St. Louis and sell for enormous profits. The buffalo would eventually attract white hunters, and as the 19th century wore on this resource would steadily decline. The Indians would feel pressure from European settlers coming into Minnesota at the same time as their buffalo were being depleted on the plains. This would lead to the great Minnesota massacres in the Minnesota River Valley in 1862.152 Three hundred and fifty settlers were killed by the Sioux. Subsequent military campaigns then drove the Indians west of the Missouri River in the Dakota Territory. The Dakota Territory was established in 1861, and in 1863 the Territory was opened for homesteading. The first segment of the Northern Pacific Railroad was built in 1872. It crossed the Red River at Fargo and extended west. In 1875 the first bonanza farms were established in the Red River Valley. Bonanza farms were very large operations, generally financed by outside investors and were over 3000 acres in size. There were well known bonanza farms at McCanna, and at Larimore, both within 25 miles of where the Wises and Elvicks would settle in Nelson County. These farms flourished in the early years before much of the land was taken up by smaller settlers. The North Dakota land boom began in 1879. The St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway entered the Territory that year. This would be built westward from Grand Forks across the state during the 1880s. This railroad was being built across Nelson County about the time the Wise family moved there from Ohio. Family tradition held that the Wise sons went to North Dakota to work on the railroad. The St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway (after 1889 known as the Great Northern Railway) came across Nelson County in 1882 when the line was built from Larimore to one mile west of Bartlett. The Michigan City depot was constructed in 1883 and the first passenger train arrived that year. Nelson County was also formed in 1883, and the name was given by a judge, Judson LaMorre, who named the county after his father-in-law N. E. Nelson. (I can remember as a small child thinking it was named after my father, Nelson Elvick.) The first of the Lamb brothers, who founded the town, was there in 1882. The town of Michigan City was platted in April, 1883, and lots were sold beginning on that date. (Officially the town is still Michigan City, but City was dropped informally from the name when a carload of iron ore destined for Michigan City, Indiana, arrived by mistake early in 1883.) Settlers began arriving and the land around Michigan was farmed for the first time that year. The Wise brothers were here by 1884 when they applied for homesteads about one-half mile south of the Michigan town site. Nels Elvick was here by 1885 when he appeared on the 1885 Dakota Territory mid-decade census. The Wise family was here looking for work and a new start. Charles, George, Ebenezer, Henry, Rosa and Malinda, herself, all took advantage of the Homestead Act and filed claims for 160 acres of land each. There is family lore that Rosa was also earning a living by making and selling hats, a trade she would have learned in Ohio. Her aunt, Mary Alexander and two of Mary’s daughters, had been milliners back in Gallipolis. The land claimed by Rosa happened to be adjoining a quarter section being claimed by Nels Elvick. When it came time for Rosa to register her homestead claim in the county seat at Lakota, she was accompanied by Nels, who had to testify that the required improvements were taking place on her land. Family lore attributes this circumstance as the beginning of their courtship and marriage. The marriage took place in Grand Forks in 1888. Within the next several years each of the Wises, except Rosa, had sold off their land and moved on.153 William did not homestead and the only evidence he was ever here is his presence on that 1885 census. Charles name does not appear on the 1885 census, but is on a homestead application here a year earlier, so it was probably he who was back in Ohio taking care of the family’s legal problems when the census was being taken. He eventually moved on, first to Minneapolis, and later to Seattle. George, Ebenezer and Henry all stayed in North Dakota but each moved away from this immediate area. Only John Anthony and Martha were still living back in Ohio. Lincoln was living in Nebraska City, Nebraska. He had not come to North Dakota. Nels Elvick had left Norway in 1879 at the age of 19. On the 1880 census he was working as a farmhand on a farm in Worth County, Iowa. This is a very rural county that borders the Minnesota State line roughly between Austin, Minnesota, and Mason City, Iowa. He was later fond of telling the story about how he plowed land, walking behind a team of horses, and that he couldn’t figure out how they could actually pay him for just doing that. Locating him on the 1880 census was a formidable task. When a fully indexed 1880 census was published in the year 2000, I was sure it would be easy to find him, but whichever way the name Elvick was spelled I couldn’t find any entry. Finally I went through the entire Worth County census line by line, looking either for Elvick or Otterstad, but still no luck. Months later the thought struck me that he might have succumbed to the Norwegian tradition of changing the last name whenever you moved. (Or whenever you felt like it.) His father’s given name was Hans, so why not Nels Hanson? Sure enough, there he was on the census record as a farmhand named Nels Hanson. After about four years he had saved enough money to start out on his own and he moved on to Nelson County, North Dakota. Probably the reason he came to this particular area was because of the available land. He appears to be the first of the Norwegians from the Vaksdal and Modalen areas in Norway to settle here. Later there were others who would follow. The Kallestad family lived only about one to two miles, as the crow flies, from the Elvik farm in Norway. These families were lifelong friends, and also distantly related. Both families settled around Michigan, North Dakota. The Masters family also came from the same county in Norway as the Kallestads and Elvicks. In the 1930s there was a marriage between the Kallestads and Masters (Minnie Masters and John Kallestad). There were also other Elvik families from the Elvik farm in Norway who came to the USA. It might have been one of these families who provided Nels Elvick with his first farm work in Iowa. Another one of these families, the Knut Elvik family, settled first in South Dakota and then came to Williams Township in Nelson County and later in life moved to the neighboring town of Lakota. Mrs. Nels (Inga) Orvik was a sister of Knut. When Nels Elvick returned to Norway for a visit in 1901, Inga returned with him and for a while worked on the Elvick farm, and then worked for other farm families in the area before marrying Nels Orvik. Nels Orvik’s brother, Kohn, later married Nelson Elvick’s sister, Lillie. The Knut Elvik, Kallestad, and Masters families do not appear in the 1885 census records for Nelson County. On the 1900 and 1910 censuses residents were asked when they emigrated from a foreign country, and this fixes their year of immigration as 1883. The 1900 census also lists the oldest Knut Elvik child as being born in South Dakota. Kallestad family lore also has the family coming first to South Dakota. They would have settled in Nelson County sometime after 1885. It would appear, then, that Nels Elvick was here first and the rest followed. The first land settled by George, Charles and Malinda was just south of the townsite of Michigan. The Nels Elvick farm was about 5 miles further south and was first homesteaded by Ebenezer and Henry Wise. Eventually the land they homesteaded was sold to Nels Elvick, and they moved on to other townships, Ebenezer to Williams Township and Henry to Wamduska Township. The rest of the original farm was acquired by homestead applications, separately from Rosa and Nels, from purchase from Telisphore Tavoran, presumably a neighbor, and by purchase from the US government under the Public Land Sale Act of 1820 (pre-emption). So entering the 20th century, the Nels Elvick farm contained six quarter sections, these being all of section 31 and the East ½ of section 32 of South Michigan Township (152-58), and totaling about 960 acres. Nels Elvick154 had left Norway in 1879 at the age of 19 and came first to Worth County, Iowa and then about 4-5 years later moved on to North Dakota and probably arrived there about 1884-1885 and so arrived there about the same time as the Wise family. He was unaccompanied by any other family members. There were ten children in the Henry and Malinda Wise family. Caroline died in 1866. John Anthony and Martha both stayed behind in Ohio. Lincoln moved on to Nebraska City, Nebraska and the rest of them, Charles, William, Ebenezer, George, Rosa and Henry moved to North Dakota in 1884 with Malinda. William was present in Nelson County for the 1885 census, but that is the only record there for him, and it is suspected that he moved on to Colorado. So at the beginning of the 20th century, it was just Nels and Rosa with their growing family, and Rosa’s brother, George who still lived in the immediate area.	<urn:uuid:f8adf17a-141a-4c4f-8490-f457e9c653d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://neilelvick.us/Book/chap_15.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00288.warc.gz	en	0.981384	3,133	3.8125	4	[ 0.0009111911058425903, -0.30577683448791504, 0.2361574023962021, -0.15920360386371613, 0.4855652451515198, -0.12435828149318695, -0.16419744491577148, 0.25755560398101807, -0.3937720060348511, -0.012674580328166485, 0.14391309022903442, -0.35088515281677246, 0.2797086834907532, 0.002862742...	3	XV: North Dakota For most of the last 2.5 million years, North Dakota has been covered by a sheet of ice over 5000 feet thick. In more recent times as the ice began to melt, a massive lake covered the eastern part of the state. At its largest extent, Lake Agassiz had a surface area of 110,000 square miles, far larger than all of the current great lakes combined, and it spread out over eastern North Dakota, northwest Minnesota, and parts of Ontario and Manitoba. Until about 8,000 years ago, its outlet to the north was blocked by the massive Laurentide Ice Sheet, so it emptied to the south, carving out the Minnesota and Mississippi River Valleys. As the ice sheet melted, the lake became separated from Hudson Bay by a thinner and thinner bridge of ice and about 8,000 years ago this bridge of ice burst and a torrent of fresh water was released into the north Atlantic. In a very short period of time this affected the level of the oceans worldwide. There have been theories postulated that it was responsible for the filling in of the English Channel, making Britain an island and it was also then that the Mediterrean Sea overflowed into the basin that became the Black Sea. The Red River system ultimately developed which would drain this entire region north to Hudson Bay. Remnants of the great lake remain today as Lake Winnipeg, Lake Winnipegosis, Lake Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.146 The lakebed, when it dried out, became the flat, fertile Red River Valley of the North. Its western shore became the Pembina Ridge, and from there, westward, the land slopes gradually up to the drift plains, low, undulating hills, shaped like drifts of snow.147 The climate gradually warmed enough for a sea of prairie grass to grow. The semiarid climate limited trees to the banks of streams, and the grasslands stretched as far as the eye could see. The grass attracted great herds of buffalo, herds so massive that the ground would seem to shake, and it would sound like thunder when they would stampede. Still later, American Indians would brave the severe climate to base their whole survival on following and hunting these animals.148 Just as in the Ohio Valley, the French were the first Europeans to visit and lay claim to this land. In the 1730s, Pierre Gaultier de Varnnes, sieur de la Verendrye, discovered a canoe route from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, and opened Manitoba to the fur trade. In 1738 he led an expedition into North Dakota, but there were never any permanent French settlements. In 1762, the French ceded their North American holdings west of the Mississippi River to Spain, and the following year with the conclusion of the French and Indian War, the lands east of the Mississippi and all of Canada were turned over to the British. In what is now North Dakota the areas drained by the Mouse and Red Rivers were British. The rest of the state, drained by the Missouri River was Spanish. The British from Fort Garry (Winnipeg) in Manitoba established trading posts along the Missouri River at the mouth of the Knife River, even though this was technically Spanish, French or, after 1803, American land. In 1812 a group of settlers from Manitoba, established the first permanent white settlement at Pembina.149 By 1800, French power had again greatly increased under the leadership of Napoleon, and they had persuaded the Spanish to cede back this land, to France. Alarmed that the French may hinder American shipping through the port of New Orleans, President Thomas Jefferson began to bargain with the French government, and in 1803, the French, increasingly short of money because of their struggle with Great Britain, agreed to sell the entire property, called Louisiana, to the United States. 150 The boundary, between the British and the Americans, was finally fixed by the Treaty of Paris which followed a few years after the War of 1812. It was signed in 1818 and established the 49th parallel as the border between British and American territory from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains.151 Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed through the state on their way up the Missouri River. They found the British trading post, but otherwise no other European influences. It is in North Dakota that the Shoshone woman, Sakajawea, joins the expedition as a guide. After Lewis and Clark returned home, the area they had explored became of much more interest to Americans. Although it would still be a long time before many permanent settlers would come, fur traders and trappers were soon scouring the territory for animal pelts, which they would bring back to St. Louis and sell for enormous profits. The buffalo would eventually attract white hunters, and as the 19th century wore on this resource would steadily decline. The Indians would feel pressure from European settlers coming into Minnesota at the same time as their buffalo were being depleted on the plains. This would lead to the great Minnesota massacres in the Minnesota River Valley in 1862.152 Three hundred and fifty settlers were killed by the Sioux. Subsequent military campaigns then drove the Indians west of the Missouri River in the Dakota Territory. The Dakota Territory was established in 1861, and in 1863 the Territory was opened for homesteading. The first segment of the Northern Pacific Railroad was built in 1872. It crossed the Red River at Fargo and extended west. In 1875 the first bonanza farms were established in the Red River Valley. Bonanza farms were very large operations, generally financed by outside investors and were over 3000 acres in size. There were well known bonanza farms at McCanna, and at Larimore, both within 25 miles of where the Wises and Elvicks would settle in Nelson County. These farms flourished in the early years before much of the land was taken up by smaller settlers. The North Dakota land boom began in 1879. The St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway entered the Territory that year. This would be built westward from Grand Forks across the state during the 1880s. This railroad was being built across Nelson County about the time the Wise family moved there from Ohio. Family tradition held that the Wise sons went to North Dakota to work on the railroad. The St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway (after 1889 known as the Great Northern Railway) came across Nelson County in 1882 when the line was built from Larimore to one mile west of Bartlett. The Michigan City depot was constructed in 1883 and the first passenger train arrived that year. Nelson County was also formed in 1883, and the name was given by a judge, Judson LaMorre, who named the county after his father-in-law N. E. Nelson. (I can remember as a small child thinking it was named after my father, Nelson Elvick.) The first of the Lamb brothers, who founded the town, was there in 1882. The town of Michigan City was platted in April, 1883, and lots were sold beginning on that date. (Officially the town is still Michigan City, but City was dropped informally from the name when a carload of iron ore destined for Michigan City, Indiana, arrived by mistake early in 1883.) Settlers began arriving and the land around Michigan was farmed for the first time that year. The Wise brothers were here by 1884 when they applied for homesteads about one-half mile south of the Michigan town site. Nels Elvick was here by 1885 when he appeared on the 1885 Dakota Territory mid-decade census. The Wise family was here looking for work and a new start. Charles, George, Ebenezer, Henry, Rosa and Malinda, herself, all took advantage of the Homestead Act and filed claims for 160 acres of land each. There is family lore that Rosa was also earning a living by making and selling hats, a trade she would have learned in Ohio. Her aunt, Mary Alexander and two of Mary’s daughters, had been milliners back in Gallipolis. The land claimed by Rosa happened to be adjoining a quarter section being claimed by Nels Elvick. When it came time for Rosa to register her homestead claim in the county seat at Lakota, she was accompanied by Nels, who had to testify that the required improvements were taking place on her land. Family lore attributes this circumstance as the beginning of their courtship and marriage. The marriage took place in Grand Forks in 1888. Within the next several years each of the Wises, except Rosa, had sold off their land and moved on.153 William did not homestead and the only evidence he was ever here is his presence on that 1885 census. Charles name does not appear on the 1885 census, but is on a homestead application here a year earlier, so it was probably he who was back in Ohio taking care of the family’s legal problems when the census was being taken. He eventually moved on, first to Minneapolis, and later to Seattle. George, Ebenezer and Henry all stayed in North Dakota but each moved away from this immediate area. Only John Anthony and Martha were still living back in Ohio. Lincoln was living in Nebraska City, Nebraska. He had not come to North Dakota. Nels Elvick had left Norway in 1879 at the age of 19. On the 1880 census he was working as a farmhand on a farm in Worth County, Iowa. This is a very rural county that borders the Minnesota State line roughly between Austin, Minnesota, and Mason City, Iowa. He was later fond of telling the story about how he plowed land, walking behind a team of horses, and that he couldn’t figure out how they could actually pay him for just doing that. Locating him on the 1880 census was a formidable task. When a fully indexed 1880 census was published in the year 2000, I was sure it would be easy to find him, but whichever way the name Elvick was spelled I couldn’t find any entry. Finally I went through the entire Worth County census line by line, looking either for Elvick or Otterstad, but still no luck. Months later the thought struck me that he might have succumbed to the Norwegian tradition of changing the last name whenever you moved. (Or whenever you felt like it.) His father’s given name was Hans, so why not Nels Hanson? Sure enough, there he was on the census record as a farmhand named Nels Hanson. After about four years he had saved enough money to start out on his own and he moved on to Nelson County, North Dakota. Probably the reason he came to this particular area was because of the available land. He appears to be the first of the Norwegians from the Vaksdal and Modalen areas in Norway to settle here. Later there were others who would follow. The Kallestad family lived only about one to two miles, as the crow flies, from the Elvik farm in Norway. These families were lifelong friends, and also distantly related. Both families settled around Michigan, North Dakota. The Masters family also came from the same county in Norway as the Kallestads and Elvicks. In the 1930s there was a marriage between the Kallestads and Masters (Minnie Masters and John Kallestad). There were also other Elvik families from the Elvik farm in Norway who came to the USA. It might have been one of these families who provided Nels Elvick with his first farm work in Iowa. Another one of these families, the Knut Elvik family, settled first in South Dakota and then came to Williams Township in Nelson County and later in life moved to the neighboring town of Lakota. Mrs. Nels (Inga) Orvik was a sister of Knut. When Nels Elvick returned to Norway for a visit in 1901, Inga returned with him and for a while worked on the Elvick farm, and then worked for other farm families in the area before marrying Nels Orvik. Nels Orvik’s brother, Kohn, later married Nelson Elvick’s sister, Lillie. The Knut Elvik, Kallestad, and Masters families do not appear in the 1885 census records for Nelson County. On the 1900 and 1910 censuses residents were asked when they emigrated from a foreign country, and this fixes their year of immigration as 1883. The 1900 census also lists the oldest Knut Elvik child as being born in South Dakota. Kallestad family lore also has the family coming first to South Dakota. They would have settled in Nelson County sometime after 1885. It would appear, then, that Nels Elvick was here first and the rest followed. The first land settled by George, Charles and Malinda was just south of the townsite of Michigan. The Nels Elvick farm was about 5 miles further south and was first homesteaded by Ebenezer and Henry Wise. Eventually the land they homesteaded was sold to Nels Elvick, and they moved on to other townships, Ebenezer to Williams Township and Henry to Wamduska Township. The rest of the original farm was acquired by homestead applications, separately from Rosa and Nels, from purchase from Telisphore Tavoran, presumably a neighbor, and by purchase from the US government under the Public Land Sale Act of 1820 (pre-emption). So entering the 20th century, the Nels Elvick farm contained six quarter sections, these being all of section 31 and the East ½ of section 32 of South Michigan Township (152-58), and totaling about 960 acres. Nels Elvick154 had left Norway in 1879 at the age of 19 and came first to Worth County, Iowa and then about 4-5 years later moved on to North Dakota and probably arrived there about 1884-1885 and so arrived there about the same time as the Wise family. He was unaccompanied by any other family members. There were ten children in the Henry and Malinda Wise family. Caroline died in 1866. John Anthony and Martha both stayed behind in Ohio. Lincoln moved on to Nebraska City, Nebraska and the rest of them, Charles, William, Ebenezer, George, Rosa and Henry moved to North Dakota in 1884 with Malinda. William was present in Nelson County for the 1885 census, but that is the only record there for him, and it is suspected that he moved on to Colorado. So at the beginning of the 20th century, it was just Nels and Rosa with their growing family, and Rosa’s brother, George who still lived in the immediate area.	3,309	ENGLISH	1
Officially known as the George W. Smith Memorial Church of the Advocate, the stunning North Philadelphia Episcopal sanctuary was built between 1890 and 1897 and funded by the estate of George W. Smith. From the time of its construction, the church has been dedicated to inclusion and fairness. The church played an active role in the civil rights movement and hosted both Black Power and Black Panther conventions. The church is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. Following the death of successful merchant and Philadelphia County treasurer George W. Smith, his wife commissioned a church in his memory in the single largest act of religious philanthropy in the city's history. The church, designed by Charles M. Burns, was built in the French Gothic style, complete with flying buttresses and large stained glass windows. It took seven years to build—from 1890 to 1897. From its inception, the Episcopal church was committed to serving its parish and to making no distinction between rich and poor. Accordingly, the Church of the Advocate ended the old practice of renting pews, which it believed made the church accessible to all. When the church was built, its North Philadelphia neighborhood was largely made up of working-class, white people. Over the years, however, the demographics of the area changed and the Church of the Advocate adapted. As the area became predominantly African American, the church made noteworthy efforts to be more representative of its neighborhood, particularly under the leadership of Father Paul M. Washington. In the 1970s, Washington commissioned a series of fourteen murals in the nave depicting African American history. Underneath each mural is a passage from scripture that likens the struggle of African Americans to that of the ancient Hebrews. The murals remain one of the church's most striking features. In the 1960s and 1970s, the church also took a an active role in the civil rights movement. It welcomed civil rights groups that were not welcome in other venues and hosted the Third Annual Conference on Black Power in 1968. Two years later, the church hosted the Black Panther Convention. The Church of the Advocate was also ahead of its time regarding the ordination of women as priests in the Episcopal Church. Eleven women (known as the Philadelphia Eleven) were ordained in the church in 1974, two years before the national church voted to approve women as Episcopal priests. The church is considered the first site in the country to ordain women as priests. Continuing in the Episcopal Church's tradition of social justice as well as the activist model established by Father Washington, the Church of the Advocate continues to actively serve its community. The church provides free lunches every weekday at the Advocate Cafe. The Advocate Center for Culture and Education offers numerous classes and workshops. The Church of the Advocate is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as well as the Pennsylvania Inventory of Historic Places and King's Handbook of Episcopalian Churches.	<urn:uuid:9b638fbc-82e8-4321-9f97-e71a3cd9b187>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/74873	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00071.warc.gz	en	0.980763	611	3.640625	4	[ 0.005124224349856377, 0.6976378560066223, 0.0528215616941452, 0.19499394297599792, -0.5921444296836853, 0.2930231988430023, -0.10402340441942215, 0.09879001975059509, -0.08968929946422577, -0.16955922544002533, -0.08621647953987122, 0.5001299977302551, 0.062289875000715256, -0.055569566786...	2	Officially known as the George W. Smith Memorial Church of the Advocate, the stunning North Philadelphia Episcopal sanctuary was built between 1890 and 1897 and funded by the estate of George W. Smith. From the time of its construction, the church has been dedicated to inclusion and fairness. The church played an active role in the civil rights movement and hosted both Black Power and Black Panther conventions. The church is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. Following the death of successful merchant and Philadelphia County treasurer George W. Smith, his wife commissioned a church in his memory in the single largest act of religious philanthropy in the city's history. The church, designed by Charles M. Burns, was built in the French Gothic style, complete with flying buttresses and large stained glass windows. It took seven years to build—from 1890 to 1897. From its inception, the Episcopal church was committed to serving its parish and to making no distinction between rich and poor. Accordingly, the Church of the Advocate ended the old practice of renting pews, which it believed made the church accessible to all. When the church was built, its North Philadelphia neighborhood was largely made up of working-class, white people. Over the years, however, the demographics of the area changed and the Church of the Advocate adapted. As the area became predominantly African American, the church made noteworthy efforts to be more representative of its neighborhood, particularly under the leadership of Father Paul M. Washington. In the 1970s, Washington commissioned a series of fourteen murals in the nave depicting African American history. Underneath each mural is a passage from scripture that likens the struggle of African Americans to that of the ancient Hebrews. The murals remain one of the church's most striking features. In the 1960s and 1970s, the church also took a an active role in the civil rights movement. It welcomed civil rights groups that were not welcome in other venues and hosted the Third Annual Conference on Black Power in 1968. Two years later, the church hosted the Black Panther Convention. The Church of the Advocate was also ahead of its time regarding the ordination of women as priests in the Episcopal Church. Eleven women (known as the Philadelphia Eleven) were ordained in the church in 1974, two years before the national church voted to approve women as Episcopal priests. The church is considered the first site in the country to ordain women as priests. Continuing in the Episcopal Church's tradition of social justice as well as the activist model established by Father Washington, the Church of the Advocate continues to actively serve its community. The church provides free lunches every weekday at the Advocate Cafe. The Advocate Center for Culture and Education offers numerous classes and workshops. The Church of the Advocate is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as well as the Pennsylvania Inventory of Historic Places and King's Handbook of Episcopalian Churches.	634	ENGLISH	1
Golden Age of Greek Mythology Comments Off on Golden Age of Greek Mythology Greek mythology has some of the most recognizable stories in literature. These stories cover a variety of themes, such as lust, greed, anger, love and jealousy. Ancient Greek mythology sets forth five ages of man, each recording a decline in the human condition. The five ages are: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron. The Golden Age of Greek mythology was the first and therefore the most peaceful and beautiful for mankind. Here’s more information: Start of The Golden Age The Golden Age was man’s first period on Earth. In this period, men were created by Cronus, the youngest of the twelve original Titans. These Titans were the children of the Earth, known as Gaia and the sky, known as Uranus. They were the parents of the Greek gods we are familiar with today, such as Zeus and Hera. In Greek legend, Cronus rose to power after deposing his father and ruled over the Golden Age of man. Life During the Golden Age Greek mythology describes the Golden Age of man as a time of limitless peace, prosperity and harmony among all things — gods, man, and nature. Mankind lived among the gods, and the world is described as being in a state of eternal spring in which men lived in ease and comfort. During this first age food was abundant, and men could gather it with ease, never laboring to feed themselves. They lived well into old age and maintained their youthful appearances throughout the duration of their lives. When death finally came, it was peaceful, and men’s spirits remained present on Earth, continuing on as guardians of the living. End of the Golden Age The Golden Age ended with the fall of Cronus. Though this first age was a time of peace, Cronus lived with a hidden fear. His mother, Gaia, had prophesied that he would be deposed by one of his own sons, just as he, Cronus, had deposed his father, Uranus. During his reign, Cronus married his sister, Rhea, the pair lived as husband and wife, producing six children: Zeus, Poseidon, Demeter, Hera, Hestia and Hades. Cronus, mindful of his mother’s prophecy, was determined not to be overthrown by any of his offspring and devoured each newborn child upon its birth. His wife and sister, Rhea, saved just one child from this awful fate. After giving birth to Zeus, she hid him away and instead presented a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes to Cronus which he promptly swallowed. Years later, fully grown, Zeus emerged from hiding and confronted his father, forcing the Titan to regurgitate the siblings he’d consumed. Zeus then led his brothers and sisters in a ten-year conflict against the Titans eventually emerging victorious. With the Titans defeated, Zeus assumed the throne on Mount Olympus and presided over mankind, ushering in the Silver Age. The Golden Age of Greek Mythology was a time of peace and harmony among all living things which occurred despite its heavily flawed ruler, Cronus, youngest of the Titans. During this time, men enjoyed lives such as humans have not known since, with good health, abundant food and a beautiful garden-like world, and this was reflected in the myths and legends of the time. Categorized in: Greek Mythology This post was written by GreekBoston.com	<urn:uuid:f6fd88d1-25c8-4998-aedf-de157d6c3963>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greekboston.com/culture/mythology/golden-age/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00194.warc.gz	en	0.982033	713	3.34375	3	[ 0.05305446684360504, 0.42018571496009827, 0.42382311820983887, -0.1323947012424469, -0.562698245048523, -0.1930491030216217, -0.21776507794857025, 0.6417680978775024, -0.047466032207012177, 0.2565461993217468, -0.41859668493270874, -0.11063352227210999, -0.030180633068084717, 0.51057821512...	8	Golden Age of Greek Mythology Comments Off on Golden Age of Greek Mythology Greek mythology has some of the most recognizable stories in literature. These stories cover a variety of themes, such as lust, greed, anger, love and jealousy. Ancient Greek mythology sets forth five ages of man, each recording a decline in the human condition. The five ages are: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron. The Golden Age of Greek mythology was the first and therefore the most peaceful and beautiful for mankind. Here’s more information: Start of The Golden Age The Golden Age was man’s first period on Earth. In this period, men were created by Cronus, the youngest of the twelve original Titans. These Titans were the children of the Earth, known as Gaia and the sky, known as Uranus. They were the parents of the Greek gods we are familiar with today, such as Zeus and Hera. In Greek legend, Cronus rose to power after deposing his father and ruled over the Golden Age of man. Life During the Golden Age Greek mythology describes the Golden Age of man as a time of limitless peace, prosperity and harmony among all things — gods, man, and nature. Mankind lived among the gods, and the world is described as being in a state of eternal spring in which men lived in ease and comfort. During this first age food was abundant, and men could gather it with ease, never laboring to feed themselves. They lived well into old age and maintained their youthful appearances throughout the duration of their lives. When death finally came, it was peaceful, and men’s spirits remained present on Earth, continuing on as guardians of the living. End of the Golden Age The Golden Age ended with the fall of Cronus. Though this first age was a time of peace, Cronus lived with a hidden fear. His mother, Gaia, had prophesied that he would be deposed by one of his own sons, just as he, Cronus, had deposed his father, Uranus. During his reign, Cronus married his sister, Rhea, the pair lived as husband and wife, producing six children: Zeus, Poseidon, Demeter, Hera, Hestia and Hades. Cronus, mindful of his mother’s prophecy, was determined not to be overthrown by any of his offspring and devoured each newborn child upon its birth. His wife and sister, Rhea, saved just one child from this awful fate. After giving birth to Zeus, she hid him away and instead presented a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes to Cronus which he promptly swallowed. Years later, fully grown, Zeus emerged from hiding and confronted his father, forcing the Titan to regurgitate the siblings he’d consumed. Zeus then led his brothers and sisters in a ten-year conflict against the Titans eventually emerging victorious. With the Titans defeated, Zeus assumed the throne on Mount Olympus and presided over mankind, ushering in the Silver Age. The Golden Age of Greek Mythology was a time of peace and harmony among all living things which occurred despite its heavily flawed ruler, Cronus, youngest of the Titans. During this time, men enjoyed lives such as humans have not known since, with good health, abundant food and a beautiful garden-like world, and this was reflected in the myths and legends of the time. Categorized in: Greek Mythology This post was written by GreekBoston.com	698	ENGLISH	1
On December 23, 1888, Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, suffering from severe depression, cuts off the lower part of his left ear with a razor while staying in Arles, France. He later documented the event in a painting titled Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear. Today, Van Gogh is regarded as an artistic genius and his masterpieces sell for record-breaking prices; however, during his lifetime, he was a poster boy for tortured starving artists and sold only one painting. Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on March 30, 1853, in the Netherlands. He had a difficult, nervous personality and worked unsuccessfully at an art gallery and then as a preacher among poor miners in Belgium. In 1880, he decided to become an artist. His work from this period–the most famous of which is The Potato Eaters (1885)–is dark and somber and reflective of the experiences he had among peasants and impoverished miners. In 1886, Van Gogh moved to Paris where his younger brother Theo, with whom he was close, lived. Theo, an art dealer, supported his brother financially and introduced him to a number of artists, including Paul Gauguin, Camille Pisarro and Georges Seurat. Influenced by these and other painters, Van Gogh’s own artistic style lightened up and he began using more color. In 1888, Van Gogh rented a house in Arles in the south of France, where he hoped to found an artists’ colony and be less of a burden to his brother. In Arles, Van Gogh painted vivid scenes from the countryside as well as still-lifes, including his famous sunflower series. Gauguin came to stay with him in Arles and the two men worked together for almost two months. However, tensions developed and on December 23, in a fit of dementia, Van Gogh threatened his friend with a knife before turning it on himself and mutilating his ear lobe. Afterward, he allegedly wrapped up the ear and gave it to a prostitute at a nearby brothel. Following that incident, Van Gogh was hospitalized in Arles and then checked himself into a mental institution in Saint-Remy for a year. During his stay in Saint-Remy, he fluctuated between periods of madness and intense creativity, in which he produced some of his best and most well-known works, including Starry Night and Irises. In May 1890, Van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise, near Paris, where he continued to be plagued by despair and loneliness. On July 27, 1890, he shot himself and died two days later at age 37.	<urn:uuid:1bd08988-f948-45fa-bd13-1091fd97e981>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/van-gogh-chops-off-ear	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00529.warc.gz	en	0.988831	551	3.59375	4	[ 0.14875252544879913, 0.248140349984169, -0.1120212972164154, -0.07593522220849991, 0.20348674058914185, -0.07772038131952286, 0.09260648488998413, -0.007067745551466942, 0.01429631095379591, 0.12063201516866684, 0.33458206057548523, -0.150565966963768, 0.04034362733364105, 0.31609433889389...	5	On December 23, 1888, Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, suffering from severe depression, cuts off the lower part of his left ear with a razor while staying in Arles, France. He later documented the event in a painting titled Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear. Today, Van Gogh is regarded as an artistic genius and his masterpieces sell for record-breaking prices; however, during his lifetime, he was a poster boy for tortured starving artists and sold only one painting. Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on March 30, 1853, in the Netherlands. He had a difficult, nervous personality and worked unsuccessfully at an art gallery and then as a preacher among poor miners in Belgium. In 1880, he decided to become an artist. His work from this period–the most famous of which is The Potato Eaters (1885)–is dark and somber and reflective of the experiences he had among peasants and impoverished miners. In 1886, Van Gogh moved to Paris where his younger brother Theo, with whom he was close, lived. Theo, an art dealer, supported his brother financially and introduced him to a number of artists, including Paul Gauguin, Camille Pisarro and Georges Seurat. Influenced by these and other painters, Van Gogh’s own artistic style lightened up and he began using more color. In 1888, Van Gogh rented a house in Arles in the south of France, where he hoped to found an artists’ colony and be less of a burden to his brother. In Arles, Van Gogh painted vivid scenes from the countryside as well as still-lifes, including his famous sunflower series. Gauguin came to stay with him in Arles and the two men worked together for almost two months. However, tensions developed and on December 23, in a fit of dementia, Van Gogh threatened his friend with a knife before turning it on himself and mutilating his ear lobe. Afterward, he allegedly wrapped up the ear and gave it to a prostitute at a nearby brothel. Following that incident, Van Gogh was hospitalized in Arles and then checked himself into a mental institution in Saint-Remy for a year. During his stay in Saint-Remy, he fluctuated between periods of madness and intense creativity, in which he produced some of his best and most well-known works, including Starry Night and Irises. In May 1890, Van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise, near Paris, where he continued to be plagued by despair and loneliness. On July 27, 1890, he shot himself and died two days later at age 37.	572	ENGLISH	1
Recent developments, studies, and research have shown us a lot in terms of autism and children who have it. Many things have been looked into, tried, and then considered for these children. It’s no question that exercise can provide children of all ages, backgrounds, and standings with great building blocks for growth. This is just how exercise works. Research has shown that it can provide additional skills and help children who have other development or social delays. Children with autism have been put through many different therapies. From social to occupational to behavioral therapies that are all supposed to help the child, but none of these include any sort of exercise, which has been shown to play a crucial role in the child’s development and the way they speak and react to the outside world, as well as with themselves. Since these kids have poor motor skills normally, that doesn’t mean that their exercise and therapies that include exercise should be neglected. By working and focusing on these areas, they have a better chance of being able to adapt and overcome. Exercise is much more than movement; it is also played. When a child plays, they are able to work on social skills with others, or even the teacher that is doing the exercise and social play that they can learn from. They will learn more social skills during this exercise and play when they don’t even know they are. The is the beauty of exercise with children. They are getting all of the benefits without even knowing that they are getting them. It can benefit them almost as much as having them eat their vegetables. The same goes for children who have autism. Exercise and play can be a crucial part of their development and well-being. It is necessary for their success.	<urn:uuid:e19a22e0-39c1-4869-bd69-0ae6252f2b95>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dralbertknapp.com/social-skills-see-an-increase-with-exercise-in-children-with-autism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00133.warc.gz	en	0.987731	356	3.421875	3	[ -0.12445440143346786, -0.2616940438747406, 0.33385685086250305, -0.07016084343194962, -0.3711087107658386, 0.7779309153556824, 0.11845160275697708, 0.15265971422195435, -0.18393272161483765, 0.026834433898329735, 0.4952283501625061, -0.15192750096321106, -0.023447096347808838, 0.3500211834...	14	Recent developments, studies, and research have shown us a lot in terms of autism and children who have it. Many things have been looked into, tried, and then considered for these children. It’s no question that exercise can provide children of all ages, backgrounds, and standings with great building blocks for growth. This is just how exercise works. Research has shown that it can provide additional skills and help children who have other development or social delays. Children with autism have been put through many different therapies. From social to occupational to behavioral therapies that are all supposed to help the child, but none of these include any sort of exercise, which has been shown to play a crucial role in the child’s development and the way they speak and react to the outside world, as well as with themselves. Since these kids have poor motor skills normally, that doesn’t mean that their exercise and therapies that include exercise should be neglected. By working and focusing on these areas, they have a better chance of being able to adapt and overcome. Exercise is much more than movement; it is also played. When a child plays, they are able to work on social skills with others, or even the teacher that is doing the exercise and social play that they can learn from. They will learn more social skills during this exercise and play when they don’t even know they are. The is the beauty of exercise with children. They are getting all of the benefits without even knowing that they are getting them. It can benefit them almost as much as having them eat their vegetables. The same goes for children who have autism. Exercise and play can be a crucial part of their development and well-being. It is necessary for their success.	340	ENGLISH	1
Development of Georgia as a Royal Colony SS8H2c. Explain the development of Georgia as a royal colony with regard to land ownership, slavery, government, and the impact of the royal governors. John Reynolds • Date: 11/1/1754 • First Royal Governor • Introduced the idea of self-government • Bicameral legislature • Lower house called Commons House of Assembly • Members had to own at least 500 acres of land • Upper house called Governor’s Council • Members were appointed by the king of England • Set up a court system • Colonists took cases before the Court of Conscience • If it could not be settled went to Governor’s Council • New government met for the first time in 1755 in Savannah • Reorganized the state militia • Passed bills to build roads • Drew up code that restricted the rights of slaves John Reynolds • Things went well for awhile, then during one legislative session, members of the Governor’s Council could not agree on how much was needed to improve the military defenses of the colony. • Reynolds became so angry that he sent the legislators home. • During the months that followed he tried to govern Georgia by himself. This made the colonists angry. • Many Georgians did not like having their right to self-government taken away and wrote to King George to complain. John Reynolds • The final straw was Reynolds’ recommendation to move Savannah to the Ogeechee River. • After two years, the group who wanted self-government won and John Reynolds was replace. Review • What city served as Georgia’s capital during its period as a royal colony? • Who was the first royal governor of Georgia? • When Georgia was a royal colony, how were members of the upper house of the legislature, the governor’s council, chosen? Review • What city served as Georgia’s capital during its period as a royal colony? • Savannah • Who was the first royal governor of Georgia? • John Reynolds • When Georgia was a royal colony, how were members of the upper house of the legislature, the governor’s council, chosen? • They were appointed by the king. Review 4. While John Reynolds was its royal governor, Georgia established… 5. Governor Reynolds disbanded the legislature because … Review 4. While John Reynolds was its royal governor, Georgia established… • Bicameral legislature • Court system 5. Governor Reynolds disbanded the legislature because … • There was a disagreement over how to improve military defenses. Governor Henry Ellis • Appointed February 1757 • Naturalist and scientist • Learned from Reynolds mistakes • Brought together people from many different political groups • Sought the advise of the Governor of South Carolina • Depended on well-known and wealthy citizens to lead • During his 3 years as governor • New colonists came from South Carolina and the West Indies • Many brought slaves and were granted large amounts of land • By 1759 the population had grown to 10,000 • 3,600 of which were slaves Governor Henry Ellis • Ellis was a popular governor and the colony made many economic gains under his direction. • More and profitable farms • More merchants with a greater variety of items to sell • Allowing colonists to buy things they couldn’t grow like: cloth, sugar, farming tools and seeds. • In 1759 Ellis became ill and asked to return to Great Britain. Review • Who was the second royal governor of Georgia? • What changes were brought about during his term as royal governor? Review • Who was the second royal governor of Georgia? • Henry Ellis 2. What changes were brought about during his term as royal governor? • More profitable farms • Increased population • Increased availability of goods Governor James Wright • Born in Charleston; educated in Great Britain • Arrived October 11, 1760 • Previously served as attorney general in South Carolina for 21 years • Loyal to the king, but wanted colonies to do well • Agreed with self-government • Believed that Georgia would continue to grow if- • Larger farms were even bigger • Trading expanded • Western lands of the colony were opened to settlers. Governor James Wright • During his early years as governor: • Completed the defenses around Savannah • Surrounded by palisades • Forts made stronger • The town of Sunbury grew and became the colony’s official port of entry for ships • Both houses of the legislature worked together to promote Georgia’s economic growth. • Farmers were allowed to borrow more money, so they bought more land. • The amount of land owned grew from 1 million acres to 7 million acres. • Rice and indigo became profitable crops. • Enough silk was produced that by 1767 a ton of it was exported. • More schools were built • More people were reading so more books were sold • 1763 the colony’s first newspaper, The Georgia Gazette, was started • Many of the small original houses were replaced by two-story houses built from wood or tabby. Governor James Wright • There was, however, another side to Georgia during these early years. • Many mothers died in childbirth • School was mostly for children in the upper economic class. • A group of what the plantation owners called “undesirable people” moved from Virginia and the Carolinas to settle in the middle and western parts of the colony. • These people became known as “crackers” • The term may have come from the cracking sounds of whips used on oxen or horses on the way to market to sell their goods • It may have come from the cracking of corn in the preparation of corn meal. • Some say it was a Scottish term for “boasters”. • No matter how it started, the term was meant as an insult for the lower classes. • Crackers were thought of as people who did not obey the law and were not welcome.	<urn:uuid:bcc75b50-ce24-47f7-a178-0615d5819003>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/jam/development-of-georgia-as-a-royal-colony	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00500.warc.gz	en	0.984625	1,203	3.765625	4	[ -0.5323941111564636, 0.22070634365081787, 0.7127012014389038, -0.1291472315788269, -0.3830292820930481, 0.11686214804649353, 0.4527280032634735, -0.11350996047258377, -0.380068838596344, 0.34325650334358215, -0.25948506593704224, 0.26793718338012695, 0.2590149939060211, 0.5059964060783386,...	1	Development of Georgia as a Royal Colony SS8H2c. Explain the development of Georgia as a royal colony with regard to land ownership, slavery, government, and the impact of the royal governors. John Reynolds • Date: 11/1/1754 • First Royal Governor • Introduced the idea of self-government • Bicameral legislature • Lower house called Commons House of Assembly • Members had to own at least 500 acres of land • Upper house called Governor’s Council • Members were appointed by the king of England • Set up a court system • Colonists took cases before the Court of Conscience • If it could not be settled went to Governor’s Council • New government met for the first time in 1755 in Savannah • Reorganized the state militia • Passed bills to build roads • Drew up code that restricted the rights of slaves John Reynolds • Things went well for awhile, then during one legislative session, members of the Governor’s Council could not agree on how much was needed to improve the military defenses of the colony. • Reynolds became so angry that he sent the legislators home. • During the months that followed he tried to govern Georgia by himself. This made the colonists angry. • Many Georgians did not like having their right to self-government taken away and wrote to King George to complain. John Reynolds • The final straw was Reynolds’ recommendation to move Savannah to the Ogeechee River. • After two years, the group who wanted self-government won and John Reynolds was replace. Review • What city served as Georgia’s capital during its period as a royal colony? • Who was the first royal governor of Georgia? • When Georgia was a royal colony, how were members of the upper house of the legislature, the governor’s council, chosen? Review • What city served as Georgia’s capital during its period as a royal colony? • Savannah • Who was the first royal governor of Georgia? • John Reynolds • When Georgia was a royal colony, how were members of the upper house of the legislature, the governor’s council, chosen? • They were appointed by the king. Review 4. While John Reynolds was its royal governor, Georgia established… 5. Governor Reynolds disbanded the legislature because … Review 4. While John Reynolds was its royal governor, Georgia established… • Bicameral legislature • Court system 5. Governor Reynolds disbanded the legislature because … • There was a disagreement over how to improve military defenses. Governor Henry Ellis • Appointed February 1757 • Naturalist and scientist • Learned from Reynolds mistakes • Brought together people from many different political groups • Sought the advise of the Governor of South Carolina • Depended on well-known and wealthy citizens to lead • During his 3 years as governor • New colonists came from South Carolina and the West Indies • Many brought slaves and were granted large amounts of land • By 1759 the population had grown to 10,000 • 3,600 of which were slaves Governor Henry Ellis • Ellis was a popular governor and the colony made many economic gains under his direction. • More and profitable farms • More merchants with a greater variety of items to sell • Allowing colonists to buy things they couldn’t grow like: cloth, sugar, farming tools and seeds. • In 1759 Ellis became ill and asked to return to Great Britain. Review • Who was the second royal governor of Georgia? • What changes were brought about during his term as royal governor? Review • Who was the second royal governor of Georgia? • Henry Ellis 2. What changes were brought about during his term as royal governor? • More profitable farms • Increased population • Increased availability of goods Governor James Wright • Born in Charleston; educated in Great Britain • Arrived October 11, 1760 • Previously served as attorney general in South Carolina for 21 years • Loyal to the king, but wanted colonies to do well • Agreed with self-government • Believed that Georgia would continue to grow if- • Larger farms were even bigger • Trading expanded • Western lands of the colony were opened to settlers. Governor James Wright • During his early years as governor: • Completed the defenses around Savannah • Surrounded by palisades • Forts made stronger • The town of Sunbury grew and became the colony’s official port of entry for ships • Both houses of the legislature worked together to promote Georgia’s economic growth. • Farmers were allowed to borrow more money, so they bought more land. • The amount of land owned grew from 1 million acres to 7 million acres. • Rice and indigo became profitable crops. • Enough silk was produced that by 1767 a ton of it was exported. • More schools were built • More people were reading so more books were sold • 1763 the colony’s first newspaper, The Georgia Gazette, was started • Many of the small original houses were replaced by two-story houses built from wood or tabby. Governor James Wright • There was, however, another side to Georgia during these early years. • Many mothers died in childbirth • School was mostly for children in the upper economic class. • A group of what the plantation owners called “undesirable people” moved from Virginia and the Carolinas to settle in the middle and western parts of the colony. • These people became known as “crackers” • The term may have come from the cracking sounds of whips used on oxen or horses on the way to market to sell their goods • It may have come from the cracking of corn in the preparation of corn meal. • Some say it was a Scottish term for “boasters”. • No matter how it started, the term was meant as an insult for the lower classes. • Crackers were thought of as people who did not obey the law and were not welcome.	1,209	ENGLISH	1
Mexican-American Hero: Medal of Honor Recipient, 1945 Mexican-born Silvestre S. Herrera (1916-2007) wasn’t even a U.S. citizen when he signed up to fight for the United States in World War II. As Herrera himself said after obtaining citizenship: “I am a Mexican-American and we have a tradition. We’re supposed to be men, not sissies.” Early Life for a Mexican-American Hero Silvestre Herrera and his wife, Ramona, settled in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1928. By the time World War II was underway, they had three children; husbands with families were initially exempt from the draft. In late 1943, the Army needed more men, and so the exemption for men with families was dropped. Herrera received a draft letter and was to start service in January of 1944. He and Ramona were now expecting their fourth child, so Herrera decided to go and visit his family to be reassured that they would look after Ramona and the children while he was gone. Silvestre got the surprise of his life when he sat down to tell his father the news of his being drafted: “You’re not an American citizen,” said the man who revealed himself to be his uncle, not his father. He explained to Silvestre about his birth—Silvestre had been born in Chihuahua, Mexico, to parents who died of influenza in 1917 when he was less than a year old. Because Silvestre was so young, the uncle decided it would be easier to simply “adopt” him as his son and bring him along with his family to settle in El Paso, Texas, where they hoped to find a better life. Herrera’s Desire to Serve The uncle felt this absolved Silvestre of his responsibility, but Silvestre felt differently: “This country had already provided so much for me and my family that I wanted to go,” he later told a reporter from the Public Affairs unit of the Arizona National Guard. However, Herrera appreciated what he had been told: that serving in the Army would help him gain citizenship—something that mattered greatly to him now that his assumed citizenship had been taken away. Herrera was assigned to the 36th Infantry of the Texas Army National Guard which was eventually added to Company E in the 142nd Infantry. They were soon on their way to the European front, arriving in Europe in the summer of 1944. By the winter of 1945, the Allies had an overarching plan to keep driving the Germans back. The intent was to push the Germans back, beyond the Rhine River and solidly back into the original boundaries of Germany. The British would attack from the north while French and American armies would hammer away from the south. For the Americans this was called Operation Undertone, and Day One was March 15, 1945. Herrera’s unit was marching along a road near the town of Mertzwiller, France, very near the German border. There were woods on both sides of the road, and suddenly the 36th Infantry was hit by machine gun fire from two directions. Many of the men dove for cover, but Herrera spotted the area where the firing was coming from and he ran toward it, firing his M-1 Garand semi-automatic rifle as he ran. (The M-1 has an 8-shot round before reloading is necessary.) When he got closer, he tossed two grenades into the machine gun nest, and the explosions knocked the Germans off their feet. With only a rifle and his own bravery, Herrera continued the attack. By the time he emerged, eight of the Germans had thrown down their weapons and surrendered to him. Herrera marched them back to his squad where others took responsibility for the captives, and Herrera, who later said he couldn’t hear the commanding officer anyway, took matters into his own hands and ran for the second place from which machine guns were being fired. That area, unfortunately, was laced with landmines. Allied soldiers had been peppering the area with rocks, attempting to set off the landmines and thereby, make it safer to cross. Unfortunately, there were mines they had not yet triggered, and Herrera still hit one as he ran. The explosion brought him down, severing both his feet at the ankles. Herrera was still conscious so he kept firing, trying to draw attention to himself while the rest of the platoon flanked the machine gun emplacement and captured the enemy. Following that battle, Herrera was taken to a field hospital to begin the long process of recovery. Silvestre Herrera’s bravery made him a likely candidate for a Medal of Honor, but then the military realized that he wasn’t a U.S. citizen. This gave them pause, but the decision was made to award him the Medal of Honor anyway. People of rank made certain he would be given citizenship shortly after. Mexican-American Hero At Medal of Honor Ceremony By August 1945, Silvestre Herrera was well enough to attend the White House ceremony in a wheelchair. President Truman presented him his medal, the highest military honor given in the U.S. In part his citation read: “The magnificent courage, extraordinary heroism, and willing self-sacrifice displayed by Pvt. Herrera resulted in the capture of 2 enemy strong points and the taking of 8 prisoners.” He also became the first Arizonan in World War II to receive the nation’s highest medal. Shortly thereafter he was also awarded the Premier Merito Militar, Mexico’s equivalent of the Medal of Honor. He was the only person at that time to have received both tributes. Life After Military Service In 1946 he was discharged from the military, having been promoted from private first class to sergeant. He returned to his family, and while he was eventually fitted with prosthetic feet, his reduced ability to get around left him time to develop his artistic talent. For the rest of his life he was a successful artisan, working in leather and silver. He continued to be active in the community and was a popular speaker at various public forums, and he was the perennial grand marshal of the Phoenix Veteran’s Day parade. You could also catch him on the dance floor now and then. As time went on, Silvestre Herrera continued to receive more recognition. In 1956 an elementary school in Phoenix was named after him, and in 1998, a brand new army reserve center opened in Mesa, Arizona. It was named Sergeant Silvestre S. Herrera Army Reserve Center. Not bad for a fellow who wasn’t even a citizen at the time of his military service. As Herrera himself said: “This is an amazing country we live in and if you’re not too lazy and work hard, you can really make something for yourself here.” One of my readers has noted that during World War II, persons of Mexican descent volunteered for service at a higher rate than any other ethnic group. What Was the U.S. Bracero Program? The Bracero Program was a guest worker program begun in a partnership between the United States and Mexico on August 4, 1942. It was a... » Marcelino Serna: Highly Honored Soldier in World War I Marcelino Serna was still a Mexican citizen when he fought for the United States in World War I. He was smart at battlefield tactics, felt... » Hispanic Women in Arizona Provided Aid in World War II During World War II, the country needed citizen support at home and abroad for all that needed to be done to fight a war. Tucson,... » Latino Family Opened Door to School Integration in 1940s The school desegregation case of Mendez v. Westminster (1947) prepared the way for the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision, yet few people have... »	<urn:uuid:a6ced055-a607-40b0-b089-dc8ddfd77b91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://americacomesalive.com/2015/10/03/mexican-american-hero-congressional-medal-of-honor-1945/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00442.warc.gz	en	0.988186	1,655	3.390625	3	[ -0.24647396802902222, 0.8192027807235718, 0.1677461564540863, -0.3094105124473572, -0.11023463308811188, 0.159095898270607, 0.2705470025539398, 0.35049816966056824, -0.23127034306526184, -0.45363950729370117, 0.371124804019928, 0.3401699662208557, 0.2981441617012024, 0.30882298946380615, ...	1	Mexican-American Hero: Medal of Honor Recipient, 1945 Mexican-born Silvestre S. Herrera (1916-2007) wasn’t even a U.S. citizen when he signed up to fight for the United States in World War II. As Herrera himself said after obtaining citizenship: “I am a Mexican-American and we have a tradition. We’re supposed to be men, not sissies.” Early Life for a Mexican-American Hero Silvestre Herrera and his wife, Ramona, settled in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1928. By the time World War II was underway, they had three children; husbands with families were initially exempt from the draft. In late 1943, the Army needed more men, and so the exemption for men with families was dropped. Herrera received a draft letter and was to start service in January of 1944. He and Ramona were now expecting their fourth child, so Herrera decided to go and visit his family to be reassured that they would look after Ramona and the children while he was gone. Silvestre got the surprise of his life when he sat down to tell his father the news of his being drafted: “You’re not an American citizen,” said the man who revealed himself to be his uncle, not his father. He explained to Silvestre about his birth—Silvestre had been born in Chihuahua, Mexico, to parents who died of influenza in 1917 when he was less than a year old. Because Silvestre was so young, the uncle decided it would be easier to simply “adopt” him as his son and bring him along with his family to settle in El Paso, Texas, where they hoped to find a better life. Herrera’s Desire to Serve The uncle felt this absolved Silvestre of his responsibility, but Silvestre felt differently: “This country had already provided so much for me and my family that I wanted to go,” he later told a reporter from the Public Affairs unit of the Arizona National Guard. However, Herrera appreciated what he had been told: that serving in the Army would help him gain citizenship—something that mattered greatly to him now that his assumed citizenship had been taken away. Herrera was assigned to the 36th Infantry of the Texas Army National Guard which was eventually added to Company E in the 142nd Infantry. They were soon on their way to the European front, arriving in Europe in the summer of 1944. By the winter of 1945, the Allies had an overarching plan to keep driving the Germans back. The intent was to push the Germans back, beyond the Rhine River and solidly back into the original boundaries of Germany. The British would attack from the north while French and American armies would hammer away from the south. For the Americans this was called Operation Undertone, and Day One was March 15, 1945. Herrera’s unit was marching along a road near the town of Mertzwiller, France, very near the German border. There were woods on both sides of the road, and suddenly the 36th Infantry was hit by machine gun fire from two directions. Many of the men dove for cover, but Herrera spotted the area where the firing was coming from and he ran toward it, firing his M-1 Garand semi-automatic rifle as he ran. (The M-1 has an 8-shot round before reloading is necessary.) When he got closer, he tossed two grenades into the machine gun nest, and the explosions knocked the Germans off their feet. With only a rifle and his own bravery, Herrera continued the attack. By the time he emerged, eight of the Germans had thrown down their weapons and surrendered to him. Herrera marched them back to his squad where others took responsibility for the captives, and Herrera, who later said he couldn’t hear the commanding officer anyway, took matters into his own hands and ran for the second place from which machine guns were being fired. That area, unfortunately, was laced with landmines. Allied soldiers had been peppering the area with rocks, attempting to set off the landmines and thereby, make it safer to cross. Unfortunately, there were mines they had not yet triggered, and Herrera still hit one as he ran. The explosion brought him down, severing both his feet at the ankles. Herrera was still conscious so he kept firing, trying to draw attention to himself while the rest of the platoon flanked the machine gun emplacement and captured the enemy. Following that battle, Herrera was taken to a field hospital to begin the long process of recovery. Silvestre Herrera’s bravery made him a likely candidate for a Medal of Honor, but then the military realized that he wasn’t a U.S. citizen. This gave them pause, but the decision was made to award him the Medal of Honor anyway. People of rank made certain he would be given citizenship shortly after. Mexican-American Hero At Medal of Honor Ceremony By August 1945, Silvestre Herrera was well enough to attend the White House ceremony in a wheelchair. President Truman presented him his medal, the highest military honor given in the U.S. In part his citation read: “The magnificent courage, extraordinary heroism, and willing self-sacrifice displayed by Pvt. Herrera resulted in the capture of 2 enemy strong points and the taking of 8 prisoners.” He also became the first Arizonan in World War II to receive the nation’s highest medal. Shortly thereafter he was also awarded the Premier Merito Militar, Mexico’s equivalent of the Medal of Honor. He was the only person at that time to have received both tributes. Life After Military Service In 1946 he was discharged from the military, having been promoted from private first class to sergeant. He returned to his family, and while he was eventually fitted with prosthetic feet, his reduced ability to get around left him time to develop his artistic talent. For the rest of his life he was a successful artisan, working in leather and silver. He continued to be active in the community and was a popular speaker at various public forums, and he was the perennial grand marshal of the Phoenix Veteran’s Day parade. You could also catch him on the dance floor now and then. As time went on, Silvestre Herrera continued to receive more recognition. In 1956 an elementary school in Phoenix was named after him, and in 1998, a brand new army reserve center opened in Mesa, Arizona. It was named Sergeant Silvestre S. Herrera Army Reserve Center. Not bad for a fellow who wasn’t even a citizen at the time of his military service. As Herrera himself said: “This is an amazing country we live in and if you’re not too lazy and work hard, you can really make something for yourself here.” One of my readers has noted that during World War II, persons of Mexican descent volunteered for service at a higher rate than any other ethnic group. What Was the U.S. Bracero Program? The Bracero Program was a guest worker program begun in a partnership between the United States and Mexico on August 4, 1942. It was a... » Marcelino Serna: Highly Honored Soldier in World War I Marcelino Serna was still a Mexican citizen when he fought for the United States in World War I. He was smart at battlefield tactics, felt... » Hispanic Women in Arizona Provided Aid in World War II During World War II, the country needed citizen support at home and abroad for all that needed to be done to fight a war. Tucson,... » Latino Family Opened Door to School Integration in 1940s The school desegregation case of Mendez v. Westminster (1947) prepared the way for the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision, yet few people have... »	1,656	ENGLISH	1
8th grade art project helped students look at themselves in a very different way. Written in Collaboration with Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher When Mrs. Rochkind’s announced to her 8th grade art students that they were to create self- portraits, the initial feedback from her students was - ‘oh no!’. "They were concerned about their ability to draw faces and features," stated Mrs. Rochkind. But the 8th graders were in for a surprise. These self-portraits were going to be featureless! Mrs. Rochkind explained the task to her students who were curious to know more - “Create a self-portrait incorporating color psychology and text to represent who you are.” The portrait was to include the general outline of the student’s head, with the option to include one feature if they wished (most didn’t). The students then made a list of words they felt reflected who they were and thought about color psychology before choosing colors they felt best represented them, such as happy yellows and energetic oranges, passionate reds for leadership and motivation, peaceful pinks, harmonic greens, and soothing blues. The project also incorporated text. “The students were excited and surprised at the idea of incorporating text into the artwork,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “I had them consider how the type of font, the size, and placement of the words were meaningful as well as considering the size of the text to emphasize or de-emphasize the words.” “Kids, particularly in middle school, can become self-conscious when asked to do a self-portrait. This project allowed the students to paint a portrait of themselves that said more about them than their physical attributes.” - Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher How did the students respond to this project? “The students really got into it,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “Kids, particularly in middle school, can become self-conscious when asked to do a self-portrait. This project allowed the students to paint a portrait of themselves that said more about them than their physical attributes.” Mrs. Rochkind also likes to make the projects relevant to her students and loves to give them creative choices. “It is important that the art they create is relevant to them. The students really enjoyed the featureless self-portrait project because it was about them and gave them the opportunity to express themselves in a different way - through color as well as words.” Once the students complete their projects, they have two opportunities to reflect on their work. One is a self-critique using a Rubric with a set of criteria such as effort, craftsmanship (not skill), etc. The second is a group reflection where the class looks at each project and discusses what makes it unique, how it makes them feel, and how they think it is successful. “I don’t grade the students on skills, but on craftsmanship instead,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “Craftsmanship looks at the time and care they put into their creations, not their technical skills. I want the students to know that anyone can be successful at art”. Written in Collaboration With: Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher Read more about Jordana	<urn:uuid:486ee970-f1b4-424f-b588-e76d1d795049>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.congressionalschool.org/blog/you-are-more-than-what-you-see	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00286.warc.gz	en	0.984843	708	3.640625	4	[ 0.053244851529598236, -0.10264000296592712, 0.010967294685542583, -0.44096294045448303, -0.49014967679977417, 0.3696270287036896, 0.06870517879724503, 0.03409565985202789, -0.23577183485031128, -0.21388423442840576, 0.10415580123662949, -0.06652680784463882, 0.05082899332046509, 0.29842311...	7	8th grade art project helped students look at themselves in a very different way. Written in Collaboration with Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher When Mrs. Rochkind’s announced to her 8th grade art students that they were to create self- portraits, the initial feedback from her students was - ‘oh no!’. "They were concerned about their ability to draw faces and features," stated Mrs. Rochkind. But the 8th graders were in for a surprise. These self-portraits were going to be featureless! Mrs. Rochkind explained the task to her students who were curious to know more - “Create a self-portrait incorporating color psychology and text to represent who you are.” The portrait was to include the general outline of the student’s head, with the option to include one feature if they wished (most didn’t). The students then made a list of words they felt reflected who they were and thought about color psychology before choosing colors they felt best represented them, such as happy yellows and energetic oranges, passionate reds for leadership and motivation, peaceful pinks, harmonic greens, and soothing blues. The project also incorporated text. “The students were excited and surprised at the idea of incorporating text into the artwork,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “I had them consider how the type of font, the size, and placement of the words were meaningful as well as considering the size of the text to emphasize or de-emphasize the words.” “Kids, particularly in middle school, can become self-conscious when asked to do a self-portrait. This project allowed the students to paint a portrait of themselves that said more about them than their physical attributes.” - Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher How did the students respond to this project? “The students really got into it,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “Kids, particularly in middle school, can become self-conscious when asked to do a self-portrait. This project allowed the students to paint a portrait of themselves that said more about them than their physical attributes.” Mrs. Rochkind also likes to make the projects relevant to her students and loves to give them creative choices. “It is important that the art they create is relevant to them. The students really enjoyed the featureless self-portrait project because it was about them and gave them the opportunity to express themselves in a different way - through color as well as words.” Once the students complete their projects, they have two opportunities to reflect on their work. One is a self-critique using a Rubric with a set of criteria such as effort, craftsmanship (not skill), etc. The second is a group reflection where the class looks at each project and discusses what makes it unique, how it makes them feel, and how they think it is successful. “I don’t grade the students on skills, but on craftsmanship instead,” stated Mrs. Rochkind. “Craftsmanship looks at the time and care they put into their creations, not their technical skills. I want the students to know that anyone can be successful at art”. Written in Collaboration With: Jordana Rochkind, Middle School Art Teacher Read more about Jordana	644	ENGLISH	1

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