text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Imperial decline and collapse during the period of 600 BCE to 600 CE was caused by the inability to efficiently collect taxes in their empire, over-expansion, and a government’s inability to assert their power over a large group of people. One of the major causes of imperial decline and collapse was the inability for an empire to collect enough taxes. For example, the Gupta Empire. The Gupta Empire was known for their strong military pursuit for expansion, as their leader, Samudragupta. But, the Gupta’s government could not collect enough taxes to pay for their massive army. This lead to the inability for them to reach their main goal, unite India, and resulted in their fall in the 6th Century. This was not good because they failed to maintain their goal. In the Roman Empire, taxes failed to be effective because of the Catholic church’s refusal to pay. Taxes were also so extreme, that the common person was not able to meet the given standards, and lead many individuals to starvation and bankruptcy. In extreme cases, if tax collectors could not collect the money from citizens, they could face a death sentence. This extreme taxing lead to many citizens of the Roman Empire to flee and find new homes with barbarians. The barbarians were the ones who caused the final fall of the Roman Empire years later. Which is ironic since many of the people of the Roman Empire had joined them.Another important factor of imperial decline and collapse was the over-expansion of empires. Although expansion might seem highly beneficial, it actually lead to the fall of many empire’s reign. This is because as an empire continued to gain more land, they eventually lost control of their fast-growing territory because it was difficult for them to maintain power in several different locations at once. Examples of this occurring during the period of 600 BCE to 600 CE include the Roman Empire and Han China. During the period of expansion in the Roman Empire, Roman leaders extended their rule over areas as far as North Africa and the Middle East. Although the Roman Empire successfully conquered these areas, the ideologies and religions that were followed in these countries were resoundingly different than those of Christian ideologies. In Han China, a close replica of the Roman Empire expansion occurred. It came to rule over groups of peoples who were not indigenously Chinese, which was the cause of a massive cultural wall. Lastly, an important factor was the fact that caused imperial decline and collapse was the government’s inability to control large populations. This ties to the previous reason of imperial decline, which was that over-expansion caused collapse in empires. When empires expanded their territories, areas of power moved farther and farther away from the central government. For example, the Han dynasty was incapable of asserting their power over their large amount of territory because of revolts by the common people against taxes. Therefore, the central government had to rely on local leaders to take care of individual areas, which lead these individuals to gain more power within their states. This lead to the ultimate decline of the Han because they were unable to control the now powerful leaders, and one powerful leader ended up overthrowing the Han emperor, which ended the Han Dynasty. The reason why the government’s inability to control large populations ultimately caused their decline is because they had to deal with conflicts from the outside and within. There are many reasons why imperial decline and collapse occurred in 600 BCE to 600 CE, but a few of the most significant reasons are that some empires were unable to collect the necessary tax, over-expansion of territory, and a government’s inability to assert their power over a large population. | <urn:uuid:f9a94056-023a-494f-b967-9543c7ad0196> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://joanofart.net/imperial-of-many-empires-reign-this-is-because-as/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.983987 | 736 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.4369409... | 3 | Imperial decline and collapse during the period of 600 BCE to 600 CE was caused by the inability to efficiently collect taxes in their empire, over-expansion, and a government’s inability to assert their power over a large group of people. One of the major causes of imperial decline and collapse was the inability for an empire to collect enough taxes. For example, the Gupta Empire. The Gupta Empire was known for their strong military pursuit for expansion, as their leader, Samudragupta. But, the Gupta’s government could not collect enough taxes to pay for their massive army. This lead to the inability for them to reach their main goal, unite India, and resulted in their fall in the 6th Century. This was not good because they failed to maintain their goal. In the Roman Empire, taxes failed to be effective because of the Catholic church’s refusal to pay. Taxes were also so extreme, that the common person was not able to meet the given standards, and lead many individuals to starvation and bankruptcy. In extreme cases, if tax collectors could not collect the money from citizens, they could face a death sentence. This extreme taxing lead to many citizens of the Roman Empire to flee and find new homes with barbarians. The barbarians were the ones who caused the final fall of the Roman Empire years later. Which is ironic since many of the people of the Roman Empire had joined them.Another important factor of imperial decline and collapse was the over-expansion of empires. Although expansion might seem highly beneficial, it actually lead to the fall of many empire’s reign. This is because as an empire continued to gain more land, they eventually lost control of their fast-growing territory because it was difficult for them to maintain power in several different locations at once. Examples of this occurring during the period of 600 BCE to 600 CE include the Roman Empire and Han China. During the period of expansion in the Roman Empire, Roman leaders extended their rule over areas as far as North Africa and the Middle East. Although the Roman Empire successfully conquered these areas, the ideologies and religions that were followed in these countries were resoundingly different than those of Christian ideologies. In Han China, a close replica of the Roman Empire expansion occurred. It came to rule over groups of peoples who were not indigenously Chinese, which was the cause of a massive cultural wall. Lastly, an important factor was the fact that caused imperial decline and collapse was the government’s inability to control large populations. This ties to the previous reason of imperial decline, which was that over-expansion caused collapse in empires. When empires expanded their territories, areas of power moved farther and farther away from the central government. For example, the Han dynasty was incapable of asserting their power over their large amount of territory because of revolts by the common people against taxes. Therefore, the central government had to rely on local leaders to take care of individual areas, which lead these individuals to gain more power within their states. This lead to the ultimate decline of the Han because they were unable to control the now powerful leaders, and one powerful leader ended up overthrowing the Han emperor, which ended the Han Dynasty. The reason why the government’s inability to control large populations ultimately caused their decline is because they had to deal with conflicts from the outside and within. There are many reasons why imperial decline and collapse occurred in 600 BCE to 600 CE, but a few of the most significant reasons are that some empires were unable to collect the necessary tax, over-expansion of territory, and a government’s inability to assert their power over a large population. | 741 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The intolerance of colonial New Zealanders was most obviously directed at migrants from Asia.
Chinese miners were invited into the goldfields of Otago from the late 1860s, and by 1886 their numbers had reached 5,000 (although they subsequently decreased). Their presence provoked significant racial intolerance. In 1857, Nelson set up an anti-Chinese committee. In the 1880s these were joined by groups such as the White Race League and the Anti-Asiatic League.
Chinese were considered racially inferior to white people, and their culture was seen as a threat. Their ability to work hard and save money was seen to threaten the livelihood of whites. Many Chinese men had no wives in New Zealand and were suspected of having immoral designs on the women of the colony. Their habits were viewed as strange, and they were seen as ‘drug-besotten sin-begotten fiends’1. The Liberal politician William Pember Reeves described the Chinese as ‘dirty, miserly, ignorant, a shirker of social duty, and a danger to public health’.2
Anti-Chinese acts were passed.
- In 1881 a £10 poll tax was placed on each Chinese immigrant, and their numbers were restricted to one person for every 10 tons of ship’s cargo. These figures were raised in 1896 to £100 poll tax and 200 tons of cargo.
- In 1892 naturalisation as New Zealand citizens became free for all except Chinese. The naturalisation of Chinese was abolished in 1908 and did not resume until 1952.
- In 1907 a reading test in English was imposed for Chinese immigrants.
Chinese were specifically excluded from the old-age pension (1898), widow’s pension (1911) and family allowances (1926). The effect was discrimination against the small local Chinese community from the 1880s through to the 1950s. The 1935–49 Labour government lifted some of the discriminatory legislation and policy, but the ‘white’ New Zealand immigration framework – which favoured immigrants from Europe – only disappeared when immigration policy was reviewed and changed in 1986 and 1987.
Apart from Māori, Chinese were the only people to be the victims of deliberate acts of violence. In the goldfields town of Naseby in 1868 Ah Pack was stripped of his clothes, put into a barrel and rolled about town. In 1905 in Haining Street, the centre of Wellington’s Chinese community, Lionel Terry shot Joe Kum Yung to draw attention to the ‘yellow peril’.
Until the First World War there were fewer than 200 Indians in New Zealand, but this did not prevent some hostility towards them. Indians were considered (like the Lebanese) to be ‘Assyrian hawkers’. Premier Richard Seddon wanted stern measures, but Indians were citizens of the British Empire. The Immigration Restriction Act 1899 tried to circumvent this by requiring those not of ‘British parentage’ to make their immigration application in a European language. Immediately after the First World War Indian migration increased. The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 required all those not of British parentage to apply for a permit. Indians were excluded from this definition, despite being British subjects.
White New Zealand League
By 1921 there were 671 Indians in New Zealand. They attracted growing antagonism, especially in the market-gardening area of Pukekohe, where other growers campaigned against them. In 1926 the White New Zealand League was set up in Pukekohe to restrict Asian immigration and rights. The league wrote to all 200 local bodies in New Zealand, asking them to endorse a ‘white New Zealand’ policy on the basis of the supposed low morals of Asians. They received positive responses from 160 of the local bodies and strong support from the media. Prime Minister Gordon Coates was also supportive.
Indians, like Chinese, could not receive state pensions until 1936. In Pukekohe they continued to be excluded from barbers’ shops, private bars and balcony seats in the local cinema until the 1950s. | <urn:uuid:11f9cef1-05da-4a3c-bc15-bcc0229376ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/ethnic-and-religious-intolerance/page-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.983723 | 827 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.476350784301... | 15 | The intolerance of colonial New Zealanders was most obviously directed at migrants from Asia.
Chinese miners were invited into the goldfields of Otago from the late 1860s, and by 1886 their numbers had reached 5,000 (although they subsequently decreased). Their presence provoked significant racial intolerance. In 1857, Nelson set up an anti-Chinese committee. In the 1880s these were joined by groups such as the White Race League and the Anti-Asiatic League.
Chinese were considered racially inferior to white people, and their culture was seen as a threat. Their ability to work hard and save money was seen to threaten the livelihood of whites. Many Chinese men had no wives in New Zealand and were suspected of having immoral designs on the women of the colony. Their habits were viewed as strange, and they were seen as ‘drug-besotten sin-begotten fiends’1. The Liberal politician William Pember Reeves described the Chinese as ‘dirty, miserly, ignorant, a shirker of social duty, and a danger to public health’.2
Anti-Chinese acts were passed.
- In 1881 a £10 poll tax was placed on each Chinese immigrant, and their numbers were restricted to one person for every 10 tons of ship’s cargo. These figures were raised in 1896 to £100 poll tax and 200 tons of cargo.
- In 1892 naturalisation as New Zealand citizens became free for all except Chinese. The naturalisation of Chinese was abolished in 1908 and did not resume until 1952.
- In 1907 a reading test in English was imposed for Chinese immigrants.
Chinese were specifically excluded from the old-age pension (1898), widow’s pension (1911) and family allowances (1926). The effect was discrimination against the small local Chinese community from the 1880s through to the 1950s. The 1935–49 Labour government lifted some of the discriminatory legislation and policy, but the ‘white’ New Zealand immigration framework – which favoured immigrants from Europe – only disappeared when immigration policy was reviewed and changed in 1986 and 1987.
Apart from Māori, Chinese were the only people to be the victims of deliberate acts of violence. In the goldfields town of Naseby in 1868 Ah Pack was stripped of his clothes, put into a barrel and rolled about town. In 1905 in Haining Street, the centre of Wellington’s Chinese community, Lionel Terry shot Joe Kum Yung to draw attention to the ‘yellow peril’.
Until the First World War there were fewer than 200 Indians in New Zealand, but this did not prevent some hostility towards them. Indians were considered (like the Lebanese) to be ‘Assyrian hawkers’. Premier Richard Seddon wanted stern measures, but Indians were citizens of the British Empire. The Immigration Restriction Act 1899 tried to circumvent this by requiring those not of ‘British parentage’ to make their immigration application in a European language. Immediately after the First World War Indian migration increased. The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 required all those not of British parentage to apply for a permit. Indians were excluded from this definition, despite being British subjects.
White New Zealand League
By 1921 there were 671 Indians in New Zealand. They attracted growing antagonism, especially in the market-gardening area of Pukekohe, where other growers campaigned against them. In 1926 the White New Zealand League was set up in Pukekohe to restrict Asian immigration and rights. The league wrote to all 200 local bodies in New Zealand, asking them to endorse a ‘white New Zealand’ policy on the basis of the supposed low morals of Asians. They received positive responses from 160 of the local bodies and strong support from the media. Prime Minister Gordon Coates was also supportive.
Indians, like Chinese, could not receive state pensions until 1936. In Pukekohe they continued to be excluded from barbers’ shops, private bars and balcony seats in the local cinema until the 1950s. | 911 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women prior to the 1920 s were usually described as proper and prim mannered. This was during a time when women were basically powerless, because they were being controlled by men. During the 1920 s though, females began to show some boldness and started to move away from the stereotypes that were placed on them, and strived to live their lives according to their own version of the American Dream. The women of The Great Gatsby and Passing, are portrayed as both reckless and defiant. While women were treated as inferior and were supposed to act proper, the females of the 1920 s defied the stereotypes, and broke the social boundaries.
We Will Write a Custom Essay Specifically For You For Only $13.90/page!
The females of The Great Gatsby played important roles in showing the desired cultural identities of the 1920’s. Originally, the women were controlled by men, and had basically no say in their own personal affairs.
Some time toward midnight Tom Buchanan and Mrs. Wilson stood face to face discussing in impassioned voices whether Mrs. Wilson had any right to mention Daisy s name. Daisy! Daisy! Daisy! shouted Mrs. Wilson. I ll say it whenever I want to! Daisy! Dai- Making a short deft movement Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his open hand. (Fitzgerald 41)
Without warn, the violent and governing Tom broke his girlfriends nose because of the fact that she mentioned his wife s name. Although Mrs. Wilson did not gain power by mocking Tom, her role slightly changes as she decides that she indeed does have to right to speak her mind. Slowly throughout the novel, the women begin to disengage themselves from their standards, and start to take a more loose role in society. The women start to voice their opinions more, and throughout the novel women are drinking and dancing. At Gatsby s untamed parties, the women are intoxicated to the point in which they can no longer walk or act normally. The women even become the center of attention, which was unusual in a time when they were supposed to remain in the background.
The groups change more swiftly with new arrivals, dissolve and form in the same breath- already there are wanders, confident girls who weave here and there among the stouter and more stable, become for a sharp, joyous moment the center of a group and then excited with triumph glide though the sea change of faces and voices and color under the constantly changing light. (45)
While some of the women at Gatsby s parties still remain in the background, several confident girls began to push themselves into the spotlight, erasing social barriers of the past. After staying in the spotlight for a moment, the women glide through, which indicates a confident walk.
Daisy, by the end of the story, not only accepts a new role as a woman, but also gains much power over her controlling husband.
You don t understand, said Gatsby, with a touch of panic. You re not going to take care of her anymore.
I m not? Tom opened his eyes wide and laughed. He could afford to control himself now. Why s that?
Daisy s leaving you.
I am though, she said with a visible effort. (140)
Daisy separates herself from Tom s control, and decides to leave him. Contrary to the cultural customs that were used during that time, Daisy disregarded her husband s wishes and made her own decision. This is the most important point in the novel when looking at the changing roles of women.
In Nella Larsen s Passing, the narrative picks up when the women have already broken some of the social barriers and are in the midst of experiencing life as real people
With a quick perception of the need for immediate safety, she lifted a wavering hand the direction of a cab parker directly in front of her. The perspiring driver jumped out and guided her to his car. He helped, almost lifted her in. She sank down on the hot leather seat. For a moment her thoughts were nebulous. They cleared. I guess, she told her Samaritan, it s tea I need. On a roof somewhere. The Drayton, ma am? he suggested. They do say as how it s always a breeze up there. Thank you. I think the Drayton ll do nicely. she told him. (Larsen 13)
The Drayton hotel, although fictional, was used by Larsen to portray the Drake Hotel in Chicago, which is a very expensive and highly acclaimed hotel. Prior to the 1920 s, women were not allowed into the upper class hotels without being accompanied by a male. This shows that times were changing, and that women accepted the new role which was available to them.
As you can see, the proper women that existed before the 1920 s began to vanish during that time period, and women started to become more powerful individuals. Passing and Gatsby both showed how the women of the era defied the stereotypes and expectations, and lived life free. | <urn:uuid:81c0ab92-d124-4dd3-af78-879fd6b4196a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://book-summary.net/books-and-movies-reviews/gatsby-vs-passing-essay-research-paper-the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00139.warc.gz | en | 0.985219 | 1,031 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.09854613244533539,... | 2 | Women prior to the 1920 s were usually described as proper and prim mannered. This was during a time when women were basically powerless, because they were being controlled by men. During the 1920 s though, females began to show some boldness and started to move away from the stereotypes that were placed on them, and strived to live their lives according to their own version of the American Dream. The women of The Great Gatsby and Passing, are portrayed as both reckless and defiant. While women were treated as inferior and were supposed to act proper, the females of the 1920 s defied the stereotypes, and broke the social boundaries.
We Will Write a Custom Essay Specifically For You For Only $13.90/page!
The females of The Great Gatsby played important roles in showing the desired cultural identities of the 1920’s. Originally, the women were controlled by men, and had basically no say in their own personal affairs.
Some time toward midnight Tom Buchanan and Mrs. Wilson stood face to face discussing in impassioned voices whether Mrs. Wilson had any right to mention Daisy s name. Daisy! Daisy! Daisy! shouted Mrs. Wilson. I ll say it whenever I want to! Daisy! Dai- Making a short deft movement Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his open hand. (Fitzgerald 41)
Without warn, the violent and governing Tom broke his girlfriends nose because of the fact that she mentioned his wife s name. Although Mrs. Wilson did not gain power by mocking Tom, her role slightly changes as she decides that she indeed does have to right to speak her mind. Slowly throughout the novel, the women begin to disengage themselves from their standards, and start to take a more loose role in society. The women start to voice their opinions more, and throughout the novel women are drinking and dancing. At Gatsby s untamed parties, the women are intoxicated to the point in which they can no longer walk or act normally. The women even become the center of attention, which was unusual in a time when they were supposed to remain in the background.
The groups change more swiftly with new arrivals, dissolve and form in the same breath- already there are wanders, confident girls who weave here and there among the stouter and more stable, become for a sharp, joyous moment the center of a group and then excited with triumph glide though the sea change of faces and voices and color under the constantly changing light. (45)
While some of the women at Gatsby s parties still remain in the background, several confident girls began to push themselves into the spotlight, erasing social barriers of the past. After staying in the spotlight for a moment, the women glide through, which indicates a confident walk.
Daisy, by the end of the story, not only accepts a new role as a woman, but also gains much power over her controlling husband.
You don t understand, said Gatsby, with a touch of panic. You re not going to take care of her anymore.
I m not? Tom opened his eyes wide and laughed. He could afford to control himself now. Why s that?
Daisy s leaving you.
I am though, she said with a visible effort. (140)
Daisy separates herself from Tom s control, and decides to leave him. Contrary to the cultural customs that were used during that time, Daisy disregarded her husband s wishes and made her own decision. This is the most important point in the novel when looking at the changing roles of women.
In Nella Larsen s Passing, the narrative picks up when the women have already broken some of the social barriers and are in the midst of experiencing life as real people
With a quick perception of the need for immediate safety, she lifted a wavering hand the direction of a cab parker directly in front of her. The perspiring driver jumped out and guided her to his car. He helped, almost lifted her in. She sank down on the hot leather seat. For a moment her thoughts were nebulous. They cleared. I guess, she told her Samaritan, it s tea I need. On a roof somewhere. The Drayton, ma am? he suggested. They do say as how it s always a breeze up there. Thank you. I think the Drayton ll do nicely. she told him. (Larsen 13)
The Drayton hotel, although fictional, was used by Larsen to portray the Drake Hotel in Chicago, which is a very expensive and highly acclaimed hotel. Prior to the 1920 s, women were not allowed into the upper class hotels without being accompanied by a male. This shows that times were changing, and that women accepted the new role which was available to them.
As you can see, the proper women that existed before the 1920 s began to vanish during that time period, and women started to become more powerful individuals. Passing and Gatsby both showed how the women of the era defied the stereotypes and expectations, and lived life free. | 1,042 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the time children reach their teen years, there are insecurities that are revealed by a glimpse into these adolescent’s minds when they listen to music.
Brain scans have shown that teenagers’ music choices have less to do with whether they like what they are hearing and are instead more about their fear of not conforming with their peers.
The study (that was conducted on teenagers listening to songs on social networking sites) suggests that they will change their mind about music once they realize that the tracks are popular with other people their age.
Brains show discrepancy.
If their musical preferences do not match those of others, their brains show it.
Youngsters aged 12 to 17 were played a track and asked to rate how much they liked it.
After one interval, they were asked to rate it again. Some had seen a popularity rating based on how many times the track had been downloaded, but the others had no knowledge of whether others liked it. The ratings changed 12% of the time.
When they found out that a tune was a hit, however, the subjects changed their ratings 22% of the time, and more than three-quarters switched in the direction of the song’s popularity rating.
Change caused by fear.
The first time that they heard a song, brain scans revealed, regions associated with reward and pleasure were activated. When they heard it the 2nd time, the regions associated with anxiety and pain would light up. This suggests that fear made the change happen.
By adapting to social norms, children learn to avoid teasing and rejection. This doesn’t stop when they grow into adulthood. Even as adults, we care about what people think and fall under the influence of peer pressure. | <urn:uuid:923da91f-1fb3-4938-a790-12ae399e84ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jackrabbitmusic.com/blog/teen-peer-pressure-continues-into-adulthood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.987673 | 354 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 5 | By the time children reach their teen years, there are insecurities that are revealed by a glimpse into these adolescent’s minds when they listen to music.
Brain scans have shown that teenagers’ music choices have less to do with whether they like what they are hearing and are instead more about their fear of not conforming with their peers.
The study (that was conducted on teenagers listening to songs on social networking sites) suggests that they will change their mind about music once they realize that the tracks are popular with other people their age.
Brains show discrepancy.
If their musical preferences do not match those of others, their brains show it.
Youngsters aged 12 to 17 were played a track and asked to rate how much they liked it.
After one interval, they were asked to rate it again. Some had seen a popularity rating based on how many times the track had been downloaded, but the others had no knowledge of whether others liked it. The ratings changed 12% of the time.
When they found out that a tune was a hit, however, the subjects changed their ratings 22% of the time, and more than three-quarters switched in the direction of the song’s popularity rating.
Change caused by fear.
The first time that they heard a song, brain scans revealed, regions associated with reward and pleasure were activated. When they heard it the 2nd time, the regions associated with anxiety and pain would light up. This suggests that fear made the change happen.
By adapting to social norms, children learn to avoid teasing and rejection. This doesn’t stop when they grow into adulthood. Even as adults, we care about what people think and fall under the influence of peer pressure. | 343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint John the Almsgiver earned the title “almsgiver” because of his passion for social justice and his stewardship of the poor and oppressed. Born at Amathus, Cyprus, around 560, the son of the governor of Cyprus, he was wealthy and of noble lineage. His wife and children died before John reached the age of 50.
A devout Christian, John sought to live a life of simplicity and in the spirit of poverty despite his wealth. He used his riches and position to help the poor. Despite being a layman, the Church at Alexandria petitioned to have John appointed bishop. He was consecrated Patriarch of Alexandria in 610.
He pledged himself to practice “charity without limits” and placed several thousand needy persons under his personal, pastoral care. He always referred to the poor as his “lords and masters,” because of what he called “their mighty influence at the Court of the Most High.”
He divided the church treasury’s gold among hospitals and monasteries, and worked to establish an economic redistribution system whereby poor people received adequate money and means to support themselves. Refugees from neighboring territories were welcomed with open arms.
John was a reformer who established new hospitals and increased the number of churches in Alexandria from seven to seventy.
As bishop, John developed a reputation for kindness. Twice weekly, he made himself available to anyone, rich or destitute, who wished to speak with him. People lined up and waited patiently for their turn.
When asked about his passionate concern for the poor, it is said that John often recounted a youthful dream. In it, a beautiful young woman told him that she was “charity.” She told him: “I am the oldest daughter of the King. If you are devoted to me, I will lead you to Jesus. No one is as influential with him as I am. Remember, it was for me that he became a baby to redeem the world.” John used this story to persuade the rich to be generous.
When the Persians sacked Jerusalem in 614, John sent food and money to support the Christian refugees. Eventually, the Persians took over Alexandria, and John himself was forced to flee to his native Cyprus. John died peacefully on November 11, 619. His feast day is January 23. | <urn:uuid:8b9d6d1b-4bba-49bf-91b6-decb33336751> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://catholicstewardship.com/author/icsc/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.989718 | 482 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.125377044081... | 7 | Saint John the Almsgiver earned the title “almsgiver” because of his passion for social justice and his stewardship of the poor and oppressed. Born at Amathus, Cyprus, around 560, the son of the governor of Cyprus, he was wealthy and of noble lineage. His wife and children died before John reached the age of 50.
A devout Christian, John sought to live a life of simplicity and in the spirit of poverty despite his wealth. He used his riches and position to help the poor. Despite being a layman, the Church at Alexandria petitioned to have John appointed bishop. He was consecrated Patriarch of Alexandria in 610.
He pledged himself to practice “charity without limits” and placed several thousand needy persons under his personal, pastoral care. He always referred to the poor as his “lords and masters,” because of what he called “their mighty influence at the Court of the Most High.”
He divided the church treasury’s gold among hospitals and monasteries, and worked to establish an economic redistribution system whereby poor people received adequate money and means to support themselves. Refugees from neighboring territories were welcomed with open arms.
John was a reformer who established new hospitals and increased the number of churches in Alexandria from seven to seventy.
As bishop, John developed a reputation for kindness. Twice weekly, he made himself available to anyone, rich or destitute, who wished to speak with him. People lined up and waited patiently for their turn.
When asked about his passionate concern for the poor, it is said that John often recounted a youthful dream. In it, a beautiful young woman told him that she was “charity.” She told him: “I am the oldest daughter of the King. If you are devoted to me, I will lead you to Jesus. No one is as influential with him as I am. Remember, it was for me that he became a baby to redeem the world.” John used this story to persuade the rich to be generous.
When the Persians sacked Jerusalem in 614, John sent food and money to support the Christian refugees. Eventually, the Persians took over Alexandria, and John himself was forced to flee to his native Cyprus. John died peacefully on November 11, 619. His feast day is January 23. | 476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Business, Politics & Society
Lesson time 10:47 min
Dr. Jane goes into depth about how she studied complex behaviors in chimpanzees, including their usage of tools.
Topics include: Tool Usage • Play • Reassurance • Grief
Thanks to David Graybeard, I got to know the other chimpanzee's of the community. Because I would approach a group, ready to run, as usual, but if David was there, he just sat calmly. And I could see them looking from him to me and back again, and I suppose they thought, well, she can't be so dangerous after all. And so, in a way, he introduced me to the other chimpanzees of his community. And gradually, I began to piece together their complex society. Gradually, I got to recognize the different individuals. I named them. And the first one other than David that I really got to know well was Goliath. They were almost always together. And I realized, ultimately, that Goliath was the top ranking, or alpha, male. And looking back over the years, there's always one male who makes it to the top. And at that time, it was Goliath. I began to know many of the different females. I began to understand that they were traveling around with offspring of different ages. And it's only really looking back after 50 years, that we can get the whole picture, but it was a very exciting time to begin to understand their society. [MUSIC PLAYING] It was an unbelievable observation, just that one thing, seeing chimpanzees using and making tools. It wouldn't be surprising now. We know that chimpanzees use many different objects as tools. We know other animals use tools. We're not this so superior special creature as once was thought. At Gombe, chimpanzees use leaves as sponges. So if there's water in a little hollow in a tree which they can't reach with their lips, first, they'll try and drink. But then, they'll take a handful of leaves, they crunch them a little bit to make them more absorbent. And then, they'll dip the sponge into the water bowl and suck the water out. They use rocks as weapons. That's tool use, same thing. They use rocks to throw. Chimpanzees will, at Gombe, will pick up a hard-shelled gourd and crack it on a rock so you sort of see how these tool usings probably began. There are chimpanzees in Central Africa who've been seen using a very, very long stick to dip into a pond that was covered with some kind of water weed. And they pull it up and it's got a long trail like this and they, slurp it up. It's quite comical to watch. Not only do they use objects as tools to get food, which is the most common use, but they'll also use them as toys. And sometimes, chimpanzees will have a tug of war. I saw once Freud actually pick a round gourd and throw it in the air and catch it, which startled me. I've never seen it again. He tried to do it again and dropped it and gave up. So they do use objects in imaginative ways. So in all these different parts of Africa, there are these different ways of using tools, and it's just one example of chimpanzee intelligence. [MUSIC PLAYING] When you're watching chimpanzees-- an...
There is still a window of time. Nature can win if we give her a chance. In her first ever online class, Dr. Jane Goodall teaches how you can conserve the environment. She also shares her research on the behavioral patterns of chimpanzees and what they taught her about conservation. You'll learn how to act locally and protect the planet.
Great class! Very inspiring and great pace - also informative about Jane and her mission. Thank you!
Jane goodall is an indomitable force of human understanding, collaboration and inspiration. This is incredible!!
This is an amazingly inspiring class! I didn't know Jane Goodall before taking this class, now I am in love of her voice and can't wait to learn more
Loved it! She is a beautiful person....I hope it is contagious. | <urn:uuid:b12dc2fd-13e6-413c-87e2-bdccea8bb9e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/jane-goodall-teaches-conservation/chapters/chimpanzee-behavior | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.983264 | 872 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2692127227783... | 1 | Business, Politics & Society
Lesson time 10:47 min
Dr. Jane goes into depth about how she studied complex behaviors in chimpanzees, including their usage of tools.
Topics include: Tool Usage • Play • Reassurance • Grief
Thanks to David Graybeard, I got to know the other chimpanzee's of the community. Because I would approach a group, ready to run, as usual, but if David was there, he just sat calmly. And I could see them looking from him to me and back again, and I suppose they thought, well, she can't be so dangerous after all. And so, in a way, he introduced me to the other chimpanzees of his community. And gradually, I began to piece together their complex society. Gradually, I got to recognize the different individuals. I named them. And the first one other than David that I really got to know well was Goliath. They were almost always together. And I realized, ultimately, that Goliath was the top ranking, or alpha, male. And looking back over the years, there's always one male who makes it to the top. And at that time, it was Goliath. I began to know many of the different females. I began to understand that they were traveling around with offspring of different ages. And it's only really looking back after 50 years, that we can get the whole picture, but it was a very exciting time to begin to understand their society. [MUSIC PLAYING] It was an unbelievable observation, just that one thing, seeing chimpanzees using and making tools. It wouldn't be surprising now. We know that chimpanzees use many different objects as tools. We know other animals use tools. We're not this so superior special creature as once was thought. At Gombe, chimpanzees use leaves as sponges. So if there's water in a little hollow in a tree which they can't reach with their lips, first, they'll try and drink. But then, they'll take a handful of leaves, they crunch them a little bit to make them more absorbent. And then, they'll dip the sponge into the water bowl and suck the water out. They use rocks as weapons. That's tool use, same thing. They use rocks to throw. Chimpanzees will, at Gombe, will pick up a hard-shelled gourd and crack it on a rock so you sort of see how these tool usings probably began. There are chimpanzees in Central Africa who've been seen using a very, very long stick to dip into a pond that was covered with some kind of water weed. And they pull it up and it's got a long trail like this and they, slurp it up. It's quite comical to watch. Not only do they use objects as tools to get food, which is the most common use, but they'll also use them as toys. And sometimes, chimpanzees will have a tug of war. I saw once Freud actually pick a round gourd and throw it in the air and catch it, which startled me. I've never seen it again. He tried to do it again and dropped it and gave up. So they do use objects in imaginative ways. So in all these different parts of Africa, there are these different ways of using tools, and it's just one example of chimpanzee intelligence. [MUSIC PLAYING] When you're watching chimpanzees-- an...
There is still a window of time. Nature can win if we give her a chance. In her first ever online class, Dr. Jane Goodall teaches how you can conserve the environment. She also shares her research on the behavioral patterns of chimpanzees and what they taught her about conservation. You'll learn how to act locally and protect the planet.
Great class! Very inspiring and great pace - also informative about Jane and her mission. Thank you!
Jane goodall is an indomitable force of human understanding, collaboration and inspiration. This is incredible!!
This is an amazingly inspiring class! I didn't know Jane Goodall before taking this class, now I am in love of her voice and can't wait to learn more
Loved it! She is a beautiful person....I hope it is contagious. | 889 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Compare and contrast egypt and mesopotamia essay
Egypt and Mesopotamia had been the initially river area civilizations in 3500 N. C. At the. They were equally similar intellectually, because that they both developed written language, and the same alphabet. These people were also similar religiously, since they both were polytheistic and thought their gods ruled these people. Mesopotamia and Egypt were different using their achievements, since over time they gained understanding of things that helped their civilizations, and helped them adapt to their environment.
Mesopotamia and Egypt were both equally intellectually identical, because that they both had a written vocabulary forming.
Only $13.90 / page
The Egyptians got hieroglyphics, and Mesopotamia employed clay tablets to pull similar pictograms. They produced board games, and other entertaining activities. They both experienced greater literacy forming given that they had a written vocabulary. They have reports like The Impressive of Gilgamesh and The Hymn to the Earth which were spiritual literature.
The two Egypt and Mesopotamia were centered on religious beliefs. In both equally civilizations faith based leaders received a very high status. They were both polytheistic, that means they thought their community was ruled by several god.
They presumed that the gods created these people, and they were responsible for great harvests. Now that Mesopotamia and Egypt were more high – tech, they equally built religious structures. Mesopotamia built ziggurats, and the Egyptians built pyramids. The priests went to the Ziggurats and Pyramids to pray, and to make offerings to the gods.
Mesopotamia and Egypt both acquired major achievements. Mesopotamia was more agriculturally advanced and built irrigation systems. That they invented plowing and tires, to help them with farming. Inventions became more advanced, andmore efficient for their way of living. They created strong mud houses, and religious buildings. By now, equally Mesopotamia and Egypt shaped a dialect and an alphabet, but Egypt started out gaining understanding in math, and technology. Egypt’s application of knowledge helped them create numbers, calendars, medicines, and in addition they even started out performing surgeries.
Mesopotamia and Egypt are very similar, and different in many ways. They are similar in religion, because they are the two polytheistic and rely on the gods to rule these people. Mesopotamia is unique than Egypt with their accomplishments, because that they invented points that would help their civilizations, and families in their environment. And lastly, also, they are similar intellectually, because they will both a new written vocabulary, and produced a similar alphabet with picture like icons. | <urn:uuid:01a3c757-1fd9-44be-918a-c36efa949e63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mabuty.com/compare-and-contrast-egypt-and-mesopotamia-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.986378 | 549 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.281405... | 2 | Compare and contrast egypt and mesopotamia essay
Egypt and Mesopotamia had been the initially river area civilizations in 3500 N. C. At the. They were equally similar intellectually, because that they both developed written language, and the same alphabet. These people were also similar religiously, since they both were polytheistic and thought their gods ruled these people. Mesopotamia and Egypt were different using their achievements, since over time they gained understanding of things that helped their civilizations, and helped them adapt to their environment.
Mesopotamia and Egypt were both equally intellectually identical, because that they both had a written vocabulary forming.
Only $13.90 / page
The Egyptians got hieroglyphics, and Mesopotamia employed clay tablets to pull similar pictograms. They produced board games, and other entertaining activities. They both experienced greater literacy forming given that they had a written vocabulary. They have reports like The Impressive of Gilgamesh and The Hymn to the Earth which were spiritual literature.
The two Egypt and Mesopotamia were centered on religious beliefs. In both equally civilizations faith based leaders received a very high status. They were both polytheistic, that means they thought their community was ruled by several god.
They presumed that the gods created these people, and they were responsible for great harvests. Now that Mesopotamia and Egypt were more high – tech, they equally built religious structures. Mesopotamia built ziggurats, and the Egyptians built pyramids. The priests went to the Ziggurats and Pyramids to pray, and to make offerings to the gods.
Mesopotamia and Egypt both acquired major achievements. Mesopotamia was more agriculturally advanced and built irrigation systems. That they invented plowing and tires, to help them with farming. Inventions became more advanced, andmore efficient for their way of living. They created strong mud houses, and religious buildings. By now, equally Mesopotamia and Egypt shaped a dialect and an alphabet, but Egypt started out gaining understanding in math, and technology. Egypt’s application of knowledge helped them create numbers, calendars, medicines, and in addition they even started out performing surgeries.
Mesopotamia and Egypt are very similar, and different in many ways. They are similar in religion, because they are the two polytheistic and rely on the gods to rule these people. Mesopotamia is unique than Egypt with their accomplishments, because that they invented points that would help their civilizations, and families in their environment. And lastly, also, they are similar intellectually, because they will both a new written vocabulary, and produced a similar alphabet with picture like icons. | 555 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Richmond Slave Trail mirrors the experience of many African slaves in Richmond. It begins on the south side of the James River at Ancarrow’s Landing and ends a little more than three miles later at the First African Baptist Church near Main and 15th streets.
Ancarrow’s Landing and the Manchester Docks: Many African slaves likely arrived in Richmond at this location. This was once an active slave-trading site, where human beings were sold and transported.
Slave Trade Path: This was the path taken by many African slaves brought into Richmond. They were transported down this path to Lumpkin’s Jail, which was used as a holding center for human beings before they were taken to auction houses.
Mayo Bridge: This bridge was built to connect Manchester and Richmond. This allowed for an increase in business, much of which revolved around the slave trade.
Kanawha Canal: Built in the 18th century, this canal system brought a major increase of commerce to Richmond. The canal system was built by slaves and became a means of transporting African slaves to and from the city.
Auction Houses: A number of old auction houses lie in the Shockoe Bottom. These nondescript buildings once served as places where people were sold alongside goods and livestock. On average, African slaves sold for about $900 each. Women were worth more than men because they could reproduce. Young, healthy slaves went for more money. Skilled slaves were the most valuable.
Reconciliation Statue: Three identical statues have been erected in Richmond; Benin, West Africa; and Liverpool, England. Those locations played key roles in the worldwide, triangular trade route of slaves: Slave ships were built in England; they sailed to Africa to obtain slaves; the slaves were brought to the United States. (Richmond was the second-largest slave market in the U.S., after New Orleans.) These statues of two people embracing represent a goal of the Slave Trail Commission – creating dialog to reconcile with the violent past.
Lumpkin’s Jail: The jail was a holding area for Africans before they were taken to various auction houses. Much of this site, once called “the Devil’s Half-Acre,” has been covered by development, such as construction of Interstate 95. A recent archeological dig uncovered a number of artifacts and the base of jail. After the Civil War, Lumpkin’s Jail was transformed into a school for African-Americans; the school eventually became Virginia Union University.
Negro Burial Ground: Situated near Lumpkin’s Jail, many African-Americans were executed here. They include Gabriel Prosser, who attempted to lead a rebellion against Virginia’s government. Often overlooked forerunners to the civil rights movement, Gabriel and his supporters wanted equality of all races. The land is currently owned by Virginia Commonwealth University and is used as a parking lot.
First African Baptist Church: Founded in 1841, this church became an integral part of Richmond’s African-American community. At the time, African Americans were forbidden from holding meetings outside of churches, so this building served an important function within the community.
Compiled by Stephanie Power and Anna Yates from information provided by Sa’ad El-Amin and Beverly Crawford | <urn:uuid:bef99720-d7ff-4fa6-b321-c0e912209fd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vcuinsight.wordpress.com/2009/05/10/sites-along-the-richmond-slave-trail/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.981479 | 680 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.031838349997997... | 2 | The Richmond Slave Trail mirrors the experience of many African slaves in Richmond. It begins on the south side of the James River at Ancarrow’s Landing and ends a little more than three miles later at the First African Baptist Church near Main and 15th streets.
Ancarrow’s Landing and the Manchester Docks: Many African slaves likely arrived in Richmond at this location. This was once an active slave-trading site, where human beings were sold and transported.
Slave Trade Path: This was the path taken by many African slaves brought into Richmond. They were transported down this path to Lumpkin’s Jail, which was used as a holding center for human beings before they were taken to auction houses.
Mayo Bridge: This bridge was built to connect Manchester and Richmond. This allowed for an increase in business, much of which revolved around the slave trade.
Kanawha Canal: Built in the 18th century, this canal system brought a major increase of commerce to Richmond. The canal system was built by slaves and became a means of transporting African slaves to and from the city.
Auction Houses: A number of old auction houses lie in the Shockoe Bottom. These nondescript buildings once served as places where people were sold alongside goods and livestock. On average, African slaves sold for about $900 each. Women were worth more than men because they could reproduce. Young, healthy slaves went for more money. Skilled slaves were the most valuable.
Reconciliation Statue: Three identical statues have been erected in Richmond; Benin, West Africa; and Liverpool, England. Those locations played key roles in the worldwide, triangular trade route of slaves: Slave ships were built in England; they sailed to Africa to obtain slaves; the slaves were brought to the United States. (Richmond was the second-largest slave market in the U.S., after New Orleans.) These statues of two people embracing represent a goal of the Slave Trail Commission – creating dialog to reconcile with the violent past.
Lumpkin’s Jail: The jail was a holding area for Africans before they were taken to various auction houses. Much of this site, once called “the Devil’s Half-Acre,” has been covered by development, such as construction of Interstate 95. A recent archeological dig uncovered a number of artifacts and the base of jail. After the Civil War, Lumpkin’s Jail was transformed into a school for African-Americans; the school eventually became Virginia Union University.
Negro Burial Ground: Situated near Lumpkin’s Jail, many African-Americans were executed here. They include Gabriel Prosser, who attempted to lead a rebellion against Virginia’s government. Often overlooked forerunners to the civil rights movement, Gabriel and his supporters wanted equality of all races. The land is currently owned by Virginia Commonwealth University and is used as a parking lot.
First African Baptist Church: Founded in 1841, this church became an integral part of Richmond’s African-American community. At the time, African Americans were forbidden from holding meetings outside of churches, so this building served an important function within the community.
Compiled by Stephanie Power and Anna Yates from information provided by Sa’ad El-Amin and Beverly Crawford | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saddle Fit and All We have Seemingly Forgotten Over the Years... (A short history of design)
By Jochen Schleese|March 16th, 2015
Our forefathers depended on the soundness of the horse in order to be able to continue to do their jobs, or even survive. Horses at the turn of the century (and up to the mid-1900s) were still used primarily as working animals in agriculture or in the military. Their owners and riders were true horsemen, and generally knew everything they needed to know to keep their horses sound and their saddles and tack fitting well. Then when the industrial revolution really took off and horses were relegated to the sidelines, it seems that a lot of this knowledge and experience was simply lost in translation. It was not until the mid-1950s that equestrianism as a recreational and competitive sport began to really take hold – with a huge shift in demographics to the female side of the population. Unfortunately, although there are certainly still many true ‘equestriennes’ out there, many of today’s riders are women who are just now taking up the sport (having time and discretionary funds to spare for this not-inexpensive pastime) really have never had the advantage of being raised with horses, and need to rely on industry professionals to keep their horses happy.
One of the most glaring changes has been in the design of the saddle. Many of you will be familiar (at least in theory) with the McClellan saddle from Civil War days. This saddle epitomizes how much time and effort went into the design of military saddles, with a goal to produce a properly fitting saddle that would keep horses healthy for the longest time. McClellan studied and documented the design, construction, and innovative features of saddles from various European countries, and watched how the cavalries in several military conflicts used these. Based on his observations and analyses in Europe, he then developed a specific design for the US Army, which at the time was almost certainly the ultimate in saddle-tree innovation. It was used for the time during the Civil War in 1859, and was built for the last time in 1928. It was still in use during the Second World War, and is the basis for the design and development of the saddles used by many endurance riders today. What makes it so good?
The saddle allows for shoulder relief to accommodate the movement of the horse’s shoulders when in motion. The v-billet system is adjustable to ensure that the saddle will not bridge; it has a wide gullet, and it has a cut-out in the middle of the tree (which we have incorporated into our saddle designs as the patented Crotch Comfort® system). These are all great features with necessary benefits to the horse, and it is definitely not necessary to reinvent the wheel to design a saddle that is ergonomically friendly to horse and rider
Many of the latest ‘innovations’ in saddle design have actually found their origins in history, but much of this ‘common knowledge’ has been lost over the years. Saddlery is not a new science; saddles have been around and in use for many centuries. Especially in the cavalry it was crucial for the soldier to have a rideable, healthy horse available for use over long distances. It used to be one of the jobs of the cavalry officer to teach his men how to make the necessary adjustments to their saddle to bring it back into balance after changes in their horses’s musculature or nutrition altered his conformation. In those days, many saddlers actually lived with their horses. Working with them on a daily basis allowed them to become so intimate that they intuitively came to know what was best for their horses. This knowledge was passed on through the generations, mostly from father to son. Most saddles were made on an individual, totally custom basis, beginning with the horse. The tree was made after the horse’s conformation was analyzed and measured; leather was cut accordingly, and the saddle was flocked as necessary to accommodate a specific horse’s back.
This is still how saddles are made for working horses in Brazil by their owners – the cowboys.
In the 20th Century the recognition of the horse for recreational and athletic purposes opened the equestrian industry as a mainstream activity – which led to the rebirth of saddlery on a whole new level. Women began to ride astride on saddles which had been made for men, preferring their security over the traditional female side saddle. Saddle manufacturers jumped on the bandwagon and began mass production of generically fitting saddles (narrow, medium, wide, 16”-19”). Demand created the process and the business was driven by business people rather than knowledgeable saddlers and horse people. (It is interesting to note, that although the development of tanks, jeeps and artillery replaced the use of horses for the most part after the Second World War, the sport of 3-day eventing actually had its origins in the military. The first competitors were almost exclusively cavalry officers and to this day this sport is nicknamed “military” in Germany.
So as it turns out, a saddle that was originally conceptualized for military used is nowadays responsible to ensure fun and adventure rather than used in place of fear and conflict. Times may have changed, but the health and comfort of horse and rider still need to be the focus of saddle fit. More manufacturers ought to look to the origins of especially the McClellan in their design; sometimes too much focus is put on ‘looks’ rather than functionality and purpose. | <urn:uuid:6a50f3e6-a555-4ceb-9a15-101e504fc602> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://schleese.com/saddle-fit-and-all-we-have-seemingly-forgotten-over-the-years-a-short-history-of-design/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.983889 | 1,162 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1269093155860901,... | 1 | Saddle Fit and All We have Seemingly Forgotten Over the Years... (A short history of design)
By Jochen Schleese|March 16th, 2015
Our forefathers depended on the soundness of the horse in order to be able to continue to do their jobs, or even survive. Horses at the turn of the century (and up to the mid-1900s) were still used primarily as working animals in agriculture or in the military. Their owners and riders were true horsemen, and generally knew everything they needed to know to keep their horses sound and their saddles and tack fitting well. Then when the industrial revolution really took off and horses were relegated to the sidelines, it seems that a lot of this knowledge and experience was simply lost in translation. It was not until the mid-1950s that equestrianism as a recreational and competitive sport began to really take hold – with a huge shift in demographics to the female side of the population. Unfortunately, although there are certainly still many true ‘equestriennes’ out there, many of today’s riders are women who are just now taking up the sport (having time and discretionary funds to spare for this not-inexpensive pastime) really have never had the advantage of being raised with horses, and need to rely on industry professionals to keep their horses happy.
One of the most glaring changes has been in the design of the saddle. Many of you will be familiar (at least in theory) with the McClellan saddle from Civil War days. This saddle epitomizes how much time and effort went into the design of military saddles, with a goal to produce a properly fitting saddle that would keep horses healthy for the longest time. McClellan studied and documented the design, construction, and innovative features of saddles from various European countries, and watched how the cavalries in several military conflicts used these. Based on his observations and analyses in Europe, he then developed a specific design for the US Army, which at the time was almost certainly the ultimate in saddle-tree innovation. It was used for the time during the Civil War in 1859, and was built for the last time in 1928. It was still in use during the Second World War, and is the basis for the design and development of the saddles used by many endurance riders today. What makes it so good?
The saddle allows for shoulder relief to accommodate the movement of the horse’s shoulders when in motion. The v-billet system is adjustable to ensure that the saddle will not bridge; it has a wide gullet, and it has a cut-out in the middle of the tree (which we have incorporated into our saddle designs as the patented Crotch Comfort® system). These are all great features with necessary benefits to the horse, and it is definitely not necessary to reinvent the wheel to design a saddle that is ergonomically friendly to horse and rider
Many of the latest ‘innovations’ in saddle design have actually found their origins in history, but much of this ‘common knowledge’ has been lost over the years. Saddlery is not a new science; saddles have been around and in use for many centuries. Especially in the cavalry it was crucial for the soldier to have a rideable, healthy horse available for use over long distances. It used to be one of the jobs of the cavalry officer to teach his men how to make the necessary adjustments to their saddle to bring it back into balance after changes in their horses’s musculature or nutrition altered his conformation. In those days, many saddlers actually lived with their horses. Working with them on a daily basis allowed them to become so intimate that they intuitively came to know what was best for their horses. This knowledge was passed on through the generations, mostly from father to son. Most saddles were made on an individual, totally custom basis, beginning with the horse. The tree was made after the horse’s conformation was analyzed and measured; leather was cut accordingly, and the saddle was flocked as necessary to accommodate a specific horse’s back.
This is still how saddles are made for working horses in Brazil by their owners – the cowboys.
In the 20th Century the recognition of the horse for recreational and athletic purposes opened the equestrian industry as a mainstream activity – which led to the rebirth of saddlery on a whole new level. Women began to ride astride on saddles which had been made for men, preferring their security over the traditional female side saddle. Saddle manufacturers jumped on the bandwagon and began mass production of generically fitting saddles (narrow, medium, wide, 16”-19”). Demand created the process and the business was driven by business people rather than knowledgeable saddlers and horse people. (It is interesting to note, that although the development of tanks, jeeps and artillery replaced the use of horses for the most part after the Second World War, the sport of 3-day eventing actually had its origins in the military. The first competitors were almost exclusively cavalry officers and to this day this sport is nicknamed “military” in Germany.
So as it turns out, a saddle that was originally conceptualized for military used is nowadays responsible to ensure fun and adventure rather than used in place of fear and conflict. Times may have changed, but the health and comfort of horse and rider still need to be the focus of saddle fit. More manufacturers ought to look to the origins of especially the McClellan in their design; sometimes too much focus is put on ‘looks’ rather than functionality and purpose. | 1,158 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Hard Times, give a brief analysis of Thomas Gradgrind, Louisa Gradgrind and Josiah Bounderby in Book I.
I will focus on how these characters are introduced in the novel rather than give you a detailed account of what they do in the first book. Introducing characters is something that is done particularly well by Dickens and his introductions always manage to give us a very clear idea about who they are and their general characteristics.
Thomas Gradgrind is characterised in the very first chapter by his utilitarian philosophy and the reliance on facts in his philosophy of education:
"Now, what I want is Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts."
As the first chapter suggests, everything about his rather austere and foreboding appearance underlines and emphasises this maxim, showing Gradgrind to be a man divorced from emotions and feelings.
We are first introduced to Louisa in Chapter 3 when she goes to see the circus, "to see what it is like." Being brought up by their father's educational philosophy and ideas, Dickens tells us that:
...struggling through the dissatisfaction of her face, there was a light with nothing to rest upon, a fire with nothing to burn, a starved imagination keeping life in itself somehow, which brightened its expression.
In spite of her father's attempts to teach her nothing but "Facts," it appears some lingering remembrance of the power of imagination struggles on.
When we think of Bounderby, he is introduced in Chapter 4 in ways that make clear his arrogance, his pride and his power:
A man with a great puffed head and forehead, swelled veins in his temples, and such a strained skin to his face that it seemed to hold his eyes open and lift his eyebrows up. A man with a pervading appearance on him of being inflated like a balloon, and ready to start. A man who could never sufficiently vaunt himself a self-made man. A man who was always proclaiming, through that brassy speaking-trumpet of a voice of his, his old ignorance and his old poverty. A man who was the Bully of humility.
He literally has a "big head," and by describing him as the "Bully of humility," Dickens prepares us for Bounderby's endless fictions about his childhood used to justify his harsh treatment of his "Hands."
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:7c9c2c66-7ec5-49c4-8026-c210c29501aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/describe-character-thomas-gradgrind-louisa-222375?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.984614 | 497 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.280357956886... | 3 | In Hard Times, give a brief analysis of Thomas Gradgrind, Louisa Gradgrind and Josiah Bounderby in Book I.
I will focus on how these characters are introduced in the novel rather than give you a detailed account of what they do in the first book. Introducing characters is something that is done particularly well by Dickens and his introductions always manage to give us a very clear idea about who they are and their general characteristics.
Thomas Gradgrind is characterised in the very first chapter by his utilitarian philosophy and the reliance on facts in his philosophy of education:
"Now, what I want is Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts."
As the first chapter suggests, everything about his rather austere and foreboding appearance underlines and emphasises this maxim, showing Gradgrind to be a man divorced from emotions and feelings.
We are first introduced to Louisa in Chapter 3 when she goes to see the circus, "to see what it is like." Being brought up by their father's educational philosophy and ideas, Dickens tells us that:
...struggling through the dissatisfaction of her face, there was a light with nothing to rest upon, a fire with nothing to burn, a starved imagination keeping life in itself somehow, which brightened its expression.
In spite of her father's attempts to teach her nothing but "Facts," it appears some lingering remembrance of the power of imagination struggles on.
When we think of Bounderby, he is introduced in Chapter 4 in ways that make clear his arrogance, his pride and his power:
A man with a great puffed head and forehead, swelled veins in his temples, and such a strained skin to his face that it seemed to hold his eyes open and lift his eyebrows up. A man with a pervading appearance on him of being inflated like a balloon, and ready to start. A man who could never sufficiently vaunt himself a self-made man. A man who was always proclaiming, through that brassy speaking-trumpet of a voice of his, his old ignorance and his old poverty. A man who was the Bully of humility.
He literally has a "big head," and by describing him as the "Bully of humility," Dickens prepares us for Bounderby's endless fictions about his childhood used to justify his harsh treatment of his "Hands."
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Jewish 8-day holiday of Hanukkah (Hebrew for “Dedication”) began last Sunday evening. Two thousand years ago, it was a major Jewish festival of miracles that inspired Jews and early Christians alike. Later, Jewish religious leaders suppressed and ignored both the holiday and the story behind it. Meanwhile, early Christians were inspired by it. It was early Christians who preserved the Hanukkah story by including it in their Bible.
When I was a kid in New Jersey in the 1950’s, the holiday was usually spelled Chanukah with the “ch” pronounced “kh”. I was taught in my Hebrew school that it was a minor holiday for most Jews. My rabbi even criticized American Jews who made a big deal out of Hanukkah. He said they were doing it only to imitate Christians who celebrated Christmas during the same time of year.
Hanukkah is not mentioned anywhere in the Jewish Old Testament. It is barely mentioned in the Jewish Mishna and Talmud, the two other sets of books that define and describe modern Judaism.
However, the complete story of Hanukkah is found in the Apocrypha section of Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christian Bibles. The English word “macabre” probably comes from plays that told the Hanukkah story in Catholic churches during the Middle Ages. The Gospel of John describes how Jesus preached in Holy Temple in Jerusalem during the Feast of Dedication (the English translation of Hanukkah). After his life was threatened, Jesus only seemed to visit the capital of Jerusalem (with its Roman soldiers and wealthy and powerful elites) during major holidays. That was the only time he was surrounded and protected by large crowds of common people from farms and small towns in his native Galilee.
Hanukkah is not like the Jewish holidays of Passover or Sabbath. There are no special synagogue services. It is a regular day of work and school. Jews light candles at home and praise God for “making miracles for our ancestors during this season“.
What were those miracles? The Jewish Talmud describes only one. When the Greeks were driven out of the Jewish Temple, there was only enough pure olive oil to keep the seven branch menorah lit for one day. However, that one day supply of oil miraculously burned for eight days, until new oil could be pressed.
The Books of the Maccabees in Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Bibles tell a far more detailed and dramatic story. It begins when Alexander the Great died after conquering most of the known world. Alexander divided his vast empire among his three top commanders, his friends since boyhood. One ruled Macedonia in Europe, another ruled Egypt, and a third ruled all the provinces in Asia from what is now Turkey to India.
About 150 years later, Antiochus, the Greek ruler of what is now Israel and the other Asian provinces tried to take control of the European and Egyptian portions of the empire as well. His name was Antiochus.
Antiochus declared that there should be one Greek empire with one ruler, one culture, and one religion. He ordered every nation under his control to publicly worship Zeus and the other Greek gods. Everyone complied except the Jews. Although they paid taxes and obeyed all other laws, Jews stubbornly clung to their Bibles. They refused to work or compete in athletics on Sabbath, refused to eat pork, and refused to offer sacrifices to the Greek gods. They also continued to circumcise their sons.
The Greek emperor Antiochus then ruled that the Jewish religion was subversive, and had to be eliminated. Antiochus and his administrators declared that any Jew found with a Bible in possession was to be tortured and killed. So was any Jew who circumcised his or her sons, refused to work or compete in games on the Sabbath, eat pork, or sacrifice to Greek gods.
Eleazer was an elderly philosopher who was respected in the Greek community. When he refused to publicly eat pork, he was arrested, and beaten. He was given the chance to save his life by just publicly eating permitted meat while pretending it was pork. When he refused, his skin was stripped off with sharp instruments, and he was burned alive.
A random woman named Hannah was arrested, along with her seven sons were arrested. One by one her sons were ordered to publicly eat pork. One by one, each of them refused. One by one, their tongues were cut out, then their arms and legs were cut off. Finally they were thrown into pans of boiling oil. After all seven of her sons were tortured and killed in this way, Hannah was tortured and killed in the same way.
If any infant boy was found to be circumcised, the baby and mother were killed, and the bodies were publicly displayed with the body of the dead baby tied to his mother’s neck.
Slowly, Israel’s leading citizens began to comply. It seemed as if the Jewish religion was doomed. But then one day, a priest named Mattityahu (Gift of Jehovah) also spelled Matthew or Mattathias escaped from the Temple in Jerusalem and fled to the small town of Modin. Later they hid in caves in the desert. They learned, taught, and practiced military skills and tactics. They learned how to make swords, spears, shields, armor, and other seapons of war. Then they fought back against the Greeks. They attracted thousands of followers, and soon became known as “The Hammers” (“Maccabees” in Hebrew).
The Maccabees offended many traditional Jews. The Maccabees surprised the Greeks by fighting disregard the Bible law against working and fighting on the holy Sabbath. (They justified this by saying God had commanded Jews to live by these laws, and not die because of them.)
The Maccabees also sent ambassadors to Italy and negotiated a military alliance with the non-Jewish Roman Republic. This forced turned the Jewish rebellion into a world war, and forced the Greeks to divide their forces.
After years of struggle, the Maccabees won, and drove the Greeks out of Jerusalem. Most Jews celebrated the survival of the Jewish religion as the miracle of Hanukkah.
The Maccabees then became kings of an independent Jewish kingdom. This also offended Jews who believed only a descendant of King David from the tribe of Judah could be king. The Maccabees were from the priestly tribe of Levi. For centuries, Jewish tradition did not permit priests to be political leaders.
One hundred years later, two spoiled great-grandsons of the Maccabees ruined the miracle. While fighting with each other over who should be king, one invited Pompeii, the commander of a nearby Roman army for help. Pompeii marched into Jerusalem and instead made Israel another conquered Roman province.
Later, Jews inspired by the Hanukkah story rebelled against Rome three times. During these rebellions, time, there were no miracles. The Romans destroyed the Jewish Temple and all Jerusalem. They sold hundreds of thousands of Jewish men, women, and children as slaves throughout the Roman Empire. The Romans even gave the ruined Jewish province a new name — “Palestine”. Israel was now named after the Philistines — their ancient enemies of Jews During this time, the Maccabee books telling the story of Hanukkah disappeared from the Jewish Bible.??
Ironically, early Christians were inspired by the Hanukkah story that so many Jews wanted to forget. During the year 64, the Roman Emperor Nero declared Christianity to be a subversive religion. He tried to wipe out Christianity just as the Greeks previously tried to wipe out Judaism. For the next 300 years, Roman soldiers arrested, tortured, and killed Christians throughout the Empire who refused to renounce their faith. Some were covered with tar and burned alive as human torches. Others were fed to hungry lions in stadiums to entertain cheering crowds.
Those early Christians kept their hope alive by remembering how God redeemed the Jews from the Greeks hundreds of years earlier. They kept Books of the Maccabees in their Bibles.
The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah is celebrated on a different day each year in the Western Calendar. However, it always celebrated on the 25th day of the month of Kislev, the first winter month in the Hebrew calendar. Each month of the Hebrew calendar starts with the new moon and has 29 or 30 days. To catch up with a calendar based on the yearly cycle of the sun, a 13th month is added to the Hebrew calendar every few years. That is why Jewish holidays determined by the Hebrew calendar based on the moon’s monthly cycle fall on different days each year on our Roman calendar based on the sun’s yearly cycle. The New Testament does not specify the day Jesus was born. However, roughly 300 years later, Christians began celebrating the birth of Jesus on the 25th day of the first winter month of the Roman calendar. Coincidence? | <urn:uuid:01917afc-c4f5-4a3a-9a03-f4721370f25e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.libertyandprosperity.com/hanukkah-the-jewish-holiday-of-miracles-that-inspired-early-christians/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.980732 | 1,852 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3204685747623... | 9 | The Jewish 8-day holiday of Hanukkah (Hebrew for “Dedication”) began last Sunday evening. Two thousand years ago, it was a major Jewish festival of miracles that inspired Jews and early Christians alike. Later, Jewish religious leaders suppressed and ignored both the holiday and the story behind it. Meanwhile, early Christians were inspired by it. It was early Christians who preserved the Hanukkah story by including it in their Bible.
When I was a kid in New Jersey in the 1950’s, the holiday was usually spelled Chanukah with the “ch” pronounced “kh”. I was taught in my Hebrew school that it was a minor holiday for most Jews. My rabbi even criticized American Jews who made a big deal out of Hanukkah. He said they were doing it only to imitate Christians who celebrated Christmas during the same time of year.
Hanukkah is not mentioned anywhere in the Jewish Old Testament. It is barely mentioned in the Jewish Mishna and Talmud, the two other sets of books that define and describe modern Judaism.
However, the complete story of Hanukkah is found in the Apocrypha section of Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christian Bibles. The English word “macabre” probably comes from plays that told the Hanukkah story in Catholic churches during the Middle Ages. The Gospel of John describes how Jesus preached in Holy Temple in Jerusalem during the Feast of Dedication (the English translation of Hanukkah). After his life was threatened, Jesus only seemed to visit the capital of Jerusalem (with its Roman soldiers and wealthy and powerful elites) during major holidays. That was the only time he was surrounded and protected by large crowds of common people from farms and small towns in his native Galilee.
Hanukkah is not like the Jewish holidays of Passover or Sabbath. There are no special synagogue services. It is a regular day of work and school. Jews light candles at home and praise God for “making miracles for our ancestors during this season“.
What were those miracles? The Jewish Talmud describes only one. When the Greeks were driven out of the Jewish Temple, there was only enough pure olive oil to keep the seven branch menorah lit for one day. However, that one day supply of oil miraculously burned for eight days, until new oil could be pressed.
The Books of the Maccabees in Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Bibles tell a far more detailed and dramatic story. It begins when Alexander the Great died after conquering most of the known world. Alexander divided his vast empire among his three top commanders, his friends since boyhood. One ruled Macedonia in Europe, another ruled Egypt, and a third ruled all the provinces in Asia from what is now Turkey to India.
About 150 years later, Antiochus, the Greek ruler of what is now Israel and the other Asian provinces tried to take control of the European and Egyptian portions of the empire as well. His name was Antiochus.
Antiochus declared that there should be one Greek empire with one ruler, one culture, and one religion. He ordered every nation under his control to publicly worship Zeus and the other Greek gods. Everyone complied except the Jews. Although they paid taxes and obeyed all other laws, Jews stubbornly clung to their Bibles. They refused to work or compete in athletics on Sabbath, refused to eat pork, and refused to offer sacrifices to the Greek gods. They also continued to circumcise their sons.
The Greek emperor Antiochus then ruled that the Jewish religion was subversive, and had to be eliminated. Antiochus and his administrators declared that any Jew found with a Bible in possession was to be tortured and killed. So was any Jew who circumcised his or her sons, refused to work or compete in games on the Sabbath, eat pork, or sacrifice to Greek gods.
Eleazer was an elderly philosopher who was respected in the Greek community. When he refused to publicly eat pork, he was arrested, and beaten. He was given the chance to save his life by just publicly eating permitted meat while pretending it was pork. When he refused, his skin was stripped off with sharp instruments, and he was burned alive.
A random woman named Hannah was arrested, along with her seven sons were arrested. One by one her sons were ordered to publicly eat pork. One by one, each of them refused. One by one, their tongues were cut out, then their arms and legs were cut off. Finally they were thrown into pans of boiling oil. After all seven of her sons were tortured and killed in this way, Hannah was tortured and killed in the same way.
If any infant boy was found to be circumcised, the baby and mother were killed, and the bodies were publicly displayed with the body of the dead baby tied to his mother’s neck.
Slowly, Israel’s leading citizens began to comply. It seemed as if the Jewish religion was doomed. But then one day, a priest named Mattityahu (Gift of Jehovah) also spelled Matthew or Mattathias escaped from the Temple in Jerusalem and fled to the small town of Modin. Later they hid in caves in the desert. They learned, taught, and practiced military skills and tactics. They learned how to make swords, spears, shields, armor, and other seapons of war. Then they fought back against the Greeks. They attracted thousands of followers, and soon became known as “The Hammers” (“Maccabees” in Hebrew).
The Maccabees offended many traditional Jews. The Maccabees surprised the Greeks by fighting disregard the Bible law against working and fighting on the holy Sabbath. (They justified this by saying God had commanded Jews to live by these laws, and not die because of them.)
The Maccabees also sent ambassadors to Italy and negotiated a military alliance with the non-Jewish Roman Republic. This forced turned the Jewish rebellion into a world war, and forced the Greeks to divide their forces.
After years of struggle, the Maccabees won, and drove the Greeks out of Jerusalem. Most Jews celebrated the survival of the Jewish religion as the miracle of Hanukkah.
The Maccabees then became kings of an independent Jewish kingdom. This also offended Jews who believed only a descendant of King David from the tribe of Judah could be king. The Maccabees were from the priestly tribe of Levi. For centuries, Jewish tradition did not permit priests to be political leaders.
One hundred years later, two spoiled great-grandsons of the Maccabees ruined the miracle. While fighting with each other over who should be king, one invited Pompeii, the commander of a nearby Roman army for help. Pompeii marched into Jerusalem and instead made Israel another conquered Roman province.
Later, Jews inspired by the Hanukkah story rebelled against Rome three times. During these rebellions, time, there were no miracles. The Romans destroyed the Jewish Temple and all Jerusalem. They sold hundreds of thousands of Jewish men, women, and children as slaves throughout the Roman Empire. The Romans even gave the ruined Jewish province a new name — “Palestine”. Israel was now named after the Philistines — their ancient enemies of Jews During this time, the Maccabee books telling the story of Hanukkah disappeared from the Jewish Bible.??
Ironically, early Christians were inspired by the Hanukkah story that so many Jews wanted to forget. During the year 64, the Roman Emperor Nero declared Christianity to be a subversive religion. He tried to wipe out Christianity just as the Greeks previously tried to wipe out Judaism. For the next 300 years, Roman soldiers arrested, tortured, and killed Christians throughout the Empire who refused to renounce their faith. Some were covered with tar and burned alive as human torches. Others were fed to hungry lions in stadiums to entertain cheering crowds.
Those early Christians kept their hope alive by remembering how God redeemed the Jews from the Greeks hundreds of years earlier. They kept Books of the Maccabees in their Bibles.
The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah is celebrated on a different day each year in the Western Calendar. However, it always celebrated on the 25th day of the month of Kislev, the first winter month in the Hebrew calendar. Each month of the Hebrew calendar starts with the new moon and has 29 or 30 days. To catch up with a calendar based on the yearly cycle of the sun, a 13th month is added to the Hebrew calendar every few years. That is why Jewish holidays determined by the Hebrew calendar based on the moon’s monthly cycle fall on different days each year on our Roman calendar based on the sun’s yearly cycle. The New Testament does not specify the day Jesus was born. However, roughly 300 years later, Christians began celebrating the birth of Jesus on the 25th day of the first winter month of the Roman calendar. Coincidence? | 1,839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Central Council of the Midlands, sometimes known as the Council of the Midlands, was the ruling body of all the Midlands. The Council ruled from Aydindril and was led by the Mother Confessor. The First Chair of the council was always held by the Mother Confessor, who by ruling the Central Council effectively ruled the Midlands.
The rulers of the most powerful lands of the Midlands were entitled to appoint a councilor to the Council. These councilors comprised the membership of the council. Each councilor was entitled to one vote, with no nation's vote having more weight than another's. The Mother Confessor represented the lesser nations and made sure that their rights were not being infringed upon in favor of higher-ranking lands. Though the council theoretically made decisions based on what a majority of councilors voted for, the Mother Confessor ultimately possessed the right to veto the council's acts. The leaders of the various nations of the Midlands were also entitled to personally address the council to better put forward their concerns or to highlight the issues facing their land. | <urn:uuid:004467b8-ae76-4d4f-a7cb-d0f23f24d6d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sot.fandom.com/wiki/Central_Council_of_the_Midlands | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.986672 | 213 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.081706367433... | 2 | The Central Council of the Midlands, sometimes known as the Council of the Midlands, was the ruling body of all the Midlands. The Council ruled from Aydindril and was led by the Mother Confessor. The First Chair of the council was always held by the Mother Confessor, who by ruling the Central Council effectively ruled the Midlands.
The rulers of the most powerful lands of the Midlands were entitled to appoint a councilor to the Council. These councilors comprised the membership of the council. Each councilor was entitled to one vote, with no nation's vote having more weight than another's. The Mother Confessor represented the lesser nations and made sure that their rights were not being infringed upon in favor of higher-ranking lands. Though the council theoretically made decisions based on what a majority of councilors voted for, the Mother Confessor ultimately possessed the right to veto the council's acts. The leaders of the various nations of the Midlands were also entitled to personally address the council to better put forward their concerns or to highlight the issues facing their land. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mains-05: Modern Indian History – Significant Personalities
Tagore was uncomfortable with some aspects of the movement set in motion by Mahatma Gandhi, particularly his instrumentalists view of Satyagraha. Explain.
Tagore has been an ardent writer through out his life. One of his poems “Naba Barsha” is written in the context of celebrating Bengali New year. In this poem, he expressed his views his concerns about satyagraha and many other methods set up during our freedom struggle. Tagore maintains a theme stating everyone is losing ..
Why some leaders of India such as Ram Manohar Lohia, Abul Kalam Azad found Congress solely responsible for communalism and eventual partition of India? Critically discuss.
It is evident that the spirit of communalism as well as British Government’s policy was responsible for the partition of India. However, Muslim appeasement policy adopted by the Congress was also to a great extent responsible for this. Congress not only promoted the League but also at several times renounced its principles and accepted the ..
Discuss the origin and development of the Aligarh Movement with special emphasis on the part played by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan in promoting it.
This movement was launched by Syed Ahmad Khan, who was in the judicial service of the Company at the time of the rebellion of 1857 and stood loyal to the Government. After his retirement from service he appeared in the role of a socio-religious reformer. His articles in Tahzib-al-Akhlaq, which he started in 1870, as well .. | <urn:uuid:aa94765f-f9bf-4a70-9bd8-5d7a001d2523> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gktoday.in/upsc-mains-category/mains-05-modern-indian-history-significant-personalities/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.983187 | 332 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.14939825... | 2 | Mains-05: Modern Indian History – Significant Personalities
Tagore was uncomfortable with some aspects of the movement set in motion by Mahatma Gandhi, particularly his instrumentalists view of Satyagraha. Explain.
Tagore has been an ardent writer through out his life. One of his poems “Naba Barsha” is written in the context of celebrating Bengali New year. In this poem, he expressed his views his concerns about satyagraha and many other methods set up during our freedom struggle. Tagore maintains a theme stating everyone is losing ..
Why some leaders of India such as Ram Manohar Lohia, Abul Kalam Azad found Congress solely responsible for communalism and eventual partition of India? Critically discuss.
It is evident that the spirit of communalism as well as British Government’s policy was responsible for the partition of India. However, Muslim appeasement policy adopted by the Congress was also to a great extent responsible for this. Congress not only promoted the League but also at several times renounced its principles and accepted the ..
Discuss the origin and development of the Aligarh Movement with special emphasis on the part played by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan in promoting it.
This movement was launched by Syed Ahmad Khan, who was in the judicial service of the Company at the time of the rebellion of 1857 and stood loyal to the Government. After his retirement from service he appeared in the role of a socio-religious reformer. His articles in Tahzib-al-Akhlaq, which he started in 1870, as well .. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Table of Contents
The bearers and joists
Laying out the bearers
The two bearers were placed in position and made parallel (see the plan for Any of the three linear measurements, length, breadth and depth.).
Blocks of Timber, lumber. The hard fibrous lignified substance under the bark of trees were packed under the bearers where necessary until the bearers were level.
The bearers were not anchored or fastened in any way to the ground, since the shed was intended as a temporary arrangement only.
Placing and fixing the end joists
The two end joists (one each end) were placed and fixed in position. (See the plan for dimensions).
The joists were checked for Being of equal distance from each other at all points., the bearers were checked again for parallel, and the joists and bearers were checked for square.
Placing and fixing the intermediate joists
The intermediate joists were positioned. (See the plan for dimensions).
A string line was fixed to the ends of the two end joists.
The intermediate joists were aligned to the string line and then fixed in place. | <urn:uuid:afe7c326-e470-4eca-a6e1-c03e3df79157> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.buildeazy.com/shed-floor/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.984476 | 240 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.082862362265... | 1 | Table of Contents
The bearers and joists
Laying out the bearers
The two bearers were placed in position and made parallel (see the plan for Any of the three linear measurements, length, breadth and depth.).
Blocks of Timber, lumber. The hard fibrous lignified substance under the bark of trees were packed under the bearers where necessary until the bearers were level.
The bearers were not anchored or fastened in any way to the ground, since the shed was intended as a temporary arrangement only.
Placing and fixing the end joists
The two end joists (one each end) were placed and fixed in position. (See the plan for dimensions).
The joists were checked for Being of equal distance from each other at all points., the bearers were checked again for parallel, and the joists and bearers were checked for square.
Placing and fixing the intermediate joists
The intermediate joists were positioned. (See the plan for dimensions).
A string line was fixed to the ends of the two end joists.
The intermediate joists were aligned to the string line and then fixed in place. | 233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mexico has long had a love/hate relationship with France. Most people are aware that the French invaded Mexico in the 1860's and imposed a puppet monarchy, which resulted in a lengthy and bloody war before Mexico eventually regained its independence. Less well known is that there was actually an earlier violent French invasion, known as the Pastry War.
After gaining its independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico was far from stable: in its first twenty years, there were twenty presidents—most of whom seized power by force. Additionally, every new president faced the same hurdle—raising enough money to pay the army that had brought him to power,
In one year (1800), Mexico produced prodigious amounts of silver—so much so that Mexico was the economic engine that ran the Spanish Empire—but during the decades of wars for independence, the men had been pulled from the mines to fight. The abandoned mines quickly flooded and caved in. It was almost a century before the mines regained the production levels they had reached during colonial times.
Note. A visitor from another planet comparing the two dominant countries of North America would have easily predicted which country was destined for greatness. Possessing great natural resources, vastly larger in territory, one country was clearly more advanced. Her cities were much larger, had more cultural amenities, and a more integrated society. Mexico was clearly ahead, and when you factored in the slaves of the United States, had a higher per capita income. Unfortunately, independence brought stagnation and decay to Mexico. Less than 50 years later, Mexico lagged far behind the United States.
Desperate for cash, most of the incoming presidents were forced to use the same sources of revenue: forcing loans from the wealthy elite of Mexico—especially foreigners still residing in the country. Naturally, these loans were almost never repaid. These individuals would protest to their respective governments, who in turn, would protest to the Mexican government and demand repayment. Unfortunately, constantly changing administrations, fluctuating exchange rates, and a chronic shortage of funds in the Mexican treasury meant these claims were rarely settled.
In 1828, the shop of a French baker, Remontel, in Mexico City was emptied by the hungry Mexican Army. Remontel protested to King Louis Philippe of France, who demanded 600,000 pesos in repayment. Today, this is a meaningless number, but take my word for it: the French King was asking for a vast fortune. The average daily wage in Mexico at that time was no more than a single peso per day. They must have been really good French pastries.
The claim, of course, was not settled. In the interim, Mexico had another series of presidents, including Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who—after defeating the defenders of the Alamo—had lost Texas at the Battle of San Jacinto: Mexico was hardly in the position to repay any of her debts.
In 1838, the French King issued an ultimatum: either Mexico would pay her debts, or France would take military steps to enforce repayment. During their early years, most Latin American countries derived their tax revenues almost exclusively from import duties collected at port cities. Foreign countries, seeking to recover debts, could simply seize port cities and confiscate tax revenues until the debt was recovered.
Seizing ports and tax revenues evolved into a convenient excuse for European countries to attempt to seize New World countries. This was the same excuse France used when it imposed Maximilian on Mexico a generation later. In 1916, the United States seized the customs houses of the Dominican Republic to preempt European countries from doing the same thing. For decades, the US Marines collected import taxes, dividing the revenue between debt repayment and tax revenue for the island nation. While the Dominicans were unhappy about the occupation, they did note that the half revenue they received was substantially more revenue than they had received when their own people had run the customs houses, themselves.
When Mexico still refused to settle the debt, France sent a fleet to capture Veracruz, Mexico's main port. The port was protected by a massive fortress, San Juan de Alua, on an island in the harbor. An imposing structure, it had withstood pirate attacks for centuries. Unfortunately, this was a different age and the fortress was no match for the modern artillery of the French fleet. The fleet's exploding artillery rounds quickly ignited the fortress' magazines, making the attack one of the first examples of the futility of stone forts against naval gunnery—which was noticed by military leaders around the world.
France rather quickly captured the entire Mexican navy, bottled up all the ports, and cut off all trade in and out of Mexico while it demanded repayment of the debts. Mexico tried to smuggle goods into the country, and was forced to land ships as far away as Corpus Christi, Texas and bring the goods overland.
In the battles of Veracruz, Santa Ana returned from retirement, becoming something of a hero after he was wounded and lost his left leg after having his horse shot out from under him. This set the stage for his role in the Mexican-American War, just seven years later.
Eventually, both sides tired of the conflict, so Mexico agreed to pay the 600,000 pesos and France agreed to stop the embargo. Naturally, Mexico borrowed the funds. | <urn:uuid:efdbc12f-f455-43ce-9f47-1968e9f31c04> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://markmilliorn.blogspot.com/2016/08/the-pastry-war.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.983555 | 1,078 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.12123282253742218,... | 2 | Mexico has long had a love/hate relationship with France. Most people are aware that the French invaded Mexico in the 1860's and imposed a puppet monarchy, which resulted in a lengthy and bloody war before Mexico eventually regained its independence. Less well known is that there was actually an earlier violent French invasion, known as the Pastry War.
After gaining its independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico was far from stable: in its first twenty years, there were twenty presidents—most of whom seized power by force. Additionally, every new president faced the same hurdle—raising enough money to pay the army that had brought him to power,
In one year (1800), Mexico produced prodigious amounts of silver—so much so that Mexico was the economic engine that ran the Spanish Empire—but during the decades of wars for independence, the men had been pulled from the mines to fight. The abandoned mines quickly flooded and caved in. It was almost a century before the mines regained the production levels they had reached during colonial times.
Note. A visitor from another planet comparing the two dominant countries of North America would have easily predicted which country was destined for greatness. Possessing great natural resources, vastly larger in territory, one country was clearly more advanced. Her cities were much larger, had more cultural amenities, and a more integrated society. Mexico was clearly ahead, and when you factored in the slaves of the United States, had a higher per capita income. Unfortunately, independence brought stagnation and decay to Mexico. Less than 50 years later, Mexico lagged far behind the United States.
Desperate for cash, most of the incoming presidents were forced to use the same sources of revenue: forcing loans from the wealthy elite of Mexico—especially foreigners still residing in the country. Naturally, these loans were almost never repaid. These individuals would protest to their respective governments, who in turn, would protest to the Mexican government and demand repayment. Unfortunately, constantly changing administrations, fluctuating exchange rates, and a chronic shortage of funds in the Mexican treasury meant these claims were rarely settled.
In 1828, the shop of a French baker, Remontel, in Mexico City was emptied by the hungry Mexican Army. Remontel protested to King Louis Philippe of France, who demanded 600,000 pesos in repayment. Today, this is a meaningless number, but take my word for it: the French King was asking for a vast fortune. The average daily wage in Mexico at that time was no more than a single peso per day. They must have been really good French pastries.
The claim, of course, was not settled. In the interim, Mexico had another series of presidents, including Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who—after defeating the defenders of the Alamo—had lost Texas at the Battle of San Jacinto: Mexico was hardly in the position to repay any of her debts.
In 1838, the French King issued an ultimatum: either Mexico would pay her debts, or France would take military steps to enforce repayment. During their early years, most Latin American countries derived their tax revenues almost exclusively from import duties collected at port cities. Foreign countries, seeking to recover debts, could simply seize port cities and confiscate tax revenues until the debt was recovered.
Seizing ports and tax revenues evolved into a convenient excuse for European countries to attempt to seize New World countries. This was the same excuse France used when it imposed Maximilian on Mexico a generation later. In 1916, the United States seized the customs houses of the Dominican Republic to preempt European countries from doing the same thing. For decades, the US Marines collected import taxes, dividing the revenue between debt repayment and tax revenue for the island nation. While the Dominicans were unhappy about the occupation, they did note that the half revenue they received was substantially more revenue than they had received when their own people had run the customs houses, themselves.
When Mexico still refused to settle the debt, France sent a fleet to capture Veracruz, Mexico's main port. The port was protected by a massive fortress, San Juan de Alua, on an island in the harbor. An imposing structure, it had withstood pirate attacks for centuries. Unfortunately, this was a different age and the fortress was no match for the modern artillery of the French fleet. The fleet's exploding artillery rounds quickly ignited the fortress' magazines, making the attack one of the first examples of the futility of stone forts against naval gunnery—which was noticed by military leaders around the world.
France rather quickly captured the entire Mexican navy, bottled up all the ports, and cut off all trade in and out of Mexico while it demanded repayment of the debts. Mexico tried to smuggle goods into the country, and was forced to land ships as far away as Corpus Christi, Texas and bring the goods overland.
In the battles of Veracruz, Santa Ana returned from retirement, becoming something of a hero after he was wounded and lost his left leg after having his horse shot out from under him. This set the stage for his role in the Mexican-American War, just seven years later.
Eventually, both sides tired of the conflict, so Mexico agreed to pay the 600,000 pesos and France agreed to stop the embargo. Naturally, Mexico borrowed the funds. | 1,092 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Frederick Douglass implied in his Narrative, that humans must create their own destiny. He expressed this philosophy in his writing and understood this assumption very well, as he himself was a s. Douglass expresses his belief on destiny by using examples from his former life in slavery and by stressing the fact that he solely created his life’s destiny.
Frederick Douglass was born a slave and under his slave masters he was predestined to die a slave. He had absolutely no say in his future while in the ownership of his masters. He came to a point in his life where he decided he did not want to be a slave for life, so he gradually took control of his own destiny. Douglass describes the dire situation of a slave held for life by saying, “how heavy was the midnight of woe which shrouded in blackness the last ray of hope, and filled the future with terror and gloom” (Douglass xi). This sentence shows that slaves bound in the chains of slavery have almost no prospect on what is to become of them. They are robbed of the right to be their own master and live their life to the fullest.
As Douglass left for Baltimore he said a few last words about his departure from “The Great House”. He states, “ So strong was my desire, that I thought a gratification of it would fully compensate for whatever loss of comforts I should sustain by the exchange. I left without a regret, and with the highest hopes of future happiness”
(Douglass 25). This quote is evidence that Douglass was becoming the captain of his own destiny. He accepted the opportunity to go to Baltimore and experience life in the city. This life changing choice led to him become educated and gain the tools necessary to eventually be freed from the bondage of slavery. He was actively taking steps towards his freedom and his own free will.
Douglass’ determination to experience free will and freedom was not unchallenged though. Along his journey out of slavery, he met many people who discouraged or even threatened him to stop his plans for the future and accept the fact that he is someone’s property. An example of this is seen in a conversation between Douglass and Master Thomas Auld. “He exhorted me to content myself, and be obedient. He told me, if I would be happy, I must lay out no plans for the future. He said, if I behaved myself properly, he would take care of me. Indeed, he advised me to complete thoughtlessness of the future, and taught me to depend solely upon him for happiness” (Douglass 88). Douglass’ masters tried to instruct him that he need not be mindful of the future but expect his master will provide for him and control his destiny. His masters would take any measure to ensure that he would not escape the custody of their hands. This illustrates the fact that the path to controlling your own destiny is not easy and is often problematic.
Frederick Douglass was fortunate enough to escape the nightmare that is slavery and lay the path of his future. It was this life changing action that allowed him to take ownership of his destiny. He avoided a toilsome and miserable life in slavery and sought to save others from it too. He wanted all slaves to be free and experience the joy of being your own master. Douglass’ philosophy on destiny saved himself from bondage and taught others to save themselves by looking forward and having hope.
This philosophy was a necessary step towards completely freeing the slaves.
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Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out! | <urn:uuid:018de20f-fa1d-48b4-86d1-b5ebecb4e9f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/the-philosophy-of-lifes-destiny-in-narrative-of-the-life-of-frederick-douglass/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.982076 | 867 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.05465096980... | 1 | Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
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Frederick Douglass implied in his Narrative, that humans must create their own destiny. He expressed this philosophy in his writing and understood this assumption very well, as he himself was a s. Douglass expresses his belief on destiny by using examples from his former life in slavery and by stressing the fact that he solely created his life’s destiny.
Frederick Douglass was born a slave and under his slave masters he was predestined to die a slave. He had absolutely no say in his future while in the ownership of his masters. He came to a point in his life where he decided he did not want to be a slave for life, so he gradually took control of his own destiny. Douglass describes the dire situation of a slave held for life by saying, “how heavy was the midnight of woe which shrouded in blackness the last ray of hope, and filled the future with terror and gloom” (Douglass xi). This sentence shows that slaves bound in the chains of slavery have almost no prospect on what is to become of them. They are robbed of the right to be their own master and live their life to the fullest.
As Douglass left for Baltimore he said a few last words about his departure from “The Great House”. He states, “ So strong was my desire, that I thought a gratification of it would fully compensate for whatever loss of comforts I should sustain by the exchange. I left without a regret, and with the highest hopes of future happiness”
(Douglass 25). This quote is evidence that Douglass was becoming the captain of his own destiny. He accepted the opportunity to go to Baltimore and experience life in the city. This life changing choice led to him become educated and gain the tools necessary to eventually be freed from the bondage of slavery. He was actively taking steps towards his freedom and his own free will.
Douglass’ determination to experience free will and freedom was not unchallenged though. Along his journey out of slavery, he met many people who discouraged or even threatened him to stop his plans for the future and accept the fact that he is someone’s property. An example of this is seen in a conversation between Douglass and Master Thomas Auld. “He exhorted me to content myself, and be obedient. He told me, if I would be happy, I must lay out no plans for the future. He said, if I behaved myself properly, he would take care of me. Indeed, he advised me to complete thoughtlessness of the future, and taught me to depend solely upon him for happiness” (Douglass 88). Douglass’ masters tried to instruct him that he need not be mindful of the future but expect his master will provide for him and control his destiny. His masters would take any measure to ensure that he would not escape the custody of their hands. This illustrates the fact that the path to controlling your own destiny is not easy and is often problematic.
Frederick Douglass was fortunate enough to escape the nightmare that is slavery and lay the path of his future. It was this life changing action that allowed him to take ownership of his destiny. He avoided a toilsome and miserable life in slavery and sought to save others from it too. He wanted all slaves to be free and experience the joy of being your own master. Douglass’ philosophy on destiny saved himself from bondage and taught others to save themselves by looking forward and having hope.
This philosophy was a necessary step towards completely freeing the slaves.
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
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Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out! | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ireland’s history in the Nineteenth Century saw the seeds sown that explains Ireland’s history in the Twentieth Century. The so-called ‘Irish Problem’ did not suddenly occur in one set year in the Nineteenth Century. Ireland’s problems go much further back . Oliver Cromwell, who governed Britain in the mid-Seventeenth Century and at the time when Britain was a republic, detested Roman Catholicism and believed that the Irish could never be trusted. His attempts to ‘solve’ the Irish problem, as he saw it, was to send to the island his New Model Army and coerce the Irish into obedience. This included the sieges of Wexford and Drogheda where the defenders in both towns were executed after being offered terms of clemency if they surrendered to Cromwell’s forces. Cromwell also believed that the best way to bring Ireland to heel in the long term, was to ‘export’ children from Ireland to the sugar plantations in the West Indies, so that Ireland would suffer from a long term population loss, making it less of a threat to mainland Britain.
In the Eighteenth Century, farming land in Ireland became more and more the property of English landlords. The bulk of these were absentee landlords who showed little if any compassion for the people who worked the land. The rural population of Ireland, which was the large majority of the population, lived lives of extreme poverty.
The extent of poverty and the issues surrounding it were well known in the British establishment. Even a stalwart Tory like the Duke of Wellington commented that:
|“There never was a country in which poverty existed to the extent that it exists in Ireland.”|
Europeans who went to rural Ireland (though they would have been few in number) were shocked by what they saw:
|“Now I have seen Ireland, it seems to me that the poorest among the Letts, the Estonians and the Finlanders lead a life of comparative luxury.” (Kohl, a German visitor to Ireland in the early C19th)|
Many years later when Gladstone wrote to the government of Naples to complain about the state of prisons there, he got a reply stating that what existed in Ireland, outside of prisons, was much worse and that he had no right to complain about prisons in Naples when Ireland was in such a state for people not in prison.
The poverty that existed in rural Ireland is relatively easy to explain and centers around land ownership.
First, the people who owned the land were frequently absent landlords who paid little attention to the state of their land. Their only concern was rent. Those who could not pay were evicted and there was no safety net in place for these people when this happened – as it frequently did. Absentee landlords were responsible for much anger among the rural population of Ireland. They crammed as many families onto their land as they could. No family who worked the land they had, could produce enough to feed their families. Landlords enforced their authority through thugs or via the police or army who could be called in to evict families if the landlord requested such help. Even in the Nineteenth Century, it would still be possible to describe those who lived in rural Ireland as leading the lives of peasants, a term that would have been used in Medieval England. They had no rights, the power rested solely in the hands of the landlords and those who upheld law and order were frequently in league with landlords.
The second problem the rural population had was the fact that their annual food harvest was based on the potato and not a crop such as wheat or corn.
The famous agriculturist, Arthur Young, once wrote:
|“I will not assert that potatoes are a better food than bread and cheese, but I have no doubt of a belly full of one, being better than a bellyful of the other.”|
Potatoes were notoriously susceptible to disease and famines due to a failed potato crop had occurred on a number of occasions in Nineteenth Century Ireland. However, the potato blight of 1845 eclipsed all that had passed before and its impact of Ireland is impossible to quantify outside of simple statistics.
Why was the potato grown? When it was not blighted by disease, a good harvest could be expected. Also the vegetable could produce a high yield with little intensive care. With protein from the dairy produce found in rural communities, those who used the potato as the basis for their diet, could get a reasonably good diet. However, when the potato crop failed, those who relied on it faced very serious problems.
The most infamous example of potato failure was in 1845. Its impact on Ireland was nothing short of catastrophic.
Ireland’s population growth in the first half of the Nineteenth Century had been great. Disraeli, even claimed that it was higher than the growth rate of China – but this is debatable simply because of the lack of statistics. From 1780 to 1840, Ireland’s population grew at an estimated 172%. For comparison, in mainland Britain, it is estimated to have been at 88% in the same time period. By 1845, before the Great Famine, the population of Ireland was 8 million.
Why did Ireland’s population grow so quickly in the first half of the Nineteenth Century? The impact of the Catholic Church cannot be overstated. The Catholic Church ruled against contraception and abortions (in whatever forms existed then) and preached about the value of large families. Also, many did believe that a large family was an insurance in old age as your children would look after you. Therefore, the more children you had, the more comfortable you would be in your later years. However, a large family faced many problems when food was in short supply. When there was no supply – as in 1845 to 1847 – the situation became catastrophic.
The Irish were alienated from the British mainland up to 1845, but after it, this feeling of alienation grew. It was after the Great Famine that secret organisations grew and they simply wanted the British out of Ireland and a republic set up free from the rule of Westminster. The most famous were the Fenians and the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The tactics of such groups were brutal including the murder of Lord Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland, and T. Burke, the Permanent Under-Secretary in Ireland, in Phoenix Park, Dublin, in 1882. This one event horrified Victorian England but seemed to confirm to many in England that the Irish simply could not be trusted. Despite the murders, Gladstone continued with his Home Rule campaign, but without success in the Nineteenth Century. While Gladstone tried to push through many acts for Ireland, the basic issues of poverty and land ownership were never addressed. | <urn:uuid:55726174-f7d6-4386-adf6-08aaf6cb319e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/ireland-in-the-nineteenth-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.98585 | 1,393 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.444764852... | 8 | Ireland’s history in the Nineteenth Century saw the seeds sown that explains Ireland’s history in the Twentieth Century. The so-called ‘Irish Problem’ did not suddenly occur in one set year in the Nineteenth Century. Ireland’s problems go much further back . Oliver Cromwell, who governed Britain in the mid-Seventeenth Century and at the time when Britain was a republic, detested Roman Catholicism and believed that the Irish could never be trusted. His attempts to ‘solve’ the Irish problem, as he saw it, was to send to the island his New Model Army and coerce the Irish into obedience. This included the sieges of Wexford and Drogheda where the defenders in both towns were executed after being offered terms of clemency if they surrendered to Cromwell’s forces. Cromwell also believed that the best way to bring Ireland to heel in the long term, was to ‘export’ children from Ireland to the sugar plantations in the West Indies, so that Ireland would suffer from a long term population loss, making it less of a threat to mainland Britain.
In the Eighteenth Century, farming land in Ireland became more and more the property of English landlords. The bulk of these were absentee landlords who showed little if any compassion for the people who worked the land. The rural population of Ireland, which was the large majority of the population, lived lives of extreme poverty.
The extent of poverty and the issues surrounding it were well known in the British establishment. Even a stalwart Tory like the Duke of Wellington commented that:
|“There never was a country in which poverty existed to the extent that it exists in Ireland.”|
Europeans who went to rural Ireland (though they would have been few in number) were shocked by what they saw:
|“Now I have seen Ireland, it seems to me that the poorest among the Letts, the Estonians and the Finlanders lead a life of comparative luxury.” (Kohl, a German visitor to Ireland in the early C19th)|
Many years later when Gladstone wrote to the government of Naples to complain about the state of prisons there, he got a reply stating that what existed in Ireland, outside of prisons, was much worse and that he had no right to complain about prisons in Naples when Ireland was in such a state for people not in prison.
The poverty that existed in rural Ireland is relatively easy to explain and centers around land ownership.
First, the people who owned the land were frequently absent landlords who paid little attention to the state of their land. Their only concern was rent. Those who could not pay were evicted and there was no safety net in place for these people when this happened – as it frequently did. Absentee landlords were responsible for much anger among the rural population of Ireland. They crammed as many families onto their land as they could. No family who worked the land they had, could produce enough to feed their families. Landlords enforced their authority through thugs or via the police or army who could be called in to evict families if the landlord requested such help. Even in the Nineteenth Century, it would still be possible to describe those who lived in rural Ireland as leading the lives of peasants, a term that would have been used in Medieval England. They had no rights, the power rested solely in the hands of the landlords and those who upheld law and order were frequently in league with landlords.
The second problem the rural population had was the fact that their annual food harvest was based on the potato and not a crop such as wheat or corn.
The famous agriculturist, Arthur Young, once wrote:
|“I will not assert that potatoes are a better food than bread and cheese, but I have no doubt of a belly full of one, being better than a bellyful of the other.”|
Potatoes were notoriously susceptible to disease and famines due to a failed potato crop had occurred on a number of occasions in Nineteenth Century Ireland. However, the potato blight of 1845 eclipsed all that had passed before and its impact of Ireland is impossible to quantify outside of simple statistics.
Why was the potato grown? When it was not blighted by disease, a good harvest could be expected. Also the vegetable could produce a high yield with little intensive care. With protein from the dairy produce found in rural communities, those who used the potato as the basis for their diet, could get a reasonably good diet. However, when the potato crop failed, those who relied on it faced very serious problems.
The most infamous example of potato failure was in 1845. Its impact on Ireland was nothing short of catastrophic.
Ireland’s population growth in the first half of the Nineteenth Century had been great. Disraeli, even claimed that it was higher than the growth rate of China – but this is debatable simply because of the lack of statistics. From 1780 to 1840, Ireland’s population grew at an estimated 172%. For comparison, in mainland Britain, it is estimated to have been at 88% in the same time period. By 1845, before the Great Famine, the population of Ireland was 8 million.
Why did Ireland’s population grow so quickly in the first half of the Nineteenth Century? The impact of the Catholic Church cannot be overstated. The Catholic Church ruled against contraception and abortions (in whatever forms existed then) and preached about the value of large families. Also, many did believe that a large family was an insurance in old age as your children would look after you. Therefore, the more children you had, the more comfortable you would be in your later years. However, a large family faced many problems when food was in short supply. When there was no supply – as in 1845 to 1847 – the situation became catastrophic.
The Irish were alienated from the British mainland up to 1845, but after it, this feeling of alienation grew. It was after the Great Famine that secret organisations grew and they simply wanted the British out of Ireland and a republic set up free from the rule of Westminster. The most famous were the Fenians and the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The tactics of such groups were brutal including the murder of Lord Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland, and T. Burke, the Permanent Under-Secretary in Ireland, in Phoenix Park, Dublin, in 1882. This one event horrified Victorian England but seemed to confirm to many in England that the Irish simply could not be trusted. Despite the murders, Gladstone continued with his Home Rule campaign, but without success in the Nineteenth Century. While Gladstone tried to push through many acts for Ireland, the basic issues of poverty and land ownership were never addressed. | 1,395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Muhammad?
Muhammad was the prophet and founder of Islam. Most of his early life was spent as a merchant. At age 40, he began to have revelations from Allah that became the basis for the Koran and the foundation of Islam. By 630 he had unified most of Arabia under a single religion. As of 2015, there are over 1.8 billion Muslims in the world who profess, “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.”
The Life of Muhammad
Muhammad was born around 570, AD in Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia). His father died before he was born and he was raised first by his grandfather and then his uncle. He belonged to a poor but respectable family of the Quraysh tribe. The family was active in Meccan politics and trade.
Many of the tribes living in the Arabian Peninsula at the time were nomadic, trading goods as they crisscrossed the desert. Most tribes were polytheistic, worshipping their own set of gods. The town of Mecca was an important trading and religious center, home to many temples and worship sites where the devoted prayed to the idols of these gods. The most famous site was the Kaaba (meaning cube in Arabic). It is believed to have been built by Abraham (Ibrahim to Muslims) and his son Ismail. Gradually the people of Mecca turned to polytheism and idolatry. Of all the gods worshipped, it is believed that Allah was considered the greatest and the only one without an idol.
In his early teens, Muhammad worked in a camel caravan, following in the footsteps of many people his age, born of meager wealth. Working for his uncle, he gained experience in commercial trade traveling to Syria and eventually from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. In time, Muhammad earned a reputation as honest and sincere, acquiring the nickname “al-Amin” meaning faithful or trustworthy.
In his early 20s, Muhammad began working for a wealthy merchant woman named Khadihah, 15 years his senior. She soon became attracted to this young, accomplished man and proposed marriage. He accepted and over the years the happy union brought several children. Not all lived to adulthood, but one, Fatima, would marry Muhammad’s cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom Shi’ite Muslims regard as Muhammed’s successor.
The Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad was also very religious, occasionally taking journeys of devotion to sacred sites near Mecca. On one of his pilgrimages in 610, he was meditating in a cave on Mount Jabal aI-Nour. The Angel Gabriel appeared and relayed the word of God: “Recite in the name of your Lord who creates, creates man from a clot! Recite for your lord is most generous….” These words became the opening verses of sūrah (chapter) 96 of the Qur'an. Most Islamic historians believe Muhammad was initially disturbed by the revelations and that he didn’t reveal them publicly for several years. However, Shi’a tradition states he welcomed the message from the Angel Gabriel and was deeply inspired to share his experience with other potential believers.
Islamic tradition holds that the first persons to believe were his wife, Khadija and his close friend Abu Bakr (regarded as the successor to Muhammad by Sunni Muslims). Soon, Muhammad began to gather a small following, initially encountering no opposition. Most people in Mecca either ignored him or mocked him as just another prophet. However, when his message condemned idol worship and polytheism, many of Mecca’s tribal leaders began to see Muhammad and his message as a threat. Besides going against long standing beliefs, the condemnation of idol worship had economic consequences for merchants who catered to the thousands of pilgrims who came to Mecca every year. This was especially true for members of Muhammad’s own tribe, the Quraysh, who were the guardians of the Kaaba. Sensing a threat, Mecca’s merchants and leaders offered Muhammad incentives to abandon his preaching, but he refused.
Increasingly, the resistance to Muhammed and his followers grew and they were eventually forced to emigrate from Mecca to Medina, a city 260 miles to the north in 622. This event marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. There Muhammad was instrumental in bringing an end to a civil war raging amongst several of the city’s tribes. Muhammad settled in Medina, building his Muslim community and gradually gathering acceptance and more followers.
Between 624 and 628, the Muslims were involved in a series of battles for their survival. In the final major confrontation, The Battle of the Trench and Siege of Medina, Muhammad and his followers prevailed and a treaty was signed. The treaty was broken by the Meccan allies a year later. By now, Muhammad had plenty of forces and the balance of power had shifted away from the Meccan leaders to him. In 630, the Muslim army marched into Mecca, taking the city with minimum casualties. Muhammad gave amnesty to many of the Meccan leaders who had opposed him and pardoned many others. Most of the Meccan population converted to Islam. Muhammad and his followers then proceeded to destroy all of the statues of pagan gods in and around the Kaaba.
The Death of Muhammad
After the conflict with Mecca was finally settled, Muhammad took his first true Islamic pilgrimage to that city and in March, 632, he delivered his last sermon at Mount Arafat. Upon his return to Medina to his wife’s home, he fell ill for several days. He died on June 8, 632, at the age of 62, and was buried at al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) one of the first mosques built by Muhammad in Medina.
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-0.170747697353363... | 1 | Who Was Muhammad?
Muhammad was the prophet and founder of Islam. Most of his early life was spent as a merchant. At age 40, he began to have revelations from Allah that became the basis for the Koran and the foundation of Islam. By 630 he had unified most of Arabia under a single religion. As of 2015, there are over 1.8 billion Muslims in the world who profess, “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.”
The Life of Muhammad
Muhammad was born around 570, AD in Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia). His father died before he was born and he was raised first by his grandfather and then his uncle. He belonged to a poor but respectable family of the Quraysh tribe. The family was active in Meccan politics and trade.
Many of the tribes living in the Arabian Peninsula at the time were nomadic, trading goods as they crisscrossed the desert. Most tribes were polytheistic, worshipping their own set of gods. The town of Mecca was an important trading and religious center, home to many temples and worship sites where the devoted prayed to the idols of these gods. The most famous site was the Kaaba (meaning cube in Arabic). It is believed to have been built by Abraham (Ibrahim to Muslims) and his son Ismail. Gradually the people of Mecca turned to polytheism and idolatry. Of all the gods worshipped, it is believed that Allah was considered the greatest and the only one without an idol.
In his early teens, Muhammad worked in a camel caravan, following in the footsteps of many people his age, born of meager wealth. Working for his uncle, he gained experience in commercial trade traveling to Syria and eventually from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. In time, Muhammad earned a reputation as honest and sincere, acquiring the nickname “al-Amin” meaning faithful or trustworthy.
In his early 20s, Muhammad began working for a wealthy merchant woman named Khadihah, 15 years his senior. She soon became attracted to this young, accomplished man and proposed marriage. He accepted and over the years the happy union brought several children. Not all lived to adulthood, but one, Fatima, would marry Muhammad’s cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom Shi’ite Muslims regard as Muhammed’s successor.
The Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad was also very religious, occasionally taking journeys of devotion to sacred sites near Mecca. On one of his pilgrimages in 610, he was meditating in a cave on Mount Jabal aI-Nour. The Angel Gabriel appeared and relayed the word of God: “Recite in the name of your Lord who creates, creates man from a clot! Recite for your lord is most generous….” These words became the opening verses of sūrah (chapter) 96 of the Qur'an. Most Islamic historians believe Muhammad was initially disturbed by the revelations and that he didn’t reveal them publicly for several years. However, Shi’a tradition states he welcomed the message from the Angel Gabriel and was deeply inspired to share his experience with other potential believers.
Islamic tradition holds that the first persons to believe were his wife, Khadija and his close friend Abu Bakr (regarded as the successor to Muhammad by Sunni Muslims). Soon, Muhammad began to gather a small following, initially encountering no opposition. Most people in Mecca either ignored him or mocked him as just another prophet. However, when his message condemned idol worship and polytheism, many of Mecca’s tribal leaders began to see Muhammad and his message as a threat. Besides going against long standing beliefs, the condemnation of idol worship had economic consequences for merchants who catered to the thousands of pilgrims who came to Mecca every year. This was especially true for members of Muhammad’s own tribe, the Quraysh, who were the guardians of the Kaaba. Sensing a threat, Mecca’s merchants and leaders offered Muhammad incentives to abandon his preaching, but he refused.
Increasingly, the resistance to Muhammed and his followers grew and they were eventually forced to emigrate from Mecca to Medina, a city 260 miles to the north in 622. This event marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. There Muhammad was instrumental in bringing an end to a civil war raging amongst several of the city’s tribes. Muhammad settled in Medina, building his Muslim community and gradually gathering acceptance and more followers.
Between 624 and 628, the Muslims were involved in a series of battles for their survival. In the final major confrontation, The Battle of the Trench and Siege of Medina, Muhammad and his followers prevailed and a treaty was signed. The treaty was broken by the Meccan allies a year later. By now, Muhammad had plenty of forces and the balance of power had shifted away from the Meccan leaders to him. In 630, the Muslim army marched into Mecca, taking the city with minimum casualties. Muhammad gave amnesty to many of the Meccan leaders who had opposed him and pardoned many others. Most of the Meccan population converted to Islam. Muhammad and his followers then proceeded to destroy all of the statues of pagan gods in and around the Kaaba.
The Death of Muhammad
After the conflict with Mecca was finally settled, Muhammad took his first true Islamic pilgrimage to that city and in March, 632, he delivered his last sermon at Mount Arafat. Upon his return to Medina to his wife’s home, he fell ill for several days. He died on June 8, 632, at the age of 62, and was buried at al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) one of the first mosques built by Muhammad in Medina.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Crito is a conversation between Crito, the wealthy man and his friend Socrates. They talk about the issue of justice and injustice where they air their different views concerning the issue. Socrates holds that injustice at times may be answered by injustice and at times this may not be prudent. He therefore rejects the offer made by Crito to sponsor him to escape from prison
Socrates is not about to heed to the advice of his friend by escaping from prison. He argues that he is a man of principles who is guided by reason and will not obey Crito who insists to be obeyed in this escapade matter. Socrates asserts the seriousness he had in court by claiming not to fear death. He is disgusted by public opinion which is arbitrary and unreasonable according to him. He reaffirms that the person who truly understands justice is the only person who has valuable opinion. Those men who insist on money, bringing up children and status are unprincipled and thoughtless. He does not car two hoots what people think about him but he is concerned that to escape would be unjust and can therefore not escape nor entertain the temptation to escape that is brought by Crito (Plato & Tredennick, 157).
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Socrates is convinced that no good comes by responding to injustice with another injustice. The law would see his escape as an unjust action of abandoning the City since the law states that like the child stands to the parent so does the slave to his master and the citizen to the city. He argues further that the he made a contract with the law when he remained in the city, when he had already reached maturity, and enjoyed himself there. This will deter him from hitting back at the city claiming that his conviction was injustice. Remaining in the city was a call for him to obey the law at whatever cost since he saw the structure and functioning of the law and how children were brought up within the law. However, Socrates is dissatisfied with the law but is satisfies that he will be free after three days as he saw in the vision of a woman in a white clock (Plato, 350.
Crito has heard that Socrates will be executed the following day and has engineered a plan for Socrates to escape. Crito pleads that Socrates follow the plan since if he is executed he will be shamed in public for hatching a failed mission and that Socrates could be exiled in other cities which wont be harmful. He appeals to Socrates that dying would be an easy and pathetic mission as compared to the virtuous, courageous and honorable mission of fleeing from an unjust death. Socrates is obligated to nurture and educate his children who will suffer as orphans if he dies in this unjustified
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:ebfd017f-c915-4783-8003-ce648fc2c23c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/world-literature/crito.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.985051 | 597 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.29986077547... | 1 | Crito is a conversation between Crito, the wealthy man and his friend Socrates. They talk about the issue of justice and injustice where they air their different views concerning the issue. Socrates holds that injustice at times may be answered by injustice and at times this may not be prudent. He therefore rejects the offer made by Crito to sponsor him to escape from prison
Socrates is not about to heed to the advice of his friend by escaping from prison. He argues that he is a man of principles who is guided by reason and will not obey Crito who insists to be obeyed in this escapade matter. Socrates asserts the seriousness he had in court by claiming not to fear death. He is disgusted by public opinion which is arbitrary and unreasonable according to him. He reaffirms that the person who truly understands justice is the only person who has valuable opinion. Those men who insist on money, bringing up children and status are unprincipled and thoughtless. He does not car two hoots what people think about him but he is concerned that to escape would be unjust and can therefore not escape nor entertain the temptation to escape that is brought by Crito (Plato & Tredennick, 157).
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Socrates is convinced that no good comes by responding to injustice with another injustice. The law would see his escape as an unjust action of abandoning the City since the law states that like the child stands to the parent so does the slave to his master and the citizen to the city. He argues further that the he made a contract with the law when he remained in the city, when he had already reached maturity, and enjoyed himself there. This will deter him from hitting back at the city claiming that his conviction was injustice. Remaining in the city was a call for him to obey the law at whatever cost since he saw the structure and functioning of the law and how children were brought up within the law. However, Socrates is dissatisfied with the law but is satisfies that he will be free after three days as he saw in the vision of a woman in a white clock (Plato, 350.
Crito has heard that Socrates will be executed the following day and has engineered a plan for Socrates to escape. Crito pleads that Socrates follow the plan since if he is executed he will be shamed in public for hatching a failed mission and that Socrates could be exiled in other cities which wont be harmful. He appeals to Socrates that dying would be an easy and pathetic mission as compared to the virtuous, courageous and honorable mission of fleeing from an unjust death. Socrates is obligated to nurture and educate his children who will suffer as orphans if he dies in this unjustified
Most popular orders | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is sailing?
Although sailing may look like an activity that is just for leisure, it is actually a highly competitive sport, too for both men and women. Since the early 17th century, yachts were raced. The sport started to appear in America after England adopted it. Sailing has been in the Olympics since 1896.
Series of races, also known as a regatta, is typically between two or more boats. It is held in the open ocean and consists of multiple races where an overall winner is determined. Some events within sailing include fleet racing, which consists of a large amount of competing boats, and match racing, which is between only two boats.
The sport involves using wind to accelerate speed and direction. Teams work to cross a finish line or reach a destination first. However, sailing is not a skill that you can learn overnight. It takes a while for sailors to get comfortable with steering and operating the boat. Like other sports on water, strategy is key for sailing. Oftentimes, children are taught to sail at a young age because once you learn the basics, it's a skill you can master.
Since there are different classes of boats, the type of regatta can vary for different teams. Teams of sailors practice and train for regattas year round, especially teams who train for the Olympics. | <urn:uuid:e1a9783a-e8c1-4717-9ec7-e6100ccfed98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rookieroad.com/sailing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.983293 | 271 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.250959783... | 1 | What is sailing?
Although sailing may look like an activity that is just for leisure, it is actually a highly competitive sport, too for both men and women. Since the early 17th century, yachts were raced. The sport started to appear in America after England adopted it. Sailing has been in the Olympics since 1896.
Series of races, also known as a regatta, is typically between two or more boats. It is held in the open ocean and consists of multiple races where an overall winner is determined. Some events within sailing include fleet racing, which consists of a large amount of competing boats, and match racing, which is between only two boats.
The sport involves using wind to accelerate speed and direction. Teams work to cross a finish line or reach a destination first. However, sailing is not a skill that you can learn overnight. It takes a while for sailors to get comfortable with steering and operating the boat. Like other sports on water, strategy is key for sailing. Oftentimes, children are taught to sail at a young age because once you learn the basics, it's a skill you can master.
Since there are different classes of boats, the type of regatta can vary for different teams. Teams of sailors practice and train for regattas year round, especially teams who train for the Olympics. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"The Riddle of the Sands" was published in May 1903, and it has probably sold more than two million copies in its lifetime. Its author Erskine Childers was infuriated when it was described as fiction, because for him the issue of a probable German invasion by sea was real and the danger obvious. Then, Childers meant it as a wake-up call to the British government to attend to its North Sea defences, "The Riddle of the Sands" accomplished that task and has been considered a classic of espionage literature ever since, praised as much for its nautical action as for its suspenseful spy craft.
The theme of "The Riddle of the Sands" is the relationship between Britain and Germany, in language, loyalty, and states of aggression. The novel shows what relations between Britain and Germany were like before the First World War. It develops the story of a sailing trip in the Baltic Sea, where two young adventurers-turned-spies uncover a secret German plot to invade England. | <urn:uuid:0590928c-4d83-4bc1-8a5d-08c0fa22c0a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.mondadoristore.it/The-Riddle-of-the-Sands-Erskine-Childers/eae978883419667/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.990085 | 206 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.183295458555... | 1 | "The Riddle of the Sands" was published in May 1903, and it has probably sold more than two million copies in its lifetime. Its author Erskine Childers was infuriated when it was described as fiction, because for him the issue of a probable German invasion by sea was real and the danger obvious. Then, Childers meant it as a wake-up call to the British government to attend to its North Sea defences, "The Riddle of the Sands" accomplished that task and has been considered a classic of espionage literature ever since, praised as much for its nautical action as for its suspenseful spy craft.
The theme of "The Riddle of the Sands" is the relationship between Britain and Germany, in language, loyalty, and states of aggression. The novel shows what relations between Britain and Germany were like before the First World War. It develops the story of a sailing trip in the Baltic Sea, where two young adventurers-turned-spies uncover a secret German plot to invade England. | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tarring and feathering is a form of public torture and humiliation used to enforce unofficial justice or revenge. It was used in feudal Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance.
The victim would be stripped naked, or stripped to the waist. Wood tar (sometimes hot) was then either poured or painted onto the person while they were immobilized. Then the victim either had feathers thrown on them or was rolled around on a pile of feathers so that they stuck to the tar.
The earliest mention of the punishment appears in orders that Richard I of England issued to his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1189. "Concerning the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his navie the forme thereof was this ... item, a thiefe or felon that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, shal have his head shorne, and boyling pitch poured upon his head, and feathers or downe strawed upon the same whereby he may be knowen, and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to be cast up" (transcript of original statute in Hakluyt's Voyages, ii. 21).
A later instance of this penalty appears in Notes and Queries (series 4, vol. v), which quotes James Howell writing in Madrid in 1623 of the "boisterous Bishop of Halberstadt ... having taken a place where there were two monasteries of nuns and friars, he caused divers feather beds to be ripped, and all the feathers thrown into a great hall, whither the nuns and friars were thrust naked with their bodies oiled and pitched and to tumble among these feathers, which makes them here (Madrid) presage him an ill-death." (The Bishop was apparently Christian the Younger of Brunswick.)
In 1696, a London bailiff attempted to serve process on a debtor who had taken refuge within the precincts of the Savoy. The bailiff was tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbarrow to the Strand, where he was tied to a maypole that stood by what is now Somerset House as an improvised pillory.
In 1766, Captain William Smith was tarred, feathered, and dumped into the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia by a mob that included the town's mayor. A vessel picked him out of the water just as his strength was giving out. He survived and was later quoted as saying that they "dawbed my body and face all over with tar and afterwards threw feathers on me." Smith was suspected of informing on smugglers to the British customs agents, as was the case with most other tar-and-feathers victims in the following decade.
The practice appeared in Salem, Massachusetts in 1767, when mobs attacked low-level employees of the customs service with tar and feathers. In October 1769, a mob in Boston attacked a customs service sailor the same way, and a few similar attacks followed through 1774. The tarring and feathering of Customs Commissioner John Malcolm received particular attention in 1774. Such acts associated the punishment with the Patriot side of the American Revolution. An exception occurred in March 1775 when a British regiment inflicted the same treatment on Thomas Ditson, a Billerica, Massachusetts man who attempted to buy a musket from one of the regiment's soldiers. There is no known case of a person dying from being tarred and feathered in this period. During the Whiskey Rebellion, local farmers inflicted the punishment on federal tax agents.
Beginning on September 11, 1791, western Pennsylvania farmers rebelled against the federal government's taxation on western Pennsylvania whiskey distillers during the Whiskey Rebellion. Their first victim was reportedly a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson. He was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. Other officials who attempted to serve court warrants on Johnson's attackers were whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution.
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was dragged from his home during the night of March 24, 1832 by a group of men who stripped and beat him before tarring and feathering him. His wife and infant child were knocked from their bed by the attackers and were forced from the home and threatened. (The infant died several days later from exposure.) Smith was left for dead, but limped back to the home of friends. They spent much of the night scraping the tar from his body, leaving his skin raw and bloody. The following day, Smith spoke at a church devotional meeting and was reported to have been covered with raw wounds and still weak from the attack.
In 1851, a Know-Nothing mob in Ellsworth, Maine tarred and feathered Swiss-born Jesuit priest Father John Bapst in the midst of a local controversy over religious education in grammar schools. Bapst fled Ellsworth to settle in nearby Bangor, Maine, where there was a large Irish-Catholic community, and a local high school there is named for him.
Tarring and feathering was not restricted to men. The November 27, 1906 Ada, Oklahoma Evening News reports that a vigilance committee consisting of four young married women from East Sandy, Pennsylvania corrected the alleged evil conduct of their neighbor Mrs. Hattie Lowry in whitecap style. One of the women was a sister-in-law of the victim. The women appeared at Mrs. Lowry's home in open day and announced that she had not heeded the spokeswoman and leader. Two women held Mrs. Lowry to the floor while the other two smeared her face with stove polish until it was completely covered. They then poured thick molasses upon her head and emptied the contents of a feather pillow over the molasses. The women then marched the victim to a railroad camp, tied by the wrists, where two hundred workmen stopped work to watch the spectacle. After parading Mrs. Lowry through the camp, the women tied her to a large box where she remained until a man released her. Three of the women involved were arrested, pleaded guilty and each paid a $10.00 fine.
There were several examples of tarring and feathering of African Americans in the lead-up to World War I in Vicksburg, Mississippi. According to William Harris, this was a relatively rare form of mob punishment to Republican African-Americans in the post-bellum U.S. South, as its goal was typically pain and humiliation rather than death.
During World War I, anti-German sentiment was widespread in the United States and many German-Americans were attacked. For example, in August 1918 a German-American farmer, John Meints of Luverne, Minnesota, was captured by a group of men, taken to the nearby South Dakota border and tarred and feathered - for allegedly not supporting war bonds. Meints sued his assailants and lost, but on appeal to a federal court he won, and in 1922 settled out of court for $6,000. In March 1922, a German-born Catholic priest in Slaton, Texas, Joseph M. Keller, who had been harassed by local residents during World War I due to his ethnicity, was accused of breaking the seal of confession and tarred and feathered. Thereafter Keller served a Catholic parish in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Future Australian senator Fred Katz - a socialist and anti-conscriptionist of German parentage - was publicly tarred and feathered outside his office in Melbourne in December 1915. A week before the 1919 Australian federal election, former Labor MP John McDougall was kidnapped by a group of about 20 ex-soldiers in Ararat, Victoria, and subsequently tarred and feathered before being dumped in the town's streets. He had earlier been revealed as the author of an anti-war poem that was perceived as insulting Australia's soldiers. Six men were charged with inflicting grievous bodily harm, but pled down to common assault and were fined £5 each. Many newspapers supported their actions.
A group of black-robed Knights of Liberty (a faction of the KKK) tarred and feathered seventeen members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in Oklahoma in 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage. In the 1920s, vigilantes were opposed to IWW organizers at California's harbor of San Pedro. They kidnapped at least one organizer, subjected him to tarring and feathering, and left him in a remote location.
The Wednesday, May 28, 1930 edition of the Miami Daily News-Record contains on its front page the arrests of five brothers (Isaac, Newton, Henry, Gordon and Charles Starns) from Louisiana accused of tarring and feathering Dr. S. L. Newsome, who was a prominent dentist. This was in retaliation for the dentist having an affair with one of the brother's wives.
Similar tactics were also used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) during the early years of the Troubles. Many of the victims were women accused of sexual relationships with policemen or British soldiers. In August 2007, loyalist groups in Northern Ireland were linked to the tarring and feathering of an individual accused of drug-dealing. | <urn:uuid:c1c12a2b-270b-42a3-a36a-38cddb7d26b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Tar_and_feathers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00347.warc.gz | en | 0.982103 | 1,922 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.23289594054222... | 2 | Tarring and feathering is a form of public torture and humiliation used to enforce unofficial justice or revenge. It was used in feudal Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance.
The victim would be stripped naked, or stripped to the waist. Wood tar (sometimes hot) was then either poured or painted onto the person while they were immobilized. Then the victim either had feathers thrown on them or was rolled around on a pile of feathers so that they stuck to the tar.
The earliest mention of the punishment appears in orders that Richard I of England issued to his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1189. "Concerning the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his navie the forme thereof was this ... item, a thiefe or felon that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, shal have his head shorne, and boyling pitch poured upon his head, and feathers or downe strawed upon the same whereby he may be knowen, and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to be cast up" (transcript of original statute in Hakluyt's Voyages, ii. 21).
A later instance of this penalty appears in Notes and Queries (series 4, vol. v), which quotes James Howell writing in Madrid in 1623 of the "boisterous Bishop of Halberstadt ... having taken a place where there were two monasteries of nuns and friars, he caused divers feather beds to be ripped, and all the feathers thrown into a great hall, whither the nuns and friars were thrust naked with their bodies oiled and pitched and to tumble among these feathers, which makes them here (Madrid) presage him an ill-death." (The Bishop was apparently Christian the Younger of Brunswick.)
In 1696, a London bailiff attempted to serve process on a debtor who had taken refuge within the precincts of the Savoy. The bailiff was tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbarrow to the Strand, where he was tied to a maypole that stood by what is now Somerset House as an improvised pillory.
In 1766, Captain William Smith was tarred, feathered, and dumped into the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia by a mob that included the town's mayor. A vessel picked him out of the water just as his strength was giving out. He survived and was later quoted as saying that they "dawbed my body and face all over with tar and afterwards threw feathers on me." Smith was suspected of informing on smugglers to the British customs agents, as was the case with most other tar-and-feathers victims in the following decade.
The practice appeared in Salem, Massachusetts in 1767, when mobs attacked low-level employees of the customs service with tar and feathers. In October 1769, a mob in Boston attacked a customs service sailor the same way, and a few similar attacks followed through 1774. The tarring and feathering of Customs Commissioner John Malcolm received particular attention in 1774. Such acts associated the punishment with the Patriot side of the American Revolution. An exception occurred in March 1775 when a British regiment inflicted the same treatment on Thomas Ditson, a Billerica, Massachusetts man who attempted to buy a musket from one of the regiment's soldiers. There is no known case of a person dying from being tarred and feathered in this period. During the Whiskey Rebellion, local farmers inflicted the punishment on federal tax agents.
Beginning on September 11, 1791, western Pennsylvania farmers rebelled against the federal government's taxation on western Pennsylvania whiskey distillers during the Whiskey Rebellion. Their first victim was reportedly a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson. He was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. Other officials who attempted to serve court warrants on Johnson's attackers were whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution.
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was dragged from his home during the night of March 24, 1832 by a group of men who stripped and beat him before tarring and feathering him. His wife and infant child were knocked from their bed by the attackers and were forced from the home and threatened. (The infant died several days later from exposure.) Smith was left for dead, but limped back to the home of friends. They spent much of the night scraping the tar from his body, leaving his skin raw and bloody. The following day, Smith spoke at a church devotional meeting and was reported to have been covered with raw wounds and still weak from the attack.
In 1851, a Know-Nothing mob in Ellsworth, Maine tarred and feathered Swiss-born Jesuit priest Father John Bapst in the midst of a local controversy over religious education in grammar schools. Bapst fled Ellsworth to settle in nearby Bangor, Maine, where there was a large Irish-Catholic community, and a local high school there is named for him.
Tarring and feathering was not restricted to men. The November 27, 1906 Ada, Oklahoma Evening News reports that a vigilance committee consisting of four young married women from East Sandy, Pennsylvania corrected the alleged evil conduct of their neighbor Mrs. Hattie Lowry in whitecap style. One of the women was a sister-in-law of the victim. The women appeared at Mrs. Lowry's home in open day and announced that she had not heeded the spokeswoman and leader. Two women held Mrs. Lowry to the floor while the other two smeared her face with stove polish until it was completely covered. They then poured thick molasses upon her head and emptied the contents of a feather pillow over the molasses. The women then marched the victim to a railroad camp, tied by the wrists, where two hundred workmen stopped work to watch the spectacle. After parading Mrs. Lowry through the camp, the women tied her to a large box where she remained until a man released her. Three of the women involved were arrested, pleaded guilty and each paid a $10.00 fine.
There were several examples of tarring and feathering of African Americans in the lead-up to World War I in Vicksburg, Mississippi. According to William Harris, this was a relatively rare form of mob punishment to Republican African-Americans in the post-bellum U.S. South, as its goal was typically pain and humiliation rather than death.
During World War I, anti-German sentiment was widespread in the United States and many German-Americans were attacked. For example, in August 1918 a German-American farmer, John Meints of Luverne, Minnesota, was captured by a group of men, taken to the nearby South Dakota border and tarred and feathered - for allegedly not supporting war bonds. Meints sued his assailants and lost, but on appeal to a federal court he won, and in 1922 settled out of court for $6,000. In March 1922, a German-born Catholic priest in Slaton, Texas, Joseph M. Keller, who had been harassed by local residents during World War I due to his ethnicity, was accused of breaking the seal of confession and tarred and feathered. Thereafter Keller served a Catholic parish in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Future Australian senator Fred Katz - a socialist and anti-conscriptionist of German parentage - was publicly tarred and feathered outside his office in Melbourne in December 1915. A week before the 1919 Australian federal election, former Labor MP John McDougall was kidnapped by a group of about 20 ex-soldiers in Ararat, Victoria, and subsequently tarred and feathered before being dumped in the town's streets. He had earlier been revealed as the author of an anti-war poem that was perceived as insulting Australia's soldiers. Six men were charged with inflicting grievous bodily harm, but pled down to common assault and were fined £5 each. Many newspapers supported their actions.
A group of black-robed Knights of Liberty (a faction of the KKK) tarred and feathered seventeen members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in Oklahoma in 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage. In the 1920s, vigilantes were opposed to IWW organizers at California's harbor of San Pedro. They kidnapped at least one organizer, subjected him to tarring and feathering, and left him in a remote location.
The Wednesday, May 28, 1930 edition of the Miami Daily News-Record contains on its front page the arrests of five brothers (Isaac, Newton, Henry, Gordon and Charles Starns) from Louisiana accused of tarring and feathering Dr. S. L. Newsome, who was a prominent dentist. This was in retaliation for the dentist having an affair with one of the brother's wives.
Similar tactics were also used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) during the early years of the Troubles. Many of the victims were women accused of sexual relationships with policemen or British soldiers. In August 2007, loyalist groups in Northern Ireland were linked to the tarring and feathering of an individual accused of drug-dealing. | 2,000 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On February 8, 1945, 350 very unfortunate American POWs who had been captured during the Battle of the Bulge were loaded into railroad boxcars to be transported from Stalag IXB at Bad Orb to a slave labor camp at Berga. The Germans asked the American Man of Confidence at Stalag IXB to provide a list of Jewish POWs , which he refused to do. The Germans instead picked 350 men they knew were Jewish based on their names or selected men they thought "looked Jewish". Stalag IXB was a terrible camp, but Berga would prove to be much worse.
Berga was a group of mines that the Germans were drilling into the side of a mountain to create an underground factory. The rock was slate and the dust coated the lungs of the men who worked in the tunnels as they dug through the rock. The POWs were worked relentlessly and 35 of the 350 died in just a couple months. It had the highest rate of casualties of any POW camp Americans were held at in Europe.
Here is a good site describing the conditions in the camp : http://www.indianami...rga/History.htm
A PBS documentary was produced about Berga in 2002. The POW whose group is pictured here is prominent in the documentary : http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0341255/
He passed away shortly after the film was released.
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0.5360140800476... | 1 | On February 8, 1945, 350 very unfortunate American POWs who had been captured during the Battle of the Bulge were loaded into railroad boxcars to be transported from Stalag IXB at Bad Orb to a slave labor camp at Berga. The Germans asked the American Man of Confidence at Stalag IXB to provide a list of Jewish POWs , which he refused to do. The Germans instead picked 350 men they knew were Jewish based on their names or selected men they thought "looked Jewish". Stalag IXB was a terrible camp, but Berga would prove to be much worse.
Berga was a group of mines that the Germans were drilling into the side of a mountain to create an underground factory. The rock was slate and the dust coated the lungs of the men who worked in the tunnels as they dug through the rock. The POWs were worked relentlessly and 35 of the 350 died in just a couple months. It had the highest rate of casualties of any POW camp Americans were held at in Europe.
Here is a good site describing the conditions in the camp : http://www.indianami...rga/History.htm
A PBS documentary was produced about Berga in 2002. The POW whose group is pictured here is prominent in the documentary : http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0341255/
He passed away shortly after the film was released.
Edited by KASTAUFFER, 01 July 2016 - 03:22 PM. | 330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 23/07/2012)
Jawaharlal Nehru, fondly known as Panditji, was born on 14th November 1889. He was a statesman and Indian politician
, a prominent leader in the India's struggle for Independence and the first Prime Minister
of independent India.
Family and Childhood of Jawaharlal Nehru
was born in a well-known family of Kashmiri pandits. He was born to Motilal Nehru (his father) and Swaruparani Nehru (his mother). He also had two younger sisters who were also named Vijaya Lakshmi and Krishna. He was brought up in his birthplace in Allahabad
. His father also owned a rich estate in Allahabad which was also known as Anand Bhavan. He spent his childhood in the company of many well-known and respectable people, who visited the estate to call upon his father who was a rich lawyer and influential industrialist, and politician with the Indian National Congress
Education of Jawaharlal Nehru
Until he was sixteen, Nehru was educated by a host of British tutors and governesses. He, at the age of thirteen, joined the Theosophical Society in India. He also had Indian tutors who taught him Hindi language
and Sanskrit language
and grew up to be an atheist.
Jawaharlal Nehru attended the Harrow in England (1905-07), and later on went on to earn an honours degree in natural science from the Trinity College in Cambridge University (1907-10). Nehru qualified as a barrister after two years (1910-12) at the Inns of Court School of Law in London.
Marriage and Children of Jawaharlal Nehru
After completing his education he returned to India in the year 1912. Soon after his return, his mother arranged his marriage with Kamala Kaul, a girl from a conservative middle-class Kashmiri Brahman family in 1912. Kaul was the grand-daughter of Kishanlal Atal, who had been prime minister of Jaipur
, so the match was acceptable to the aristocratic Motilal Nehru
. The ceremony of marriage finally took place in the year 1916, when Kamala had attained the age of seventeen years. Nehru and Kaul had a daughter in 1917, who was named Indira Priyadarshini.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:8d5ab696-d4d4-4461-992e-a15c0d88be96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/62/early_life_jawaharlal_nehru.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.987385 | 530 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Jawaharlal Nehru, fondly known as Panditji, was born on 14th November 1889. He was a statesman and Indian politician
, a prominent leader in the India's struggle for Independence and the first Prime Minister
of independent India.
Family and Childhood of Jawaharlal Nehru
was born in a well-known family of Kashmiri pandits. He was born to Motilal Nehru (his father) and Swaruparani Nehru (his mother). He also had two younger sisters who were also named Vijaya Lakshmi and Krishna. He was brought up in his birthplace in Allahabad
. His father also owned a rich estate in Allahabad which was also known as Anand Bhavan. He spent his childhood in the company of many well-known and respectable people, who visited the estate to call upon his father who was a rich lawyer and influential industrialist, and politician with the Indian National Congress
Education of Jawaharlal Nehru
Until he was sixteen, Nehru was educated by a host of British tutors and governesses. He, at the age of thirteen, joined the Theosophical Society in India. He also had Indian tutors who taught him Hindi language
and Sanskrit language
and grew up to be an atheist.
Jawaharlal Nehru attended the Harrow in England (1905-07), and later on went on to earn an honours degree in natural science from the Trinity College in Cambridge University (1907-10). Nehru qualified as a barrister after two years (1910-12) at the Inns of Court School of Law in London.
Marriage and Children of Jawaharlal Nehru
After completing his education he returned to India in the year 1912. Soon after his return, his mother arranged his marriage with Kamala Kaul, a girl from a conservative middle-class Kashmiri Brahman family in 1912. Kaul was the grand-daughter of Kishanlal Atal, who had been prime minister of Jaipur
, so the match was acceptable to the aristocratic Motilal Nehru
. The ceremony of marriage finally took place in the year 1916, when Kamala had attained the age of seventeen years. Nehru and Kaul had a daughter in 1917, who was named Indira Priyadarshini.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | 553 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many of students need to learn a new language to impove their job prospects but some of them are learning a new language purely for pleasure.
Usually, to indicate that it is an event happening at the moment of speaking. If you said "some (of them) learn..." it would not necessarily indicate this. This would usually mean a habitual action, just like the first use of the simple present (need to learn).
But without more context, or knowledge of under what circumstances or for what reason this statement is being made, all we can give you are generalities (it probably or usually means this).
The meaning would be different. "Some of them learned a new language" means that they did it in the past, and the process of learning the new language is now complete. "Some of them are learning a new language" means that they are learning it now. They don't know the new language yet: they are still working on it.
I suppose you could say that in practice, learning a new language is an on-going process, it would be hard to say when you were truly finished. The distinction would be more meaningful if you were talking about a discrete event, like "some of them took Ruritanian 101 last semester" versus "some of them are taking Ruritanian 101 this semester". But still, if someone has taken just one or two classes in a foreign language or has just read the first chapter of a book, he presumably only knows a few introductory words and phrases, you might well say he "is learning" the language. Whereas someone who has studied it for several years and can talk comfortably with native speakers "learned it" at some time in the past. | <urn:uuid:f4b14c58-9fbf-44c9-9188-c03d1ec33175> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/51410/why-use-present-continuous-instead-of-present-simple-here | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.981139 | 349 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.23625659942... | 2 | Many of students need to learn a new language to impove their job prospects but some of them are learning a new language purely for pleasure.
Usually, to indicate that it is an event happening at the moment of speaking. If you said "some (of them) learn..." it would not necessarily indicate this. This would usually mean a habitual action, just like the first use of the simple present (need to learn).
But without more context, or knowledge of under what circumstances or for what reason this statement is being made, all we can give you are generalities (it probably or usually means this).
The meaning would be different. "Some of them learned a new language" means that they did it in the past, and the process of learning the new language is now complete. "Some of them are learning a new language" means that they are learning it now. They don't know the new language yet: they are still working on it.
I suppose you could say that in practice, learning a new language is an on-going process, it would be hard to say when you were truly finished. The distinction would be more meaningful if you were talking about a discrete event, like "some of them took Ruritanian 101 last semester" versus "some of them are taking Ruritanian 101 this semester". But still, if someone has taken just one or two classes in a foreign language or has just read the first chapter of a book, he presumably only knows a few introductory words and phrases, you might well say he "is learning" the language. Whereas someone who has studied it for several years and can talk comfortably with native speakers "learned it" at some time in the past. | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A quick post today. For a fun activity with some of my students, I bought these Star Wars Mad Libs. To help provide a visual support for nouns and verbs, I printed a sheet for nouns and for verbs, along with pictures that represented each. The student could think of their own words to fill in the blanks in the story or choose a picture from the pages. Since we haven't worked a lot with nouns and verbs yet, I wanted to provide these visual examples of the words. As we work more on this topic, I'll fade out those prompts.
I would also make one of these sheets for adjectives if I did this activity again.
We had a lot of fun with this activity! What's great about these stories is that you can find them for many different student interests. Here are a few from Amazon. | <urn:uuid:fc434f6a-4936-445e-bf0a-7574d652e308> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.autismhomeschoolsuccess.com/single-post/2020/01/14/Visual-Supports-for-Fill-in-the-Blank-Stories | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.981293 | 174 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.4904911518... | 5 | A quick post today. For a fun activity with some of my students, I bought these Star Wars Mad Libs. To help provide a visual support for nouns and verbs, I printed a sheet for nouns and for verbs, along with pictures that represented each. The student could think of their own words to fill in the blanks in the story or choose a picture from the pages. Since we haven't worked a lot with nouns and verbs yet, I wanted to provide these visual examples of the words. As we work more on this topic, I'll fade out those prompts.
I would also make one of these sheets for adjectives if I did this activity again.
We had a lot of fun with this activity! What's great about these stories is that you can find them for many different student interests. Here are a few from Amazon. | 168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Black Death (or the Great Pestilence as it was known then) hit Peterborough in 1349. This terrible disease, now called bubonic plague after the enlarged lymph nodes (buboes) resulting from the infection, is caused by an organism called Yersinia pestis carried by the fleas on black rats, though at the time it was thought to have been caused by bad air known as 'miasma'.
Approximately a third of the townspeople and 32 of the 64 monks at the monastery perished in a matter of weeks, and many of those who died were buried in mass burial pits to the west of the town and in the burial ground of the leper hospital of St Leonard. A higher proportion of monks died perhaps because they were helping tend to the sick.
The plague returned to Peterborough on many occasions causing a great deal of death and suffering until the last outbreak in 1665.
The image shows the Triumph of Death by P. Bruegal (1562) inspired by the Plague. | <urn:uuid:d0619dc8-d9fa-4bee-8f73-89bb76ab2f29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourjourneypeterborough.org/story/the-black-death | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.987444 | 211 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.264833897352... | 3 | The Black Death (or the Great Pestilence as it was known then) hit Peterborough in 1349. This terrible disease, now called bubonic plague after the enlarged lymph nodes (buboes) resulting from the infection, is caused by an organism called Yersinia pestis carried by the fleas on black rats, though at the time it was thought to have been caused by bad air known as 'miasma'.
Approximately a third of the townspeople and 32 of the 64 monks at the monastery perished in a matter of weeks, and many of those who died were buried in mass burial pits to the west of the town and in the burial ground of the leper hospital of St Leonard. A higher proportion of monks died perhaps because they were helping tend to the sick.
The plague returned to Peterborough on many occasions causing a great deal of death and suffering until the last outbreak in 1665.
The image shows the Triumph of Death by P. Bruegal (1562) inspired by the Plague. | 221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kimberley Stolen Generation Aboriginal Corporation
A Brief History of the Stolen Generations in Western Australia, Broome.
During the 20th century large numbers of Kimberley Aboriginal children were removed from their families by the Government and put into institutions or foster homes. Because of this policy many people lost contact with their families and their country and became known as the stolen generations. The Link-Up service has been set up to help people who were taken away to find their families and to meet up with them again.
When Europeans arrived in the Kimberley with their sheep and cattle Aboriginal people were often driven away from their own country, killed or gaoled for killing stock, or forced to work. Many people had nowhere to go. The government’s answer was to set up ration stations like Moola Bulla and Violet Valley where Aboriginal people could be sent to live and work in return for food and clothing.
With the idea of protecting Aboriginal people from some of the worst abuses, the churches began to set up missions where people could live and work and learn about Christianity. The government encouraged the missions in this work.
Under the WA Aborigines Act of 1905 it became illegal for Aboriginal women to live with non-Aboriginal men, and any children of mixed race could be taken to institutions and missions. By 1958 about 25 per cent of all Kimberley Aboriginal adults and 45 percent of all Kimberley Aboriginal children were living in missions.
In the late 1950s the government set up town hostels for Aboriginal children where they could stay while they went to school. Those children who were considered to have a suitable home were allowed to go home during the holidays. Other children lived permanently at the missions and hostels. This system continued in the Kimberley until the 1970s.
Many Kimberley Aboriginal babies were adopted or fostered by white families all over Western Australia.
In 1995 the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity commission held an inquiry into the separation of Indigenous children from their families. Members of the commission came to the Kimberley and over 400 people attended hearings in Broome and Hall’s Creek. As a result of the inquiry Stolen Generation working groups were formed in each Kimberley town.
In 1996 the Kimberley Stolen Generation Committee was formed with representatives from all the working groups. The committee was incorporated in 2001 as the Kimberley Stolen Generation Aboriginal Corporation. The corporation has carried out activities and projects that acknowledge the experiences of members of the Stolen Generations and to help with meaningful support.
The KSGAC Link Up Service also helps Aboriginal people of the stolen generations to search for and find their families. | <urn:uuid:be409508-7683-401f-a64b-1684d04f42fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kimberleystolengeneration.com.au/about-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.980806 | 533 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.097341336309909... | 1 | Kimberley Stolen Generation Aboriginal Corporation
A Brief History of the Stolen Generations in Western Australia, Broome.
During the 20th century large numbers of Kimberley Aboriginal children were removed from their families by the Government and put into institutions or foster homes. Because of this policy many people lost contact with their families and their country and became known as the stolen generations. The Link-Up service has been set up to help people who were taken away to find their families and to meet up with them again.
When Europeans arrived in the Kimberley with their sheep and cattle Aboriginal people were often driven away from their own country, killed or gaoled for killing stock, or forced to work. Many people had nowhere to go. The government’s answer was to set up ration stations like Moola Bulla and Violet Valley where Aboriginal people could be sent to live and work in return for food and clothing.
With the idea of protecting Aboriginal people from some of the worst abuses, the churches began to set up missions where people could live and work and learn about Christianity. The government encouraged the missions in this work.
Under the WA Aborigines Act of 1905 it became illegal for Aboriginal women to live with non-Aboriginal men, and any children of mixed race could be taken to institutions and missions. By 1958 about 25 per cent of all Kimberley Aboriginal adults and 45 percent of all Kimberley Aboriginal children were living in missions.
In the late 1950s the government set up town hostels for Aboriginal children where they could stay while they went to school. Those children who were considered to have a suitable home were allowed to go home during the holidays. Other children lived permanently at the missions and hostels. This system continued in the Kimberley until the 1970s.
Many Kimberley Aboriginal babies were adopted or fostered by white families all over Western Australia.
In 1995 the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity commission held an inquiry into the separation of Indigenous children from their families. Members of the commission came to the Kimberley and over 400 people attended hearings in Broome and Hall’s Creek. As a result of the inquiry Stolen Generation working groups were formed in each Kimberley town.
In 1996 the Kimberley Stolen Generation Committee was formed with representatives from all the working groups. The committee was incorporated in 2001 as the Kimberley Stolen Generation Aboriginal Corporation. The corporation has carried out activities and projects that acknowledge the experiences of members of the Stolen Generations and to help with meaningful support.
The KSGAC Link Up Service also helps Aboriginal people of the stolen generations to search for and find their families. | 557 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (Japanese: 松尾芭蕉, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.
According to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.
He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.
He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("Sosho") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.
In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.
His most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.
- Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru
- On travel I am sick
- My dream is running around
- a field covered with dried grass
Notes[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Matsuo Basho.|
- Rodd, Laurel Rasplica. "Japanese literature." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
- "Matsuo Basho." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. | <urn:uuid:591d2817-dcc5-4044-824d-038fd69bbf8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsuo_Basho | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.989065 | 725 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.397895872592926... | 9 | Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (Japanese: 松尾芭蕉, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.
According to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.
He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.
He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("Sosho") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.
In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.
His most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.
- Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru
- On travel I am sick
- My dream is running around
- a field covered with dried grass
Notes[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Matsuo Basho.|
- Rodd, Laurel Rasplica. "Japanese literature." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
- "Matsuo Basho." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. | 745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why did Germany finally lose in 1918? L/0 – To identify and evaluate the reasons for the German defeat
The situation at the end of 1917 • At the end of 1917, there was stalemate on the Western Front. However the Allies were in deep trouble: • Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 and signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. • Unrestricted U-boat warfare was seriously affecting allied supplies. • The French army was still recovering from a mutiny in the summer. • The USA had declared war on 6th April 1917 but troops had still not arrived in Europe.
Ludendorff’s Offensives • In March 1918, the German commander General Ludendorff, decided to take advantage of allied problems and gamble on one major offensive. • He wanted to win the war quickly before the arrival of the Americans. • But why did he decided to risk everything on this gamble?
Why did Ludendorff gamble on an offensive? 1.) American Entry – He knew Germany couldn’t hold out against American industry and manpower. 2.) The British Naval Blockade – Was working by 1918, Sweden & Denmark had agreed to limit exports, USA no longer traded. 3.) Failure of the U-boat Campaign of 1917 – Failed due to convoy system and brought the USA into the war. 4.) Russian Withdrawal – Meant he could transfer one million troops from the Eastern to the Western Front. 5.) German Allies – Austria was in stalemate in Italy and was running out of resources, Turkey was being pushed back in the Middle East.
The German Attacks: March-May • The offensive started on 21st March 1918 and focused on the British at Amiens. • It started with huge bombardments and gas attacks which were followed by smaller bands of specially trained and lightly equipped ‘storm troops’. • They struck during heavy fog across the entire front line.
“As the fog cleared a little, we saw the Germans for the first time, advancing in thousands. The whole area was darkened by their figures, a moving mass of grey… the ground favoured their advance; it was a maze of shell holes and they crawled from one to the other… All our Lewis guns, damaged earlier by shell fire, were out of action, and by now German bullets were whistling at us from all directions… it was only then that we realised that we were completely surrounded and hopelessly outnumbered. The first breakthrough had apparently come on our right when the enemy had captured our Company Headquarters.” G Wright, a soldier in the North Staffordshire Regiment, remembers the German attack in the Ludendorff Offensive.
The German Attacks: March-May • They were trained to attack at speed and along the whole of the front line so the Allies couldn’t mass their defence in a single place. • It broke through the line in many places and was very effective. • The Germans advanced up to 64 km in some places and Paris was now in range of heavy gunfire. “3 weeks ago the enemy began terrific attacks against us. Victory will belong to the side that holds out the longest. Every position must be held to the last man. With our backs to the wall, and believing in the justice of our cause, each one of us must fight on to the end.” Haig’s orders during the Ludendorff Offensive
Failure of the Offensive • The offensive had gone very well but by August, had run out of time and resources. • The Germans had ended trench warfare but the Allies now had the benefit of large numbers of well-fed and well-equipped troops. • Allied troops were backed up by the latest tanks, aircraft and artillery which were now ready to counter-attack. They even appointed an overall commander of the entire front – French General Foch.
Why did they fail to breakthrough? • German army had lost 400,000 in making the breakthrough and had no more reserves. • German troops were exhausted and had poor morale and discipline compared to well-fed allied soldiers. • Germans now had a much greater area to defend with only makeshift trenches. • First Americans went into action in May and Germans were rapidly losing their superiority of numbers.
The Allied drive to victory • On 8th August the Allies hit back along the whole front. Canadians, Australians, Americans, Belgians, French and British troops all burst through the German defences and forced the Germans back. • By late September they had reached the Hindenburg Line. By October the Germans were in full retreat. 400,000 Germans were taken prisoner.
The Allied drive to victory • By late October, the coast of Belgium had been liberated. In a single day the Allies advanced 13km from Ypres. • In Germany, there was a revolution and the Kaiser forced to abdicate. On the 9th November the new German government asked the Allies for an armistice. • This came into effect on the 11th November 1918. The Great War was over. | <urn:uuid:53a64112-cd17-441c-86a5-b75fd6405d7a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/vanna/why-did-germany-finally-lose-in-1918 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.986524 | 1,016 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.6003990173339844... | 1 | Why did Germany finally lose in 1918? L/0 – To identify and evaluate the reasons for the German defeat
The situation at the end of 1917 • At the end of 1917, there was stalemate on the Western Front. However the Allies were in deep trouble: • Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 and signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. • Unrestricted U-boat warfare was seriously affecting allied supplies. • The French army was still recovering from a mutiny in the summer. • The USA had declared war on 6th April 1917 but troops had still not arrived in Europe.
Ludendorff’s Offensives • In March 1918, the German commander General Ludendorff, decided to take advantage of allied problems and gamble on one major offensive. • He wanted to win the war quickly before the arrival of the Americans. • But why did he decided to risk everything on this gamble?
Why did Ludendorff gamble on an offensive? 1.) American Entry – He knew Germany couldn’t hold out against American industry and manpower. 2.) The British Naval Blockade – Was working by 1918, Sweden & Denmark had agreed to limit exports, USA no longer traded. 3.) Failure of the U-boat Campaign of 1917 – Failed due to convoy system and brought the USA into the war. 4.) Russian Withdrawal – Meant he could transfer one million troops from the Eastern to the Western Front. 5.) German Allies – Austria was in stalemate in Italy and was running out of resources, Turkey was being pushed back in the Middle East.
The German Attacks: March-May • The offensive started on 21st March 1918 and focused on the British at Amiens. • It started with huge bombardments and gas attacks which were followed by smaller bands of specially trained and lightly equipped ‘storm troops’. • They struck during heavy fog across the entire front line.
“As the fog cleared a little, we saw the Germans for the first time, advancing in thousands. The whole area was darkened by their figures, a moving mass of grey… the ground favoured their advance; it was a maze of shell holes and they crawled from one to the other… All our Lewis guns, damaged earlier by shell fire, were out of action, and by now German bullets were whistling at us from all directions… it was only then that we realised that we were completely surrounded and hopelessly outnumbered. The first breakthrough had apparently come on our right when the enemy had captured our Company Headquarters.” G Wright, a soldier in the North Staffordshire Regiment, remembers the German attack in the Ludendorff Offensive.
The German Attacks: March-May • They were trained to attack at speed and along the whole of the front line so the Allies couldn’t mass their defence in a single place. • It broke through the line in many places and was very effective. • The Germans advanced up to 64 km in some places and Paris was now in range of heavy gunfire. “3 weeks ago the enemy began terrific attacks against us. Victory will belong to the side that holds out the longest. Every position must be held to the last man. With our backs to the wall, and believing in the justice of our cause, each one of us must fight on to the end.” Haig’s orders during the Ludendorff Offensive
Failure of the Offensive • The offensive had gone very well but by August, had run out of time and resources. • The Germans had ended trench warfare but the Allies now had the benefit of large numbers of well-fed and well-equipped troops. • Allied troops were backed up by the latest tanks, aircraft and artillery which were now ready to counter-attack. They even appointed an overall commander of the entire front – French General Foch.
Why did they fail to breakthrough? • German army had lost 400,000 in making the breakthrough and had no more reserves. • German troops were exhausted and had poor morale and discipline compared to well-fed allied soldiers. • Germans now had a much greater area to defend with only makeshift trenches. • First Americans went into action in May and Germans were rapidly losing their superiority of numbers.
The Allied drive to victory • On 8th August the Allies hit back along the whole front. Canadians, Australians, Americans, Belgians, French and British troops all burst through the German defences and forced the Germans back. • By late September they had reached the Hindenburg Line. By October the Germans were in full retreat. 400,000 Germans were taken prisoner.
The Allied drive to victory • By late October, the coast of Belgium had been liberated. In a single day the Allies advanced 13km from Ypres. • In Germany, there was a revolution and the Kaiser forced to abdicate. On the 9th November the new German government asked the Allies for an armistice. • This came into effect on the 11th November 1918. The Great War was over. | 1,058 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Originally Published May 2007.
Irish Megalithic Tombs
Last month I said that one of the more notable changes started by the early Irish farming culture was in the burial of their dead. There is little surviving evidence of burial customs among the earlier hunter-gatherer peoples of Ireland, but starting around 4000 BC we see the first funerary monuments in the form of megalithic structures consisting of massive rocks that were often covered with soil and sod.
These late stone age large stone constructions were actually a custom throughout Atlantic Europe and pre-date the numerous stone circles that were assembled later during the Bronze Age. Around 1500 megalithic tombs have been identified in Ireland.
Little is known about the homes or social organization of these tomb builders, but it is clear from the size of some of the monuments that they must have had a fairly well organized social structure. The huge mound at Newgrange is estimated to contain 200,000 tons of stones. Using sledges, logs as rollers, levers and counter-weights as tools, various calculations have said that it would have taken 300 or 400 laborers as long as 20, or 30 years to transport the materials and construct this mound which cover an area of over an acre.
These tombs are divided into 4 styles
are the most common in Ireland, with over 400 that have been identified by archaeologists. They are called ‘wedge’ tombs because of their
distinctive shape, being taller and wider at the front, and lower and narrower at the rear. These date from the later end of the Irish Neolithic period up to the Bronze Age with some dates showing them to be between 3000 and 4000 years old.
(Such as NewGrange, see link above, as well as the Knowth Passage Tomb where the burial chamber is reached along a distinct, and usually low passage. Later ones, are sometimes covered with a cairn of earth or rocks. Most of the passage tombs were constructed around 3,000 B.C.
A long rectangular or trapezoid cairn was raised over several burial chambers. The tombs had an elongated curve of stones delineating an outer area at their entrances, called a court or forecourt which usually faces the east. The cairns can be up to 30 meters long, 14 meter wide at front and 7 wide at rear. In some cases
the courts appear to have been designed to accommodate the mourners at the burials. There are over 300 Court tomb sites in Ireland, located mainly in the upper half of the country. Common artifacts found in court tombs include sherds of round bottomed pottery bowls, leaf or lozenge shaped flint arrowheads and hollow scrapers made from flint. Also a few javelin heads and polished stone axe heads have been recorded.
Portal Tombs: (once called Dolmens)
These are more common in western Ireland and may be the best known of the Irish burial tombs, possibly due to some impressive and easily accessible sites still remaining. The people who built portal tombs seem to have had some connections or similarities to the court tomb builders since similar artifact have been found with both, and they both tend to appear in lowland settings.
For the most part these all of these tombs were used for communal burials for cremated remains not for single bodies. It has also been suggested that some of the tombs may have been more than simple burial monuments to ancestors and possibly created as declarations of territorial rights. | <urn:uuid:f4b740ce-b02a-4c77-ba98-69c46b446507> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/irish-megalithic-tombs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.980303 | 720 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.40732482... | 1 | Originally Published May 2007.
Irish Megalithic Tombs
Last month I said that one of the more notable changes started by the early Irish farming culture was in the burial of their dead. There is little surviving evidence of burial customs among the earlier hunter-gatherer peoples of Ireland, but starting around 4000 BC we see the first funerary monuments in the form of megalithic structures consisting of massive rocks that were often covered with soil and sod.
These late stone age large stone constructions were actually a custom throughout Atlantic Europe and pre-date the numerous stone circles that were assembled later during the Bronze Age. Around 1500 megalithic tombs have been identified in Ireland.
Little is known about the homes or social organization of these tomb builders, but it is clear from the size of some of the monuments that they must have had a fairly well organized social structure. The huge mound at Newgrange is estimated to contain 200,000 tons of stones. Using sledges, logs as rollers, levers and counter-weights as tools, various calculations have said that it would have taken 300 or 400 laborers as long as 20, or 30 years to transport the materials and construct this mound which cover an area of over an acre.
These tombs are divided into 4 styles
are the most common in Ireland, with over 400 that have been identified by archaeologists. They are called ‘wedge’ tombs because of their
distinctive shape, being taller and wider at the front, and lower and narrower at the rear. These date from the later end of the Irish Neolithic period up to the Bronze Age with some dates showing them to be between 3000 and 4000 years old.
(Such as NewGrange, see link above, as well as the Knowth Passage Tomb where the burial chamber is reached along a distinct, and usually low passage. Later ones, are sometimes covered with a cairn of earth or rocks. Most of the passage tombs were constructed around 3,000 B.C.
A long rectangular or trapezoid cairn was raised over several burial chambers. The tombs had an elongated curve of stones delineating an outer area at their entrances, called a court or forecourt which usually faces the east. The cairns can be up to 30 meters long, 14 meter wide at front and 7 wide at rear. In some cases
the courts appear to have been designed to accommodate the mourners at the burials. There are over 300 Court tomb sites in Ireland, located mainly in the upper half of the country. Common artifacts found in court tombs include sherds of round bottomed pottery bowls, leaf or lozenge shaped flint arrowheads and hollow scrapers made from flint. Also a few javelin heads and polished stone axe heads have been recorded.
Portal Tombs: (once called Dolmens)
These are more common in western Ireland and may be the best known of the Irish burial tombs, possibly due to some impressive and easily accessible sites still remaining. The people who built portal tombs seem to have had some connections or similarities to the court tomb builders since similar artifact have been found with both, and they both tend to appear in lowland settings.
For the most part these all of these tombs were used for communal burials for cremated remains not for single bodies. It has also been suggested that some of the tombs may have been more than simple burial monuments to ancestors and possibly created as declarations of territorial rights. | 757 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"22 Inuit men, 17 Inuit women, 10 children, 246 dogs, 70 tons (64 metric tons) of whale meat from Labrador, the meat and blubber of 50 walruses, hunting equipment, and tons of coal. In February, Henson and Peary departed their anchored ship at Ellesmere Island's Cape Sheridan, with the Inuit men and 130 dogs working to lay a trail and supplies along the route to the Pole."
Henson was born on August 8, 1866 on his parents' farm near the Potomac River in Charles County, Maryland, to sharecroppers who had been free people of color before the American Civil War. Along with many former slaves, Matthew's parents were subjected to attacks by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups that terrorized southern blacks after the Civil War. To escape from racial violence, in 1867 the Henson family sold the farm and moved to Georgetown. He had an older sister S., born in 1864, and two younger sisters Eliza and S. Matthew's mother died when Matthew was seven. His father Lemuel remarried to a woman named Caroline and had additional children with her, including daughters and a son. After his father died, Matthew was sent to live with his uncle in Washington, D.C., who paid for a few years of education for Henson before dying. He attended a black public school for the next six years, during the last of which he took a summer job washing dishes in a restaurant. Matthew's early years were marked by one especially memorable event. When he was 10 years old, he went to a ceremony honoring Abraham Lincoln, the American President who had fought so hard to preserve the Union during the Civil War and had issued the proclamation that had freed slaves in the Confederate states in 1863. At the ceremony, Matthew was greatly inspired by a speech given by Frederick Douglass, the longtime leading figure in the American black community. A former slave turned abolitionist, Douglass called upon blacks to vigorously pursue educational opportunities and battle racial prejudice.
While working at a Washington D.C. clothing store, B.H.Stinemetz and Sons, in November 1887, Henson met Commander Robert E. Peary. Learning of Henson's sea experience, Peary recruited him as an aide for his planned voyage and surveying expedition to Nicaragua, with four other men. Peary supervised 45 Engineers on the canal survey in Nicaragua. Impressed with Henson's seamanship on that voyage, Peary recruited him as a colleague and he became "first man" in his expeditions.
During the extended expeditions to Greenland, Henson and Peary both took Inuit women as "country wives" and fathered children with them. Henson's concubine, known as Akatingwah, fathered his only child, a son named Anauakaq, born in 1906. Anauakag's children are Henson's only descendants. After 1909, Henson never saw Akatingwah or his son again; other explorers sometimes updated him about them.
His first marriage ended soon after he started on expeditions with Peary. Henson married Lucy Ross in New York City on September 7, 1907. They had no children.
Although Admiral Peary received many honors for leading the expedition to the Pole, Henson's contributions were largely ignored during the following decades. He was honored at dinners within the black community in 1909. He spent most of the next 30 years working on staff in the U.S. Customs House in New York, at the suggestion of Theodore Roosevelt.
In 1912 Matthew Henson published his memoir about his arctic explorations, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole. In his own account, he describes himself as a "general assistant, skilled craftsperson, interpreter [he had learned the Inuit language], and laborer." He later collaborated with Bradley Robinson on his 1947 biography, Dark Companion, which told more about his life.
Henson was admitted as a member to the prestigious Explorers Club in New York City in 1937, and made an honorary member in 1948, of whom there are only 20 per year. In 1944 Congress awarded him and five other Peary aides duplicates of the Peary Polar Expedition Medal, a silver medal given to Peary. Presidents Truman and Eisenhower both honored Henson before he died in 1955.
Henson died in the Bronx on March 9, 1955, at the age of 88. He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery and survived by his wife Lucy. After her death in 1968, she was buried with him. Thirty two years after he died, his body was moved to Arlington National Cemetery.
S. Allen Counter, a neuroscientist and Director of the Harvard Foundation, had long been interested in Henson's story and traveled in Greenland for research related to it. Learning of possible descendants of the explorers, in 1986 he tracked down Henson's and Peary's sons, Anauakaq and Kali, respectively, who were then octogenarians. He arranged a visit for them the following year to the United States, where they met American relatives from both families and visited their fathers' graves. Anauakaq died in 1987. He and his wife Aviaq had five sons and a daughter, who have children of their own. They reside in Greenland.
Matthew Henson's only direct descendants were the children of his Inuit son and their children. According to S. Allen Counter, in his lifetime Henson had identified families of two nieces as being part of his extended birth family. They were Virginia Carter Brannum, daughter of Henson's sister Eliza Henson Carter of Washington, D.C., and Olive Henson Fulton of Boston, daughter of his half-brother. In a 1988 article, Counter noted that these two women had letters and photographs certifying their kinship. They were the only family members to attend Henson's funeral in 1955, with his widow Lucy Ross Henson. Counter later recommended to the United States Navy and the National Geographic Society that Audrey Mebane, daughter of Virginia Brannum, and Olive Henson Fulton be family representatives for any ceremonies honoring Henson. | <urn:uuid:bce44238-d0a7-4a16-bf5d-2adc2ffef51a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.idolnetworth.com/matthew-henson-net-worth-56230 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.988103 | 1,269 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | "22 Inuit men, 17 Inuit women, 10 children, 246 dogs, 70 tons (64 metric tons) of whale meat from Labrador, the meat and blubber of 50 walruses, hunting equipment, and tons of coal. In February, Henson and Peary departed their anchored ship at Ellesmere Island's Cape Sheridan, with the Inuit men and 130 dogs working to lay a trail and supplies along the route to the Pole."
Henson was born on August 8, 1866 on his parents' farm near the Potomac River in Charles County, Maryland, to sharecroppers who had been free people of color before the American Civil War. Along with many former slaves, Matthew's parents were subjected to attacks by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups that terrorized southern blacks after the Civil War. To escape from racial violence, in 1867 the Henson family sold the farm and moved to Georgetown. He had an older sister S., born in 1864, and two younger sisters Eliza and S. Matthew's mother died when Matthew was seven. His father Lemuel remarried to a woman named Caroline and had additional children with her, including daughters and a son. After his father died, Matthew was sent to live with his uncle in Washington, D.C., who paid for a few years of education for Henson before dying. He attended a black public school for the next six years, during the last of which he took a summer job washing dishes in a restaurant. Matthew's early years were marked by one especially memorable event. When he was 10 years old, he went to a ceremony honoring Abraham Lincoln, the American President who had fought so hard to preserve the Union during the Civil War and had issued the proclamation that had freed slaves in the Confederate states in 1863. At the ceremony, Matthew was greatly inspired by a speech given by Frederick Douglass, the longtime leading figure in the American black community. A former slave turned abolitionist, Douglass called upon blacks to vigorously pursue educational opportunities and battle racial prejudice.
While working at a Washington D.C. clothing store, B.H.Stinemetz and Sons, in November 1887, Henson met Commander Robert E. Peary. Learning of Henson's sea experience, Peary recruited him as an aide for his planned voyage and surveying expedition to Nicaragua, with four other men. Peary supervised 45 Engineers on the canal survey in Nicaragua. Impressed with Henson's seamanship on that voyage, Peary recruited him as a colleague and he became "first man" in his expeditions.
During the extended expeditions to Greenland, Henson and Peary both took Inuit women as "country wives" and fathered children with them. Henson's concubine, known as Akatingwah, fathered his only child, a son named Anauakaq, born in 1906. Anauakag's children are Henson's only descendants. After 1909, Henson never saw Akatingwah or his son again; other explorers sometimes updated him about them.
His first marriage ended soon after he started on expeditions with Peary. Henson married Lucy Ross in New York City on September 7, 1907. They had no children.
Although Admiral Peary received many honors for leading the expedition to the Pole, Henson's contributions were largely ignored during the following decades. He was honored at dinners within the black community in 1909. He spent most of the next 30 years working on staff in the U.S. Customs House in New York, at the suggestion of Theodore Roosevelt.
In 1912 Matthew Henson published his memoir about his arctic explorations, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole. In his own account, he describes himself as a "general assistant, skilled craftsperson, interpreter [he had learned the Inuit language], and laborer." He later collaborated with Bradley Robinson on his 1947 biography, Dark Companion, which told more about his life.
Henson was admitted as a member to the prestigious Explorers Club in New York City in 1937, and made an honorary member in 1948, of whom there are only 20 per year. In 1944 Congress awarded him and five other Peary aides duplicates of the Peary Polar Expedition Medal, a silver medal given to Peary. Presidents Truman and Eisenhower both honored Henson before he died in 1955.
Henson died in the Bronx on March 9, 1955, at the age of 88. He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery and survived by his wife Lucy. After her death in 1968, she was buried with him. Thirty two years after he died, his body was moved to Arlington National Cemetery.
S. Allen Counter, a neuroscientist and Director of the Harvard Foundation, had long been interested in Henson's story and traveled in Greenland for research related to it. Learning of possible descendants of the explorers, in 1986 he tracked down Henson's and Peary's sons, Anauakaq and Kali, respectively, who were then octogenarians. He arranged a visit for them the following year to the United States, where they met American relatives from both families and visited their fathers' graves. Anauakaq died in 1987. He and his wife Aviaq had five sons and a daughter, who have children of their own. They reside in Greenland.
Matthew Henson's only direct descendants were the children of his Inuit son and their children. According to S. Allen Counter, in his lifetime Henson had identified families of two nieces as being part of his extended birth family. They were Virginia Carter Brannum, daughter of Henson's sister Eliza Henson Carter of Washington, D.C., and Olive Henson Fulton of Boston, daughter of his half-brother. In a 1988 article, Counter noted that these two women had letters and photographs certifying their kinship. They were the only family members to attend Henson's funeral in 1955, with his widow Lucy Ross Henson. Counter later recommended to the United States Navy and the National Geographic Society that Audrey Mebane, daughter of Virginia Brannum, and Olive Henson Fulton be family representatives for any ceremonies honoring Henson. | 1,364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SOUND COMES TO THE MOVIES
Mechanical device made up of two pendula moving both a biro and a flat surface on which a geometric figure such as an ellipse, spiral or other, is drawn. Although it was invented by mathematician Hugh Blackburn in the 19th century, similar devices were originally built in order to make visible vibratory movements produced by sound. Those experiments on the propagation of sound paved the way for research on mechanisms for recording and reproducing sounds that were later used in cinema. From the beginning of movie- making, attempts were made to incorporate sound to the images, first by accompanying the projection with live sounds and music, and later by adding certain sound recording formats that were played at the same time as the film. Then, in 1927 “The Jazz Singer” came out and is considered the first film with totally synchronized sound; the following year “Lights of New York” was the first movie with spoken dialogues – that is, talkies as we understand them today. | <urn:uuid:9e550f7f-a99a-4e9b-b0f2-27b959371ddc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zinematikbcn.wordpress.com/harmonograph/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.987288 | 208 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.01652725... | 2 | SOUND COMES TO THE MOVIES
Mechanical device made up of two pendula moving both a biro and a flat surface on which a geometric figure such as an ellipse, spiral or other, is drawn. Although it was invented by mathematician Hugh Blackburn in the 19th century, similar devices were originally built in order to make visible vibratory movements produced by sound. Those experiments on the propagation of sound paved the way for research on mechanisms for recording and reproducing sounds that were later used in cinema. From the beginning of movie- making, attempts were made to incorporate sound to the images, first by accompanying the projection with live sounds and music, and later by adding certain sound recording formats that were played at the same time as the film. Then, in 1927 “The Jazz Singer” came out and is considered the first film with totally synchronized sound; the following year “Lights of New York” was the first movie with spoken dialogues – that is, talkies as we understand them today. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
politics and government of
|Precedent and law|
|Titles and honours|
Aedile ( EE-dyle; Latin: aed?lis [ae?'di:l?s], from aedes, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings (aed?s) and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order.
There were two pairs of aediles: the first were the "plebeian aediles" (Latin aediles plebis) and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were "curule aediles" (Latin aediles curules), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An aedilis curulis was classified as a magister curulis.
The office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity.
The plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the Tribunes of the People (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebs with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole. Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the senate (Latin: senatus consulta). When a senatus consultum was passed, it would be transcribed into a document, and deposited in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents. They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the censors. Occasionally, if a Censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an Aedile would perform the task instead.
According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul. Curule Aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that Plebeian Aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a Curule Chair (sella curulis) and to wear a toga praetexta, the Curule Aediles also held the power to issue edicts (jus edicendi). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call "economic regulation".Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both Curule as well as Plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct. Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four Aediles (two Plebeian, two Curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over.
There was a distinction between the two sets of Aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were Plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of Plebeian Aediles. Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the Curule Aediles, and it was often with these festivals that the Aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done so as to secure the support of voters in future elections. Because Aediles were not reimbursed for any of their public expenditures, most individuals who sought the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the Aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's Aedileship.
Plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council, usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a consul. Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the lex annalis, individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five. By the 1st century BC, aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.
(1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures.
(2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity.
(3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement.
In 44 BC Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles, called Cereales, whose special duty was the care of the cereal (grain) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its judicial functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi. Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, Augustus effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. Augustus accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office. Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes. In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.
Under the Empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually. Today in Portugal the county mayor can still be referred to as edil (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a way of reference used also in Romania for any mayors (ex. 'Edil al Bucure?tiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest'). In Spain (and Latin America) the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles. | <urn:uuid:147c0546-1b5f-454f-9267-db34b42ee6a9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Aedile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.982632 | 1,905 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2200424075126... | 1 | politics and government of
|Precedent and law|
|Titles and honours|
Aedile ( EE-dyle; Latin: aed?lis [ae?'di:l?s], from aedes, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings (aed?s) and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order.
There were two pairs of aediles: the first were the "plebeian aediles" (Latin aediles plebis) and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were "curule aediles" (Latin aediles curules), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An aedilis curulis was classified as a magister curulis.
The office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity.
The plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the Tribunes of the People (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebs with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole. Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the senate (Latin: senatus consulta). When a senatus consultum was passed, it would be transcribed into a document, and deposited in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents. They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the censors. Occasionally, if a Censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an Aedile would perform the task instead.
According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul. Curule Aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that Plebeian Aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a Curule Chair (sella curulis) and to wear a toga praetexta, the Curule Aediles also held the power to issue edicts (jus edicendi). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call "economic regulation".Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both Curule as well as Plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct. Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four Aediles (two Plebeian, two Curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over.
There was a distinction between the two sets of Aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were Plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of Plebeian Aediles. Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the Curule Aediles, and it was often with these festivals that the Aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done so as to secure the support of voters in future elections. Because Aediles were not reimbursed for any of their public expenditures, most individuals who sought the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the Aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's Aedileship.
Plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council, usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a consul. Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the lex annalis, individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five. By the 1st century BC, aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.
(1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures.
(2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity.
(3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement.
In 44 BC Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles, called Cereales, whose special duty was the care of the cereal (grain) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its judicial functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi. Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, Augustus effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. Augustus accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office. Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes. In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.
Under the Empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually. Today in Portugal the county mayor can still be referred to as edil (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a way of reference used also in Romania for any mayors (ex. 'Edil al Bucure?tiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest'). In Spain (and Latin America) the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles. | 1,909 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1) In coal-mining contexts this verb had the same meaning as ‘to hole’.
Commenting on a case from 1713 W.B. Trigg said that ‘the defendant paid 30s for hollowing to the new pitt’, which suggests that this gallery linked the two shafts and was intended as a ventilation gate. He employed the term ‘hollow work’ for when colliers or sinkers broke through into ground where the coal had already been mined: 1815 ‘the coal had been worked from the Cold Harbour pit and the hurrying road led … from the hollow work to Cold Harbour pit’. Gresley defined ‘hollows’ as old abandoned workings. In Colsterdale, the term ‘old man’ was used in such cases by both coal-miners and lead-miners: 1707 The field is the hardest I have worked … but should last long after I am dead. The Old Man has worked the field so it was either drowned out or nipped. | <urn:uuid:653ee057-587b-4257-871c-5b4838e4db0d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yorkshiredictionary.york.ac.uk/words/hollow | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.985417 | 219 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.19439479708671... | 8 | 1) In coal-mining contexts this verb had the same meaning as ‘to hole’.
Commenting on a case from 1713 W.B. Trigg said that ‘the defendant paid 30s for hollowing to the new pitt’, which suggests that this gallery linked the two shafts and was intended as a ventilation gate. He employed the term ‘hollow work’ for when colliers or sinkers broke through into ground where the coal had already been mined: 1815 ‘the coal had been worked from the Cold Harbour pit and the hurrying road led … from the hollow work to Cold Harbour pit’. Gresley defined ‘hollows’ as old abandoned workings. In Colsterdale, the term ‘old man’ was used in such cases by both coal-miners and lead-miners: 1707 The field is the hardest I have worked … but should last long after I am dead. The Old Man has worked the field so it was either drowned out or nipped. | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Parents and teachers are aware of the importance of math as well as all of the benefits. Taken in the account how important math is, parents will do whatever it takes to help their struggling children to effectively manage math anxiety. By using worksheets, it can play a major role in helping your kids cope with these stressful. This is a good way to show our children that practicing their math skills will help them improve. Here are some of the advantages using math and worksheets.
When I first had my son, I never knew what challenges awaited him in this big world. It started with having to overcome diabetes. This was a long and constant process. It took us about 3 years, but now we have it down to a science. He knows exactly what he needs to do and how to maintain his health. Once we got a system in place it was rather easy for him. Now he is in the third grade and we have hit the second biggest challenge / struggle of his life; math class. This is rather ironic because my husband and I both have Master's degree in engineering and mathematics. We have mastered very highly levels of math with relative ease. My son Cameron on the other hand, struggled to grasp the concept of multiplication. I had to help him find a way to tackle this. I thought to myself, what could I do? Then it hit me, we already developed a strategy that he has mastered to maintain his health. Why not help him develop a strategy to learn math concepts and skills? So I developed this 3 step method that changed everything. | <urn:uuid:aea08ecd-2f44-4eda-b0e6-46412337b599> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bayesianwitch.com/math-worksheet/012-math-worksheet-christmas-worksheets-dot-to-winter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.987553 | 316 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.18026329576... | 1 | Parents and teachers are aware of the importance of math as well as all of the benefits. Taken in the account how important math is, parents will do whatever it takes to help their struggling children to effectively manage math anxiety. By using worksheets, it can play a major role in helping your kids cope with these stressful. This is a good way to show our children that practicing their math skills will help them improve. Here are some of the advantages using math and worksheets.
When I first had my son, I never knew what challenges awaited him in this big world. It started with having to overcome diabetes. This was a long and constant process. It took us about 3 years, but now we have it down to a science. He knows exactly what he needs to do and how to maintain his health. Once we got a system in place it was rather easy for him. Now he is in the third grade and we have hit the second biggest challenge / struggle of his life; math class. This is rather ironic because my husband and I both have Master's degree in engineering and mathematics. We have mastered very highly levels of math with relative ease. My son Cameron on the other hand, struggled to grasp the concept of multiplication. I had to help him find a way to tackle this. I thought to myself, what could I do? Then it hit me, we already developed a strategy that he has mastered to maintain his health. Why not help him develop a strategy to learn math concepts and skills? So I developed this 3 step method that changed everything. | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the end of the nineteenth century the United States seemed to be racing forward in many areas, such as technological advancement, more efficient manufacturing, modernizing transportation, and of course, making money. America was, on the surface, improving greatly; underneath however, there were many problems including corrupt businesses and a growing lower class stricken by poverty.
In 1900 to 1920 the Progressive Reform Movement swept the nation; progressive reformers rallied for equal treatment and better working conditions; the federal government adopted regulations that attempted to satisfy the wishes of the reformer; both groups had successes and limitations that ultimately led to an overall beneficial effect on the nation. The Progressives, a group of mainly middle class Americans, were intent on bettering their society and preventing a social revolution through a series of reforms that would ultimately allow social progress for many people.
Some progressives wanted to restore a democratic government, others wanted to create more equal opportunities for both the poor and foreign people, and others wanted to create cleaner and better working conditions. They were very successful in many ventures but some of their actions caused serious consequences and limitations. Muckrakers were a branch of progressives dedicated to exposing social problems. The Neill Reynolds Report functions as an example of muckraking and describes the horrifyingly unsanitary conditions of one meat packaging factory.
The workers in the factory were ignorant of the health precautions to take when handling food so the meat was, by the time it was fully packaged and ready to leave the factory, diseased and extremely unhealthy. Some people campaigned for the rights and well being of those who were unable to speak on their own behalf. Jane Addams discusses how educators simply prepared their students with the little information they needed and sent them off to work in factories because they were in awe of the grand new technology and never gave a second thought to the welfare of the children.
She expresses her disbelief at the teachers’ lack of compassion for the well being of the children. The photograph from the National Archives shows a woman holding a sign asking President Wilson why he was sympathetic for the Germans because they were not self governed when millions of women in his own country were not self governed. The majority of progressive women wanted the government to be more democratic overall and grant women suffrage. Women were successful in this because by throwing themselves into the war effort they were eventually granted suffrage.
Many people, like muckrakers, were successful in getting the word out about problems that plagued society but their main limitation was that they did not actually do anything to contribute to lessening the problems, they left it up to the government and other progressives to take a lead on getting things done. The government desired to comply with the wishes of the progressives in order to keep the people happy and also because many politicians were, themselves, progressives. Theodore Roosevelt, for example, was a president with progressive ideals.
He wanted big businesses’ control over the country to be a minimum. He saw a need for big businesses but, as demonstrated by the cartoon from the Washington Post, he wanted to abolish monopolistic trusts. Roosevelt also wanted to create a more democratic government. In one of his speeches he said that he believed that people should have the right to directly elect their senators and also vote in the presidential primaries. The government made many laws and policies in an attempt to satisfy the desires and well being of the people.
After many reports like the Neill Reynolds Report and the book The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act. The Clayton Anti Trust Act forbid businesses engaged in commerce to join together in trusts and therefore monopolize the market. In the act they also mention (in accordance to Wilson’s idea of “New Freedom”) that because human labor is not to be misconstrued as a commodity of commerce labor unions were not to be mistaken as trusts. This made businesses unable to speak out against organized labor. | <urn:uuid:7db3d2ae-9f51-470e-ace6-1ea2a700c9f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/progressive-reform/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.980903 | 795 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.15290462970733... | 3 | At the end of the nineteenth century the United States seemed to be racing forward in many areas, such as technological advancement, more efficient manufacturing, modernizing transportation, and of course, making money. America was, on the surface, improving greatly; underneath however, there were many problems including corrupt businesses and a growing lower class stricken by poverty.
In 1900 to 1920 the Progressive Reform Movement swept the nation; progressive reformers rallied for equal treatment and better working conditions; the federal government adopted regulations that attempted to satisfy the wishes of the reformer; both groups had successes and limitations that ultimately led to an overall beneficial effect on the nation. The Progressives, a group of mainly middle class Americans, were intent on bettering their society and preventing a social revolution through a series of reforms that would ultimately allow social progress for many people.
Some progressives wanted to restore a democratic government, others wanted to create more equal opportunities for both the poor and foreign people, and others wanted to create cleaner and better working conditions. They were very successful in many ventures but some of their actions caused serious consequences and limitations. Muckrakers were a branch of progressives dedicated to exposing social problems. The Neill Reynolds Report functions as an example of muckraking and describes the horrifyingly unsanitary conditions of one meat packaging factory.
The workers in the factory were ignorant of the health precautions to take when handling food so the meat was, by the time it was fully packaged and ready to leave the factory, diseased and extremely unhealthy. Some people campaigned for the rights and well being of those who were unable to speak on their own behalf. Jane Addams discusses how educators simply prepared their students with the little information they needed and sent them off to work in factories because they were in awe of the grand new technology and never gave a second thought to the welfare of the children.
She expresses her disbelief at the teachers’ lack of compassion for the well being of the children. The photograph from the National Archives shows a woman holding a sign asking President Wilson why he was sympathetic for the Germans because they were not self governed when millions of women in his own country were not self governed. The majority of progressive women wanted the government to be more democratic overall and grant women suffrage. Women were successful in this because by throwing themselves into the war effort they were eventually granted suffrage.
Many people, like muckrakers, were successful in getting the word out about problems that plagued society but their main limitation was that they did not actually do anything to contribute to lessening the problems, they left it up to the government and other progressives to take a lead on getting things done. The government desired to comply with the wishes of the progressives in order to keep the people happy and also because many politicians were, themselves, progressives. Theodore Roosevelt, for example, was a president with progressive ideals.
He wanted big businesses’ control over the country to be a minimum. He saw a need for big businesses but, as demonstrated by the cartoon from the Washington Post, he wanted to abolish monopolistic trusts. Roosevelt also wanted to create a more democratic government. In one of his speeches he said that he believed that people should have the right to directly elect their senators and also vote in the presidential primaries. The government made many laws and policies in an attempt to satisfy the desires and well being of the people.
After many reports like the Neill Reynolds Report and the book The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act. The Clayton Anti Trust Act forbid businesses engaged in commerce to join together in trusts and therefore monopolize the market. In the act they also mention (in accordance to Wilson’s idea of “New Freedom”) that because human labor is not to be misconstrued as a commodity of commerce labor unions were not to be mistaken as trusts. This made businesses unable to speak out against organized labor. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
WWII was the most disastrous conflict mankind has ever known in terms of lives lost and property destroyed. The war took place in two theaters and was virtually two different wars happening simultaneously–a war mainly against Germany and another against Japan. Because this is such a monstrous war, it will be discussed in two segments: first, the war against Japan, and next, the war against Germany.
Naval combat has been a key to successful warfare in history from the ancient Greeks’ and Romans’ galleys to the towering aircraft carriers of today. Keeping control of the sea has been important for thousands of years, and rarely is there an exception. Controlling the seas with naval vessels was especially important to the Americans and the British in the Revolutionary War because sea routes could bring in troops and supplies, and forming blockades could cut them off. The Americans were desperate to throw the British navy out of their waters, so they found a solution–a tiny wooden submarine. Its mission was difficult, but it was the only way to rout the British besides a huge sea battle and the loss of many needed lives.
This exciting tale was originally published in Sea Frontiers July/August 1975 issue, according to George Pararas-Carayannis, and is retold on his website http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Turtle.html.
In 1776, a man named David Bushnell, a graduate of Harvard University, had an idea. The thought was nothing short of ingenious, and it may have led to a whole new class of warships. The idea was to build a submarine that would move to an enemy ship, drill a hole in the hull, place a time-detonated bomb, and leave before the bomb exploded to sink the ship.
The submarine would look like two tortoise shells placed stomach-to-stomach and a lid
with six glass windows on the top. The pilot would have to do everything by hand, from steering to propulsion. Inside the craft, the operator would have to crank the propeller to move the sub. There were two propellers–one to move, and one to descend. The craft was also weighed down with a 600-pound lead ballast to stop the submarine from bobbing.
This must have been what the Turtle looked like. Photo from the World Almanac.
The inside of the submersible was lit with luminescent foxfire fungus (because using fire to illuminate the craft would use up the oxygen, and the pilot would suffocate). The sub’s air supply would only last 30 minutes. The bomb the craft carried consisted of 150 pounds of black powder and used a flintlock detonator to keep it from exploding for up to 12 hours. The sub was named the Turtle because of its shell-like hull.
The turtle was scheduled to attack the British flagship HMS Eagle in the spring of 1776.
The pilot Ezra Bushnell, David Bushnell’s brother, trained in the safe waters of the Connecticut River, According to Michael Mohl on NavSource Online, a volunteer organization that preserves naval history at http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08441.htm. Finally, the date for the scheduled attack had come. Unfortunately, on the eve of the attack, Ezra Bushnell died. Fortunately, another man named Ezra Lee volunteered to do the dangerous mission. He trained intensely for months until he was confident he was ready to attack.
The bioluminescent foxfire fungus. Photo from quantum-immortal.net
However, by this time, the British had moved their fleet to New York Harbor, so Lee had to go though many more months of training to prepare for the odd and tricky currents in the harbor. On July 12th, the Turtle was transported by a sloop and successfully placed in the harbor in the dark of night. Lee silently pedaled towards the British warship HMS Eagle and submerged under the ship. Things began to go badly.
As Lee started to drill into the ship’s hull, he accidentally hit metal instead of wood. He tried but couldn’t get through. Lee had no idea where he was drilling because the sub lacked a window on top. When his air supply almost ran out, he surfaced and descended yet again. And he failed again. Lee was exhausted and was forced to pedal back to land because the harbor’s tides had begun to change. He pedaled frantically but was spotted by British sailors. Lee released his bomb in hope of distracting the British. The bomb exploded and, as Lee had hoped, distracted the British. Lee made it back to land alive, but he had failed his mission. It had not been a complete failure, however. The British did recognize the threat and moved their blockade, so the Americans could still get ships in and out of the harbor.
The Turtle made more attacks later in the war with some success. It once drilled a hole in another British war ship but was not able to get the bomb in place correctly. The bomb exploded and damaged the ship and killed three men. However, the Turtle never sank any ships like it was originally intended.
Even though the Turtle failed its missions, it is considered by many to be a twisted psychological victory and possibly the basis for a new kind of warship–the submarine. Wherever the final resting place of the Turtle may be, it is forever lost in naval history–but remembered as the seed for all submarines to come.
The Revolutionary War is arguably the most important war in U.S. history, and one of its most significant contributions is its influence on military tactics. The American Revolution illustrated to the world the success of guerrilla warfare. In the beginning of the war, when the Americans were outnumbered and disorganized, guerrilla tactics enabled them to survive until other European countries came to their aid. If the Continental Army had fought these early battles European style, in which two armies lined up and shot at each other, the Americans might not have lasted long enough to win the war. The British controlled a great deal of New World territory at the time and had more troops and money to train and supply them. The Americans lacked this monetary backing and, thus, their troops were poorly trained.
The effects of the American Revolution are still with us today. World War II would have been completely different if the U.S. had not pulled free of its colonial rulers and established itself as a nation and gained new states. Without the Revolution, the U.S. would have remained a British colony and might not have expanded like it did during the 1800s. Because it gained independence and went on to access more land, it eventually amassed enough money, natural resources, and manpower to help its European allies in WWII. As a result, the U.S. became a world power.
By the end of the Revolutionary War, the Americans were able to begin fighting European
style because the French and the Spanish allies trained the Americans enough to make them a disciplined, organized fighting force. At this point, the European allies also were sending troops, and larger-scale battles could be fought, which injured the British Army enough to drive the British out of America.
Wars have constantly solved mankind’s issues. The tactics and stories of battles from these wars have lived throughout the millennia and hopefully will live for millennia to come. Looking back upon history and seeing the tactics used from battle to battle, war to war, and century to century helps us understand how wars are won.
If one can understand wars and why they started, one can see why events played out in history and made the world the way it is today. | <urn:uuid:9f5ee36a-b41b-45b1-b906-128947ebd6ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://warhistorytoday.wordpress.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.98018 | 1,561 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.757009... | 8 | WWII was the most disastrous conflict mankind has ever known in terms of lives lost and property destroyed. The war took place in two theaters and was virtually two different wars happening simultaneously–a war mainly against Germany and another against Japan. Because this is such a monstrous war, it will be discussed in two segments: first, the war against Japan, and next, the war against Germany.
Naval combat has been a key to successful warfare in history from the ancient Greeks’ and Romans’ galleys to the towering aircraft carriers of today. Keeping control of the sea has been important for thousands of years, and rarely is there an exception. Controlling the seas with naval vessels was especially important to the Americans and the British in the Revolutionary War because sea routes could bring in troops and supplies, and forming blockades could cut them off. The Americans were desperate to throw the British navy out of their waters, so they found a solution–a tiny wooden submarine. Its mission was difficult, but it was the only way to rout the British besides a huge sea battle and the loss of many needed lives.
This exciting tale was originally published in Sea Frontiers July/August 1975 issue, according to George Pararas-Carayannis, and is retold on his website http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Turtle.html.
In 1776, a man named David Bushnell, a graduate of Harvard University, had an idea. The thought was nothing short of ingenious, and it may have led to a whole new class of warships. The idea was to build a submarine that would move to an enemy ship, drill a hole in the hull, place a time-detonated bomb, and leave before the bomb exploded to sink the ship.
The submarine would look like two tortoise shells placed stomach-to-stomach and a lid
with six glass windows on the top. The pilot would have to do everything by hand, from steering to propulsion. Inside the craft, the operator would have to crank the propeller to move the sub. There were two propellers–one to move, and one to descend. The craft was also weighed down with a 600-pound lead ballast to stop the submarine from bobbing.
This must have been what the Turtle looked like. Photo from the World Almanac.
The inside of the submersible was lit with luminescent foxfire fungus (because using fire to illuminate the craft would use up the oxygen, and the pilot would suffocate). The sub’s air supply would only last 30 minutes. The bomb the craft carried consisted of 150 pounds of black powder and used a flintlock detonator to keep it from exploding for up to 12 hours. The sub was named the Turtle because of its shell-like hull.
The turtle was scheduled to attack the British flagship HMS Eagle in the spring of 1776.
The pilot Ezra Bushnell, David Bushnell’s brother, trained in the safe waters of the Connecticut River, According to Michael Mohl on NavSource Online, a volunteer organization that preserves naval history at http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08441.htm. Finally, the date for the scheduled attack had come. Unfortunately, on the eve of the attack, Ezra Bushnell died. Fortunately, another man named Ezra Lee volunteered to do the dangerous mission. He trained intensely for months until he was confident he was ready to attack.
The bioluminescent foxfire fungus. Photo from quantum-immortal.net
However, by this time, the British had moved their fleet to New York Harbor, so Lee had to go though many more months of training to prepare for the odd and tricky currents in the harbor. On July 12th, the Turtle was transported by a sloop and successfully placed in the harbor in the dark of night. Lee silently pedaled towards the British warship HMS Eagle and submerged under the ship. Things began to go badly.
As Lee started to drill into the ship’s hull, he accidentally hit metal instead of wood. He tried but couldn’t get through. Lee had no idea where he was drilling because the sub lacked a window on top. When his air supply almost ran out, he surfaced and descended yet again. And he failed again. Lee was exhausted and was forced to pedal back to land because the harbor’s tides had begun to change. He pedaled frantically but was spotted by British sailors. Lee released his bomb in hope of distracting the British. The bomb exploded and, as Lee had hoped, distracted the British. Lee made it back to land alive, but he had failed his mission. It had not been a complete failure, however. The British did recognize the threat and moved their blockade, so the Americans could still get ships in and out of the harbor.
The Turtle made more attacks later in the war with some success. It once drilled a hole in another British war ship but was not able to get the bomb in place correctly. The bomb exploded and damaged the ship and killed three men. However, the Turtle never sank any ships like it was originally intended.
Even though the Turtle failed its missions, it is considered by many to be a twisted psychological victory and possibly the basis for a new kind of warship–the submarine. Wherever the final resting place of the Turtle may be, it is forever lost in naval history–but remembered as the seed for all submarines to come.
The Revolutionary War is arguably the most important war in U.S. history, and one of its most significant contributions is its influence on military tactics. The American Revolution illustrated to the world the success of guerrilla warfare. In the beginning of the war, when the Americans were outnumbered and disorganized, guerrilla tactics enabled them to survive until other European countries came to their aid. If the Continental Army had fought these early battles European style, in which two armies lined up and shot at each other, the Americans might not have lasted long enough to win the war. The British controlled a great deal of New World territory at the time and had more troops and money to train and supply them. The Americans lacked this monetary backing and, thus, their troops were poorly trained.
The effects of the American Revolution are still with us today. World War II would have been completely different if the U.S. had not pulled free of its colonial rulers and established itself as a nation and gained new states. Without the Revolution, the U.S. would have remained a British colony and might not have expanded like it did during the 1800s. Because it gained independence and went on to access more land, it eventually amassed enough money, natural resources, and manpower to help its European allies in WWII. As a result, the U.S. became a world power.
By the end of the Revolutionary War, the Americans were able to begin fighting European
style because the French and the Spanish allies trained the Americans enough to make them a disciplined, organized fighting force. At this point, the European allies also were sending troops, and larger-scale battles could be fought, which injured the British Army enough to drive the British out of America.
Wars have constantly solved mankind’s issues. The tactics and stories of battles from these wars have lived throughout the millennia and hopefully will live for millennia to come. Looking back upon history and seeing the tactics used from battle to battle, war to war, and century to century helps us understand how wars are won.
If one can understand wars and why they started, one can see why events played out in history and made the world the way it is today. | 1,548 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Sander's Portrait: Shakespeare's Image
This portrait is believed to be a painting done in Shakespeare's lifetime. Due to the controversy over the authenticity of the painting, an extensive amount of tests have been done on the painting to place it in Shakespeare's lifetime. To test the wood used for the portrait, scientists did tree-ring dating. It was found that the earliest possible date for the painting to be done was 1597, which means that the painting could have been done in 1603 as the label on the back of the painting states. Infrared and ultraviolet radiation were used to determine that there was no retouching done to it after the painting was completed. The paint was also examined to make sure the materials came from the same period and are consistent with the materials of other paintings of the time, which was proven to be correct. Finally, the label on the back was examined. The paper was found to be made of traditionally used rag paper. Beyond just the material of the paper being examined, scientists also radiocarbon dated the label to make sure that it matched with the time period of the painting itself. The conclusion was the label could be dated between 1475 and 1640, which has the time period of the painting and Shakespeare being alive within the time range.
Based on all the evidence, do you believe Shakespeare was a real person? | <urn:uuid:5c6f380a-80c3-4981-be2e-9211e6ef91ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://shakespeare.historytelling.org/iaffirmation-1.2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.986549 | 276 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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This portrait is believed to be a painting done in Shakespeare's lifetime. Due to the controversy over the authenticity of the painting, an extensive amount of tests have been done on the painting to place it in Shakespeare's lifetime. To test the wood used for the portrait, scientists did tree-ring dating. It was found that the earliest possible date for the painting to be done was 1597, which means that the painting could have been done in 1603 as the label on the back of the painting states. Infrared and ultraviolet radiation were used to determine that there was no retouching done to it after the painting was completed. The paint was also examined to make sure the materials came from the same period and are consistent with the materials of other paintings of the time, which was proven to be correct. Finally, the label on the back was examined. The paper was found to be made of traditionally used rag paper. Beyond just the material of the paper being examined, scientists also radiocarbon dated the label to make sure that it matched with the time period of the painting itself. The conclusion was the label could be dated between 1475 and 1640, which has the time period of the painting and Shakespeare being alive within the time range.
Based on all the evidence, do you believe Shakespeare was a real person? | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Competitive sports and games were a vital element in the many festivals that took place in ancient Greece. From the Olympic Games at Olympia to honor Zeus, to the Pythian Games at Delphi to honor Apollo, games were an opportunity for soldiers to show their skill and athletic prowess, as well as gain fortune and acclaim for their feats. Many contemporary sports find their roots in these ancient games.
Chariot races and horse and rider races were regular events during the most popular games of ancient Greece. The chariots were converted war chariots with an open back and a single axle for two wheels. Foot braces were built into the platforms for the riders and categories included two-horse or four-horse races. Chariots would race 12 laps around the hippodrome, making sharp and dangerous turns at designated posts. Horse and rider events involved a single horse and rider. The jockeys would race bareback competing in a single lap around the arena.
The pentathlon consisted of five events: discus, javelin, long jump, sprinting and wrestling. The discus was made from either iron, bronze, stone or lead and the weight varied according to the adult or youth divisions competing. Javelins emulated a spear used as a weapon with an attached finger loop that allowed for better leverage for throwing in competition. The long jump was performed with weights in each hand used to propel the jumper forward and quickly dropped behind them as they landed to help gain more distance as they hit the ground. Modern Pentathlon explains that the sprint portion of the event consisted of one “stade” – 192 meters – equivalent to one length of the stadium. The final event of wrestling was won when an athlete would throw their opponent to the ground three times on either their hip, back or shoulders.
In addition to the single stade sprint race in the pentathlon, foot races were their own event during most games. Distances varied from shorter one- and two-stade races to longer runs as much as seven or 24-stade in length. The hoplitodromos was a two-stade race where the participants sprinted in full armor including a helmet and carrying a shield. According to the British Museum, 25 identical shields were set aside for the race and stored in the Temple of Zeus to ensure no competitor could cheat by running with a lighter shield.
Boxing, wrestling and pankration were the three contact sports in most Greek games. Boxing was more primitive than the competition known today. Fighters would wrap their hands in leather straps and the fight would continue on until one fighter yielded in defeat or was knocked out. Individual wrestling events were won as they were in the pentathlon: by taking down your opponent three times on the hip, back or shoulders. The International Federation of Pankration states that this ancient event can be seen as the precursor to modern-day mixed martial arts. Pankration was a mixture of boxing and wrestling, but kicks, chokes and submission holds were allowed as well. Matches would continue until one of the fighters admitted defeat.
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0.513662636280059... | 3 | Competitive sports and games were a vital element in the many festivals that took place in ancient Greece. From the Olympic Games at Olympia to honor Zeus, to the Pythian Games at Delphi to honor Apollo, games were an opportunity for soldiers to show their skill and athletic prowess, as well as gain fortune and acclaim for their feats. Many contemporary sports find their roots in these ancient games.
Chariot races and horse and rider races were regular events during the most popular games of ancient Greece. The chariots were converted war chariots with an open back and a single axle for two wheels. Foot braces were built into the platforms for the riders and categories included two-horse or four-horse races. Chariots would race 12 laps around the hippodrome, making sharp and dangerous turns at designated posts. Horse and rider events involved a single horse and rider. The jockeys would race bareback competing in a single lap around the arena.
The pentathlon consisted of five events: discus, javelin, long jump, sprinting and wrestling. The discus was made from either iron, bronze, stone or lead and the weight varied according to the adult or youth divisions competing. Javelins emulated a spear used as a weapon with an attached finger loop that allowed for better leverage for throwing in competition. The long jump was performed with weights in each hand used to propel the jumper forward and quickly dropped behind them as they landed to help gain more distance as they hit the ground. Modern Pentathlon explains that the sprint portion of the event consisted of one “stade” – 192 meters – equivalent to one length of the stadium. The final event of wrestling was won when an athlete would throw their opponent to the ground three times on either their hip, back or shoulders.
In addition to the single stade sprint race in the pentathlon, foot races were their own event during most games. Distances varied from shorter one- and two-stade races to longer runs as much as seven or 24-stade in length. The hoplitodromos was a two-stade race where the participants sprinted in full armor including a helmet and carrying a shield. According to the British Museum, 25 identical shields were set aside for the race and stored in the Temple of Zeus to ensure no competitor could cheat by running with a lighter shield.
Boxing, wrestling and pankration were the three contact sports in most Greek games. Boxing was more primitive than the competition known today. Fighters would wrap their hands in leather straps and the fight would continue on until one fighter yielded in defeat or was knocked out. Individual wrestling events were won as they were in the pentathlon: by taking down your opponent three times on the hip, back or shoulders. The International Federation of Pankration states that this ancient event can be seen as the precursor to modern-day mixed martial arts. Pankration was a mixture of boxing and wrestling, but kicks, chokes and submission holds were allowed as well. Matches would continue until one of the fighters admitted defeat.
- Hemera Technologies/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images | 636 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Last Bequest
by Lisa Lickel
1. Judy had a fascination with family. Why do you think so? Think about your own family and how you relate to them, both in the past and today. How did/do they influence you?
2. Why did Judy so firmly believe that Louise’s death was not accidental?
3. The Gold Standard is a story about losing and finding. What were some of the things that were lost and found?
4. Bryce and Ardyth had a complicated history. How did their upbringing play into their decisions and misunderstandings? Did you understand and agree with Ardyth’s choice as a teenager? What about Bryce’s decisions?
5. What was the real reason behind Louise’s death?
6. Who were the suspects and what were their motives?
7. Who could Judy trust? Should she have trusted Hart? Who would you have trusted?
8. Why did Judy wait so long to go back and explore the bomb shelter after the tornado?
9. What was the significance of the family diaries? Do you think Louise read her mother’s diaries, and if so, why did she keep the secret?
10. What role did Carranza play?
11. What was the treasure?
12. Were you surprised by anything in the story?
13. How important was the setting?
14. What standards did each of the characters choose to live by? | <urn:uuid:0d0efb5d-5acc-4733-bc66-269bb398ea5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lisalickel.com/2011/03/readers-guide-questions-for-gold.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.988977 | 306 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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by Lisa Lickel
1. Judy had a fascination with family. Why do you think so? Think about your own family and how you relate to them, both in the past and today. How did/do they influence you?
2. Why did Judy so firmly believe that Louise’s death was not accidental?
3. The Gold Standard is a story about losing and finding. What were some of the things that were lost and found?
4. Bryce and Ardyth had a complicated history. How did their upbringing play into their decisions and misunderstandings? Did you understand and agree with Ardyth’s choice as a teenager? What about Bryce’s decisions?
5. What was the real reason behind Louise’s death?
6. Who were the suspects and what were their motives?
7. Who could Judy trust? Should she have trusted Hart? Who would you have trusted?
8. Why did Judy wait so long to go back and explore the bomb shelter after the tornado?
9. What was the significance of the family diaries? Do you think Louise read her mother’s diaries, and if so, why did she keep the secret?
10. What role did Carranza play?
11. What was the treasure?
12. Were you surprised by anything in the story?
13. How important was the setting?
14. What standards did each of the characters choose to live by? | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Autism is a developmental brain disorder characterized by impaired social interactions, communication problems, and repetitive behaviors. Symptoms usually appear before the age of three. The exact cause of autism is not known, however, it is likely influenced by genetics. Autism is one of a group of related developmental disorders called autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Other ASDs include Asperger syndrome and Rett syndrome.
Autism is a developmental disorder that usually has onset in the first two or three years of life. It's characterized by problems in social interactions, particularly in communicating with other people, and is often also accompanied by various repetitive behaviors such as flapping of the hands. The exact cause of autism is not known, and partly that's because autism is probably not one specific condition but a family of conditions that have this similar kind of symptom. The role of genetics in autism is also, therefore, not clear, but it is clear that genes play a significant role in the causation of at least a fair bit of autism. There are some specific syndromes where conditions we know that can cause autism, but in most cases of autism we really don't understand the underlying cause. We know that autism in general happens more frequently in boys than in girls, but it can certainly be seen in boys and girls. The term autism was first used in the 1940s to describe a group of a handful of kids who were noticed to have sort of what was described as auto, and therefore self-centered, behaviors because they weren't really interacting with others in their environment very well. It was coined by a child psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins named Leo Kanner. I have to note one of Leo Kanner's other contributions, I hope, to science is that he introduced my parents to each other, so without the father of autism I wouldn't be here today myself. | <urn:uuid:01685cdb-f0e4-4d1b-922e-10bab45c1825> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Autism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.983775 | 369 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.426057845354080... | 11 | Autism is a developmental brain disorder characterized by impaired social interactions, communication problems, and repetitive behaviors. Symptoms usually appear before the age of three. The exact cause of autism is not known, however, it is likely influenced by genetics. Autism is one of a group of related developmental disorders called autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Other ASDs include Asperger syndrome and Rett syndrome.
Autism is a developmental disorder that usually has onset in the first two or three years of life. It's characterized by problems in social interactions, particularly in communicating with other people, and is often also accompanied by various repetitive behaviors such as flapping of the hands. The exact cause of autism is not known, and partly that's because autism is probably not one specific condition but a family of conditions that have this similar kind of symptom. The role of genetics in autism is also, therefore, not clear, but it is clear that genes play a significant role in the causation of at least a fair bit of autism. There are some specific syndromes where conditions we know that can cause autism, but in most cases of autism we really don't understand the underlying cause. We know that autism in general happens more frequently in boys than in girls, but it can certainly be seen in boys and girls. The term autism was first used in the 1940s to describe a group of a handful of kids who were noticed to have sort of what was described as auto, and therefore self-centered, behaviors because they weren't really interacting with others in their environment very well. It was coined by a child psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins named Leo Kanner. I have to note one of Leo Kanner's other contributions, I hope, to science is that he introduced my parents to each other, so without the father of autism I wouldn't be here today myself. | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The american dream can be defined as “a happy way of living that can be achieved by anyone by working hard and becoming successful”. The vigorous journey of the pursuit of the American Dream can be achieved by any individual who is willing to invest their time, resources and energy in accomplishing their goals. This investment will bring forth both financial and social success and heighten the status of those individuals. However, at any time the dream can be destroyed by greed, and the pursuit of gaining material possessions while neglecting their own emotions and the well being of others. In the novels The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, both authors illustrate and critique the reality of the American Dream. Mainly through the protagonist Jay Gatsby and Willy Loman, they are perceived to be ignorant in believing that in order to be completely happy in life you must be successful, wealthy and popular. Several characters in both literatures are blinded by the pursuit of their futile American Dream, contrary to their class, gender and values, their behaviours and decisions leave them with a false perception of this lifestyle, which ultimately leads to their downfall. It is established throughout both novels that social status and wealth influences and moulds the characters. Each character believes that in order to achieve the American dream and to be completely happy and successful they must be apart of the upper class. In The Great Gatsby, there are three distinct separation of social class. East Egg reflects a higher class society where the people are inherently wealthy, also considered ‘old money’, the people of West Egg are wealthy as well but have only become rich recently, often referred to ‘new money’, and the Valley of Ashes is inhabited by the lower class. Myrtle Wilson, who represents the low and ignorant class, lives in the Valley of Ashes, she despises her life and is unhappy with the lack of money and status her husband brings her. She idolises the city and upper class where she sees money and glamour as she desperately wants to become a sophisticated, wealthy women. Myrtle, for a short period of time, is able to break the social barriers of society but must put up a facade to do so. “I told that boy about the ice.” Myrtle raised her eyebrows in despair at the shiftlessness of the lower orders. “These people! You have to keep after them all the time” (Fitzgerald 32). Myrtle acts like a snob and criticizes the lower class despite the fact that she herself is of lower class. She presumes that if she marries Tom, and buys expensive items for their apartment she will be able to advance her social ranking and truly be content with life. She puts all of her hopes into material items and the idealism that she can be apart of the upper class. Likewise, Willy Loman is a middle-low class businessman, he presumes that any man who is good looking, well-liked and charismatic deserves success and wealth. Over the course of his lifetime, he is disillusioned by the impossible measures of his dream. He fails to achieve the financial success promised, but still rather buy into the dream meticulously that he ignores the substantial things around him. “Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead” (Miller 21). Willy truly believes that in order to prosper in life you must earn the respect of others and they will help carry you through life. Willy was a failure as he tried desperately to climb out of his social class. As a result, he not only loses grasp on reality but also loses his mind. While pursuing success Willy hopes it will bring his family security. Both Myrtle and Willy’s determination to live up to their American Dream and too seek material possessions and happiness only take their lives. As Myrtle is hit by Gatsby’s car while running onto the street to confront Tom and Willy takes his own life in order to get his family his life insurance money. This establishes that the American Dream, while a powerful vehicle of aspiration, can turn a person into a commodity whose sole value is financial worth. The American Dream drives a force between men and women, as it gives power to men and oppresses women. Daisy Buchanan is a superficial, shallow woman who is accustomed to a certain lifestyle, certain types of people, and has an obsession with the stability of ‘old money’. She was challenged by Gatsby to take a chance on ‘new money’ but quickly (idk what to write). Her life was driven by materialism and was threatened by the decline in social class. Although her husband Tom has affairs with plenty of women, she is loyal to him only due to the fact that he can provide for her and help her maintain her role in the upper class.”I hope she’ll be a fool, that’s the best thing a girl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool”(Fitzgerald 118) Daisy is ignorant and selfish, she herself acts like a beautiful, naive fool to maintain her place in society and wants her daughter to live a similar life. If her daughter is a fool – like all the woman of this time, she will be blind to the infidelity and be imperceptive to whether or not true love exist . However, unlike Daisy, Linda Loman is a sympathetic woman who spends her days caring for her family. Similarly to the era of the 1920’s, in the 1940’s women were also seen as below men. The lady of the house has no say and and is meant to tend for the children and her husband, while the man was meant to go to work and provide for the family. Linda supports Willy and his dream no matter how unrealistic they are. “Biff, dear, if you don’t have any feeling for him, then you don’t have any feeling for me.” Although Willy treats her poorly and is always undermining her authority, Linda continues to be loyal, never questions him and always defends him. Linda is blinded into believing the only way her sons were to be successful is by becoming businessmen like Willy. She is fully aware and supportive of Willy’s unfulfilled life and meaningless aspirations, in hopes she will achieve her own American Dream of having a complete, happy family. Although Daisy and Linda have completely different characteristics, they are both oppressed by the men in their lives. They both use their husbands as their main and only support and are greatly dependant on them, which ultimately leads to their absolute lowest point in life. Daisy, in every aspect is perfect and exudes beauty and charm, but she is careless with people’s lives, as she lets Gatsby take blame for Myrtle’s death. Instead of living a life that would truly make her happy she refuses Gatsby’s love for wealth, power and status and loses him, and must continue to live an unhappy life with Tom. Linda, who never worked a day in her life loses her husband and must now take care and support herself and her children. Daisy and Linda are the only characters with true power as they are the only ones with the opportunity to change things yet choose not to. Establishing how the American Dream may look a certain way but it genuinely is not what it seems. When trying to obtain the American Dream many forget the importance of moral values. Before gaining his wealth and success, Jay Gatsby was poor, lower-classmen and for this Daisy left and did not want to wait for him to get rich. Gatsby was willing to do whatever was necessary to prosper in life and never considered whether his actions were morally justified. Gatsby committed serious crimes such as bootlegging and did not conduct business ethically, for he was involved with men such as Meyer Wolfsheim who so called “fixed the world series”. He gained a considerable amount of money, became apart of the upper class, and would throw lavish parties every night. “Every Friday five crates of oranges and lemons arrived from a fruiterer in New York — every Monday these same oranges and lemons left his back door in a pyramid of pulpless halves” (Fitzgerald 39). The fruits symbolize the moral depletion of the people who attend Gatsby’s parties, they come in fresh and pure but by the end of the night they are so drunk and have made so many bad decisions that they have leave feeling empty. Gatsby had a relentless desire to become wealthy and win back Daisy and in order to do so he had to pay the price in morals. Ones behaviour and values are derived from their parents. Biff Loman was influenced by his father who established a poor standard of morality. “The next thing i know I’m in the office… I took his fountain pen” (Miller 104). Since high school Biff had a tendency to steal, this now stands in the way of him finding an actual job. Willy never punished Biff for steal when he was younger, instead he encouraged him. The pen is a metaphor of Biff’s American dream as he is unable to obtain it because it does not belong to him. Conclusively, Gatsby and Biffs lack of morals fails them both. Gatsby does not get Daisy and ultimatley dies, while Biff . They are both so desperate to attain their American Dream that they lack any morality and ethics. | <urn:uuid:6f1110a0-032d-4306-b822-a27d43cb2252> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/the-the-characters-each-character-believes-that-in-order/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.980509 | 1,976 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.01691816560924053... | 1 | The american dream can be defined as “a happy way of living that can be achieved by anyone by working hard and becoming successful”. The vigorous journey of the pursuit of the American Dream can be achieved by any individual who is willing to invest their time, resources and energy in accomplishing their goals. This investment will bring forth both financial and social success and heighten the status of those individuals. However, at any time the dream can be destroyed by greed, and the pursuit of gaining material possessions while neglecting their own emotions and the well being of others. In the novels The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, both authors illustrate and critique the reality of the American Dream. Mainly through the protagonist Jay Gatsby and Willy Loman, they are perceived to be ignorant in believing that in order to be completely happy in life you must be successful, wealthy and popular. Several characters in both literatures are blinded by the pursuit of their futile American Dream, contrary to their class, gender and values, their behaviours and decisions leave them with a false perception of this lifestyle, which ultimately leads to their downfall. It is established throughout both novels that social status and wealth influences and moulds the characters. Each character believes that in order to achieve the American dream and to be completely happy and successful they must be apart of the upper class. In The Great Gatsby, there are three distinct separation of social class. East Egg reflects a higher class society where the people are inherently wealthy, also considered ‘old money’, the people of West Egg are wealthy as well but have only become rich recently, often referred to ‘new money’, and the Valley of Ashes is inhabited by the lower class. Myrtle Wilson, who represents the low and ignorant class, lives in the Valley of Ashes, she despises her life and is unhappy with the lack of money and status her husband brings her. She idolises the city and upper class where she sees money and glamour as she desperately wants to become a sophisticated, wealthy women. Myrtle, for a short period of time, is able to break the social barriers of society but must put up a facade to do so. “I told that boy about the ice.” Myrtle raised her eyebrows in despair at the shiftlessness of the lower orders. “These people! You have to keep after them all the time” (Fitzgerald 32). Myrtle acts like a snob and criticizes the lower class despite the fact that she herself is of lower class. She presumes that if she marries Tom, and buys expensive items for their apartment she will be able to advance her social ranking and truly be content with life. She puts all of her hopes into material items and the idealism that she can be apart of the upper class. Likewise, Willy Loman is a middle-low class businessman, he presumes that any man who is good looking, well-liked and charismatic deserves success and wealth. Over the course of his lifetime, he is disillusioned by the impossible measures of his dream. He fails to achieve the financial success promised, but still rather buy into the dream meticulously that he ignores the substantial things around him. “Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead” (Miller 21). Willy truly believes that in order to prosper in life you must earn the respect of others and they will help carry you through life. Willy was a failure as he tried desperately to climb out of his social class. As a result, he not only loses grasp on reality but also loses his mind. While pursuing success Willy hopes it will bring his family security. Both Myrtle and Willy’s determination to live up to their American Dream and too seek material possessions and happiness only take their lives. As Myrtle is hit by Gatsby’s car while running onto the street to confront Tom and Willy takes his own life in order to get his family his life insurance money. This establishes that the American Dream, while a powerful vehicle of aspiration, can turn a person into a commodity whose sole value is financial worth. The American Dream drives a force between men and women, as it gives power to men and oppresses women. Daisy Buchanan is a superficial, shallow woman who is accustomed to a certain lifestyle, certain types of people, and has an obsession with the stability of ‘old money’. She was challenged by Gatsby to take a chance on ‘new money’ but quickly (idk what to write). Her life was driven by materialism and was threatened by the decline in social class. Although her husband Tom has affairs with plenty of women, she is loyal to him only due to the fact that he can provide for her and help her maintain her role in the upper class.”I hope she’ll be a fool, that’s the best thing a girl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool”(Fitzgerald 118) Daisy is ignorant and selfish, she herself acts like a beautiful, naive fool to maintain her place in society and wants her daughter to live a similar life. If her daughter is a fool – like all the woman of this time, she will be blind to the infidelity and be imperceptive to whether or not true love exist . However, unlike Daisy, Linda Loman is a sympathetic woman who spends her days caring for her family. Similarly to the era of the 1920’s, in the 1940’s women were also seen as below men. The lady of the house has no say and and is meant to tend for the children and her husband, while the man was meant to go to work and provide for the family. Linda supports Willy and his dream no matter how unrealistic they are. “Biff, dear, if you don’t have any feeling for him, then you don’t have any feeling for me.” Although Willy treats her poorly and is always undermining her authority, Linda continues to be loyal, never questions him and always defends him. Linda is blinded into believing the only way her sons were to be successful is by becoming businessmen like Willy. She is fully aware and supportive of Willy’s unfulfilled life and meaningless aspirations, in hopes she will achieve her own American Dream of having a complete, happy family. Although Daisy and Linda have completely different characteristics, they are both oppressed by the men in their lives. They both use their husbands as their main and only support and are greatly dependant on them, which ultimately leads to their absolute lowest point in life. Daisy, in every aspect is perfect and exudes beauty and charm, but she is careless with people’s lives, as she lets Gatsby take blame for Myrtle’s death. Instead of living a life that would truly make her happy she refuses Gatsby’s love for wealth, power and status and loses him, and must continue to live an unhappy life with Tom. Linda, who never worked a day in her life loses her husband and must now take care and support herself and her children. Daisy and Linda are the only characters with true power as they are the only ones with the opportunity to change things yet choose not to. Establishing how the American Dream may look a certain way but it genuinely is not what it seems. When trying to obtain the American Dream many forget the importance of moral values. Before gaining his wealth and success, Jay Gatsby was poor, lower-classmen and for this Daisy left and did not want to wait for him to get rich. Gatsby was willing to do whatever was necessary to prosper in life and never considered whether his actions were morally justified. Gatsby committed serious crimes such as bootlegging and did not conduct business ethically, for he was involved with men such as Meyer Wolfsheim who so called “fixed the world series”. He gained a considerable amount of money, became apart of the upper class, and would throw lavish parties every night. “Every Friday five crates of oranges and lemons arrived from a fruiterer in New York — every Monday these same oranges and lemons left his back door in a pyramid of pulpless halves” (Fitzgerald 39). The fruits symbolize the moral depletion of the people who attend Gatsby’s parties, they come in fresh and pure but by the end of the night they are so drunk and have made so many bad decisions that they have leave feeling empty. Gatsby had a relentless desire to become wealthy and win back Daisy and in order to do so he had to pay the price in morals. Ones behaviour and values are derived from their parents. Biff Loman was influenced by his father who established a poor standard of morality. “The next thing i know I’m in the office… I took his fountain pen” (Miller 104). Since high school Biff had a tendency to steal, this now stands in the way of him finding an actual job. Willy never punished Biff for steal when he was younger, instead he encouraged him. The pen is a metaphor of Biff’s American dream as he is unable to obtain it because it does not belong to him. Conclusively, Gatsby and Biffs lack of morals fails them both. Gatsby does not get Daisy and ultimatley dies, while Biff . They are both so desperate to attain their American Dream that they lack any morality and ethics. | 1,916 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Race & Citizenship
What does it mean to be a citizen of the United States? Citizens have access to many important rights like voting in elections and lobbying the government.
Many people are born American citizens and can freely use these rights throughout their lives. Some immigrants and refugees can become Americans through the process of naturalization. Yet, others have been denied citizenship.
Does a person have to look, speak, or act a certain way to be an American? Leaders have sometimes used race to decide who is and who is not a citizen. Until the end of the Civil War, enslaved people had no rights. Many Asian immigrants typically could not be citizens until laws changed in the mid-1900s. Many people during United States history have struggled to become citizens and sometimes just to stay citizens. | <urn:uuid:3f02abd0-f519-4b0b-9289-bebc596ab03b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://facingfreedom.org/race-citizenship | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.981994 | 158 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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What does it mean to be a citizen of the United States? Citizens have access to many important rights like voting in elections and lobbying the government.
Many people are born American citizens and can freely use these rights throughout their lives. Some immigrants and refugees can become Americans through the process of naturalization. Yet, others have been denied citizenship.
Does a person have to look, speak, or act a certain way to be an American? Leaders have sometimes used race to decide who is and who is not a citizen. Until the end of the Civil War, enslaved people had no rights. Many Asian immigrants typically could not be citizens until laws changed in the mid-1900s. Many people during United States history have struggled to become citizens and sometimes just to stay citizens. | 159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Terrorizing the troops through the draconian application of military justice may well have helped keep them fighting long after they knew the war was lost. But what the regime increasingly required was a military force that fought out of fanatical National Socialist commitment. This was in fact available, in the shape of the Military SS (Waffen-SS ). Its history went back to the early days of the Third Reich, when Hitler had formed an armed personal bodyguard, which later became the so-called ‘Adolf Hitler Personal Flag’ (Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler). Conceived mainly as a ceremonial unit, it was commanded by a rough Bavarian Nazi, Josef (‘Sepp’) Dietrich, whose previous jobs had included working as a petrol-pump attendant, a waiter, a farm labourer and a foreman in a tobacco factory. Born in 1892, he had served in a tank unit, but otherwise had no serious military experience, as army generals repeatedly but vainly pointed out. Soon, however, Dietrich’s boss Heinrich Himmler set up another, larger organization and began recruiting army men to provide the unit with proper military training, which from 1938 was provided to Dietrich’s men as well. By the end of 1939, these various military units of the SS had been joined by groups from the Death’s Head Units formed by Theodor Eicke to provide guards for the concentration camps. The SS forces grew in number from 18,000 on the eve of war to 140,000 in November 1941, including tank regiments and motorized infantry. They were intended from the outset to be an elite, ideologically committed, highly trained, and – unlike the army – unconditionally loyal to Hitler. Senior officers were notably younger than their army counterparts, mostly being born in the 1890s or early 1900s and so in their forties or early fifties at the time of the war. Military SS regiments were given names such as ‘The Reich’, ‘Germany’, ‘The Leader’ and so on. Again unlike the army, the Military SS was an institution not of the German people but of the Germanic race, and its leading figure, Gottlob Berger, a long-time Nazi and First World War veteran who was one of Himmler’s closest intimates, set up recruiting offices in ‘Germanic’ countries like Holland, Denmark, Norway and Flanders, forming the first non-German division (‘Viking’) in the spring of 1941. Further recruits from Eastern European countries followed, as numbers began to take priority over supposed racial affinities. By 1942 the Military SS numbered 236,000 men; in 1943 it exceeded half a million; and in 1944 it was approaching a strength of 600,000, of whom some 369,000 were active in the field.
Regular army commanders were disparaging of the Military SS, whose commanders they considered lacking in professionalism and over-inclined to sacrifice the lives of their men. Although the SS divisions were placed under their command, the army generals could do little to rein in their fanatical desire for self-sacrifice. When told by Eicke that his men’s lives had counted for nothing in an attack he had just carried out, the army general Erich Hopner, under whose command Eicke had been placed, roundly condemned this attitude: ‘That is the outlook of a butcher.’ However, the senior generals were not wholly averse to the Military SS spearheading attacks and taking the bulk of the casualties: it preserved the lives of their own men and reduced the strength of a serious rival force. Himmler complained in August 1944 that ‘people of ill-will’ in the army were conspiring to ‘butcher this unwelcome force and get rid of it for some future development’. Army commanders also alleged that members of the Military SS were more likely than their own troops to commit massacres of innocent civilians, especially Jews, and carry out other crimes, above all on the Eastern Front. An official army investigation in August 1943 noted that out of eighteen proven cases of rape reported to it, twelve had been committed by members of the Military SS. How accurate such reports were cannot be ascertained. The Military SS tended to provide something of an excuse for regular army commanders wishing to conceal, or pass over, the crimes committed by their own men. On the other hand, even officers from other branches of the SS were known to complain about its brutality. When the commander of the ‘Prinz Eugen’ division tried to excuse to a minister of the puppet government in Croatia some atrocities committed by his men as ‘errors’, another SS officer told him: ‘Since you arrived there has unfortunately been one “error” after another.’ Attempts after 1945 by former Military SS officers to portray their troops as nothing more than ordinary soldiers failed to carry conviction, since there could be no doubt about their elite status or their fanatical ideological commitment. On the other hand, the mass of evidence that has come to light since the early 1990s about the conduct of regular troops on and behind the Eastern Front undermines claims that the Military SS was wholly exceptional in its disregard for the laws and conventions of warfare.
The undoubted fanaticism of the Military SS, as well as the tendency of military commanders to put its units into the front line, led to heavy losses among its troops. A total of 900,000 Military SS men served in the war, of whom more than a third – 34 per cent – were killed. On 15 November 1941 the ‘Death’s Head’ division reported losses of 60 per cent amongst officers and NCOs. Its backbone was gone, a report complained. The general view of the Military SS among the German people was, as the Security Service of the SS reported in March 1942, that it was poorly trained and its men were often ‘recklessly sacrificed’. Its men were thrown into battle because it wanted to show itself better than the army. Moreover, parents were beginning to try to stop their sons from enlisting because of the anti-Christian indoctrination to which they would be subjected in the Military SS. ‘Influence of parents and Church negative,’ reported one recruitment centre in February 1943. ‘Parents generally anti-Military SS,’ reported another. In Vienna one man told the recruiting officer: ‘The priest told us that the SS was atheist and if we joined it we should go to hell.’ Volunteers from Flanders, Denmark, Norway and Holland began to apply to be discharged, complaining of the arrogant and overbearing treatment of foreign recruits by German SS officers. Recruiting officers began to go to Labour Service camps and force young men to ‘volunteer’. Relatives complained about such actions, while Military SS officers soon declared themselves dissatisfied with the results, as many of the new recruits were ‘intellectually sub-standard’ and ‘inclined to insubordination and malingering’. The Military SS was rapidly deteriorating in quality towards the end of the war. But in this, it was doing no more than following the course taken by the regular armed forces themselves. | <urn:uuid:9d2c212b-6ad0-4bcd-ac8f-073eaf8ba0d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2015/10/22/waffen-ss-alibi-of-the-heer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.984032 | 1,500 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.320534378290... | 4 | Terrorizing the troops through the draconian application of military justice may well have helped keep them fighting long after they knew the war was lost. But what the regime increasingly required was a military force that fought out of fanatical National Socialist commitment. This was in fact available, in the shape of the Military SS (Waffen-SS ). Its history went back to the early days of the Third Reich, when Hitler had formed an armed personal bodyguard, which later became the so-called ‘Adolf Hitler Personal Flag’ (Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler). Conceived mainly as a ceremonial unit, it was commanded by a rough Bavarian Nazi, Josef (‘Sepp’) Dietrich, whose previous jobs had included working as a petrol-pump attendant, a waiter, a farm labourer and a foreman in a tobacco factory. Born in 1892, he had served in a tank unit, but otherwise had no serious military experience, as army generals repeatedly but vainly pointed out. Soon, however, Dietrich’s boss Heinrich Himmler set up another, larger organization and began recruiting army men to provide the unit with proper military training, which from 1938 was provided to Dietrich’s men as well. By the end of 1939, these various military units of the SS had been joined by groups from the Death’s Head Units formed by Theodor Eicke to provide guards for the concentration camps. The SS forces grew in number from 18,000 on the eve of war to 140,000 in November 1941, including tank regiments and motorized infantry. They were intended from the outset to be an elite, ideologically committed, highly trained, and – unlike the army – unconditionally loyal to Hitler. Senior officers were notably younger than their army counterparts, mostly being born in the 1890s or early 1900s and so in their forties or early fifties at the time of the war. Military SS regiments were given names such as ‘The Reich’, ‘Germany’, ‘The Leader’ and so on. Again unlike the army, the Military SS was an institution not of the German people but of the Germanic race, and its leading figure, Gottlob Berger, a long-time Nazi and First World War veteran who was one of Himmler’s closest intimates, set up recruiting offices in ‘Germanic’ countries like Holland, Denmark, Norway and Flanders, forming the first non-German division (‘Viking’) in the spring of 1941. Further recruits from Eastern European countries followed, as numbers began to take priority over supposed racial affinities. By 1942 the Military SS numbered 236,000 men; in 1943 it exceeded half a million; and in 1944 it was approaching a strength of 600,000, of whom some 369,000 were active in the field.
Regular army commanders were disparaging of the Military SS, whose commanders they considered lacking in professionalism and over-inclined to sacrifice the lives of their men. Although the SS divisions were placed under their command, the army generals could do little to rein in their fanatical desire for self-sacrifice. When told by Eicke that his men’s lives had counted for nothing in an attack he had just carried out, the army general Erich Hopner, under whose command Eicke had been placed, roundly condemned this attitude: ‘That is the outlook of a butcher.’ However, the senior generals were not wholly averse to the Military SS spearheading attacks and taking the bulk of the casualties: it preserved the lives of their own men and reduced the strength of a serious rival force. Himmler complained in August 1944 that ‘people of ill-will’ in the army were conspiring to ‘butcher this unwelcome force and get rid of it for some future development’. Army commanders also alleged that members of the Military SS were more likely than their own troops to commit massacres of innocent civilians, especially Jews, and carry out other crimes, above all on the Eastern Front. An official army investigation in August 1943 noted that out of eighteen proven cases of rape reported to it, twelve had been committed by members of the Military SS. How accurate such reports were cannot be ascertained. The Military SS tended to provide something of an excuse for regular army commanders wishing to conceal, or pass over, the crimes committed by their own men. On the other hand, even officers from other branches of the SS were known to complain about its brutality. When the commander of the ‘Prinz Eugen’ division tried to excuse to a minister of the puppet government in Croatia some atrocities committed by his men as ‘errors’, another SS officer told him: ‘Since you arrived there has unfortunately been one “error” after another.’ Attempts after 1945 by former Military SS officers to portray their troops as nothing more than ordinary soldiers failed to carry conviction, since there could be no doubt about their elite status or their fanatical ideological commitment. On the other hand, the mass of evidence that has come to light since the early 1990s about the conduct of regular troops on and behind the Eastern Front undermines claims that the Military SS was wholly exceptional in its disregard for the laws and conventions of warfare.
The undoubted fanaticism of the Military SS, as well as the tendency of military commanders to put its units into the front line, led to heavy losses among its troops. A total of 900,000 Military SS men served in the war, of whom more than a third – 34 per cent – were killed. On 15 November 1941 the ‘Death’s Head’ division reported losses of 60 per cent amongst officers and NCOs. Its backbone was gone, a report complained. The general view of the Military SS among the German people was, as the Security Service of the SS reported in March 1942, that it was poorly trained and its men were often ‘recklessly sacrificed’. Its men were thrown into battle because it wanted to show itself better than the army. Moreover, parents were beginning to try to stop their sons from enlisting because of the anti-Christian indoctrination to which they would be subjected in the Military SS. ‘Influence of parents and Church negative,’ reported one recruitment centre in February 1943. ‘Parents generally anti-Military SS,’ reported another. In Vienna one man told the recruiting officer: ‘The priest told us that the SS was atheist and if we joined it we should go to hell.’ Volunteers from Flanders, Denmark, Norway and Holland began to apply to be discharged, complaining of the arrogant and overbearing treatment of foreign recruits by German SS officers. Recruiting officers began to go to Labour Service camps and force young men to ‘volunteer’. Relatives complained about such actions, while Military SS officers soon declared themselves dissatisfied with the results, as many of the new recruits were ‘intellectually sub-standard’ and ‘inclined to insubordination and malingering’. The Military SS was rapidly deteriorating in quality towards the end of the war. But in this, it was doing no more than following the course taken by the regular armed forces themselves. | 1,525 | ENGLISH | 1 |
17 Dec, 2014
Napoleon and the Revolution of France
I. Napoleon Bonaparte is seen as one of the most influential leaders of the western world. He became Emperor of France, and head of a new government. He was a celebrated tactician and renowned codifier. Throughout his reign as Emperor Napoleon made many reforms in the educational system, he revolutionized the European economy, and improved various aspects of the political scheme. Bonaparte had a lasting impact on France, Europe, and even the world of today. II. Napoleon was now ruler of France, and among the most important things to him as a ruler was the education of his people, that’s why he created a much more disciplined and formal school system.
A. The school system of France was in dire need of reform, and one very important modification was the splitting of schools, into a kind of hierarchy, dependent on the level of education required. Primary schooling was “for those that were to perform the menial tasks of society, the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic together with the principles of religion and propaganda supporting the Napoleonic regime, were sufficient ”, whereas “the secondary schools were for those who would enter the various useful professions” (Pearce 371).
1. Napoleon obviously placed heavier interest on secondary schooling, but heavier interest on education as a whole assured him that his government could be better manned in the years to come.
2. By creating education more tailored to every student, Bonaparte ensured every citizen could be most efficiently placed in society.
B. Bonaparte observed the fairly lax rules of the school environment before his reforms. He knew this had to change, and so “in his reorganization he placed them in barracks, in uniform, and under strict military discipline, in spite of this”, or perhaps because of it, “the school continued to produce engineers and scientists of the highest caliber” (Cameron 48-49).
1. Napoleon changed the negligent school system into a military regime. He constricted the students to a tight schedule, and France produced the best experts of all Europe.
2. Bonaparte’s discipline in the school system lent itself to a higher quality of student, and thus a higher quality workforce in the years to come.
C. though discipline was tight, and schools were successful, many peasants and members of the lower classes couldn’t get into schools.
1. It was because of this “the students were given a small stipend from the state” (Rondo 48-49).
2. Even in the Polytechnic, the most useful of educational establishments according to Bonaparte, “almost half were the sons of peasants and artisans” (Bergeron 36).
D. It was in these ways Napoleon created his shining schools system, and took the first steps towards a more successful nation.
III. Once Napoleon had placed himself as First Consul; he had much work to do concerning the politics of France.
A. France, at the time, was a nation full of people who simply weren’t concerned with the affairs of their country. If he was to be a successful ruler, Bonaparte had to re-motivate his people, and he did so through the creation of the Legion of Honor.
1. The Legion of Honor ‘added strength and activity to the spring of honor that so powerfully moves the French nation’ (Lynn 169-170).
2. He sought to create a population of citizens that would constantly strive to be their best. ‘Arms of Honor winners were immediately given Crosses of the Legion and the appropriate Legion stipend’ (169-170). The Legion was accessible to all, not just the aristocracy, so that all Frenchmen could heed the call of Honor.
3. The French people were now motivated, and their morale restored. Napoleon’s next goal was to address the various inequalities within the social order.
A. Over his time as Emperor, Napoleon made many improvements to the political system. These various laws and reforms were collectively dubbed The Napoleonic Codes, and… | <urn:uuid:5c5b2778-2dc1-4bfc-b19a-d2a3a19bc1ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Napoleon-And-The-Rev-Of-France-574400.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.985245 | 862 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1342402696609... | 1 | 17 Dec, 2014
Napoleon and the Revolution of France
I. Napoleon Bonaparte is seen as one of the most influential leaders of the western world. He became Emperor of France, and head of a new government. He was a celebrated tactician and renowned codifier. Throughout his reign as Emperor Napoleon made many reforms in the educational system, he revolutionized the European economy, and improved various aspects of the political scheme. Bonaparte had a lasting impact on France, Europe, and even the world of today. II. Napoleon was now ruler of France, and among the most important things to him as a ruler was the education of his people, that’s why he created a much more disciplined and formal school system.
A. The school system of France was in dire need of reform, and one very important modification was the splitting of schools, into a kind of hierarchy, dependent on the level of education required. Primary schooling was “for those that were to perform the menial tasks of society, the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic together with the principles of religion and propaganda supporting the Napoleonic regime, were sufficient ”, whereas “the secondary schools were for those who would enter the various useful professions” (Pearce 371).
1. Napoleon obviously placed heavier interest on secondary schooling, but heavier interest on education as a whole assured him that his government could be better manned in the years to come.
2. By creating education more tailored to every student, Bonaparte ensured every citizen could be most efficiently placed in society.
B. Bonaparte observed the fairly lax rules of the school environment before his reforms. He knew this had to change, and so “in his reorganization he placed them in barracks, in uniform, and under strict military discipline, in spite of this”, or perhaps because of it, “the school continued to produce engineers and scientists of the highest caliber” (Cameron 48-49).
1. Napoleon changed the negligent school system into a military regime. He constricted the students to a tight schedule, and France produced the best experts of all Europe.
2. Bonaparte’s discipline in the school system lent itself to a higher quality of student, and thus a higher quality workforce in the years to come.
C. though discipline was tight, and schools were successful, many peasants and members of the lower classes couldn’t get into schools.
1. It was because of this “the students were given a small stipend from the state” (Rondo 48-49).
2. Even in the Polytechnic, the most useful of educational establishments according to Bonaparte, “almost half were the sons of peasants and artisans” (Bergeron 36).
D. It was in these ways Napoleon created his shining schools system, and took the first steps towards a more successful nation.
III. Once Napoleon had placed himself as First Consul; he had much work to do concerning the politics of France.
A. France, at the time, was a nation full of people who simply weren’t concerned with the affairs of their country. If he was to be a successful ruler, Bonaparte had to re-motivate his people, and he did so through the creation of the Legion of Honor.
1. The Legion of Honor ‘added strength and activity to the spring of honor that so powerfully moves the French nation’ (Lynn 169-170).
2. He sought to create a population of citizens that would constantly strive to be their best. ‘Arms of Honor winners were immediately given Crosses of the Legion and the appropriate Legion stipend’ (169-170). The Legion was accessible to all, not just the aristocracy, so that all Frenchmen could heed the call of Honor.
3. The French people were now motivated, and their morale restored. Napoleon’s next goal was to address the various inequalities within the social order.
A. Over his time as Emperor, Napoleon made many improvements to the political system. These various laws and reforms were collectively dubbed The Napoleonic Codes, and… | 845 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(3) that the will of the people is delegated to the rulers conditionally, but that the conditions are unknown and indefinite, and that the appearance of several authorities, their struggles and their falls, result solely from the greater or lesser fulfillment by the rulers of these unknown conditions on which the will of the people is transferred from some people to others.
And these are the three ways in which the historians do explain the relation of the people to their rulers.
This intelligent people perceived and regretted these defects.
This convention composed of men who possessed the confidence of the people, and many of whom had become highly distinguished by their patriotism, virtue and wisdom, in times which tried the minds and hearts of men, undertook the arduous task.
"To honour father and mother, and from the root of the soul to do their will"--this table of surmounting hung another people over them, and became powerful and permanent thereby.
"To have fidelity, and for the sake of fidelity to risk honour and blood, even in evil and dangerous courses"--teaching itself so, another people mastered itself, and thus mastering itself, became pregnant and heavy with great hopes.
And now, at length, the people
also went mad with their thirst and the fury of their fear.
Invited and urged by the open-hearted and truly benevolent people
who had given them an asylum from the persecution of their own kindred to form their settlement within the territories then under their jurisdiction, the love of their country predominated over every influence save that of conscience alone, and they preferred the precarious chance of relaxation from the bigoted rigor of the English Government to the certain liberality and alluring offers of the Hollanders.
That it will be a federal and not a national act, as these terms are understood by the objectors; the act of the people
, as forming so many independent States, not as forming one aggregate nation, is obvious from this single consideration, that it is to result neither from the decision of a MAJORITY of the people
of the Union, nor from that of a MAJORITY of the States.
don't know anything about it, if you come to that," said the old prince.
Every object served to mark the residence of a rich, aristocratic gentleman, who held himself high above the common people
, and could have nothing to fear from them.
Then in England people
began to say that there never had been an Ossian at all, and that Macpherson had invented both the poems and all the people
that they were about.
We were trying to escape out of the Fire People
If, therefore, a democracy is to be reckoned a free state, it is evident that any such establishment which centres all power in the votes of the people
cannot, properly speaking, be a democracy: for their decrees cannot be general in their extent.
Later, and especially since the war, the term seems to be used wholly in a political sense--that is, to designate the counties where the black people
outnumber the white. | <urn:uuid:6276b054-2d83-430a-bf6a-7f99a518ff1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freethesaurus.com/people | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.981685 | 634 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.01981390453... | 2 | (3) that the will of the people is delegated to the rulers conditionally, but that the conditions are unknown and indefinite, and that the appearance of several authorities, their struggles and their falls, result solely from the greater or lesser fulfillment by the rulers of these unknown conditions on which the will of the people is transferred from some people to others.
And these are the three ways in which the historians do explain the relation of the people to their rulers.
This intelligent people perceived and regretted these defects.
This convention composed of men who possessed the confidence of the people, and many of whom had become highly distinguished by their patriotism, virtue and wisdom, in times which tried the minds and hearts of men, undertook the arduous task.
"To honour father and mother, and from the root of the soul to do their will"--this table of surmounting hung another people over them, and became powerful and permanent thereby.
"To have fidelity, and for the sake of fidelity to risk honour and blood, even in evil and dangerous courses"--teaching itself so, another people mastered itself, and thus mastering itself, became pregnant and heavy with great hopes.
And now, at length, the people
also went mad with their thirst and the fury of their fear.
Invited and urged by the open-hearted and truly benevolent people
who had given them an asylum from the persecution of their own kindred to form their settlement within the territories then under their jurisdiction, the love of their country predominated over every influence save that of conscience alone, and they preferred the precarious chance of relaxation from the bigoted rigor of the English Government to the certain liberality and alluring offers of the Hollanders.
That it will be a federal and not a national act, as these terms are understood by the objectors; the act of the people
, as forming so many independent States, not as forming one aggregate nation, is obvious from this single consideration, that it is to result neither from the decision of a MAJORITY of the people
of the Union, nor from that of a MAJORITY of the States.
don't know anything about it, if you come to that," said the old prince.
Every object served to mark the residence of a rich, aristocratic gentleman, who held himself high above the common people
, and could have nothing to fear from them.
Then in England people
began to say that there never had been an Ossian at all, and that Macpherson had invented both the poems and all the people
that they were about.
We were trying to escape out of the Fire People
If, therefore, a democracy is to be reckoned a free state, it is evident that any such establishment which centres all power in the votes of the people
cannot, properly speaking, be a democracy: for their decrees cannot be general in their extent.
Later, and especially since the war, the term seems to be used wholly in a political sense--that is, to designate the counties where the black people
outnumber the white. | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Becket was the Archbishop of Canterbury when he was murdered inside Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
He was born in London in 1120 to wealthy parents as his father was a successful merchant. This meant he received a good education at Merton Priory, before he went to Paris to further study. Through his father’s connections he gained work with Theobald of Bec in 1141 who was the Archbishop of Canterbury. Theobald trusted Becket and provided him with important religious missions to Rome and made provisions for him to study Cannon Law in Bologna. In 1154, Becket was made Archdeacon of Canterbury which was a significant position. He was very efficient at administration which led Theobald to recommend him to the King to fill the vacant position of Lord Chancellor. Henry II agreed to this and was impressed by Becket’s work.
In 1161, Theobald died and Becket was made Archbishop of Canterbury by Theobald’s nomination. Issues began to arise due to King Henry believing that Becket would prioritize the Crown ahead of the Church, however Becket – resigning as Lord Chancellor, made it his mission to recover the rights of the Archbishopric, which led the King to isolate Becket from the other Bishops. The King wanted to gain the Royal rights over the Church, however Becket refused to sign the official documents which were called the Constitutions of Clarendon. Becket was accused of contempt of royal authority and was summoned to a council in 1164. He was found guilty and fled to France.
In 1170 he was allowed to return to England, however prior to return, Henry the young King, son of Henry II was crowned by the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London and the Bishop of Salisbury which went against the role of Archbishop of Canterbury’s right to the Coronation. Becket subsequently excommunicated all three and they fled to Normandy. On hearing about this King Henry supposedly said to his trusted Knights, ‘Who will rid me of this troublesome Priest’. This was taken as an order for Becket’s murder.
On the evening of 29th December, four Knights arrived at Canterbury Cathedral. They approached Becket who was near the alter and demanded he submit to the King’s will. Becket refused and was subsequently killed by several sword wounds to the head. Shortly after his death, Thomas Becket was canonized as Saint by Pope Alexander III in February 1173.
A shrine to Thomas Becket is present in the Cathedral to this day in the form of a single candle, always burning, at the spot where he died. | <urn:uuid:24f3e761-e074-48cb-89a3-08df85c61cce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kingsqueensandallthat.com/2019/12/29/murder-of-thomas-becket/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.99222 | 546 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.22959461808... | 11 | Thomas Becket was the Archbishop of Canterbury when he was murdered inside Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
He was born in London in 1120 to wealthy parents as his father was a successful merchant. This meant he received a good education at Merton Priory, before he went to Paris to further study. Through his father’s connections he gained work with Theobald of Bec in 1141 who was the Archbishop of Canterbury. Theobald trusted Becket and provided him with important religious missions to Rome and made provisions for him to study Cannon Law in Bologna. In 1154, Becket was made Archdeacon of Canterbury which was a significant position. He was very efficient at administration which led Theobald to recommend him to the King to fill the vacant position of Lord Chancellor. Henry II agreed to this and was impressed by Becket’s work.
In 1161, Theobald died and Becket was made Archbishop of Canterbury by Theobald’s nomination. Issues began to arise due to King Henry believing that Becket would prioritize the Crown ahead of the Church, however Becket – resigning as Lord Chancellor, made it his mission to recover the rights of the Archbishopric, which led the King to isolate Becket from the other Bishops. The King wanted to gain the Royal rights over the Church, however Becket refused to sign the official documents which were called the Constitutions of Clarendon. Becket was accused of contempt of royal authority and was summoned to a council in 1164. He was found guilty and fled to France.
In 1170 he was allowed to return to England, however prior to return, Henry the young King, son of Henry II was crowned by the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London and the Bishop of Salisbury which went against the role of Archbishop of Canterbury’s right to the Coronation. Becket subsequently excommunicated all three and they fled to Normandy. On hearing about this King Henry supposedly said to his trusted Knights, ‘Who will rid me of this troublesome Priest’. This was taken as an order for Becket’s murder.
On the evening of 29th December, four Knights arrived at Canterbury Cathedral. They approached Becket who was near the alter and demanded he submit to the King’s will. Becket refused and was subsequently killed by several sword wounds to the head. Shortly after his death, Thomas Becket was canonized as Saint by Pope Alexander III in February 1173.
A shrine to Thomas Becket is present in the Cathedral to this day in the form of a single candle, always burning, at the spot where he died. | 549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mountain Meadows Massacre began on September 11, 1857 in Mountain Meadows, Utah where Mormon settlers and possibly Native Americans ambushed emigrants, a group of Arkansas farming families known as the Fancher party, traveling from Arkansas to California together with a group from Missouri that called themselves the "Missouri Wildcats". The ambushers killed around 120 men, women and older children; 17 of the younger children were spared and either returned to relatives in Arkansas or raised in Mormon families.
The travellers were besieged for four days, after which the Mormons reportedly promised safe passage if the migrants would surrender their weapons whereupon all but 17 young children were slaughtered. Brigham Young denied responsibility or knowledge until after the fact, but some critcs are unconvinced. John D. Lee a leader of the ambush, was excommunicated and later executed for his actions. While Lee admitted his complicity, he claimed he was a scapegoat for the many Mormon leaders responsible for the killings.
Initial reports said the attackers were a mixed group of Native Americans and Mormon settlers, but some researchers have disputed this, arguing that the attackers were largerly or entirely Mormon, some dressed as Native Americans.
The exact reasons for the massacre remain unclear and are in dispute. Some have argued that the area of the killings--now in southern Utah--was rife with religious violence. There were apparently rumors circulating in the region that among the Fancher party were members of a mob that killed Mormon founder Joseph Smith. This is based on statements reportedly made by the Fancher party members to non-Mormon traders on the Mormon trail. In addition, some reportedly claimed to be present at the assassination of Mormon Apostle Parley P. Pratt earlier that year. There were also rumors that the Federal Government was sending armed forces to take over Mormon settlements (see Johnston's Army), which contributed to a general distrust of outsiders and non-Mormons.
A pair of Latter-day Saint writers have recently been granted access to restricted documents in the archives of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and will be publishing an account of the incident in 2003. | <urn:uuid:b7a339fe-4e92-4719-a95b-ee58b26058c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.infomutt.com/m/mo/mountain_meadows_massacre.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.980352 | 426 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.246616065502166... | 2 | The Mountain Meadows Massacre began on September 11, 1857 in Mountain Meadows, Utah where Mormon settlers and possibly Native Americans ambushed emigrants, a group of Arkansas farming families known as the Fancher party, traveling from Arkansas to California together with a group from Missouri that called themselves the "Missouri Wildcats". The ambushers killed around 120 men, women and older children; 17 of the younger children were spared and either returned to relatives in Arkansas or raised in Mormon families.
The travellers were besieged for four days, after which the Mormons reportedly promised safe passage if the migrants would surrender their weapons whereupon all but 17 young children were slaughtered. Brigham Young denied responsibility or knowledge until after the fact, but some critcs are unconvinced. John D. Lee a leader of the ambush, was excommunicated and later executed for his actions. While Lee admitted his complicity, he claimed he was a scapegoat for the many Mormon leaders responsible for the killings.
Initial reports said the attackers were a mixed group of Native Americans and Mormon settlers, but some researchers have disputed this, arguing that the attackers were largerly or entirely Mormon, some dressed as Native Americans.
The exact reasons for the massacre remain unclear and are in dispute. Some have argued that the area of the killings--now in southern Utah--was rife with religious violence. There were apparently rumors circulating in the region that among the Fancher party were members of a mob that killed Mormon founder Joseph Smith. This is based on statements reportedly made by the Fancher party members to non-Mormon traders on the Mormon trail. In addition, some reportedly claimed to be present at the assassination of Mormon Apostle Parley P. Pratt earlier that year. There were also rumors that the Federal Government was sending armed forces to take over Mormon settlements (see Johnston's Army), which contributed to a general distrust of outsiders and non-Mormons.
A pair of Latter-day Saint writers have recently been granted access to restricted documents in the archives of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and will be publishing an account of the incident in 2003. | 440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the time that Louis was in the Holy Land his mother ruled France as regent. When she died he returned immediately to his kingdom and devoted himself to governing it.
In 1252 he took part in the founding of the Sorbonne, the most famous theological college of Europe from the days of St. Louis down to the time of the French Revolution.
He ruled his people so wisely and justly that it is hard to find any better king or even one equally as good in the whole line of French kings. He never wronged any man himself, or knowingly allowed any man to be wronged by others.
Near his palace there was a grand oak with wide-spreading branches, under which he used to sit on pleasant days in summer. There he received all persons who had complaints to make, rich and poor alike. Every one who came was allowed to tell his story without hindrance.
For hours Louis would listen patiently to all the tales of wrong-doing, of hardships and misery that were told him, and he would do what he could to right the wrongs of those who suffered.
When news came of some more dreadful persecutions of Christians by the Moslems in Palestine, Louis again raised an army of Crusaders and started with them for Tunis, although he was sick and feeble — so sick, indeed, that he had to be carried on a litter. Upon his arrival at Tunis he was attacked by fever and died in a few days.
He is better known to the world as Saint Louis than as Louis IX, because some years after his death Pope Boniface VIII canonized him on account of his pious life and his efforts to rescue the Holy Land from the Turks. | <urn:uuid:0e0d2ae6-fb7d-4f45-8b15-32c88f072f6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/82/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.994697 | 348 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.162588506937... | 1 | During the time that Louis was in the Holy Land his mother ruled France as regent. When she died he returned immediately to his kingdom and devoted himself to governing it.
In 1252 he took part in the founding of the Sorbonne, the most famous theological college of Europe from the days of St. Louis down to the time of the French Revolution.
He ruled his people so wisely and justly that it is hard to find any better king or even one equally as good in the whole line of French kings. He never wronged any man himself, or knowingly allowed any man to be wronged by others.
Near his palace there was a grand oak with wide-spreading branches, under which he used to sit on pleasant days in summer. There he received all persons who had complaints to make, rich and poor alike. Every one who came was allowed to tell his story without hindrance.
For hours Louis would listen patiently to all the tales of wrong-doing, of hardships and misery that were told him, and he would do what he could to right the wrongs of those who suffered.
When news came of some more dreadful persecutions of Christians by the Moslems in Palestine, Louis again raised an army of Crusaders and started with them for Tunis, although he was sick and feeble — so sick, indeed, that he had to be carried on a litter. Upon his arrival at Tunis he was attacked by fever and died in a few days.
He is better known to the world as Saint Louis than as Louis IX, because some years after his death Pope Boniface VIII canonized him on account of his pious life and his efforts to rescue the Holy Land from the Turks. | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Brief History
On December 5, 1847, Jefferson Finis Davis of Mississippi was elected to the United States Senate. He had been appointed to the Senate by the Governor of Mississippi in August of 1847. Davis went on to serve as the US Secretary of War (1853-1857) and was reelected to the Senate in 1857, serving until he resigned in 1861 due to the onset of the American Civil War. Davis went on to the notoriety of being the only President of the Confederate States of America, the leader of a movement that would see the United States torn apart. Several US Senators have also become infamous for a variety of reasons, and today we list some of them. (Obviously, such a list could occupy hundreds of pages in a book, though we will limit our scope to a few!)
Jefferson Davis, Mississippi.
Prior to serving in the Senate as a Democrat, Davis was elected as a US Representative to Congress from Mississippi and served from 1845 to 1846. After the losing effort of the Confederate States in the Civil War, Davis was forced to flee or possibly be captured, tried, and hanged as a traitor to the United States. Though his family escaped to Canada, Davis was caught, and the popular press crowed that he had been caught dressed as a woman. Jailed and indicted for treason, Davis was finally released on bail and went to Canada. In 1868 President Andrew Johnson issued a pardon for Davis and all Confederates and a court dismissed the indictment in 1869. Jeff Davis died in 1889 at the age of 81, financially ruined by the Civil War and never able to re-attain his pre-war level of wealth and influence. He remains a divisive figure in American History, revered by some and loathed by others.
Joseph Raymond McCarthy, Wisconsin.
This Republican senator became so infamous that the term “McCarthyism” is an epithet applied derisively to anyone accused of falsely accusing others for political gain. He served as Senator from Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957, although in 1954 the Senate voted 67 to 22 to “condemn” his words and actions, neutralizing his previous influence and making him politically impotent. McCarthy had made his political career on a virulent anti-communist platform, especially from 1950 to 1954, and made all sorts of baseless accusations about communists in the government and in the military insidiously undermining US security. While McCarthy’s alarmist (and fake) accusations and dire warnings originally generated much fear and serious consideration, it soon became apparent that the Senator was blathering without any real basis in fact for his rhetoric, at one point causing the counsel for the US Army to state with exasperation during a Senate hearing, “Have You No Sense of Decency, Sir” “At long last, have you left no sense of decency?” This pointed question burst the bubble of McCarthyism and led to a rapid decline in how seriously McCarthy was taken, both in the government and by the public. He became somewhat of a pariah and is a despised historical character, continuing to rant and rave about unfounded communist threats but now without an audience. He became an even heavier drinker of alcohol and died at the age of only 48 in 1957, the victim of hepatitis.
Edward Moore Kennedy, Massachusetts.
“Ted” Kennedy, Democrat, the youngest brother of President John F. Kennedy, was elected to the Senate from Massachusetts and served from 1962 until his death in 2009. In spite of his long Senatorial career and often influential run in that legislative body, Ted Kennedy was a party to an incident that will forever be associated with him in a disgraceful, infamous light. In June of 1969, a year after his brother Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated while quite possibly on his way to the Democratic nomination for President, Ted Kennedy seemed poised to take up the mantle of the Kennedy family and seemed a likely candidate for the presidency in 1972. Those plans were derailed by his involvement in a tragic auto accident in which he drove off a small bridge, almost assuredly drunk at the time (he was a notoriously heavy drinker) in which his passenger, a young lady named Mary Jo Kopechne, age 28 (Ted was married at the time) drowned. Kennedy failed to quickly summon assistance and seemed more concerned about his own criminal and political liability than the welfare of the doomed woman. Kennedy had left a party at Chappaquiddick Island with Kopechne, giving the infamous incident its one word moniker, “Chappaquiddick.” That name resounds in history along with “Watergate,” “Contragate,” “Teapot Dome,” “Abscam” and other American political scandals and haunted Ted Kennedy the rest of his life. Although he recovered enough politically to continue to be reelected to the Senate, he never did gain the nomination of his party to run for President that he so dearly wanted. To the common American person the incident seems to be one of a rich and powerful person getting away with a major crime without suffering the consequences (he was not indicted) an average guy would have suffered, leaving an air of stain on Kennedy’s reputation.
Lawrence Edwin Craig, Idaho.
Like so many politicians, “Larry” Craig seems to be a screaming, bloody, hypocrite, in this case regarding homosexual behavior. A Senator from Idaho from 1991 to 2009, Craig previously served in the House of Representatives from 1981 to 1991. A Republican, Craig was a conservative that preached conservative values, including endorsing anti-gay legislation and engaging in anti-gay rhetoric. When Craig was caught in 2007 in a men’s bathroom of the Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport soliciting an undercover police officer for homosexual sex and cited for the offense, his hypocrisy was laid bare to the world. Craig apparently thought a guilty plea could keep the incident quiet, but of course that idea was unrealistically optimistic. When the scandal broke, Craig tried to withdraw his plea and conviction, but was not allowed to do so. Craig’s “explanation” to the public of the incident was that he did not really reach his foot into the stall next to his occupied by the police officer and nudge the officer’s foot (a gay activity known colloquially as “cottaging”), but that Craig utilized a “wide stance” while pooping on the commode, which is why is foot wandered into the next stall. What a load! No serious person could believe such a lame excuse, and Craig was finished as a politician, not bothering to run for reelection in 2008. Craig had also been the subject of other allegations of homosexual conduct prior to the 2007 incident, which he denied. Craig at first offered to resign his seat in the Senate, but then changed his mind. Another 8 gay men publicly accused
Craig of having had prior homosexual conduct with them after the airport incident became public.
Harrison Arlington Williams Jr., New Jersey.
For some reason known as “Pete,” Williams had been serving as a Democratic Senator from New Jersey since 1959 when he became part of the ABSCAM scandal, and FBI “sting” operation meant to snare underworld types dealing in stolen art. Begun in 1978, the operation yielded more far reaching results than originally planned, including the taping of numerous politicians involved in various forms of graft and corruption, including Senator Williams from New Jersey. Williams was convicted of taking bribes in 1981 and resigned his seat in the Senate before he was to be ousted by the rest of the Senators. He was sentenced to 3 years in prison, and served 2 years, the first Senator to serve time in prison in more than 8 decades.
Question for students (and subscribers): What Senator would you add to this list?Please let us know in the comments section below this article.
Your readership is much appreciated!
For more information, please see…
Cooper, William. Jefferson Davis, American. Knopf, 2000.
Damore, Leo. Chappaquiddick: Power, Privilege, and the Ted Kennedy Cover-Up. Regnery History, 2018.
Greene, Robert. The Sting Man: Inside Abscam. Penguin Books, 2013.
MacNeil, Neil and Richard Baker. The American Senate: An Insider’s History. Oxford University Press, 2013.
The featured image in this article, a wedding photograph (a daguerrotype) of Jefferson Davis and Varina Howell, 1845, was taken from Flickr‘s The Commons. The uploading organization may have various reasons for determining that no known copyright restrictions exist, such as:
- The copyright is in the public domain because it has expired;
- The copyright was injected into the public domain for other reasons, such as failure to adhere to required formalities or conditions;
- The institution owns the copyright but is not interested in exercising control; or
- The institution has legal rights sufficient to authorize others to use the work without restrictions.
More information can be found at https://flickr.com/commons/usage/. | <urn:uuid:1465e30c-6ab8-4c2e-806b-8f314a44763f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyandheadlines.com/5-us-senators-that-went-on-to-infamy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.980922 | 1,890 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3440454006195068... | 2 | A Brief History
On December 5, 1847, Jefferson Finis Davis of Mississippi was elected to the United States Senate. He had been appointed to the Senate by the Governor of Mississippi in August of 1847. Davis went on to serve as the US Secretary of War (1853-1857) and was reelected to the Senate in 1857, serving until he resigned in 1861 due to the onset of the American Civil War. Davis went on to the notoriety of being the only President of the Confederate States of America, the leader of a movement that would see the United States torn apart. Several US Senators have also become infamous for a variety of reasons, and today we list some of them. (Obviously, such a list could occupy hundreds of pages in a book, though we will limit our scope to a few!)
Jefferson Davis, Mississippi.
Prior to serving in the Senate as a Democrat, Davis was elected as a US Representative to Congress from Mississippi and served from 1845 to 1846. After the losing effort of the Confederate States in the Civil War, Davis was forced to flee or possibly be captured, tried, and hanged as a traitor to the United States. Though his family escaped to Canada, Davis was caught, and the popular press crowed that he had been caught dressed as a woman. Jailed and indicted for treason, Davis was finally released on bail and went to Canada. In 1868 President Andrew Johnson issued a pardon for Davis and all Confederates and a court dismissed the indictment in 1869. Jeff Davis died in 1889 at the age of 81, financially ruined by the Civil War and never able to re-attain his pre-war level of wealth and influence. He remains a divisive figure in American History, revered by some and loathed by others.
Joseph Raymond McCarthy, Wisconsin.
This Republican senator became so infamous that the term “McCarthyism” is an epithet applied derisively to anyone accused of falsely accusing others for political gain. He served as Senator from Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957, although in 1954 the Senate voted 67 to 22 to “condemn” his words and actions, neutralizing his previous influence and making him politically impotent. McCarthy had made his political career on a virulent anti-communist platform, especially from 1950 to 1954, and made all sorts of baseless accusations about communists in the government and in the military insidiously undermining US security. While McCarthy’s alarmist (and fake) accusations and dire warnings originally generated much fear and serious consideration, it soon became apparent that the Senator was blathering without any real basis in fact for his rhetoric, at one point causing the counsel for the US Army to state with exasperation during a Senate hearing, “Have You No Sense of Decency, Sir” “At long last, have you left no sense of decency?” This pointed question burst the bubble of McCarthyism and led to a rapid decline in how seriously McCarthy was taken, both in the government and by the public. He became somewhat of a pariah and is a despised historical character, continuing to rant and rave about unfounded communist threats but now without an audience. He became an even heavier drinker of alcohol and died at the age of only 48 in 1957, the victim of hepatitis.
Edward Moore Kennedy, Massachusetts.
“Ted” Kennedy, Democrat, the youngest brother of President John F. Kennedy, was elected to the Senate from Massachusetts and served from 1962 until his death in 2009. In spite of his long Senatorial career and often influential run in that legislative body, Ted Kennedy was a party to an incident that will forever be associated with him in a disgraceful, infamous light. In June of 1969, a year after his brother Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated while quite possibly on his way to the Democratic nomination for President, Ted Kennedy seemed poised to take up the mantle of the Kennedy family and seemed a likely candidate for the presidency in 1972. Those plans were derailed by his involvement in a tragic auto accident in which he drove off a small bridge, almost assuredly drunk at the time (he was a notoriously heavy drinker) in which his passenger, a young lady named Mary Jo Kopechne, age 28 (Ted was married at the time) drowned. Kennedy failed to quickly summon assistance and seemed more concerned about his own criminal and political liability than the welfare of the doomed woman. Kennedy had left a party at Chappaquiddick Island with Kopechne, giving the infamous incident its one word moniker, “Chappaquiddick.” That name resounds in history along with “Watergate,” “Contragate,” “Teapot Dome,” “Abscam” and other American political scandals and haunted Ted Kennedy the rest of his life. Although he recovered enough politically to continue to be reelected to the Senate, he never did gain the nomination of his party to run for President that he so dearly wanted. To the common American person the incident seems to be one of a rich and powerful person getting away with a major crime without suffering the consequences (he was not indicted) an average guy would have suffered, leaving an air of stain on Kennedy’s reputation.
Lawrence Edwin Craig, Idaho.
Like so many politicians, “Larry” Craig seems to be a screaming, bloody, hypocrite, in this case regarding homosexual behavior. A Senator from Idaho from 1991 to 2009, Craig previously served in the House of Representatives from 1981 to 1991. A Republican, Craig was a conservative that preached conservative values, including endorsing anti-gay legislation and engaging in anti-gay rhetoric. When Craig was caught in 2007 in a men’s bathroom of the Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport soliciting an undercover police officer for homosexual sex and cited for the offense, his hypocrisy was laid bare to the world. Craig apparently thought a guilty plea could keep the incident quiet, but of course that idea was unrealistically optimistic. When the scandal broke, Craig tried to withdraw his plea and conviction, but was not allowed to do so. Craig’s “explanation” to the public of the incident was that he did not really reach his foot into the stall next to his occupied by the police officer and nudge the officer’s foot (a gay activity known colloquially as “cottaging”), but that Craig utilized a “wide stance” while pooping on the commode, which is why is foot wandered into the next stall. What a load! No serious person could believe such a lame excuse, and Craig was finished as a politician, not bothering to run for reelection in 2008. Craig had also been the subject of other allegations of homosexual conduct prior to the 2007 incident, which he denied. Craig at first offered to resign his seat in the Senate, but then changed his mind. Another 8 gay men publicly accused
Craig of having had prior homosexual conduct with them after the airport incident became public.
Harrison Arlington Williams Jr., New Jersey.
For some reason known as “Pete,” Williams had been serving as a Democratic Senator from New Jersey since 1959 when he became part of the ABSCAM scandal, and FBI “sting” operation meant to snare underworld types dealing in stolen art. Begun in 1978, the operation yielded more far reaching results than originally planned, including the taping of numerous politicians involved in various forms of graft and corruption, including Senator Williams from New Jersey. Williams was convicted of taking bribes in 1981 and resigned his seat in the Senate before he was to be ousted by the rest of the Senators. He was sentenced to 3 years in prison, and served 2 years, the first Senator to serve time in prison in more than 8 decades.
Question for students (and subscribers): What Senator would you add to this list?Please let us know in the comments section below this article.
Your readership is much appreciated!
For more information, please see…
Cooper, William. Jefferson Davis, American. Knopf, 2000.
Damore, Leo. Chappaquiddick: Power, Privilege, and the Ted Kennedy Cover-Up. Regnery History, 2018.
Greene, Robert. The Sting Man: Inside Abscam. Penguin Books, 2013.
MacNeil, Neil and Richard Baker. The American Senate: An Insider’s History. Oxford University Press, 2013.
The featured image in this article, a wedding photograph (a daguerrotype) of Jefferson Davis and Varina Howell, 1845, was taken from Flickr‘s The Commons. The uploading organization may have various reasons for determining that no known copyright restrictions exist, such as:
- The copyright is in the public domain because it has expired;
- The copyright was injected into the public domain for other reasons, such as failure to adhere to required formalities or conditions;
- The institution owns the copyright but is not interested in exercising control; or
- The institution has legal rights sufficient to authorize others to use the work without restrictions.
More information can be found at https://flickr.com/commons/usage/. | 1,966 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are various ways to 'do' History, ranging from consideration of notable individuals to consideration of social groupings. Within those methods, some stories are heard more loudly than others. This Entry is a guide to the stories of LGBT+1 people, and in particular those that have been told through the h2g2 Edited Guide.
A Note on Gender
There is considerable overlap between LGBT+ issues and perceptions of gender. For example a man behaving in a manner judged to be 'camp' or effeminate may be assumed to be gay, while a woman who dresses in a typical feminine manner may be assumed to be straight, as the gender of their partners (if they have any) would not be known to onlookers in public. In turn, a transgender man may be assumed to be a gay woman, for example. However, history shows that the rules for the behaviour and roles of people such as men and women, and how people who do not adhere to those rules should be treated, are not universal.
Religion or science or other factors may be involved in setting the rules, but diversity in the human experience still exists, and it is mainly just the extent to which diversity is taken into account by the rules that varies. For example, clothing and personal expression has seen much variation over time. Particular fashion groups such as Dandies or Macaronis pushed the boundaries of gender expression, while various types of Gender Police have enforced the boundaries of their time.
While some women in history were looked after by men and expected to devote themselves to raising children, other women worked alongside men, for example on farms or in industry. Intellectual pursuits were sometimes encouraged, and sometimes discouraged for fear of damaging women's ability to bear children. A number of women chose to disguise themselves as men so as to serve in the US Civil War in the 1860s, but in the Middle Ages some women fought openly in wars. In the 21st Century in the UK, for example, women are again able to serve in the armed forces.
In ancient times, the Sacred Band of warriors was considered to be an asset to the military, as it consisted of male couples who fought harder to save their lovers than they would have fought to save their own lives. In modern times, same-sex love has been more often viewed as disruptive and bad for morale.
In many cases, it is individuals who have made a difference to the world around them, and to attitudes to LGBT+ people in general.
Some people are pioneers in a small way, simply going about their lives in the way they wished, even though that defied the conventions of the time, and so paving the way for others to follow in their footsteps. For example number of cases of women marrying 'female husbands' were recorded in the 18th Century, in which one partner took the role of a man. More unusually, in 1707-8, in a certain parish in Cheshire, two couples went to the church to get married and it just so happened that both partners in both marriages were women. If there had been any debate about their decision at the time, it was not recorded, but whatever the case, the marriages were entered in the register the same as for any other couple. This foreshadowed the developments in the 21st Century that allowed for same-sex marriages and civil partnerships to take place and be legally recognised in many countries around the world.
Those LGBT+ people who rise to prominence through fame or infamy may become icons for people who want to be themselves in everyday life, as their visibility shows others that they are not alone in their feelings.
Being an icon is not without risk. People may be subjected to criminalisation and punishment, such as author and playwright Oscar Wilde, who wrote 'The Ballad of Reading Gaol', or computing pioneer Alan Turing, who underwent hormone treatment before taking his own life. Or the pressure of being a pioneer may be considerable, such as in the case of Justin Fashanu, who came out as the world's first openly gay footballer but received abuse and was accused of crimes before he, too, took his own life.
The world of sport offers opportunities as well as challenges for LGBT+ people. There is controversy and debate around who should be able to compete, but some sportspeople have become icons, such as the tennis player Martina Navratilova who first 'came out' in 1981 and is now often seen on television commentating at the Wimbledon Championships.
In the field of film and television there is more scope for diversity, but also a risk of perpetuating stereotypes in order to secure a mainstream career. Quentin Crisp's appearance, behaviour and writings provoked controversy at the same time as encouraging acceptance of people who were visibly 'eccentric'. Actors such as Kenneth Williams used humour to introduce audiences to different characters. Comedian and actor Stephen Fry has taken on a variety of roles and become a 'national treasure'.
The worlds of art, music and literature also allow more freedom of expression. Singer Dusty Springfield died in 1998 but her work lives on and she has been an icon to many people since she 'came out' as bisexual in 1972. Comedian Eddie Izzard introduced audiences to a different style of gender diversity from drag queens and female impersonators, with his blend of masculine and feminine characteristics, as did Eurovision winner Conchita Wurst with her 'bearded lady' look.
In conclusion, some people's stories may not be heard very loudly in history, but their stories are still heard, thanks to platforms such as the h2g2 Edited Guide. | <urn:uuid:1dea611f-ec03-4e27-b468-3ac55eda7a07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://h2g2.com/entry/A87941695 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.983563 | 1,144 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.1305684149... | 1 | There are various ways to 'do' History, ranging from consideration of notable individuals to consideration of social groupings. Within those methods, some stories are heard more loudly than others. This Entry is a guide to the stories of LGBT+1 people, and in particular those that have been told through the h2g2 Edited Guide.
A Note on Gender
There is considerable overlap between LGBT+ issues and perceptions of gender. For example a man behaving in a manner judged to be 'camp' or effeminate may be assumed to be gay, while a woman who dresses in a typical feminine manner may be assumed to be straight, as the gender of their partners (if they have any) would not be known to onlookers in public. In turn, a transgender man may be assumed to be a gay woman, for example. However, history shows that the rules for the behaviour and roles of people such as men and women, and how people who do not adhere to those rules should be treated, are not universal.
Religion or science or other factors may be involved in setting the rules, but diversity in the human experience still exists, and it is mainly just the extent to which diversity is taken into account by the rules that varies. For example, clothing and personal expression has seen much variation over time. Particular fashion groups such as Dandies or Macaronis pushed the boundaries of gender expression, while various types of Gender Police have enforced the boundaries of their time.
While some women in history were looked after by men and expected to devote themselves to raising children, other women worked alongside men, for example on farms or in industry. Intellectual pursuits were sometimes encouraged, and sometimes discouraged for fear of damaging women's ability to bear children. A number of women chose to disguise themselves as men so as to serve in the US Civil War in the 1860s, but in the Middle Ages some women fought openly in wars. In the 21st Century in the UK, for example, women are again able to serve in the armed forces.
In ancient times, the Sacred Band of warriors was considered to be an asset to the military, as it consisted of male couples who fought harder to save their lovers than they would have fought to save their own lives. In modern times, same-sex love has been more often viewed as disruptive and bad for morale.
In many cases, it is individuals who have made a difference to the world around them, and to attitudes to LGBT+ people in general.
Some people are pioneers in a small way, simply going about their lives in the way they wished, even though that defied the conventions of the time, and so paving the way for others to follow in their footsteps. For example number of cases of women marrying 'female husbands' were recorded in the 18th Century, in which one partner took the role of a man. More unusually, in 1707-8, in a certain parish in Cheshire, two couples went to the church to get married and it just so happened that both partners in both marriages were women. If there had been any debate about their decision at the time, it was not recorded, but whatever the case, the marriages were entered in the register the same as for any other couple. This foreshadowed the developments in the 21st Century that allowed for same-sex marriages and civil partnerships to take place and be legally recognised in many countries around the world.
Those LGBT+ people who rise to prominence through fame or infamy may become icons for people who want to be themselves in everyday life, as their visibility shows others that they are not alone in their feelings.
Being an icon is not without risk. People may be subjected to criminalisation and punishment, such as author and playwright Oscar Wilde, who wrote 'The Ballad of Reading Gaol', or computing pioneer Alan Turing, who underwent hormone treatment before taking his own life. Or the pressure of being a pioneer may be considerable, such as in the case of Justin Fashanu, who came out as the world's first openly gay footballer but received abuse and was accused of crimes before he, too, took his own life.
The world of sport offers opportunities as well as challenges for LGBT+ people. There is controversy and debate around who should be able to compete, but some sportspeople have become icons, such as the tennis player Martina Navratilova who first 'came out' in 1981 and is now often seen on television commentating at the Wimbledon Championships.
In the field of film and television there is more scope for diversity, but also a risk of perpetuating stereotypes in order to secure a mainstream career. Quentin Crisp's appearance, behaviour and writings provoked controversy at the same time as encouraging acceptance of people who were visibly 'eccentric'. Actors such as Kenneth Williams used humour to introduce audiences to different characters. Comedian and actor Stephen Fry has taken on a variety of roles and become a 'national treasure'.
The worlds of art, music and literature also allow more freedom of expression. Singer Dusty Springfield died in 1998 but her work lives on and she has been an icon to many people since she 'came out' as bisexual in 1972. Comedian Eddie Izzard introduced audiences to a different style of gender diversity from drag queens and female impersonators, with his blend of masculine and feminine characteristics, as did Eurovision winner Conchita Wurst with her 'bearded lady' look.
In conclusion, some people's stories may not be heard very loudly in history, but their stories are still heard, thanks to platforms such as the h2g2 Edited Guide. | 1,154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AGEING is a daunting process, not least because some of the first things to fail are also the most useful, such as memory, attention and motor skills. The idea that some form of regular mental activity—doing a crossword, for example—can postpone mental decline is not new. Now researchers have found another: playing a certain type of video game could help the elderly stay sharper for longer.
Video games can be fun but whether they serve any useful purpose beyond keeping some young people confined to their bedrooms is questionable. In a 2010 study thousands of volunteers spent six weeks playing video games but showed virtually no improvement in performance of cognitive tasks that were not related to the game when compared with non-players. The players’ gaming skills improved, but the prowess did not extend to other cognitive areas.
Age, though, was not a factor in this study: most of the participants were in their late 30s or early 40s. So things might be different for other age groups. Adam Gazzaley of the University of California, San Francisco, and his colleagues wondered if playing video games would be more effective in exercising the brains of older people. And, according to their research just published in Nature, that turns out to be so.
Dr Gazzaley and his team recruited more than 200 volunteers, whose ages spanned seven decades, to play a video game designed specially to use multi-tasking skills, which can be particularly testing for older folk. The participants, who had healthy vision and little prior gaming experience, used a hand-held controller to drive a car following a line on a road. At the same time they had to pay attention to signs that would appear above the car. As they played the game, the brain activity of each participant was measured by a cap fitted with electrodes.
The first set of experiments, which involved those aged between 20 and 79, found, not surprisingly, that the older participants had to put more mental effort, as measured by their brain activity, into the game than younger people. In other words, they found multi-tasking harder.
In the second set of experiments, a group aged 60 to 85 got to take the video game home and play it in an adaptive mode (as they got better at the game, the game got harder) for three hours a week over a month. When the participants returned, their multi-tasking abilities were again measured with the cap and found to have improved along with other aspects of cognition that were not specifically demanded by the game, such as working memory. The improvement in multi-tasking was so great that the amount of cognitive effort required by the oldies after their training was no more than if they were in their 20s and playing the game for the first time. Furthermore, the changes seemed to last for some time. After a six-month break from playing, the older participants were still nimble-minded.
Exactly how the process works neurologically is still an open question. The prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain responsible for attention, is one area being explored by researchers. In the meantime, the gaming and brain-training industry might find new customers. With more disposable income, free time and discipline to play games in moderation, older people could be a healthy market for a whole new generation of video games.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Put away the knitting" | <urn:uuid:20f5054d-dfd8-417d-bd55-8e76baf1668d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2013/09/07/put-away-the-knitting | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.980036 | 694 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.33272778987884... | 1 | AGEING is a daunting process, not least because some of the first things to fail are also the most useful, such as memory, attention and motor skills. The idea that some form of regular mental activity—doing a crossword, for example—can postpone mental decline is not new. Now researchers have found another: playing a certain type of video game could help the elderly stay sharper for longer.
Video games can be fun but whether they serve any useful purpose beyond keeping some young people confined to their bedrooms is questionable. In a 2010 study thousands of volunteers spent six weeks playing video games but showed virtually no improvement in performance of cognitive tasks that were not related to the game when compared with non-players. The players’ gaming skills improved, but the prowess did not extend to other cognitive areas.
Age, though, was not a factor in this study: most of the participants were in their late 30s or early 40s. So things might be different for other age groups. Adam Gazzaley of the University of California, San Francisco, and his colleagues wondered if playing video games would be more effective in exercising the brains of older people. And, according to their research just published in Nature, that turns out to be so.
Dr Gazzaley and his team recruited more than 200 volunteers, whose ages spanned seven decades, to play a video game designed specially to use multi-tasking skills, which can be particularly testing for older folk. The participants, who had healthy vision and little prior gaming experience, used a hand-held controller to drive a car following a line on a road. At the same time they had to pay attention to signs that would appear above the car. As they played the game, the brain activity of each participant was measured by a cap fitted with electrodes.
The first set of experiments, which involved those aged between 20 and 79, found, not surprisingly, that the older participants had to put more mental effort, as measured by their brain activity, into the game than younger people. In other words, they found multi-tasking harder.
In the second set of experiments, a group aged 60 to 85 got to take the video game home and play it in an adaptive mode (as they got better at the game, the game got harder) for three hours a week over a month. When the participants returned, their multi-tasking abilities were again measured with the cap and found to have improved along with other aspects of cognition that were not specifically demanded by the game, such as working memory. The improvement in multi-tasking was so great that the amount of cognitive effort required by the oldies after their training was no more than if they were in their 20s and playing the game for the first time. Furthermore, the changes seemed to last for some time. After a six-month break from playing, the older participants were still nimble-minded.
Exactly how the process works neurologically is still an open question. The prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain responsible for attention, is one area being explored by researchers. In the meantime, the gaming and brain-training industry might find new customers. With more disposable income, free time and discipline to play games in moderation, older people could be a healthy market for a whole new generation of video games.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Put away the knitting" | 701 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reincarnation Of The Businesswoman At School Book 2 Chapter 219
During the Warring States Period, bronze mirrors were produced in large numbers. During this period, the bronze mirror was more delicate and light and its buttons were small and thin. It was generally decorated with fine patterns. The most common ones were mountain patterns, dragon and phoenix patterns, mosaic patterns, continuous arc patterns, diamond patterns and so forth.
The bronze mirrors in the Han Dynasty were generally thick and heavy, and there were often inscriptions of auspicious words on the mirror. The mirror buttons were mostly hemispherical, and the persimmon-shaped button holder was very popular. At that time, there was also a kind of light-transmission mirror called "Light of Seeing the Sun". When the mirror surface was exposed to sunlight, the wall reflected the pattern corresponding to the mirror back.
From the middle of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasty, there were embossed portraits and oracle mirrors.
The Tang Dynasty was the peak period of the development of bronze mirrors in this country. It wasn't only delicate, but also broke the traditional mode of the traditional bronze mirror as a circular button. There were many forms such as square, rhomboid, sunflower and hand-held mirrors. Its patterns also became variable and colorful, like butterflies, grapes, birds and beasts, and character stories. During this period, gold-silver flat mirrors also emerged.
In the Song Dynasty, the technique of casting mirrors gradually began to decline. The mirrors in the Song Dynasty were mainly composed of tangled flowers and peony. Huzhou was the most famous center for casting mirrors. Their mirror backs were often marked with a mirror workshop.
The bronze mirror in Gu Ning's hands was exquisite and light. Its buttons were small, and there were diamond patterns on it. It had to belong to the Warring States Period. As for its price, Gu Ning couldn't estimate it, but it should be worth a few million yuan!
The next ancient object was a white, thin porcelain jar with a height of 10.3 cm, a diameter of 5.2 cm and a bottom diameter of 6.6 cm. The porcelain jar was as thin as a piece of paper. It was light and shiny with exquisite painting, yellow glaze, and a grape pattern. Its bottom noted Yongle Period. This thin, white porcelain jar had to come from the Yongle Period, and was a rarity.
A thin, white porcelain bowl was worth tens of millions of yuan normally, so the value of this porcelain jar should be even higher. Gu Ning thought that it might be worth at least seven or eight million.
She was thrilled now.
Then she took out many plates, including a pastel plate, blue and white plates, and so on. These were all worth millions of yuan.
After that, there were pieces of calligraphy too.
One was from the famous painter, calligrapher and poet Tang Yin in the Ming Dynasty, and was called Hibiscus by Water . It was also worth several million yuan. The other one was Luo Shen Fu from the famous calligrapher, painter and poet Zhao Mengfu who was born between the end of the Song Dynasty and the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty. It was worth from at least a few million yuan to more than tens of millions of yuan.
In the market, the price would be lower. However, when it came to the auction, its price would be much higher. Gu Ning planned to sell it on auction.
Everything else was gold and silver ingots, gold bracelets, gold leaves and so on.
Liu Jiang was really a corrupt official, and he had gotten so many highly valuable items. Gu Ning actually wanted to thank him.
There was also a square box of rosewood with a height of about 10 cm. Gu Ning opened the box and a bright light came out. Gu Ning was scared, and instinctively threw the box away. It fell on the bed. At the same time, Gu Ning sensed a strong power. Although the power was so strong that Gu Ning couldn't wait to absorb it, she curbed her desire and decided to wait until she saw it clearly.
The minute that Gu Ning saw what was inside, she rounded her eyes in shock. It was a night-luminescent pearl the size of two eggs. It was worth at least over ten million yuan.
Other than its value, its power was the strongest one that Gu Ning had ever encountered.
The night-luminescent pearl was a rare jewel, and had many nicknames. It could absorb the essence and power from the moon and sun on its own. That was to say, as long as Gu Ning brought this night-luminescent pearl with her, she could collect the power automatically.
This night-luminescent pearl was the most precious object that Gu Ning had found from this scavenger hunt. Therefore, she wouldn't sell this night-luminescent pearl, but kept it for her own use.
When Gu Ning absorbed the power of the night-luminescent pearl into the telepathic eye space, the space changed and was doubled again. It was four square meters big now, and its transparency was also improved.
After that, Gu Ning put everything into her Jade Eyes before she went to bed.
She lacked money now, but it would still not be enough even if she sold all of the ancient objects. Thus Gu Ning decided to take it slow, and wait for auctions.
Fortunately, there was nothing bad that happened in the following days.
Gu Qinxiang didn't cause Gu Qing and Gu Man more trouble.
Chen Ziyao went to attend classes, but she was always being alienated by others in her school. Her classmates would continuously criticize her bad behavior and she lived in anxiety all day. She had seen Gu Ning several times, but didn't dare to meet her sight. However, once Gu Ning passed by, she would glare at her, like she was going to kill her. Chen Ziyao hated Gu Ning to death, but didn't know what to do, so she could only swallow her anger.
In City G, Hongyun Real Estate did nothing after Shenghua Real Estate had acquired Zhengyang Street. It might have seemed like that, but they were already scheming secretly.
Because Shenghua Real Estate hadn't started building buildings on Zhengyang Street yet, Fang Changsheng planned to do something at Shenghua Real Estate's sites in City F.
Thus, it was only the peace before the great storm.
Jade Beauty Jewelry worked well too. Although its profits declined after the first three days, its sales were still much better than normal jewelry stores.
The only thing that upset Gu Ning was that Leng Shaoting had disappeared for many days, and she had still not heard anything from him. She was concerned, but the man was fulfilling his tasks, so she wasn't willing to bother him.
However, it wasn't peaceful in the Li Family.
Li Zhenzhen had locked herself in the room for two days. She didn't eat, nor drink, which terrified her family. She wouldn't open the door, so Li Zhenyu had to break it. He found Li Zhenzhen almost passed out, and immediately sent her to the hospital.
Her family asked Li Zhenzhen why she did that, but Li Zhenzhen wouldn't say a word. Her family even though that she did it because of Qin Yifan, but it didn't make sense, because Qin Yifan had rejected Li Zhenzhen many times, and Li Zhenzhen had never behaved like that before.
Her family failed to figure out the reason.
Li Zhenyu suddenly thought of Su Jing, who was Li Zhenzhen's best friend, so he called Su Jing without delay.
Knowing what had happened to Li Zhenzhen, Su Jing wasn't surprised at all, because she was also in a terrible condition right now, but to prevent her family from finding out, Su Jing tried her best to eat in front of them. Thus her physical condition wasn't as bad as Li Zhenzhen's. | <urn:uuid:3cc1a4df-6d98-4395-b9ac-c323c7246b8f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://boxnovel.net/reincarnation-of-the-businesswoman-at-school/book-2-chapter-219 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.991097 | 1,715 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.535420775... | 1 | Reincarnation Of The Businesswoman At School Book 2 Chapter 219
During the Warring States Period, bronze mirrors were produced in large numbers. During this period, the bronze mirror was more delicate and light and its buttons were small and thin. It was generally decorated with fine patterns. The most common ones were mountain patterns, dragon and phoenix patterns, mosaic patterns, continuous arc patterns, diamond patterns and so forth.
The bronze mirrors in the Han Dynasty were generally thick and heavy, and there were often inscriptions of auspicious words on the mirror. The mirror buttons were mostly hemispherical, and the persimmon-shaped button holder was very popular. At that time, there was also a kind of light-transmission mirror called "Light of Seeing the Sun". When the mirror surface was exposed to sunlight, the wall reflected the pattern corresponding to the mirror back.
From the middle of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasty, there were embossed portraits and oracle mirrors.
The Tang Dynasty was the peak period of the development of bronze mirrors in this country. It wasn't only delicate, but also broke the traditional mode of the traditional bronze mirror as a circular button. There were many forms such as square, rhomboid, sunflower and hand-held mirrors. Its patterns also became variable and colorful, like butterflies, grapes, birds and beasts, and character stories. During this period, gold-silver flat mirrors also emerged.
In the Song Dynasty, the technique of casting mirrors gradually began to decline. The mirrors in the Song Dynasty were mainly composed of tangled flowers and peony. Huzhou was the most famous center for casting mirrors. Their mirror backs were often marked with a mirror workshop.
The bronze mirror in Gu Ning's hands was exquisite and light. Its buttons were small, and there were diamond patterns on it. It had to belong to the Warring States Period. As for its price, Gu Ning couldn't estimate it, but it should be worth a few million yuan!
The next ancient object was a white, thin porcelain jar with a height of 10.3 cm, a diameter of 5.2 cm and a bottom diameter of 6.6 cm. The porcelain jar was as thin as a piece of paper. It was light and shiny with exquisite painting, yellow glaze, and a grape pattern. Its bottom noted Yongle Period. This thin, white porcelain jar had to come from the Yongle Period, and was a rarity.
A thin, white porcelain bowl was worth tens of millions of yuan normally, so the value of this porcelain jar should be even higher. Gu Ning thought that it might be worth at least seven or eight million.
She was thrilled now.
Then she took out many plates, including a pastel plate, blue and white plates, and so on. These were all worth millions of yuan.
After that, there were pieces of calligraphy too.
One was from the famous painter, calligrapher and poet Tang Yin in the Ming Dynasty, and was called Hibiscus by Water . It was also worth several million yuan. The other one was Luo Shen Fu from the famous calligrapher, painter and poet Zhao Mengfu who was born between the end of the Song Dynasty and the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty. It was worth from at least a few million yuan to more than tens of millions of yuan.
In the market, the price would be lower. However, when it came to the auction, its price would be much higher. Gu Ning planned to sell it on auction.
Everything else was gold and silver ingots, gold bracelets, gold leaves and so on.
Liu Jiang was really a corrupt official, and he had gotten so many highly valuable items. Gu Ning actually wanted to thank him.
There was also a square box of rosewood with a height of about 10 cm. Gu Ning opened the box and a bright light came out. Gu Ning was scared, and instinctively threw the box away. It fell on the bed. At the same time, Gu Ning sensed a strong power. Although the power was so strong that Gu Ning couldn't wait to absorb it, she curbed her desire and decided to wait until she saw it clearly.
The minute that Gu Ning saw what was inside, she rounded her eyes in shock. It was a night-luminescent pearl the size of two eggs. It was worth at least over ten million yuan.
Other than its value, its power was the strongest one that Gu Ning had ever encountered.
The night-luminescent pearl was a rare jewel, and had many nicknames. It could absorb the essence and power from the moon and sun on its own. That was to say, as long as Gu Ning brought this night-luminescent pearl with her, she could collect the power automatically.
This night-luminescent pearl was the most precious object that Gu Ning had found from this scavenger hunt. Therefore, she wouldn't sell this night-luminescent pearl, but kept it for her own use.
When Gu Ning absorbed the power of the night-luminescent pearl into the telepathic eye space, the space changed and was doubled again. It was four square meters big now, and its transparency was also improved.
After that, Gu Ning put everything into her Jade Eyes before she went to bed.
She lacked money now, but it would still not be enough even if she sold all of the ancient objects. Thus Gu Ning decided to take it slow, and wait for auctions.
Fortunately, there was nothing bad that happened in the following days.
Gu Qinxiang didn't cause Gu Qing and Gu Man more trouble.
Chen Ziyao went to attend classes, but she was always being alienated by others in her school. Her classmates would continuously criticize her bad behavior and she lived in anxiety all day. She had seen Gu Ning several times, but didn't dare to meet her sight. However, once Gu Ning passed by, she would glare at her, like she was going to kill her. Chen Ziyao hated Gu Ning to death, but didn't know what to do, so she could only swallow her anger.
In City G, Hongyun Real Estate did nothing after Shenghua Real Estate had acquired Zhengyang Street. It might have seemed like that, but they were already scheming secretly.
Because Shenghua Real Estate hadn't started building buildings on Zhengyang Street yet, Fang Changsheng planned to do something at Shenghua Real Estate's sites in City F.
Thus, it was only the peace before the great storm.
Jade Beauty Jewelry worked well too. Although its profits declined after the first three days, its sales were still much better than normal jewelry stores.
The only thing that upset Gu Ning was that Leng Shaoting had disappeared for many days, and she had still not heard anything from him. She was concerned, but the man was fulfilling his tasks, so she wasn't willing to bother him.
However, it wasn't peaceful in the Li Family.
Li Zhenzhen had locked herself in the room for two days. She didn't eat, nor drink, which terrified her family. She wouldn't open the door, so Li Zhenyu had to break it. He found Li Zhenzhen almost passed out, and immediately sent her to the hospital.
Her family asked Li Zhenzhen why she did that, but Li Zhenzhen wouldn't say a word. Her family even though that she did it because of Qin Yifan, but it didn't make sense, because Qin Yifan had rejected Li Zhenzhen many times, and Li Zhenzhen had never behaved like that before.
Her family failed to figure out the reason.
Li Zhenyu suddenly thought of Su Jing, who was Li Zhenzhen's best friend, so he called Su Jing without delay.
Knowing what had happened to Li Zhenzhen, Su Jing wasn't surprised at all, because she was also in a terrible condition right now, but to prevent her family from finding out, Su Jing tried her best to eat in front of them. Thus her physical condition wasn't as bad as Li Zhenzhen's. | 1,673 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Commissary Department was in charge of all food or subsistence supplies at a military post. At each post, the storehouses used by the Assistant Commissaries of Subsistence were provided by the Quartermaster Department, and the quality of protection varied from post to post. Many storage areas were old and dilapidated. Often supplies were stored in different buildings far from each other; roofs leaked, and rats got in to gnaw at the foodstuffs and other staples. Although aware of the problem, there was little a Commanding Officer or a Quartermaster could do to eliminate the situation, until funds were provided for new warehouses.
New storehouses were a source of pride to harried Commissaries, who could sleep at night assured their stores were secure. The Commissary at Fort Scott was fortunate, for as soon as the Quartermaster Storehouse was completed, he was assigned a large room on the first floor with a loft above and basement below. To ensure against theft, locks for the storerooms were ordered.
Army regulations provided that there would be one Assistant Commissary of Subsistence, with one clerk, at each post; but this position often was combined with that of the Assistant Quartermaster, so that one man acted as both. At Fort Scott, where the construction program was under full swing, the jobs were separate until 1846 when the positions were combined after many of the soldiers, including Captain Swords, left Fort Scott to serve in the Mexican War.
Subsistence supplies were divided into two parts: subsistence stores, consisting of rations, such as pork, flour, coffee, candles, etc., and commissary property, which was the necessary means of issuing and preserving these stores, such as stationary, scales, measures, tools, etc.
In the early nineteenth century, the component parts of rations consisted of: three-fourths of a pound of pork, or one pound and one-fourth of fresh beef, or one pound and one-fourth of salt beef, or twelve ounces of hard bread, or one and one-fourth pounds corn meal, and one gill of whiskey.
For every one hundred rations, the men were provided four pounds of soap, one pound and a half of candles, two quarts salt, four quarts vinegar, and twelve quarts peas or beans. The rations remained relatively unchanged until 1861, except for the addition of ten pounds of rice or hominy, ten pounds of green coffee, or, eight pounds of roasted (or roasted and ground) coffee, or, one pound and eight ounces tea, fifteen pounds of sugar, and pepper, potatoes, and molasses.
Whiskey remained a part of the men's rations during most of the Nineteenth Century, although attempts were made to eliminate it from the diet. At Fort Scott, Major Graham was happy to note that his men had signed a temperance pledge, and the barrels of whiskey on hand were returned to the Quartermaster Storehouse at St. Louis to be sold. The temperance movement, however, was never entirely successful.
Spoilage of items was common, and salt meats and flour had to be inspected before they could be accepted. Because different foodstuffs required different storage, the Commissary usually stored his spirituous beverages on the first or basement floor, salt port, beef and other supplies on the second, and the cereals on the third.
Apparently the Commissary at Fort Scott kept fairly large amounts of rations on hand, probably because of the uncertainty of delivery. In August 1844, Hoskins reported that he had not received the full shipment that had been contracted for with Turnham & Arthur; nevertheless he had on hand 663 gallons of vinegar, 58 ½ bushels of salt, 3600 pounds of soap, and 114 ½ bushels of beans. The Lieutenant voiced a complaint common on the frontier, when he wrote that the "balance of the articles delivered on the Contract being of a quality entirely inferior to that required by the Contract" had had to be rejected.
Some allowance for the quality of the items received was made because the heavy rains had washed out the roads preventing early delivery. Hoskins had received one lot of sugar and coffee from Major Lee, another contractor. Until a delivery of pork was made in September, bacon was issued to the men. The hot prairie sun made even the candles melt, and the contractor had supplied the post with candles "very nearly as soft as hog's Lard." To remedy the latter, Hoskins urged that 1000 pounds of good hard candles be delivered as soon as possible.
By 1846, it became difficult to obtain beef, the staple of the soldiers' diet. Cattle were scarce because General Kearny was buying beef for his expedition to Santa Fe. As traders from Missouri bought all the cattle they could find at exorbitant prices to take to Fort Leavenworth, the bids at Fort Scott came in either too high or from unreliable bidders. Prices rose from six cents to ten cents a pound. In May, the Commissary began issuing whole beef at a time to the troops, but this was objectionable because of the difficulty in preventing spoilage of such large amounts of meat. Officers were allowed to buy food from the Commissary and other items that were standard to the rations of the period, even though there was a Sutler at Fort Scott. Returns list purchases of flour, ham, beans, rice, coffee, sugar, vinegar, candles (both sperm and star), soap and salt. Any luxuries, however, could be obtained only at the Sutler's Store.
The Commissary, himself, also made a number of purchases from the post Sutler, H. T. Wilson, indicating some effort to provide variety in the diet. His purchases included corn meal, black pepper, two quarters of mutton, raisins, matches, butter, milk, three pounds of nails, three tin buckets, saleratus, 66 ½ pounds of ham, two stone jars, and three brooms. He also purchased 1037 ¾ pounds of fresh beef from W. C. Horner for eight cents a pound.
When Captain Cady became Assistant Commissary of Subsistence, he found that most of the flour, including 70 barrels furnished by the contract of 1850, was unfit for issue. Cady observed that the flour had not been dried sufficiently when packed, and the barrels had not been seasoned, although perfectly good in all other respects. Pork had been packed in barrels that had lost part of their brine, which made the top layers, at least, unfit for issue. Captain Morrow, who had been ill some time before his death, had not been able to care for his stores, and Cady now found himself responsible for them. When spoilage occurred, the Commissary was required to separate and repack the good and submit the rest to a Board of Survey.
Often spoiled meat and flour were sold to neighboring Indians or to settlers, who otherwise had no means of obtaining needed staples. Empty barrels and containers were saved to be sold to settlers, emigrants, or contractors who had need of them. An interesting use of the lead linings of the "tea-caddies in the commissary" was related by Lowe, who wrote the linings were used to make the coffin of a dead major airtight.
The commissary property had to be accounted for also. A requisition from the Commissary at Fort Laramie in 1849 lists the following items as needed:
· One Platform Scale &Weights
· One Patent Counter Scales
· Two Prs. Tin Scales (one large)
· Two Sets Iron Weights
· Two Sets Tin Measures
· One Set Wooden Measures
· One Molasses Gate or Patent Spring Faucet
· Six Patent Faucets for Whiskey, Vinegar, etc.
· One Meat Ax
· One Meat Saw
· One Meat Cleaver
Although there were three platform scales on hand, one in the root house and two in the issue room, a later Commissary sent in a requisition for a fourth to use in the receiving storehouse. Due care had to be taken that the rations were issued in the correct amounts, so that supplies did not run short before a new consignment arrived and so the men did not complain of shortages at mealtime. The emphasis on proper weighing scales may be due also to the fact that the Commissary could have deductions from his salary, if the supplies were short.
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham.
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0.44936880469... | 4 | The Commissary Department was in charge of all food or subsistence supplies at a military post. At each post, the storehouses used by the Assistant Commissaries of Subsistence were provided by the Quartermaster Department, and the quality of protection varied from post to post. Many storage areas were old and dilapidated. Often supplies were stored in different buildings far from each other; roofs leaked, and rats got in to gnaw at the foodstuffs and other staples. Although aware of the problem, there was little a Commanding Officer or a Quartermaster could do to eliminate the situation, until funds were provided for new warehouses.
New storehouses were a source of pride to harried Commissaries, who could sleep at night assured their stores were secure. The Commissary at Fort Scott was fortunate, for as soon as the Quartermaster Storehouse was completed, he was assigned a large room on the first floor with a loft above and basement below. To ensure against theft, locks for the storerooms were ordered.
Army regulations provided that there would be one Assistant Commissary of Subsistence, with one clerk, at each post; but this position often was combined with that of the Assistant Quartermaster, so that one man acted as both. At Fort Scott, where the construction program was under full swing, the jobs were separate until 1846 when the positions were combined after many of the soldiers, including Captain Swords, left Fort Scott to serve in the Mexican War.
Subsistence supplies were divided into two parts: subsistence stores, consisting of rations, such as pork, flour, coffee, candles, etc., and commissary property, which was the necessary means of issuing and preserving these stores, such as stationary, scales, measures, tools, etc.
In the early nineteenth century, the component parts of rations consisted of: three-fourths of a pound of pork, or one pound and one-fourth of fresh beef, or one pound and one-fourth of salt beef, or twelve ounces of hard bread, or one and one-fourth pounds corn meal, and one gill of whiskey.
For every one hundred rations, the men were provided four pounds of soap, one pound and a half of candles, two quarts salt, four quarts vinegar, and twelve quarts peas or beans. The rations remained relatively unchanged until 1861, except for the addition of ten pounds of rice or hominy, ten pounds of green coffee, or, eight pounds of roasted (or roasted and ground) coffee, or, one pound and eight ounces tea, fifteen pounds of sugar, and pepper, potatoes, and molasses.
Whiskey remained a part of the men's rations during most of the Nineteenth Century, although attempts were made to eliminate it from the diet. At Fort Scott, Major Graham was happy to note that his men had signed a temperance pledge, and the barrels of whiskey on hand were returned to the Quartermaster Storehouse at St. Louis to be sold. The temperance movement, however, was never entirely successful.
Spoilage of items was common, and salt meats and flour had to be inspected before they could be accepted. Because different foodstuffs required different storage, the Commissary usually stored his spirituous beverages on the first or basement floor, salt port, beef and other supplies on the second, and the cereals on the third.
Apparently the Commissary at Fort Scott kept fairly large amounts of rations on hand, probably because of the uncertainty of delivery. In August 1844, Hoskins reported that he had not received the full shipment that had been contracted for with Turnham & Arthur; nevertheless he had on hand 663 gallons of vinegar, 58 ½ bushels of salt, 3600 pounds of soap, and 114 ½ bushels of beans. The Lieutenant voiced a complaint common on the frontier, when he wrote that the "balance of the articles delivered on the Contract being of a quality entirely inferior to that required by the Contract" had had to be rejected.
Some allowance for the quality of the items received was made because the heavy rains had washed out the roads preventing early delivery. Hoskins had received one lot of sugar and coffee from Major Lee, another contractor. Until a delivery of pork was made in September, bacon was issued to the men. The hot prairie sun made even the candles melt, and the contractor had supplied the post with candles "very nearly as soft as hog's Lard." To remedy the latter, Hoskins urged that 1000 pounds of good hard candles be delivered as soon as possible.
By 1846, it became difficult to obtain beef, the staple of the soldiers' diet. Cattle were scarce because General Kearny was buying beef for his expedition to Santa Fe. As traders from Missouri bought all the cattle they could find at exorbitant prices to take to Fort Leavenworth, the bids at Fort Scott came in either too high or from unreliable bidders. Prices rose from six cents to ten cents a pound. In May, the Commissary began issuing whole beef at a time to the troops, but this was objectionable because of the difficulty in preventing spoilage of such large amounts of meat. Officers were allowed to buy food from the Commissary and other items that were standard to the rations of the period, even though there was a Sutler at Fort Scott. Returns list purchases of flour, ham, beans, rice, coffee, sugar, vinegar, candles (both sperm and star), soap and salt. Any luxuries, however, could be obtained only at the Sutler's Store.
The Commissary, himself, also made a number of purchases from the post Sutler, H. T. Wilson, indicating some effort to provide variety in the diet. His purchases included corn meal, black pepper, two quarters of mutton, raisins, matches, butter, milk, three pounds of nails, three tin buckets, saleratus, 66 ½ pounds of ham, two stone jars, and three brooms. He also purchased 1037 ¾ pounds of fresh beef from W. C. Horner for eight cents a pound.
When Captain Cady became Assistant Commissary of Subsistence, he found that most of the flour, including 70 barrels furnished by the contract of 1850, was unfit for issue. Cady observed that the flour had not been dried sufficiently when packed, and the barrels had not been seasoned, although perfectly good in all other respects. Pork had been packed in barrels that had lost part of their brine, which made the top layers, at least, unfit for issue. Captain Morrow, who had been ill some time before his death, had not been able to care for his stores, and Cady now found himself responsible for them. When spoilage occurred, the Commissary was required to separate and repack the good and submit the rest to a Board of Survey.
Often spoiled meat and flour were sold to neighboring Indians or to settlers, who otherwise had no means of obtaining needed staples. Empty barrels and containers were saved to be sold to settlers, emigrants, or contractors who had need of them. An interesting use of the lead linings of the "tea-caddies in the commissary" was related by Lowe, who wrote the linings were used to make the coffin of a dead major airtight.
The commissary property had to be accounted for also. A requisition from the Commissary at Fort Laramie in 1849 lists the following items as needed:
· One Platform Scale &Weights
· One Patent Counter Scales
· Two Prs. Tin Scales (one large)
· Two Sets Iron Weights
· Two Sets Tin Measures
· One Set Wooden Measures
· One Molasses Gate or Patent Spring Faucet
· Six Patent Faucets for Whiskey, Vinegar, etc.
· One Meat Ax
· One Meat Saw
· One Meat Cleaver
Although there were three platform scales on hand, one in the root house and two in the issue room, a later Commissary sent in a requisition for a fourth to use in the receiving storehouse. Due care had to be taken that the rations were issued in the correct amounts, so that supplies did not run short before a new consignment arrived and so the men did not complain of shortages at mealtime. The emphasis on proper weighing scales may be due also to the fact that the Commissary could have deductions from his salary, if the supplies were short.
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham.
Last updated: July 29, 2016 | 1,832 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Francis Cabot Lowell
Lowell, Francis Cabot
Born April 7, 1775 (Newburyport, Massachusetts)
Died August 10, 1817 (Boston, Massachusetts)
Francis Cabot Lowell played a key role in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States in the early nineteenth century. He introduced highly advanced technology to New England's growing textile industry and devised new methods of managing workers and the production process. Lowell's textile factories produced on a much larger scale than anything the United States had seen prior to that period. Lowell also established one of the earliest forms of the modern-day corporation, which prospered long after his death and was a model for all American business.
"To obtain … funds, Lowell devised a plan that would allow him to sell shares in the mill to others and organize his business in a joint-stock arrangement…. This flexible plan … is the foundation upon which present-day corporations are based."
Albert Barnor and Lynn Elaine Brown.
Early work in the shipping industry
Lowell was a member of a large aristocratic New England family. He grew up in Newburyport, Massachusetts, and was the son of prominent judge John Lowell (1743–1802) and Susanna Cabot (1754–1777), the daughter of an immensely wealthy shipping family. Francis enrolled at Harvard University in 1789, where he excelled in mathematics. When he graduated in 1793, he began working in a Cabot family trading firm as a partner. He was a successful businessman well on his way to becoming wealthy when he married Hannah Jackson in 1798. His wife's family provided Lowell with more connections to the shipping business. By 1810 he was a major merchant in his own right, and he traded with companies in Europe, Canada, India, and China.
Lowell got into the shipping business at a very dangerous, though profitable, time, when major conflicts were occurring in Europe, mainly between England and France. The English were trying to stop foreign trade with France, while the French were denying the English access to other European ports. As the tensions grew worse, England announced its intention to seize goods carried in neutral ships that were intended for French ports—a not-very-subtle threat to American merchants. In 1807 an English warship seized an American ship and removed four sailors from it who they claimed had deserted from the English navy. Americans were outraged. That same year Congress passed an embargo, an act forbidding almost all foreign trade. The embargo was so damaging to the U.S. economy it was lifted in 1809, but trade with England and France was still forbidden. For New England traders like Lowell there were great profits to be made since the price of English textiles rose as the supply steadily decreased. On the other hand, the risks of the business were extreme, and many ships and their cargos were lost in the conflict. Lowell's business thrived, but the stress damaged his health. When his doctor recommended he take a trip overseas to regain his strength in 1810, he and his wife set out for England.
Studying textile technology in England
Lowell had thought of building a textile mill before making the trip to England, believing that New England could prosper if it replaced part of its cloth trade with its own manufacturing facilities. While visiting the industrial city of Manchester, England, Lowell used his position as a prominent Boston import-export merchant to gain access to the world's largest textile mills, which were normally closed to Americans out of a well-founded fear of industrial espionage (spying). Lowell was impressed by the technology he saw, particularly by an automated weaving machine called a power loom (a frame or machine used to weave thread or yarns into cloth). American technology could not even begin to compete with what he was seeing in the Manchester mills. However, it was illegal to bring the English looms, or even the plans for them, to the United States, as the English wanted no competition in their production of the finished cloth.
Lowell was determined to bring the power loom to the United States. While he was in Manchester he studied the looms in the mills, making sketches and drawings when he could and memorizing mechanical details. He returned to New England in 1812 with his sketches and a mission. He hired Paul Moody (1779–1831), a mechanic considered to be a genius by many of his peers. Lowell described what he had seen to Moody, giving him the sketches and explaining the mechanics he had observed. Under Lowell's direction Moody proceeded to build a power loom that was not only equal, but in many ways superior, to the English power loom. Using this machine it would be possible for the first time in the United States to carry out the full cotton manufacturing process in one building. Factory workers, called operators, could run machines to clean the raw cotton fibers, spin the fibers into threads, and then weave the threads into cloth. Other U.S. mills were already producing cotton textiles, but with his new technology Lowell expected to reduce costs enough to compete with English imports. To set up the factory he envisioned, though, would require a great deal of money, and even though he was wealthy, Lowell did not have the funds to accomplish such a large project.
An early corporation
Most English and American companies in the beginning of the nineteenth century were sole proprietorships or partnerships. A sole proprietorship was a company owned by an individual who had the authority to manage the company and was directly responsible for its debts and entitled to its profits. A partnership was a business created by a contract between two or more persons who managed the company jointly and shared its debts and profits. Although Lowell did not have the money to create his textile mill venture as a sole proprietorship, there were several problems with the idea of forming a partnership as well. To raise capital (accumulated wealth or goods devoted to the production of other goods) beyond the initial investment, all the participants had to agree to contribute or else new partners would have to be found, which could cause major holdups in the company's expansion. Another possible difficulty was that one partner could suddenly find himself responsible for the full debts of the company, rather than just his own share. Also, partnerships were not usually able to stay in business after the death of one of the partners. Lowell realized he needed a better plan and decided to organize his business as a joint-stock company. A joint-stock company is a group of people that organize a business and then sell shares of it as stock to investors. Those who purchase stock shares are entitled to part of the profits as well as part of the losses.
Francis Cabot Lowell was not alone in his attempt to create humane working conditions in the new U.S. textile factories. Moses Brown (1738–1838), often considered the first textile manufacturer in the country, was equally concerned with the conditions of life the new industry would provide for its workers. Brown was an unusual mix of industrialist and reformer with sharp insight into the problems facing industrial America.
Brown was born into a family of merchants in Providence, Rhode Island. His father died while he was very young, and he was raised and trained in business by his uncle, Obadiah Brown. The elder Brown's interests included not only the West Indies trade but also insurance, moneylending, and candle manufacturing. When Obadiah died in 1762, Moses and his three older brothers took over and greatly expanded their uncle's business. By the 1770s the Browns were one of the great mercantile families of New England.
In 1773 Moses Brown's first wife died. In his grief Brown withdrew from business for several years. He became a Quaker (a member of the Religious Society of Friends, a Christian group noted for its opposition to war, oath taking, and rituals) and began to take an active part in the antislavery movement in Rhode Island. He freed his own slaves, helped others to escape, and gave aid to freedmen of African descent. Brown's brothers were pro-slavery and they did not understand his new religion. It caused conflict in his family, but Brown was an independent thinker and stuck with his beliefs.
After the American Revolution (1775–83; the American colonists' fight for independence from England), Brown was convinced that the United States should become more economically independent from England. The early signs of American industry drew Brown back to the commercial world. He was particularly interested in the prospect of textile manufacturing in the United States. In 1789 he formed a company with his son-in-law, William Almy, to spin and weave cloth in Providence. After two years in business, they had been unable to obtain effective machinery. Brown investigated methods to spin thread and noted that English inventor Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) had developed a method using water power to run spinning frames and carding machines (machines that cleaned, untangled, and collected fibers). Around that time Samuel Slater (1768–1835), a mill overseer at the famed Arkwright Mills in England, arrived in the United States. Brown immediately invited him to his mill and asked him to re-create the Arkwright machinery. From memory, Slater built copies of the machinery he had known and used in England, producing the first water-powered cotton mill in the United States. Slater joined the company and soon Brown withdrew from the business world again. Although Slater is often credited with creating the first water-powered textile mills in the country, Brown's lesser-known part in the process was significant.
Brown's withdrawals from business were attempts to apply himself more fully to his religion. Eventually he seemed to successfully combine his instinct for business with his religious impulses. In 1770 he helped move Rhode Island College from Warren to Providence. It became Brown University, named to honor the great contributions of his family. Although to some degree he shared the Quaker suspicion that higher education weakened devotion to religion, he worked for decades to found a Friends' school. In 1819 the New England Yearly Meeting Boarding School became a reality, and in 1904 it was renamed the Moses Brown School.
Brown never lost interest in the Industrial Revolution, which was in its early stages in New England. He was highly curious about technology and often wondered how industry would treat its workers in the years to come. He knew that workers in England's textile industry suffered under miserable conditions, and he hoped that the U.S. textile industry might handle its workforce differently. In an impassioned report to Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1757–1804), he urged strong measures to protect the incomes and safety of laborers and to monitor child labor. He was, in a sense, asking for reforms to some conditions that had not yet occurred in the United States.
Lowell needed about $400,000 to build his mill and set it in operation. He organized a business, the Boston Manufacturing Company (also called the Boston Associates), and began to sell shares of it. He sold one hundred shares of the company stock at $1,000 per share, raising enough money to build the first textile factory. Then, with the power loom ready and the business company established, Lowell applied for a patent (a legal document issued by a government granting exclusive authority to an inventor to make, use, or sell an invention for a certain number of years) for his power loom. He purchased land along the Charles River in Waltham, Massachusetts. In 1814 the company erected buildings in Waltham and fitted them with looms and machines based on Lowell's model, all powered by water. By the end of 1814 the mills were operating.
One of the main elements in the successful operation of such a large business was keeping it well funded for expansion, and Lowell's joint-stock company did just that. He raised $300,000 for additional factories by selling more shares of company stock. According to economic education specialist Albert Barnor in his online article "Francis Cabot Lowell," this attracted investors: "If the company did well, they would receive dividends [a share of the profits] on the amount they had invested. If they liked how the company was performing, they could invest additional money. If they wanted to end their investment, they could sell their shares to others. They could also bequeath their shares in their wills." This type of corporation would be the business organization of the future, and Lowell was one of the first Americans to develop it.
The Lowell girls
Lowell was interested in all aspects of his new business. He had devoted a considerable amount of attention to the labor and management of his mills before they went into operation. He came up with an innovative labor program that he hoped would provide a humane alternative to the system of child labor that had long been in use in England. Lowell believed he had found an ideal workforce for his mills—the unmarried daughters of New England farm families. The "Lowell girls," as they were called, usually ranged in age from about sixteen to thirty. Most worked two or three years at the mill before returning home to marry and start a family. They were cheap labor, as they were willing to accept significantly lower wages than male workers, and they were quick, intelligent, and dedicated. New Englanders were not used to the idea of women living independently and working for wages. In order to convince farmers to allow their daughters to come to the mills, Lowell knew he would have to provide safety in the workplace and a socially acceptable living environment for the young women, with curfews, required church attendance, and chaperones (adult supervisors). He envisioned establishing the country's first planned industrial communities, and he set up rows of boardinghouses near the factories for the workers. Called the Lowell System, or the Waltham System, farm girls and young women who came to work at the textile factory were housed in the supervised dormitories or boardinghouses and were provided with educational and cultural opportunities.
Although Lowell would not live to see it, by 1831 women made up almost forty thousand of the fifty-eight thousand factory workers in the textile industry. His early death also prevented him from seeing the conflicts that arose between the workers and management in the Lowell mills. Though there was some resentment about the mills' paternalistic, or fatherly, treatment of its workers, initially many young women found working at the Lowell mills for a few years before marrying a great adventure. They worked very hard but found time to take advantage of educational opportunities in the growing city. By the 1840s, though, competition in the textile industry put pressure on the management to obtain more work from employees at less pay. The frustrated Lowell girls protested against long workdays and low wages, staging two major strikes. By 1848 mill managers had stopped following Lowell's ideal of creating a humane workplace. By then, most of the farmers' daughters had left the textile industry in disgust. They were replaced by recent immigrants who were in desperate need of work.
Despite Lowell's death, the company expands
The United States had finally gone to war with England over trade and territorial disputes in the War of 1812 (1812–15). This had made trade with England nearly impossible and created a huge demand for American-made cloth, but the war ended around the time the mill in Waltham finally opened. Suddenly inexpensive English textiles were available in the United States again, which posed a serious threat to Lowell's new business. Lowell went to Washington, D.C., where he helped to convince Congress to impose a tariff (a fee on imported goods) on imported cotton cloth to aid American manufacturers. His influence had beneficial results for his new and prospering business, but Lowell would not live to see the outcome. His health, which had been poor for some time, declined further. He died at the age of forty-two in 1817.
The Boston Manufacturing Company went on to build a complete factory town along the powerful Merrimack River in Massachusetts, naming it Lowell in his honor. The company built more mills along the Merrimack at Lawrence, Massachusetts, and Manchester, New Hampshire. Soon the largest waterwheel in the nation was built on the river and supplied power to a dozen large factories. A waterwheel was a wheel that rotated due to the force of moving water, and the rotation of the wheel was then used to power a factory or machine. By 1836 the Boston Manufacturing Company employed six thousand workers at the Lowell mills. By 1845 just one of Lowell's mills could produce in a week more cotton cloth than was produced in the entire country in the year of 1810. While numerous competitors followed Lowell's example in building factories along New England's rivers, the Lowell mills were for several decades the largest industrial enterprise in America in terms of profit, value of production, and number of employees. The city of Lowell had a population of about twenty thousand by 1848, and its mills produced fifty thousand miles of cotton cloth each year.
For More Information
Brogan, Hugh. The Penguin History of the USA. 2nd ed. London and New York: Penguin Books, 2001.
Hindle, Brooke, and Steven Lubar. Engines of Change: The American Industrial Revolution, 1790–1860. Washington DC and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986.
Rivard, Paul E. A New Order of Things: How the Textile Industry Transformed New England. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2002.
Barnor, Albert, with Lynn Elaine Browne. "Francis Cabot Lowell." Economic Adventure.org. http://www.economicadventure.org/decision/index.cfm (accessed on June 7, 2005).
"Francis Cabot Lowell: Consolidated Manufacturing." Who Made America? They Made America: PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/lowell_hi.html (accessed on July 7, 2005).
Lowell, Francis Cabot
LOWELL, FRANCIS CABOT
Francis Cabot Lowell (1775–1817) was a member of a large aristocratic New England family that came to dominate the business, political, and cultural life of Massachusetts. He was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, a year before the signing of the United States Constitution. Francis was a U.S. business pioneer who helped bring about in the United States what is now called the Industrial Revolution. By memorizing and bringing to the United States mechanical details of the English power loom used to make cotton fabric, Lowell created with his business partners the first U.S. textile factory. It was a revolutionary facility built in Waltham, Massachusetts. There the new water-powered loom technology was used with all the other processes of spinning and weaving cloth to enable the manufacture of finished cloth from raw cotton under one roof. It was known as the "Waltham-Lowell System."
Francis Lowell grew up in Newburyport, Massachusetts, the son of John Lowell, a prominent judge married to Susanna Cabot, the daughter of an immensely wealthy shipping family. Francis enrolled at Harvard University in 1789, where he excelled in mathematics. After graduating in 1793 he began to work in an import-export company owned by his uncle, William Cabot. Lowell traveled widely and sought to develop trade and business connections. He prospered in his work and, when his father died in 1802, Francis inherited one-third of his father's $80,000 estate, invested for the most part in eight commercial ships.
By 1810 Lowell was, according to most standards, a wealthy man. He was not in the best of health, however, and his wife's health was becoming problematic as well. They decided to travel to Edinburgh, Scotland to improve their health and to observe the power looms that were being used for producing cotton fabric in Manchester, England and other locations.
Lowell had thought of building a textile mill back in Massachusetts believing that New England would only prosper by supplementing its cloth trade with manufacturing facilities. When Lowell returned to Massachusetts in 1812 he was aware that the War of 1812 (1812–1814) would likely cripple his overseas commercial trading business, and so he became intensely active in developing a cloth industry locally, in Massachusetts. The power loom he saw in England was not available in the United States and it was illegal to export the looms for foreign use because the English wanted no competition in their production of power loom finished cloth.
Lowell was determined to bring the power loom to the United States. While he was in England he studied the looms, making sketches and drawings when he could, and memorized mechanical details. Back in Massachusetts, Lowell was able to create his own version of a working power loom with the help of a skilled mechanic, Paul Moody (1779–1831). In 1812 Francis Lowell and other businessmen established what they called the Boston Manufacturing Company. They incorporated it in 1813 and chartered to capitalize it at $400,000.
With the power loom ready, and the business company established, the loom was patented. Land was purchased by Lowell for the Boston Manufacturing Company along the Charles River at Waltham, Massachusetts, and later along the Merrimack River. In 1814 the company erected buildings on the land at Waltham and fitted them with looms and machines based on Lowell's model, powered by water. At the end of 1814 the mills became operational. They were soon recognized to be the world's first mills capable of converting raw cotton into finished fabric under one roof, revolutionizing the entire textile industry.
Lowell and his fellow entrepreneurs, a group of men who were later widely known as the "Boston Associates," transformed the country's textile industry. So great were the profits at Waltham that the Boston Associates soon looked for new sites throughout the state, and found them at East Chelmsford (later renamed Lowell, Massachusetts), at Chicopee, Manchester, and Lawrence. The "Waltham-Lowell System" of producing cotton fabric from raw cotton under one roof in a mill operation succeeded beyond all expectations. It gave the Boston Associates control over one-fifth of cotton fabric production in the United States by 1850. By expanding into other businesses related and unrelated to cotton production their empire expanded. The Lowell and the Boston Associates turned to philanthropy, establishing hospitals, schools, and universities.
Though he died at the early age of 42 in 1817, Francis Lowell clearly took a part of the young United States into the Industrial Revolution era. He pioneered work in mass textile manufacture, making cotton fabric domestically produced by a U.S. work force available to people in the United States at inexpensive prices.
Dublin, Thomas. Lowell: The Story of an Industrial City. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1992.
Eno, Arthur L., Jr., ed. Cotton Was King: A History of Lowell, Massachusetts. Somersworth, NH: New Hampshire Publishing Co., 1976.
Greenslet, Ferris. The Lowells and Their Seven Worlds. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Publications, 1946.
Francis Cabot Lowell
Francis Cabot Lowell
The American merchant and manufacturer Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) introduced the power loom and the integrated factory system to American cotton textile manufactures.
Francis Cabot Lowell was born in Newburyport, Mass., the son of John Lowell, a prominent lawyer, and Susanna Cabot, the daughter of a wealthy family of merchant shippers. Lowell earned a Harvard degree in 1793 and shortly afterward went to sea on family ships. His marriage in 1798 to Hannah Jackson joined him to two other substantial shipping families. By 1810 he was a major merchant in his own right; his trade encompassed Europe, Canada, India, and China.
In 1810 Lowell made an extended visit to England, where he was fascinated by the power loom, not yet available in America. Since it was illegal to export either models or designs, he studied the looms so thoroughly that with the help of a skilled mechanic, Paul Moody, he was able to have them reproduced from his memory and drawings on his return to Boston. The power loom was pivotal in the American attempt to compete in textile manufactures at a time when capital and technological superiority still belonged to the English.
The Boston Manufacturing Company was chartered in 1812 with an authorized capital of $400,000. Lowell, five brothers-in-law, and others in the mercantile community provided the large sums of capital necessary for what quickly became a major enterprise. In 1814 a mill was in operation at Waltham, Mass., which not only exploited the power loom but also, and for the first time, contained all of the processes of spinning and weaving cotton cloth under one roof. The Waltham mill was the parent of the famous mills at Lowell, Mass. Lowell was one of the first American company towns, characterized by a paternalism that has been both praised and damned.
Lowell was an active lobbyist for the protective tariff and in 1816 was influential in achieving the first American tariff that acknowledged an "infant industries" principle and provided a substantial duty on foreign cotton goods. Lowell died at the early age of 42, leaving a daughter and three sons, one of whom, Francis Cabot Lowell II, was to inherit his father's managerial abilities and a leading position in the expanding textile industry. After Lowell's death in 1817, the interrelated family firms produced textile machinery too.
Ferris Greenslet, The Lowells and Their Seven Worlds (1946), provides a popular account of several generations of the Lowell family. Kenneth Wiggins Porter, The Jacksons and the Lees (1937), contains both family and business history. A scholarly analysis of the textile interests Lowell helped to build is in George Sweet Gibb, The Saco-Lowell Shops (1950). Still important as a source is Nathan Appleton, Introduction of the Power Loom, and Origin of Lowell (1858). □ | <urn:uuid:57fea9f3-4236-45ab-9bdc-ea87a6c4e0b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/social-sciences-and-law/business-leaders/francis-cabot-lowell | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.981937 | 5,367 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.2270486... | 1 | Francis Cabot Lowell
Lowell, Francis Cabot
Born April 7, 1775 (Newburyport, Massachusetts)
Died August 10, 1817 (Boston, Massachusetts)
Francis Cabot Lowell played a key role in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States in the early nineteenth century. He introduced highly advanced technology to New England's growing textile industry and devised new methods of managing workers and the production process. Lowell's textile factories produced on a much larger scale than anything the United States had seen prior to that period. Lowell also established one of the earliest forms of the modern-day corporation, which prospered long after his death and was a model for all American business.
"To obtain … funds, Lowell devised a plan that would allow him to sell shares in the mill to others and organize his business in a joint-stock arrangement…. This flexible plan … is the foundation upon which present-day corporations are based."
Albert Barnor and Lynn Elaine Brown.
Early work in the shipping industry
Lowell was a member of a large aristocratic New England family. He grew up in Newburyport, Massachusetts, and was the son of prominent judge John Lowell (1743–1802) and Susanna Cabot (1754–1777), the daughter of an immensely wealthy shipping family. Francis enrolled at Harvard University in 1789, where he excelled in mathematics. When he graduated in 1793, he began working in a Cabot family trading firm as a partner. He was a successful businessman well on his way to becoming wealthy when he married Hannah Jackson in 1798. His wife's family provided Lowell with more connections to the shipping business. By 1810 he was a major merchant in his own right, and he traded with companies in Europe, Canada, India, and China.
Lowell got into the shipping business at a very dangerous, though profitable, time, when major conflicts were occurring in Europe, mainly between England and France. The English were trying to stop foreign trade with France, while the French were denying the English access to other European ports. As the tensions grew worse, England announced its intention to seize goods carried in neutral ships that were intended for French ports—a not-very-subtle threat to American merchants. In 1807 an English warship seized an American ship and removed four sailors from it who they claimed had deserted from the English navy. Americans were outraged. That same year Congress passed an embargo, an act forbidding almost all foreign trade. The embargo was so damaging to the U.S. economy it was lifted in 1809, but trade with England and France was still forbidden. For New England traders like Lowell there were great profits to be made since the price of English textiles rose as the supply steadily decreased. On the other hand, the risks of the business were extreme, and many ships and their cargos were lost in the conflict. Lowell's business thrived, but the stress damaged his health. When his doctor recommended he take a trip overseas to regain his strength in 1810, he and his wife set out for England.
Studying textile technology in England
Lowell had thought of building a textile mill before making the trip to England, believing that New England could prosper if it replaced part of its cloth trade with its own manufacturing facilities. While visiting the industrial city of Manchester, England, Lowell used his position as a prominent Boston import-export merchant to gain access to the world's largest textile mills, which were normally closed to Americans out of a well-founded fear of industrial espionage (spying). Lowell was impressed by the technology he saw, particularly by an automated weaving machine called a power loom (a frame or machine used to weave thread or yarns into cloth). American technology could not even begin to compete with what he was seeing in the Manchester mills. However, it was illegal to bring the English looms, or even the plans for them, to the United States, as the English wanted no competition in their production of the finished cloth.
Lowell was determined to bring the power loom to the United States. While he was in Manchester he studied the looms in the mills, making sketches and drawings when he could and memorizing mechanical details. He returned to New England in 1812 with his sketches and a mission. He hired Paul Moody (1779–1831), a mechanic considered to be a genius by many of his peers. Lowell described what he had seen to Moody, giving him the sketches and explaining the mechanics he had observed. Under Lowell's direction Moody proceeded to build a power loom that was not only equal, but in many ways superior, to the English power loom. Using this machine it would be possible for the first time in the United States to carry out the full cotton manufacturing process in one building. Factory workers, called operators, could run machines to clean the raw cotton fibers, spin the fibers into threads, and then weave the threads into cloth. Other U.S. mills were already producing cotton textiles, but with his new technology Lowell expected to reduce costs enough to compete with English imports. To set up the factory he envisioned, though, would require a great deal of money, and even though he was wealthy, Lowell did not have the funds to accomplish such a large project.
An early corporation
Most English and American companies in the beginning of the nineteenth century were sole proprietorships or partnerships. A sole proprietorship was a company owned by an individual who had the authority to manage the company and was directly responsible for its debts and entitled to its profits. A partnership was a business created by a contract between two or more persons who managed the company jointly and shared its debts and profits. Although Lowell did not have the money to create his textile mill venture as a sole proprietorship, there were several problems with the idea of forming a partnership as well. To raise capital (accumulated wealth or goods devoted to the production of other goods) beyond the initial investment, all the participants had to agree to contribute or else new partners would have to be found, which could cause major holdups in the company's expansion. Another possible difficulty was that one partner could suddenly find himself responsible for the full debts of the company, rather than just his own share. Also, partnerships were not usually able to stay in business after the death of one of the partners. Lowell realized he needed a better plan and decided to organize his business as a joint-stock company. A joint-stock company is a group of people that organize a business and then sell shares of it as stock to investors. Those who purchase stock shares are entitled to part of the profits as well as part of the losses.
Francis Cabot Lowell was not alone in his attempt to create humane working conditions in the new U.S. textile factories. Moses Brown (1738–1838), often considered the first textile manufacturer in the country, was equally concerned with the conditions of life the new industry would provide for its workers. Brown was an unusual mix of industrialist and reformer with sharp insight into the problems facing industrial America.
Brown was born into a family of merchants in Providence, Rhode Island. His father died while he was very young, and he was raised and trained in business by his uncle, Obadiah Brown. The elder Brown's interests included not only the West Indies trade but also insurance, moneylending, and candle manufacturing. When Obadiah died in 1762, Moses and his three older brothers took over and greatly expanded their uncle's business. By the 1770s the Browns were one of the great mercantile families of New England.
In 1773 Moses Brown's first wife died. In his grief Brown withdrew from business for several years. He became a Quaker (a member of the Religious Society of Friends, a Christian group noted for its opposition to war, oath taking, and rituals) and began to take an active part in the antislavery movement in Rhode Island. He freed his own slaves, helped others to escape, and gave aid to freedmen of African descent. Brown's brothers were pro-slavery and they did not understand his new religion. It caused conflict in his family, but Brown was an independent thinker and stuck with his beliefs.
After the American Revolution (1775–83; the American colonists' fight for independence from England), Brown was convinced that the United States should become more economically independent from England. The early signs of American industry drew Brown back to the commercial world. He was particularly interested in the prospect of textile manufacturing in the United States. In 1789 he formed a company with his son-in-law, William Almy, to spin and weave cloth in Providence. After two years in business, they had been unable to obtain effective machinery. Brown investigated methods to spin thread and noted that English inventor Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) had developed a method using water power to run spinning frames and carding machines (machines that cleaned, untangled, and collected fibers). Around that time Samuel Slater (1768–1835), a mill overseer at the famed Arkwright Mills in England, arrived in the United States. Brown immediately invited him to his mill and asked him to re-create the Arkwright machinery. From memory, Slater built copies of the machinery he had known and used in England, producing the first water-powered cotton mill in the United States. Slater joined the company and soon Brown withdrew from the business world again. Although Slater is often credited with creating the first water-powered textile mills in the country, Brown's lesser-known part in the process was significant.
Brown's withdrawals from business were attempts to apply himself more fully to his religion. Eventually he seemed to successfully combine his instinct for business with his religious impulses. In 1770 he helped move Rhode Island College from Warren to Providence. It became Brown University, named to honor the great contributions of his family. Although to some degree he shared the Quaker suspicion that higher education weakened devotion to religion, he worked for decades to found a Friends' school. In 1819 the New England Yearly Meeting Boarding School became a reality, and in 1904 it was renamed the Moses Brown School.
Brown never lost interest in the Industrial Revolution, which was in its early stages in New England. He was highly curious about technology and often wondered how industry would treat its workers in the years to come. He knew that workers in England's textile industry suffered under miserable conditions, and he hoped that the U.S. textile industry might handle its workforce differently. In an impassioned report to Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1757–1804), he urged strong measures to protect the incomes and safety of laborers and to monitor child labor. He was, in a sense, asking for reforms to some conditions that had not yet occurred in the United States.
Lowell needed about $400,000 to build his mill and set it in operation. He organized a business, the Boston Manufacturing Company (also called the Boston Associates), and began to sell shares of it. He sold one hundred shares of the company stock at $1,000 per share, raising enough money to build the first textile factory. Then, with the power loom ready and the business company established, Lowell applied for a patent (a legal document issued by a government granting exclusive authority to an inventor to make, use, or sell an invention for a certain number of years) for his power loom. He purchased land along the Charles River in Waltham, Massachusetts. In 1814 the company erected buildings in Waltham and fitted them with looms and machines based on Lowell's model, all powered by water. By the end of 1814 the mills were operating.
One of the main elements in the successful operation of such a large business was keeping it well funded for expansion, and Lowell's joint-stock company did just that. He raised $300,000 for additional factories by selling more shares of company stock. According to economic education specialist Albert Barnor in his online article "Francis Cabot Lowell," this attracted investors: "If the company did well, they would receive dividends [a share of the profits] on the amount they had invested. If they liked how the company was performing, they could invest additional money. If they wanted to end their investment, they could sell their shares to others. They could also bequeath their shares in their wills." This type of corporation would be the business organization of the future, and Lowell was one of the first Americans to develop it.
The Lowell girls
Lowell was interested in all aspects of his new business. He had devoted a considerable amount of attention to the labor and management of his mills before they went into operation. He came up with an innovative labor program that he hoped would provide a humane alternative to the system of child labor that had long been in use in England. Lowell believed he had found an ideal workforce for his mills—the unmarried daughters of New England farm families. The "Lowell girls," as they were called, usually ranged in age from about sixteen to thirty. Most worked two or three years at the mill before returning home to marry and start a family. They were cheap labor, as they were willing to accept significantly lower wages than male workers, and they were quick, intelligent, and dedicated. New Englanders were not used to the idea of women living independently and working for wages. In order to convince farmers to allow their daughters to come to the mills, Lowell knew he would have to provide safety in the workplace and a socially acceptable living environment for the young women, with curfews, required church attendance, and chaperones (adult supervisors). He envisioned establishing the country's first planned industrial communities, and he set up rows of boardinghouses near the factories for the workers. Called the Lowell System, or the Waltham System, farm girls and young women who came to work at the textile factory were housed in the supervised dormitories or boardinghouses and were provided with educational and cultural opportunities.
Although Lowell would not live to see it, by 1831 women made up almost forty thousand of the fifty-eight thousand factory workers in the textile industry. His early death also prevented him from seeing the conflicts that arose between the workers and management in the Lowell mills. Though there was some resentment about the mills' paternalistic, or fatherly, treatment of its workers, initially many young women found working at the Lowell mills for a few years before marrying a great adventure. They worked very hard but found time to take advantage of educational opportunities in the growing city. By the 1840s, though, competition in the textile industry put pressure on the management to obtain more work from employees at less pay. The frustrated Lowell girls protested against long workdays and low wages, staging two major strikes. By 1848 mill managers had stopped following Lowell's ideal of creating a humane workplace. By then, most of the farmers' daughters had left the textile industry in disgust. They were replaced by recent immigrants who were in desperate need of work.
Despite Lowell's death, the company expands
The United States had finally gone to war with England over trade and territorial disputes in the War of 1812 (1812–15). This had made trade with England nearly impossible and created a huge demand for American-made cloth, but the war ended around the time the mill in Waltham finally opened. Suddenly inexpensive English textiles were available in the United States again, which posed a serious threat to Lowell's new business. Lowell went to Washington, D.C., where he helped to convince Congress to impose a tariff (a fee on imported goods) on imported cotton cloth to aid American manufacturers. His influence had beneficial results for his new and prospering business, but Lowell would not live to see the outcome. His health, which had been poor for some time, declined further. He died at the age of forty-two in 1817.
The Boston Manufacturing Company went on to build a complete factory town along the powerful Merrimack River in Massachusetts, naming it Lowell in his honor. The company built more mills along the Merrimack at Lawrence, Massachusetts, and Manchester, New Hampshire. Soon the largest waterwheel in the nation was built on the river and supplied power to a dozen large factories. A waterwheel was a wheel that rotated due to the force of moving water, and the rotation of the wheel was then used to power a factory or machine. By 1836 the Boston Manufacturing Company employed six thousand workers at the Lowell mills. By 1845 just one of Lowell's mills could produce in a week more cotton cloth than was produced in the entire country in the year of 1810. While numerous competitors followed Lowell's example in building factories along New England's rivers, the Lowell mills were for several decades the largest industrial enterprise in America in terms of profit, value of production, and number of employees. The city of Lowell had a population of about twenty thousand by 1848, and its mills produced fifty thousand miles of cotton cloth each year.
For More Information
Brogan, Hugh. The Penguin History of the USA. 2nd ed. London and New York: Penguin Books, 2001.
Hindle, Brooke, and Steven Lubar. Engines of Change: The American Industrial Revolution, 1790–1860. Washington DC and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986.
Rivard, Paul E. A New Order of Things: How the Textile Industry Transformed New England. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2002.
Barnor, Albert, with Lynn Elaine Browne. "Francis Cabot Lowell." Economic Adventure.org. http://www.economicadventure.org/decision/index.cfm (accessed on June 7, 2005).
"Francis Cabot Lowell: Consolidated Manufacturing." Who Made America? They Made America: PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/lowell_hi.html (accessed on July 7, 2005).
Lowell, Francis Cabot
LOWELL, FRANCIS CABOT
Francis Cabot Lowell (1775–1817) was a member of a large aristocratic New England family that came to dominate the business, political, and cultural life of Massachusetts. He was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, a year before the signing of the United States Constitution. Francis was a U.S. business pioneer who helped bring about in the United States what is now called the Industrial Revolution. By memorizing and bringing to the United States mechanical details of the English power loom used to make cotton fabric, Lowell created with his business partners the first U.S. textile factory. It was a revolutionary facility built in Waltham, Massachusetts. There the new water-powered loom technology was used with all the other processes of spinning and weaving cloth to enable the manufacture of finished cloth from raw cotton under one roof. It was known as the "Waltham-Lowell System."
Francis Lowell grew up in Newburyport, Massachusetts, the son of John Lowell, a prominent judge married to Susanna Cabot, the daughter of an immensely wealthy shipping family. Francis enrolled at Harvard University in 1789, where he excelled in mathematics. After graduating in 1793 he began to work in an import-export company owned by his uncle, William Cabot. Lowell traveled widely and sought to develop trade and business connections. He prospered in his work and, when his father died in 1802, Francis inherited one-third of his father's $80,000 estate, invested for the most part in eight commercial ships.
By 1810 Lowell was, according to most standards, a wealthy man. He was not in the best of health, however, and his wife's health was becoming problematic as well. They decided to travel to Edinburgh, Scotland to improve their health and to observe the power looms that were being used for producing cotton fabric in Manchester, England and other locations.
Lowell had thought of building a textile mill back in Massachusetts believing that New England would only prosper by supplementing its cloth trade with manufacturing facilities. When Lowell returned to Massachusetts in 1812 he was aware that the War of 1812 (1812–1814) would likely cripple his overseas commercial trading business, and so he became intensely active in developing a cloth industry locally, in Massachusetts. The power loom he saw in England was not available in the United States and it was illegal to export the looms for foreign use because the English wanted no competition in their production of power loom finished cloth.
Lowell was determined to bring the power loom to the United States. While he was in England he studied the looms, making sketches and drawings when he could, and memorized mechanical details. Back in Massachusetts, Lowell was able to create his own version of a working power loom with the help of a skilled mechanic, Paul Moody (1779–1831). In 1812 Francis Lowell and other businessmen established what they called the Boston Manufacturing Company. They incorporated it in 1813 and chartered to capitalize it at $400,000.
With the power loom ready, and the business company established, the loom was patented. Land was purchased by Lowell for the Boston Manufacturing Company along the Charles River at Waltham, Massachusetts, and later along the Merrimack River. In 1814 the company erected buildings on the land at Waltham and fitted them with looms and machines based on Lowell's model, powered by water. At the end of 1814 the mills became operational. They were soon recognized to be the world's first mills capable of converting raw cotton into finished fabric under one roof, revolutionizing the entire textile industry.
Lowell and his fellow entrepreneurs, a group of men who were later widely known as the "Boston Associates," transformed the country's textile industry. So great were the profits at Waltham that the Boston Associates soon looked for new sites throughout the state, and found them at East Chelmsford (later renamed Lowell, Massachusetts), at Chicopee, Manchester, and Lawrence. The "Waltham-Lowell System" of producing cotton fabric from raw cotton under one roof in a mill operation succeeded beyond all expectations. It gave the Boston Associates control over one-fifth of cotton fabric production in the United States by 1850. By expanding into other businesses related and unrelated to cotton production their empire expanded. The Lowell and the Boston Associates turned to philanthropy, establishing hospitals, schools, and universities.
Though he died at the early age of 42 in 1817, Francis Lowell clearly took a part of the young United States into the Industrial Revolution era. He pioneered work in mass textile manufacture, making cotton fabric domestically produced by a U.S. work force available to people in the United States at inexpensive prices.
Dublin, Thomas. Lowell: The Story of an Industrial City. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1992.
Eno, Arthur L., Jr., ed. Cotton Was King: A History of Lowell, Massachusetts. Somersworth, NH: New Hampshire Publishing Co., 1976.
Greenslet, Ferris. The Lowells and Their Seven Worlds. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Publications, 1946.
Francis Cabot Lowell
Francis Cabot Lowell
The American merchant and manufacturer Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) introduced the power loom and the integrated factory system to American cotton textile manufactures.
Francis Cabot Lowell was born in Newburyport, Mass., the son of John Lowell, a prominent lawyer, and Susanna Cabot, the daughter of a wealthy family of merchant shippers. Lowell earned a Harvard degree in 1793 and shortly afterward went to sea on family ships. His marriage in 1798 to Hannah Jackson joined him to two other substantial shipping families. By 1810 he was a major merchant in his own right; his trade encompassed Europe, Canada, India, and China.
In 1810 Lowell made an extended visit to England, where he was fascinated by the power loom, not yet available in America. Since it was illegal to export either models or designs, he studied the looms so thoroughly that with the help of a skilled mechanic, Paul Moody, he was able to have them reproduced from his memory and drawings on his return to Boston. The power loom was pivotal in the American attempt to compete in textile manufactures at a time when capital and technological superiority still belonged to the English.
The Boston Manufacturing Company was chartered in 1812 with an authorized capital of $400,000. Lowell, five brothers-in-law, and others in the mercantile community provided the large sums of capital necessary for what quickly became a major enterprise. In 1814 a mill was in operation at Waltham, Mass., which not only exploited the power loom but also, and for the first time, contained all of the processes of spinning and weaving cotton cloth under one roof. The Waltham mill was the parent of the famous mills at Lowell, Mass. Lowell was one of the first American company towns, characterized by a paternalism that has been both praised and damned.
Lowell was an active lobbyist for the protective tariff and in 1816 was influential in achieving the first American tariff that acknowledged an "infant industries" principle and provided a substantial duty on foreign cotton goods. Lowell died at the early age of 42, leaving a daughter and three sons, one of whom, Francis Cabot Lowell II, was to inherit his father's managerial abilities and a leading position in the expanding textile industry. After Lowell's death in 1817, the interrelated family firms produced textile machinery too.
Ferris Greenslet, The Lowells and Their Seven Worlds (1946), provides a popular account of several generations of the Lowell family. Kenneth Wiggins Porter, The Jacksons and the Lees (1937), contains both family and business history. A scholarly analysis of the textile interests Lowell helped to build is in George Sweet Gibb, The Saco-Lowell Shops (1950). Still important as a source is Nathan Appleton, Introduction of the Power Loom, and Origin of Lowell (1858). □ | 5,551 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Activities To Help Kids Focus – Do They Work – Yes They Do
Hello friends, welcome back to Azy Reading Journey website. As mentioned in the last post, Azy was off to a slow start and was still on the first DVD for Lesson 1. We are using the suggested weekly viewing schedule of the reading program. He is still on the same DVD, and that’s ok. He will be there for a while because we need to find some ways to help him stay focus while he is learning. Do you know of any activities to help kids focus?
Activities To Encourage Focus
I am aware of some activities that might help with improving his focus and I mentioned some before. Now we need to make a list and start putting things into place. I believe that the following are important:
- A reading schedule
- A steady routine
- A designated area
- A distraction free atmosphere
- Reading time frame
A Reading Schedule
I believe a reading schedule is very important because you would know exactly what to do and not have to be concerned about creating one. If there is a schedule to follow, using it will make teaching and learning easier. Eventually, it will make the reading process go smoother. However, there might be times when you might need to make some adjustments to the schedule to fit into an area of interest.
For example, if the reading program is being used to help older kids who may need help in a particular area. In this situation, the older kids might not need the alphabet, but they might need the flashcards, phonics books and some of the printable worksheets.
A steady Routine
When Azy is at daycare he is required to listen to his teachers, sit and participate in the activities that are being presented. He has a steady routine there; he eats at certain time and takes nap at a certain. Now we have to gently guide him into a steady reading routine at home to help him settle down. We have to try to start teaching him at the same time every day.
As time goes by, he will become aware that at this time I should be on the computer doing my lessons. Once a steady routine is in place, we have to do our best to stick to it. There might be times when we are not at home at the time we should be teaching him. However, we can do it after we get home or continue as normal the next day. A missed day should not disrupt the routine too much.
A Designated Area
At this time, Azy is sitting at the dining table. He will be getting his table and chair later on. He is comfortable where he is now, or maybe he is too comfortable because he wants to lay down on the chair or on your lap. His chair will be small, so he will have to sit.
After Azy watched the DVD for a while he wanted to go on the carpet to do the flashcards and the phonics book. He wanted to lay the cards out and then take them up. We are allowing him to do so now but as we continue working on the activities to help kids focus, he will be sitting at the table to complete the lessons.
A Distraction Free Atmosphere
I believe that this is a must have. There is usually no noise when we are teaching Azy because the DVD is playing so it would be chaotic to have other noise going on at the same time. However, even thought the place is quiet and only the DVD is playing, at times, Azy is looking around while following along with DVD.
The reading program was purchased almost a month ago, but we are now looking to set things up to get Azy rolling. He has been listening to the same DVD for some time. In addition, he is accustomed to repeating the alphabet at daycare. So, it is easy for him to follow along. In sitting with Azy, I noticed that he needs help to identify the letters.
Reading Time Frame
Azy is still in the playing mood and his attention span is very short right now. However, he did make some progress, yaay. The first two days he watched the DVD for 10 minutes and then started to get restless, so we ended the lesson. On the third day he watched the DVD for 15 minutes because he wanted to use the phonics book. So, he catching on, and will continue to move along nicely.
He is also going along with the phonics part of the DVD when the rhyming words are being said. He likes “Zat the Bat, and he goes on further with the sentences. Azy is making up his own melody and dancing when he is doing the lessons, so I take that as a sign that he is enjoying the learning materials. He is making learning fun. So, if that works and helps him to spend a longer time watching the DVD, that would be great.
Putting Things In Place
Based on how the program is set up, seven days should be spent on each lesson. So, Azy should have spent seven days on the DVD that he is currently on, then moved on to lesson 2. In addition to the DVD, there are five phonics books for lesson 1, plus the flashcards and printable work sheets. So, he has a lot of learning to do.
However, since we are just working on putting things into place to actually start teaching him, he will continue watching the first DVD until it is time for him to move on. Once he settles down to the point where he can go through lesson 1 with little or no distractions, he should be ready to move on to lesson 2.
I believe that once he gets a good understanding of the materials in lesson 1, it will be smooth sailing from there on. I also believe that the activities to help kids focus will work well for Azy.
Thank you for taking the time to read about Azy’s reading journey. Please leave a comment and let me know what you think, and if you know of any activities to help kids focus.
Thanks for the visit.
More to come. | <urn:uuid:86a95fd3-d5b4-4a98-9bdf-a99d74262046> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://azyreadingjourney.com/activities-to-help-kids-focus-do-they-work-yes-they-do/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.980225 | 1,258 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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Hello friends, welcome back to Azy Reading Journey website. As mentioned in the last post, Azy was off to a slow start and was still on the first DVD for Lesson 1. We are using the suggested weekly viewing schedule of the reading program. He is still on the same DVD, and that’s ok. He will be there for a while because we need to find some ways to help him stay focus while he is learning. Do you know of any activities to help kids focus?
Activities To Encourage Focus
I am aware of some activities that might help with improving his focus and I mentioned some before. Now we need to make a list and start putting things into place. I believe that the following are important:
- A reading schedule
- A steady routine
- A designated area
- A distraction free atmosphere
- Reading time frame
A Reading Schedule
I believe a reading schedule is very important because you would know exactly what to do and not have to be concerned about creating one. If there is a schedule to follow, using it will make teaching and learning easier. Eventually, it will make the reading process go smoother. However, there might be times when you might need to make some adjustments to the schedule to fit into an area of interest.
For example, if the reading program is being used to help older kids who may need help in a particular area. In this situation, the older kids might not need the alphabet, but they might need the flashcards, phonics books and some of the printable worksheets.
A steady Routine
When Azy is at daycare he is required to listen to his teachers, sit and participate in the activities that are being presented. He has a steady routine there; he eats at certain time and takes nap at a certain. Now we have to gently guide him into a steady reading routine at home to help him settle down. We have to try to start teaching him at the same time every day.
As time goes by, he will become aware that at this time I should be on the computer doing my lessons. Once a steady routine is in place, we have to do our best to stick to it. There might be times when we are not at home at the time we should be teaching him. However, we can do it after we get home or continue as normal the next day. A missed day should not disrupt the routine too much.
A Designated Area
At this time, Azy is sitting at the dining table. He will be getting his table and chair later on. He is comfortable where he is now, or maybe he is too comfortable because he wants to lay down on the chair or on your lap. His chair will be small, so he will have to sit.
After Azy watched the DVD for a while he wanted to go on the carpet to do the flashcards and the phonics book. He wanted to lay the cards out and then take them up. We are allowing him to do so now but as we continue working on the activities to help kids focus, he will be sitting at the table to complete the lessons.
A Distraction Free Atmosphere
I believe that this is a must have. There is usually no noise when we are teaching Azy because the DVD is playing so it would be chaotic to have other noise going on at the same time. However, even thought the place is quiet and only the DVD is playing, at times, Azy is looking around while following along with DVD.
The reading program was purchased almost a month ago, but we are now looking to set things up to get Azy rolling. He has been listening to the same DVD for some time. In addition, he is accustomed to repeating the alphabet at daycare. So, it is easy for him to follow along. In sitting with Azy, I noticed that he needs help to identify the letters.
Reading Time Frame
Azy is still in the playing mood and his attention span is very short right now. However, he did make some progress, yaay. The first two days he watched the DVD for 10 minutes and then started to get restless, so we ended the lesson. On the third day he watched the DVD for 15 minutes because he wanted to use the phonics book. So, he catching on, and will continue to move along nicely.
He is also going along with the phonics part of the DVD when the rhyming words are being said. He likes “Zat the Bat, and he goes on further with the sentences. Azy is making up his own melody and dancing when he is doing the lessons, so I take that as a sign that he is enjoying the learning materials. He is making learning fun. So, if that works and helps him to spend a longer time watching the DVD, that would be great.
Putting Things In Place
Based on how the program is set up, seven days should be spent on each lesson. So, Azy should have spent seven days on the DVD that he is currently on, then moved on to lesson 2. In addition to the DVD, there are five phonics books for lesson 1, plus the flashcards and printable work sheets. So, he has a lot of learning to do.
However, since we are just working on putting things into place to actually start teaching him, he will continue watching the first DVD until it is time for him to move on. Once he settles down to the point where he can go through lesson 1 with little or no distractions, he should be ready to move on to lesson 2.
I believe that once he gets a good understanding of the materials in lesson 1, it will be smooth sailing from there on. I also believe that the activities to help kids focus will work well for Azy.
Thank you for taking the time to read about Azy’s reading journey. Please leave a comment and let me know what you think, and if you know of any activities to help kids focus.
Thanks for the visit.
More to come. | 1,237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War (1700–1721), was a war fought between Sweden and the coalition of Russia, Saxony, Poland, and Denmark-Norway. In 1715 Prussia and Hannover joined the war against Sweden. The King of Hannover was also King George II of Great Britain.
After the coalition attacked them, Sweden invaded Russia in 1709 which was not a good idea. The Russian Army retreated so the Swedish Army had to chase them. When winter came it was the coldest winter that Europe had had in a hundred years and half of the Swedish soldiers died in the cold. Eventually the Swedish army caught up to the Russian army and they had a battle, called the battle of Poltava. Russia won the battle but most of the Swedish soldiers, including king Charles XII of Sweden, escaped and went to the Ottoman Empire. Peter didn't like this so he declard war on the Ottoman Empire. He lost and had to give the town of Azov back to the Ottomans.
Charles XII left the Ottoman Empire in 1714 and went to Stralsund in Pomerania which was owned by Sweden at the time but was under siege. Charles escaped back to Sweden just before the people in Stralsund surrendered. Then he invaded Norway (which was owned by Denmark at the time.) and was shot and killed there. With their king gone, the Swedish soldiers left Norway and went back to Sweden. On the way back many soldiers died.
When all that was happening Russia had been invading Sweden. Russia conquered Estonia, Livonia and Ingria. By the time the remaining soldiers had come back from Norway, Russia had completely conquered Finland. Sweden still didn't want peace though, because they would have to give lots of land to Russia. Russia used a newly made fleet of ships to attack and raid the Swedish Coast and Sweden would still not give up. Eventually the Russian and Swedish ships came together in the Battle of Grengam. Both sides thought they had won the battle so no treaty was signed until the Russians continued using their boats to damage the Swedish coast. Finally Sweden gave up in 1721. Sweden had made peace with Denmark in 1720 and in 1721 Sweden signed the treaty of Nystad.
In the Treaty of Nystad Sweden had to give land to other countries. Sweden had to give Estonia, Livonia and Ingria to Russia but could keep Finland. Sweden also signed other treaties. These were the treaty of Stockholm where Sweden gave Prussia Swedish Pomerania and the treaty of Fredericksborg where Sweden had to pay Denmark-Norway money for the damage the war had done.
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0.5060663819... | 1 | Great Northern War
The Great Northern War (1700–1721), was a war fought between Sweden and the coalition of Russia, Saxony, Poland, and Denmark-Norway. In 1715 Prussia and Hannover joined the war against Sweden. The King of Hannover was also King George II of Great Britain.
After the coalition attacked them, Sweden invaded Russia in 1709 which was not a good idea. The Russian Army retreated so the Swedish Army had to chase them. When winter came it was the coldest winter that Europe had had in a hundred years and half of the Swedish soldiers died in the cold. Eventually the Swedish army caught up to the Russian army and they had a battle, called the battle of Poltava. Russia won the battle but most of the Swedish soldiers, including king Charles XII of Sweden, escaped and went to the Ottoman Empire. Peter didn't like this so he declard war on the Ottoman Empire. He lost and had to give the town of Azov back to the Ottomans.
Charles XII left the Ottoman Empire in 1714 and went to Stralsund in Pomerania which was owned by Sweden at the time but was under siege. Charles escaped back to Sweden just before the people in Stralsund surrendered. Then he invaded Norway (which was owned by Denmark at the time.) and was shot and killed there. With their king gone, the Swedish soldiers left Norway and went back to Sweden. On the way back many soldiers died.
When all that was happening Russia had been invading Sweden. Russia conquered Estonia, Livonia and Ingria. By the time the remaining soldiers had come back from Norway, Russia had completely conquered Finland. Sweden still didn't want peace though, because they would have to give lots of land to Russia. Russia used a newly made fleet of ships to attack and raid the Swedish Coast and Sweden would still not give up. Eventually the Russian and Swedish ships came together in the Battle of Grengam. Both sides thought they had won the battle so no treaty was signed until the Russians continued using their boats to damage the Swedish coast. Finally Sweden gave up in 1721. Sweden had made peace with Denmark in 1720 and in 1721 Sweden signed the treaty of Nystad.
In the Treaty of Nystad Sweden had to give land to other countries. Sweden had to give Estonia, Livonia and Ingria to Russia but could keep Finland. Sweden also signed other treaties. These were the treaty of Stockholm where Sweden gave Prussia Swedish Pomerania and the treaty of Fredericksborg where Sweden had to pay Denmark-Norway money for the damage the war had done.
This war was significant because it allowed Russia to become the dominant power in Northeastern Europe, instead of Sweden. | 579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The election of 1844 was notable in that the incumbent Whig President, John Tyler, who ascended to the Presidency when President William Henry Harrison died one month after his inauguration, was not nominated by his party to seek a second term as President. Tyler’s focus on the annexation of Texas as a slave state set the themes for the 1844 presidential election and also led to James K. Polk becoming the Democratic President.
The Candidates and the Presidential Election
Tyler became the first Vice President to succeed to the Presidency in our nation’s history and, because of the very short duration of Harrison’s tenure, was the longest serving President in United States history who was not elected to the White House. The Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution eventually codified the protocol under which Tyler took office after Harrison’s death.
Tyler was a strict constructionist of the Constitution, vetoing many bills passed by the Whig-controlled Congress and believing much of the Whig platform and positions unconstitutional. The Whigs derisively referred to Tyler as “His Accidency” and, based on his conduct and differences with the party, expelled Tyler from the Whig Party. Tyler focused on the annexation of Texas his last two years in office. Tyler originally wished to be elected President to serve a full elected term, but with the loss of support of the Whigs as well as the Democrats, he withdrew from the race in August 1844 after being assured that annexation of Texas would be completed under a James Polk administration.
The 1844 Democratic nominating convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland. The main question for the attendees was the issue of Texas annexation. Former President Martin Van Buren was the leading candidate for nomination entering the convention. However, his opposition to immediate annexation due to concerns about sectional crises that might result from such a movement led the convention to consider other candidates and Van Buren did not receive enough votes to secure the nomination. After a number of ballots, Massachusetts delegate George Bancroft proposed that former Speaker of the House James K. Polk be the nominee. Polk was the first “dark horse” candidate for President and eventually received unanimous support of the Democratic Party delegates.
The Whig Party also held its nominating convention in Baltimore, Maryland. Unlike the Democratic nominating convention, there was little doubt who would be the Whig nominee–Henry Clay, who had led the Whig Party since its inception in 1834. Clay’s task was to calm the concerns of Northern Whigs, who feared annexation of Texas would create an “Empire of Slavery,” while also calming those of Southern Whigs, who feared annexation would increase the price of slaves leading to property price declines in their states. On April 17, 1844, Clay, a slaveholder, wrote the “Raleigh Letter” to his fellow Southern slaveholders, in which he strongly denounced the Tyler annexation bill. Clay was concerned that annexation might lead to war with Mexico and also assured the Whigs he would not annex Texas if it would cause any sectional crisis. The Whigs rallied around a platform of no acquisition by the United States of another slave state. The platform hurt Southern Whigs in their efforts during the 1844 election.
James Birney, an abolitionist, also ran for President in 1844 as the anti-slavery Liberty Party candidate. Birney published a weekly abolitionist newspaper, The Philanthropist, and had been the Liberty Party candidate for President in 1840. Joseph Smith, founder of the Church of Latter Day Saints, was also a candidate for President as an independent until his murder in a Carthage, Illinois jail on June 27, 1844.
Polk committed to following through on the annexation of Texas that began with Tyler. Polk’s plans for westward expansion, what came to be known as “Manifest Destiny,” was a powerful message in a presidential election in contrast to Clay’s balancing of interests and timidity concerning westward expansion. “Manifest Destiny” also shifted the focus away from the spread of slavery and onto general expansion of our nation. Despite the widely different views on westward expansion and the annexation of Texas, the presidential election was an extremely close one, with Clay winning the Northeast and border South, while Polk won in the Southern States. Polk received 49.5% of the popular vote and 170 of the 275 Electoral College votes. Clay received 48.1% of the popular vote and 105 Electoral College votes. Clay’s position against annexation of Texas likely cost him close races in New York and Michigan as well as the Presidency.
Texas declared its independence from the Republic of Mexico in 1836. A large majority of Texans favored annexation by the United States, but both Whig and Democrat leaders were reluctant to bring Texas into the difficult political climate surrounding the question of slavery. As noted above, President Tyler decided to pursue annexation in an attempt to solidify his popularity leading to the 1844 election. After negotiations with Sam Houston, President of the Texas Republic, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. Details of the treaty leaked and led to the selection of Polk as the Democratic nominee. In June 1844, the Whig-led Senate overwhelmingly rejected the treaty.
Post-election, Tyler advocated that Congress use the Constitutional provisions for adding a state by joint resolution rather than by treaty. The lame duck Congress passed the joint resolution in February 1845 and lame duck President Tyler signed the bill into law on March 1, 1845, three days before the end of his term. Tyler had assured Congress he would sign the joint bill but that would leave implementation to Polk. On March 3, 1845, Tyler reneged on his promises, dispatching via courier an immediate offer to the Republic of Texas for annexation. When Polk became President the next day, he had the option of recalling the dispatch, but decided not to do so for practical reasons. Texas accepted the annexation terms on December 29, 1845, becoming the 28th state.
As Clay had feared, Mexico did not accept the annexation lightly and while it did not follow through on its threats to wage war against the United States if annexation of Texas occurred, Mexico did continue to dispute the border with Texas. In November 1845, Polk sent John Sidell to Mexico to negotiate the border and to acquire additional territory. When the mission failed, the United States declared war on Mexico.
The annexation of Texas raised already heightened tensions around the question of slavery and was the featured issue of the 1844 presidential election. Tyler’s hopes for an elected term were crushed by his annexation plans and Polk rode his strong views on westward expansion to the White House. Polk followed through on his promise to serve only one term, having fulfilled his goals, including westward expansion (in addition to the Texas annexation completed in his term, he also oversaw acquisition of the non-slave Oregon Territory, the territory that became New Mexico, California, and other western states). Less than sixteen years after the annexation of Texas was completed, the slavery question would lead the nation to division and the Civil War.
Dan Cotter is a Partner at Butler Rubin Saltarelli & Boyd LLP and an Adjunct Professor at The John Marshall Law School, where he teaches SCOTUS Judicial Biographies. He is also Immediate Past President of The Chicago Bar Association. The article contains his opinions and is not to be attributed to Butler Rubin or any of its clients, The Chicago Bar Association, or John Marshall. | <urn:uuid:fc571616-4bf9-4ef5-9256-02c322c5a5f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://constitutingamerica.org/1844-james-k-polk-defeats-henry-clay-james-birney-texas-annexation-as-it-related-to-the-issue-of-slavery-guest-essayist-daniel-a-cotter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.98185 | 1,536 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.410642594099044... | 11 | The election of 1844 was notable in that the incumbent Whig President, John Tyler, who ascended to the Presidency when President William Henry Harrison died one month after his inauguration, was not nominated by his party to seek a second term as President. Tyler’s focus on the annexation of Texas as a slave state set the themes for the 1844 presidential election and also led to James K. Polk becoming the Democratic President.
The Candidates and the Presidential Election
Tyler became the first Vice President to succeed to the Presidency in our nation’s history and, because of the very short duration of Harrison’s tenure, was the longest serving President in United States history who was not elected to the White House. The Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution eventually codified the protocol under which Tyler took office after Harrison’s death.
Tyler was a strict constructionist of the Constitution, vetoing many bills passed by the Whig-controlled Congress and believing much of the Whig platform and positions unconstitutional. The Whigs derisively referred to Tyler as “His Accidency” and, based on his conduct and differences with the party, expelled Tyler from the Whig Party. Tyler focused on the annexation of Texas his last two years in office. Tyler originally wished to be elected President to serve a full elected term, but with the loss of support of the Whigs as well as the Democrats, he withdrew from the race in August 1844 after being assured that annexation of Texas would be completed under a James Polk administration.
The 1844 Democratic nominating convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland. The main question for the attendees was the issue of Texas annexation. Former President Martin Van Buren was the leading candidate for nomination entering the convention. However, his opposition to immediate annexation due to concerns about sectional crises that might result from such a movement led the convention to consider other candidates and Van Buren did not receive enough votes to secure the nomination. After a number of ballots, Massachusetts delegate George Bancroft proposed that former Speaker of the House James K. Polk be the nominee. Polk was the first “dark horse” candidate for President and eventually received unanimous support of the Democratic Party delegates.
The Whig Party also held its nominating convention in Baltimore, Maryland. Unlike the Democratic nominating convention, there was little doubt who would be the Whig nominee–Henry Clay, who had led the Whig Party since its inception in 1834. Clay’s task was to calm the concerns of Northern Whigs, who feared annexation of Texas would create an “Empire of Slavery,” while also calming those of Southern Whigs, who feared annexation would increase the price of slaves leading to property price declines in their states. On April 17, 1844, Clay, a slaveholder, wrote the “Raleigh Letter” to his fellow Southern slaveholders, in which he strongly denounced the Tyler annexation bill. Clay was concerned that annexation might lead to war with Mexico and also assured the Whigs he would not annex Texas if it would cause any sectional crisis. The Whigs rallied around a platform of no acquisition by the United States of another slave state. The platform hurt Southern Whigs in their efforts during the 1844 election.
James Birney, an abolitionist, also ran for President in 1844 as the anti-slavery Liberty Party candidate. Birney published a weekly abolitionist newspaper, The Philanthropist, and had been the Liberty Party candidate for President in 1840. Joseph Smith, founder of the Church of Latter Day Saints, was also a candidate for President as an independent until his murder in a Carthage, Illinois jail on June 27, 1844.
Polk committed to following through on the annexation of Texas that began with Tyler. Polk’s plans for westward expansion, what came to be known as “Manifest Destiny,” was a powerful message in a presidential election in contrast to Clay’s balancing of interests and timidity concerning westward expansion. “Manifest Destiny” also shifted the focus away from the spread of slavery and onto general expansion of our nation. Despite the widely different views on westward expansion and the annexation of Texas, the presidential election was an extremely close one, with Clay winning the Northeast and border South, while Polk won in the Southern States. Polk received 49.5% of the popular vote and 170 of the 275 Electoral College votes. Clay received 48.1% of the popular vote and 105 Electoral College votes. Clay’s position against annexation of Texas likely cost him close races in New York and Michigan as well as the Presidency.
Texas declared its independence from the Republic of Mexico in 1836. A large majority of Texans favored annexation by the United States, but both Whig and Democrat leaders were reluctant to bring Texas into the difficult political climate surrounding the question of slavery. As noted above, President Tyler decided to pursue annexation in an attempt to solidify his popularity leading to the 1844 election. After negotiations with Sam Houston, President of the Texas Republic, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. Details of the treaty leaked and led to the selection of Polk as the Democratic nominee. In June 1844, the Whig-led Senate overwhelmingly rejected the treaty.
Post-election, Tyler advocated that Congress use the Constitutional provisions for adding a state by joint resolution rather than by treaty. The lame duck Congress passed the joint resolution in February 1845 and lame duck President Tyler signed the bill into law on March 1, 1845, three days before the end of his term. Tyler had assured Congress he would sign the joint bill but that would leave implementation to Polk. On March 3, 1845, Tyler reneged on his promises, dispatching via courier an immediate offer to the Republic of Texas for annexation. When Polk became President the next day, he had the option of recalling the dispatch, but decided not to do so for practical reasons. Texas accepted the annexation terms on December 29, 1845, becoming the 28th state.
As Clay had feared, Mexico did not accept the annexation lightly and while it did not follow through on its threats to wage war against the United States if annexation of Texas occurred, Mexico did continue to dispute the border with Texas. In November 1845, Polk sent John Sidell to Mexico to negotiate the border and to acquire additional territory. When the mission failed, the United States declared war on Mexico.
The annexation of Texas raised already heightened tensions around the question of slavery and was the featured issue of the 1844 presidential election. Tyler’s hopes for an elected term were crushed by his annexation plans and Polk rode his strong views on westward expansion to the White House. Polk followed through on his promise to serve only one term, having fulfilled his goals, including westward expansion (in addition to the Texas annexation completed in his term, he also oversaw acquisition of the non-slave Oregon Territory, the territory that became New Mexico, California, and other western states). Less than sixteen years after the annexation of Texas was completed, the slavery question would lead the nation to division and the Civil War.
Dan Cotter is a Partner at Butler Rubin Saltarelli & Boyd LLP and an Adjunct Professor at The John Marshall Law School, where he teaches SCOTUS Judicial Biographies. He is also Immediate Past President of The Chicago Bar Association. The article contains his opinions and is not to be attributed to Butler Rubin or any of its clients, The Chicago Bar Association, or John Marshall. | 1,608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
March 24, 2011
Although Howling Wolf’s drawing is seen as naively executed by the standards of Western art, why do we conclude that his record of the treaty signing event is more honest than the illustration rendered by the other artist? In the presentation of the Howling Wolf’s Treaty Signing at Medicine Creek Lodge the drawing by Howling Wolf had the “Medicine Lodge Creek” whereas the John Taylor’s drawing didn’t. The Howling Wolf drawing had distinctly had native women in his drawing, and the native women were also were betrayed in the drawing with their backs turn from the others as they focused on the signing. The women’s hair was braided with red paint in the middle of their hair to show they were taken, or married. In the Taylor’s drawing has only protruded one woman in the picture who was known as Mrs. Margaret Adams an interpreter for the Arapaho. Howling wolf’s drawing of the women was full bodied and he carefully placed the figures in ink. I think Howling Wolf’s drawing is more honest because it came from him, and also witness the treaty. If other artist is going to draw other artist drawings they should betray all the people in the drawing in there drawing so it would be real and not fake.
Why did the White artist ignore the many native women who were present at the treaty signing? Do you think this omission was deliberate or unintentional due to cultural bias?
The white artist ignored the women present at the treaty signing because the native women played an important big roll inside their culture. The painting included the native women in ceremonial garments, and their backs against the other people in the audience. The whites didn’t want to draw attention to the importance the women played in the treaty signing. When the treaty was signed the Plain tribe’s children had to go to school to learn how to speak English and I think the white artist did it deliberately...
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Although Howling Wolf’s drawing is seen as naively executed by the standards of Western art, why do we conclude that his record of the treaty signing event is more honest than the illustration rendered by the other artist? In the presentation of the Howling Wolf’s Treaty Signing at Medicine Creek Lodge the drawing by Howling Wolf had the “Medicine Lodge Creek” whereas the John Taylor’s drawing didn’t. The Howling Wolf drawing had distinctly had native women in his drawing, and the native women were also were betrayed in the drawing with their backs turn from the others as they focused on the signing. The women’s hair was braided with red paint in the middle of their hair to show they were taken, or married. In the Taylor’s drawing has only protruded one woman in the picture who was known as Mrs. Margaret Adams an interpreter for the Arapaho. Howling wolf’s drawing of the women was full bodied and he carefully placed the figures in ink. I think Howling Wolf’s drawing is more honest because it came from him, and also witness the treaty. If other artist is going to draw other artist drawings they should betray all the people in the drawing in there drawing so it would be real and not fake.
Why did the White artist ignore the many native women who were present at the treaty signing? Do you think this omission was deliberate or unintentional due to cultural bias?
The white artist ignored the women present at the treaty signing because the native women played an important big roll inside their culture. The painting included the native women in ceremonial garments, and their backs against the other people in the audience. The whites didn’t want to draw attention to the importance the women played in the treaty signing. When the treaty was signed the Plain tribe’s children had to go to school to learn how to speak English and I think the white artist did it deliberately...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 397 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sparta was a powerful city in ancient Greece. It was built near the Eurotas River in the south-east of the country, in the Peloponnese.
Sparta was only a small city but it was very powerful and had the strongest army in Greece.
It conquered the nearby lands of Messenia and Laconia in around 680-560BC. The people of these lands were called the helots and they spent their lives farming for their Spartan rulers. They had to give half of their crops to the Spartans as payment.
Sparta was ruled by two kings who had equal power. There were four types of people:
Spartan citizens - who had the most rights
Mothakes - were not Spartan but were free men
Perioikoi - freed slaves
Helots - slaves from Messenia and Laconia
The Spartans didn’t spend time studying philosophy or art like the people in Athens. Instead, they studied war.
Only the strongest survived in Sparta. Weak children were left to die and young boys were trained to become warriors at the age of 7. They were sent to a special military school called an agoge where they learned to fight. They were also taught to read and write. When the boys turned 20 they joined the Spartan army.
Girls also went to school where they did athletics and exercise. Their training wasn’t as tough but it was important for them to be fit so they could have strong babies. Spartan women had more freedom and education than other Greek cities at the time.
When Spartans fought in battle they lined up side to side and locked their shields together. They moved forward at the same time and stabbed their enemies with their spears! Their shield was their most important piece of equipment. It was considered a disgrace to lose it in battle. Spartan soldiers were known for wearing bronze helmets and crimson tunics so their bloody wounds wouldn’t show.
The Spartans were very hard to defeat and because they were so good at fighting and defending their land, they didn’t need walls to protect their city.
In the end, they were defeated in the Battle of Leuctra to Thebes in 371 BC.
Did you know?
- The Spartans believed they were direct descendants of the Greek hero Hercules.
- Today the term ‘spartan’ is used to describe something simple, with little comfort. | <urn:uuid:f01f1b13-c6c5-46f7-a422-7272ceb7bf1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/sparta | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.99469 | 498 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.2791186273... | 3 | Sparta was a powerful city in ancient Greece. It was built near the Eurotas River in the south-east of the country, in the Peloponnese.
Sparta was only a small city but it was very powerful and had the strongest army in Greece.
It conquered the nearby lands of Messenia and Laconia in around 680-560BC. The people of these lands were called the helots and they spent their lives farming for their Spartan rulers. They had to give half of their crops to the Spartans as payment.
Sparta was ruled by two kings who had equal power. There were four types of people:
Spartan citizens - who had the most rights
Mothakes - were not Spartan but were free men
Perioikoi - freed slaves
Helots - slaves from Messenia and Laconia
The Spartans didn’t spend time studying philosophy or art like the people in Athens. Instead, they studied war.
Only the strongest survived in Sparta. Weak children were left to die and young boys were trained to become warriors at the age of 7. They were sent to a special military school called an agoge where they learned to fight. They were also taught to read and write. When the boys turned 20 they joined the Spartan army.
Girls also went to school where they did athletics and exercise. Their training wasn’t as tough but it was important for them to be fit so they could have strong babies. Spartan women had more freedom and education than other Greek cities at the time.
When Spartans fought in battle they lined up side to side and locked their shields together. They moved forward at the same time and stabbed their enemies with their spears! Their shield was their most important piece of equipment. It was considered a disgrace to lose it in battle. Spartan soldiers were known for wearing bronze helmets and crimson tunics so their bloody wounds wouldn’t show.
The Spartans were very hard to defeat and because they were so good at fighting and defending their land, they didn’t need walls to protect their city.
In the end, they were defeated in the Battle of Leuctra to Thebes in 371 BC.
Did you know?
- The Spartans believed they were direct descendants of the Greek hero Hercules.
- Today the term ‘spartan’ is used to describe something simple, with little comfort. | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A football team has nine players. If one of them was injured, how many could play in a match?
We know that the football team has nine players. We could use these nine counters, which we’ve placed in a 10 frame model, to help represent the nine players. The problem tells us that one of the players is injured. So we know that this player can’t play in the match.
We’ve subtracted this one player from the nine players in the football team. And the question is asking us how many players are left. So we need to work out what nine take away one is. How many counters are left in our 10 frame if we take one away from the nine we have to begin with? Nine take away one equals eight. One less than nine is eight.
If a football team has nine players and one of them is injured, only eight players could play in the match. Nine subtract one equals eight. | <urn:uuid:a513b162-84c4-48b4-bf79-35268dbbbd54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nagwa.com/en/videos/970107938498/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.983913 | 197 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.04033243656158447,... | 4 | A football team has nine players. If one of them was injured, how many could play in a match?
We know that the football team has nine players. We could use these nine counters, which we’ve placed in a 10 frame model, to help represent the nine players. The problem tells us that one of the players is injured. So we know that this player can’t play in the match.
We’ve subtracted this one player from the nine players in the football team. And the question is asking us how many players are left. So we need to work out what nine take away one is. How many counters are left in our 10 frame if we take one away from the nine we have to begin with? Nine take away one equals eight. One less than nine is eight.
If a football team has nine players and one of them is injured, only eight players could play in the match. Nine subtract one equals eight. | 192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Comparing Beliefs and Vaules of the Renaissance and Middle Ages
There are many contrasts in the beliefs and values of the Renaissance and the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages was a time of great suffering, including famine and widespread disease. The Renaissance, however, was a revival of art, learning, and literature. Their views of the purpose of life in the present world and man's place in the world was, perhaps, the greatest contrast. However, their views on politics, religion, and education were very different as well.
The purpose of life and man's place in the world was viewed differently during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages, also known as "The Age of Faith," man's purpose was to serve God. Life was looked upon as a journey. The focus of life was on the afterlife because there were no guarantees in the present life. The life of highest value was the contemplative life, one devoted to God. The passive virtues such as compassion, suffering, and humility were highly regarded. God was the center of man's world during the Middle Ages. On the Great Chain of Being, man was below God and the angels and above the animals, plants, and inanimate objects.
In sharp contrast, man's purpose during the Renaissance was to exercise one's virtue, or one's excellence as a man. People believed that life should be lived for itself, and the beauty of this world should be appreciated in the here and now. The focus of life was on the secular world of the here and now. Active virtues such as courage, intelligence, and a skill in many fields were highly valued during this time. The greatest virtu of the Renaissance was action. There was a zest for living, and man began to love the rich, ornate, and lavish lifestyle. The concept of hard work to obtain secular goals was conceived during the Renaissance. Man strongly agreed with the Greek view, "Man is the measure of all things," and was viewed as the center of the world.
Another contrasting view was that of politics. During the Middle Ages, the political structure consisted of a monarchy, where one person ruled over the people. Feudalism was the law of the land. Therefore, the common man was a serf and would die poor just as he was born poor. On... | <urn:uuid:148c0e35-cd20-4420-b808-b5cc9e1230be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/comparing-beliefs-and-vaules-of-the-renaissance-and-middle-ages | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.990933 | 473 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.05083210021257400... | 1 | Comparing Beliefs and Vaules of the Renaissance and Middle Ages
There are many contrasts in the beliefs and values of the Renaissance and the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages was a time of great suffering, including famine and widespread disease. The Renaissance, however, was a revival of art, learning, and literature. Their views of the purpose of life in the present world and man's place in the world was, perhaps, the greatest contrast. However, their views on politics, religion, and education were very different as well.
The purpose of life and man's place in the world was viewed differently during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages, also known as "The Age of Faith," man's purpose was to serve God. Life was looked upon as a journey. The focus of life was on the afterlife because there were no guarantees in the present life. The life of highest value was the contemplative life, one devoted to God. The passive virtues such as compassion, suffering, and humility were highly regarded. God was the center of man's world during the Middle Ages. On the Great Chain of Being, man was below God and the angels and above the animals, plants, and inanimate objects.
In sharp contrast, man's purpose during the Renaissance was to exercise one's virtue, or one's excellence as a man. People believed that life should be lived for itself, and the beauty of this world should be appreciated in the here and now. The focus of life was on the secular world of the here and now. Active virtues such as courage, intelligence, and a skill in many fields were highly valued during this time. The greatest virtu of the Renaissance was action. There was a zest for living, and man began to love the rich, ornate, and lavish lifestyle. The concept of hard work to obtain secular goals was conceived during the Renaissance. Man strongly agreed with the Greek view, "Man is the measure of all things," and was viewed as the center of the world.
Another contrasting view was that of politics. During the Middle Ages, the political structure consisted of a monarchy, where one person ruled over the people. Feudalism was the law of the land. Therefore, the common man was a serf and would die poor just as he was born poor. On... | 469 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Learn How America Conquers the Air!
If you ask any student even in elementary school why the town of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina is significant to American history, they will know the answer immediately. They will know that this was the place that Orville and Wilber Wright made the first working airplane and discovered that man could fly.
Today, with thousands of airplanes taking to the sky at any given moment and the experience of flying high above the earth as common as riding a bicycle, it seems that a world where men did not fly is as far away as the ancient Romans.
But we have to travel in time back to the days before the Wright brothers made their phenomenal discovery and the invention of the first aircraft when there was a time when it was firmly believed that man would never fly like a bird and indeed, man was meant to never fly but always be a terrestrial being. We can be grateful that the Wright brothers did not hold to that belief.
The date of that first successful flight was December 17, 1903. It was on that fateful day that Orville and Wilber successfully flew the first controlled, powered, heavier than air airplane.
This break through ranks as one of the greatest inventions of American history and in truth, one of the great inventions of all time as man had been dreaming of being able to fly as far back as we have primitive drawings illustrating that dream.
kindly login/register to download this product* | <urn:uuid:cda0c6ba-1b8b-406a-bde3-9f4a2c9d429c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://plrultim8.com/product.php?pro_id=How+America+Started+ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.981251 | 292 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.3002149760723... | 1 | Learn How America Conquers the Air!
If you ask any student even in elementary school why the town of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina is significant to American history, they will know the answer immediately. They will know that this was the place that Orville and Wilber Wright made the first working airplane and discovered that man could fly.
Today, with thousands of airplanes taking to the sky at any given moment and the experience of flying high above the earth as common as riding a bicycle, it seems that a world where men did not fly is as far away as the ancient Romans.
But we have to travel in time back to the days before the Wright brothers made their phenomenal discovery and the invention of the first aircraft when there was a time when it was firmly believed that man would never fly like a bird and indeed, man was meant to never fly but always be a terrestrial being. We can be grateful that the Wright brothers did not hold to that belief.
The date of that first successful flight was December 17, 1903. It was on that fateful day that Orville and Wilber successfully flew the first controlled, powered, heavier than air airplane.
This break through ranks as one of the greatest inventions of American history and in truth, one of the great inventions of all time as man had been dreaming of being able to fly as far back as we have primitive drawings illustrating that dream.
kindly login/register to download this product* | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today in History, December 18, 1865:
The US House of Representatives passes the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States. “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude…shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” The issue had divided the nation from its inception due to its inherent disagreement with our founding principles….
The Republican Party had been founded by break-away former members of the Whig party, who had formed the new party in the 1850’s because of their abolitionist beliefs. The Civil War had begun because of the election of the first Republican President, Abraham Lincoln; the largely Democrat South believed abolition was eminent due to his election and seceded from the Union rather than give up their slaves. Republican Lincoln did in fact enact the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, freeing slaves in southern states, an admittedly partial measure. For his efforts a Democrat radical assassinated him in 1865 before he could see the realization of the 13th Amendment. Lincoln had wanted the measure to be bi-partisan in an effort to re-unite the nation. Although he wouldn’t live to see it, he got his wish, to an extent. 7 Democrats abstained from voting rather that be a part of freeing the slaves, but the measure still passed due to a Republican majority and partial Democrat support. Angry southern Democrats would go on to form the KKK, resulting in another century of violence before civil rights measures were finally passed. | <urn:uuid:17c2929f-032b-4429-96bb-2a4ee356ba43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://markloveshistory.com/2019/12/19/the-thirteenth-amendment-the-house-of-representatives/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.982322 | 305 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.256926774978... | 16 | Today in History, December 18, 1865:
The US House of Representatives passes the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States. “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude…shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” The issue had divided the nation from its inception due to its inherent disagreement with our founding principles….
The Republican Party had been founded by break-away former members of the Whig party, who had formed the new party in the 1850’s because of their abolitionist beliefs. The Civil War had begun because of the election of the first Republican President, Abraham Lincoln; the largely Democrat South believed abolition was eminent due to his election and seceded from the Union rather than give up their slaves. Republican Lincoln did in fact enact the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, freeing slaves in southern states, an admittedly partial measure. For his efforts a Democrat radical assassinated him in 1865 before he could see the realization of the 13th Amendment. Lincoln had wanted the measure to be bi-partisan in an effort to re-unite the nation. Although he wouldn’t live to see it, he got his wish, to an extent. 7 Democrats abstained from voting rather that be a part of freeing the slaves, but the measure still passed due to a Republican majority and partial Democrat support. Angry southern Democrats would go on to form the KKK, resulting in another century of violence before civil rights measures were finally passed. | 319 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Look at all those beautiful vertebrae! All cleaned, repaired and ready to go.|
Using photos of the flipper bones when they had been unearthed and grafted, the bones were laid out on a table in their appropriate positions.
|A template was needed to figure out exactly where each bone of the flipper should be placed and where the connecting rods would go to hold the bones together. Life-sized graph paper was created by drawing the grid by hand.|
|The bones were placed on the paper according to their position on the grid.|
|Each bone was carefully traced.|
|On day 3, once the template was completed, it was flipped over and traced to create a template for the other flipper.|
After the bones were traced onto the paper, they were removed for careful plotting of where metal rods would go, and where they needed to be bent to hold the bones of the flipper together. An outline of each rod was placed onto the template as well.
|Once the careful plotting of where metal rods would need to be placed in each bone, their positions were marked on the bone. The bones were then removed so holes could be drilled into the bone to receive those rods.|
|Each finger bone had to be drilled.|
|Working on the phalanges (fingers), drilling holes, inserting metal rods.|
The larger bones of the flipper were being a bit difficult, causing the workers to really give it hard thought and muscle.
|But in the end they were successful.| | <urn:uuid:e0d1e51d-046d-4281-adfa-3811b4a5a9bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://prattmuseumgraywhaleskeleton.blogspot.com/2012/07/days-2-and-3-were-just-as-exciting-as.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.986384 | 321 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.330351412296295... | 2 | |Look at all those beautiful vertebrae! All cleaned, repaired and ready to go.|
Using photos of the flipper bones when they had been unearthed and grafted, the bones were laid out on a table in their appropriate positions.
|A template was needed to figure out exactly where each bone of the flipper should be placed and where the connecting rods would go to hold the bones together. Life-sized graph paper was created by drawing the grid by hand.|
|The bones were placed on the paper according to their position on the grid.|
|Each bone was carefully traced.|
|On day 3, once the template was completed, it was flipped over and traced to create a template for the other flipper.|
After the bones were traced onto the paper, they were removed for careful plotting of where metal rods would go, and where they needed to be bent to hold the bones of the flipper together. An outline of each rod was placed onto the template as well.
|Once the careful plotting of where metal rods would need to be placed in each bone, their positions were marked on the bone. The bones were then removed so holes could be drilled into the bone to receive those rods.|
|Each finger bone had to be drilled.|
|Working on the phalanges (fingers), drilling holes, inserting metal rods.|
The larger bones of the flipper were being a bit difficult, causing the workers to really give it hard thought and muscle.
|But in the end they were successful.| | 310 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did You Know?
William Shakespeare was born and died on the same day, April 23.
Well, his death date is pretty conclusively documented. The church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford records his death date as April 23rd, 1616. His burial occured 2 days later, on the 25th. This is the easy part.
The birthdate is a little more cloudy. There is no surviving record of Shakespeare’s birth, or for that matter of the birth of virtually everybody else in the era. We rarely know the exact day of birth of anyone in the middle ages and renaissance. There are a few exceptions, mostly of royals. Of the major playwrights and poets, we know of none of their birthdays for certain. The birthdays of Ben Johnson, Thomas Kydd, & Christopher Marlowe alike can only be surmised as around the date of their baptisms, exactly like Shakespeare. This is the important point. Births were not recorded, as the Church was not involved in the delivery. Baptisms were.
Due to the very high rate of infant mortality, the almost universal practice of the day was to christen the child as soon as possible after his or her birth. So, we can only say for certain that they were born not on the date of their baptism, but shortly before it.
So why did the tradition begin that his birthday is April 23? Why not the 22nd or 24th? Here, we enter into realms of speculation. It seems to me that the most likely explanations are the following:
- April 23 is also the date on which he died. Perhaps the symmetry was irresistible.
- April 23 is also the feast day of St George, England’s patron saint. Maybe the idea of England’s national poet being born on the festival of England’s national saint was satisfying.
- Or maybe he really was born on April 23 and anybody who could remember (his wife, daughters, friends, and neighbors) always said it was, so by the time anybody wrote down a biography (almost a century later), the date was remembered, but the authority for that date was not. | <urn:uuid:08c64c9f-6d1e-4580-8b05-f69df9bd7829> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://didyouknowstuff.com/william-shakespeare-was-born-and-died-on-the-same-day-april-23 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.988291 | 447 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.242483481... | 5 | Did You Know?
William Shakespeare was born and died on the same day, April 23.
Well, his death date is pretty conclusively documented. The church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford records his death date as April 23rd, 1616. His burial occured 2 days later, on the 25th. This is the easy part.
The birthdate is a little more cloudy. There is no surviving record of Shakespeare’s birth, or for that matter of the birth of virtually everybody else in the era. We rarely know the exact day of birth of anyone in the middle ages and renaissance. There are a few exceptions, mostly of royals. Of the major playwrights and poets, we know of none of their birthdays for certain. The birthdays of Ben Johnson, Thomas Kydd, & Christopher Marlowe alike can only be surmised as around the date of their baptisms, exactly like Shakespeare. This is the important point. Births were not recorded, as the Church was not involved in the delivery. Baptisms were.
Due to the very high rate of infant mortality, the almost universal practice of the day was to christen the child as soon as possible after his or her birth. So, we can only say for certain that they were born not on the date of their baptism, but shortly before it.
So why did the tradition begin that his birthday is April 23? Why not the 22nd or 24th? Here, we enter into realms of speculation. It seems to me that the most likely explanations are the following:
- April 23 is also the date on which he died. Perhaps the symmetry was irresistible.
- April 23 is also the feast day of St George, England’s patron saint. Maybe the idea of England’s national poet being born on the festival of England’s national saint was satisfying.
- Or maybe he really was born on April 23 and anybody who could remember (his wife, daughters, friends, and neighbors) always said it was, so by the time anybody wrote down a biography (almost a century later), the date was remembered, but the authority for that date was not. | 450 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Treaty 7 is the last of the Numbered Treaties made between the Government of Canada and the Plains First Nations (see Indigenous Peoples: Plains). It was signed on 22 September 1877 by five First Nations: the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood), Piikani (Peigan), Stoney-Nakoda, and Tsuut’ina (Sarcee). Different understandings of the treaty’s purpose, combined with significant culture and language barriers and what some have argued were deliberate attempts to mislead the First Nations on the part of the government negotiators, have led to ongoing conflicts and claims.
The written treaty ceded roughly 130,000 km² of land from the Rocky Mountains to the west, the Cypress Hills to the east, the Red Deer River to the north, and the US border to the south. All nations kept the rights to use the land for hunting.
In 1870, the newly created nation of Canada acquired Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Rupert’s Land was an enormous area of land stretching north and west. One year later, British Columbia entered Confederation based in part on the promise that a transcontinental railway would connect it to the rest of Canada within 10 years. In order to construct the railway and encourage future settlement, the government considered it necessary to extinguish Aboriginal title to the land (see Indigenous Territory). Bound by the terms of the Royal Proclamation, Canada was responsible for the protection of its Indigenous people and promised to preserve their rights to unceded (unsurrendered) traditional territories.
The mid-19th century was a time of upheaval for the Indigenous nations that eventually signed Treaty 7. There had been repeated outbreaks of smallpox, and the buffalo herds upon which they had relied began to diminish, in part due to increased competition from Cree and Métis hunters (see Buffalo Hunt). At the same time, settlers from the United States set up trading forts and introduced whiskey into communities, causing significant chaos at trading forts. In 1874, the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) arrived under Colonel James Macleod and put an end to the trade. The First Nations were thankful and, by many accounts, came to trust Macleod. However, the extent to which this trust determined their willingness to sign a treaty has been disputed.
While the federal government sought to extinguish (take away) Aboriginal title to the land prior to settlement, the First Nations sought to make peace between themselves, the government and incoming settlers.
In the summer of 1875, Crowfoot, one of the leaders of the Siksika, was informed by a local Methodist missionary named John McDougall (who had a year earlier taken a government commission to explain the arrival of the NWMP to local Indigenous nations) that treaties were being planned for Blackfoot territory. Soon after, Crowfoot had a meeting with Major General Edward Selby Smyth, who was out west inspecting the NWMP, to discuss the government’s plans for his territories.
That fall, Crowfoot and the Siksika met with the other members of the Blackfoot Confederacy, the Piikani and Kainai. A petition was drawn up and sent to the lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, Alexander Morris. The petition listed a series of complaints, such as the arrival of settlers and Cree and Métis buffalo hunters, and requested the presence of an Indian commissioner so that the “invasion” of their country would stop until a treaty had been negotiated.
Meanwhile, the Lakota, who had just defeated the US Army at the Battle of Little Bighorn, arrived in Canada and met with the Blackfoot. In 1877, Sitting Bull met with Crowfoot
face-to-face. Although they made an alliance of peace rather than war, the possibility of facing off against a large, united group of Indigenous nations gave the Canadian government yet another reason to negotiate a treaty.
Negotiations were eventually set for the fall of 1877. Although the nations involved in Treaty 7 had not had extensive contact with the Canadian government, each had a history of treaty-making in order to resolve conflicts with other Indigenous groups. Some leaders from the Blackfoot Confederacy had also been involved in an 1855 treaty with the US government; many of the promises on the American side had not been fulfilled, leaving them frustrated and skeptical.
The treaty commissioners were David Laird, who had recently been appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, and James Macleod, commissioner of the NWMP. The question of who was given authority to negotiate on behalf of each Indigenous nation involved is more complex. The Blackfoot Confederacy, for example, did not have a distinct hierarchical structure; the person in charge varied depending on the situation. Although Crowfoot negotiated on their behalf, it is uncertain if his people saw him as their leader in this negotiation.
It is also clear, based on First Nations testimony, that they had a different understanding of the purpose of the negotiation. Each understood it to be primarily a peace treaty, whereby they allowed settlement and promoted peaceful cohabitation in exchange for a series of promises. None thought that it was a land surrender. Part of the confusion arose from cultural misunderstandings, but also from serious translation issues. Jerry Potts, one of the interpreters brought along by the commissioners, has been accused not only of having little or no fluency in the languages spoken by the Treaty 7 nations, but also of having a poor grasp of English — especially with legal terms.
The site for the treaty was originally set to be Fort Macleod, but the Siksika preferred to meet at Blackfoot Crossing, a site on their territory. This was a problem for some of the other nations, as it was distant from their hunting grounds. In addition, a few Kainai chiefs said they would not attend — another suggestion of the relative unimportance that many attached to this negotiation. When the treaty commissioners arrived on 16 September 1877, the Siksika, Stoney-Nakoda and Tsuut’inawere already there. At a meeting the next day, it was decided that they would postpone the treaty-making process for two days to give the Kainai and Piikani time to get there.
On 19 September, the commissioners and some of the leaders met to discuss terms. Not all the leaders had yet arrived, including the main Kainai bands. Negotiations continued, however. Laird gave a speech in which he listed the positive efforts of the government, including passing laws to protect the buffalo, on which everyone was dependent for food, and putting an end to the whiskey forts. He added, however, that the buffalo would soon be gone, and that the government wanted the Indigenous people to switch to agriculture and ranching and would be given support to do so. Many of the leaders wanted assurances that they would be able to continue to hunt and fish in their traditional lands. Annual payments, reserve land, and education were also discussed. However, Crowfoot said a decision could not be reached until the arrival of Red Crow, the head chief of the Kainai.
On 21 September, Red Crow arrived. He was a friend of Macleod and trusted him. After Crowfoot explained what he believed to be the terms of the treaty, Red Crow assented (agreed). While some leaders were still hesitant, a consensus was soon reached and, on 22 September, all parties signed the agreement.
Terms of the Treaty
In exchange, each group was to receive land equal to 2.59 m2(6.47 km2) per family of five, and in proportion to that number depending on whether the family was larger or smaller. The Siksika, Tsuut’ina and Kainai were given a reserve along the Bow River; the Piikani were assigned a reserve at an area near the Porcupine Hills called Crow’s Creek; and the Stoney-Nakoda, on the advice of John McDougall, the Methodist who had been ministering to them, were granted a reserve near the Methodist mission in Morleyville.
An immediate payment of $12 was given to every man, woman and child. Annual payments of $25 would be given to every chief, $15 for every minor chief or councillor and $5 to all others. All chiefs were also to receive a Winchester rifle, while head chiefs and Stoney chiefs were to receive a medal and flag to commemorate the treaty. Chiefs and councillors were also to receive a new suit of clothing every three years.
The government agreed to pay the salaries of teachers on reserves. It also agreed to distribute $2,000 worth of ammunition each year. Various tools were also promised by the government, including axes and handsaws.
Finally, each family was to be given cattle in proportion to their size (two for a family of five; three for a family of five to ten; four for a family of ten and up); chiefs were promised one bull each for the use of their band. It was possible to receive one less cow in exchange for farming tools, if that was the band’s wish.
Modern Interpretations and Implications
It is generally agreed that none of Indigenous nations involved in the treaty realized they were surrendering their land, and that none would have agreed to it had they understood the consequences. For the most part, the treaty did not have the effect the First Nations desired: Cree and Métis hunters continued to trespass, the buffalo disappeared, and settlers continued to arrive. The promised support for the transition to an agricultural lifestyle did not take place, and in most cases the land was unsuitable. Only two years after signing the treaty, a local Catholic priest who had encouraged the nations to sign a treaty described in a letter to David Laird their extreme poverty: “I have never seen them so depressed as they are now; I have never seen them before in want of food… They have suffered fearfully from hunger.” He went on to argue that, as to the question of whether the Treaty 7 nations understood “the real nature of the treaty” — land surrender — “my answer to this question is unhesitatingly negative.” There was, and remains, widespread feeling that the government has not lived up to its promises or dealt fairly with them.
The difference between written and oral cultures — including the settlers’ favouring of written documents over oral tradition in terms of legality — has led many elders to claim that there were promises made during the negotiations that never made it into the text of Treaty 7. It is probable that this is the case, given the translation difficulties, differing cultural understandings of binding agreements and the haste with which the government wanted to conclude the negotiations. All the nations involved in Treaty 7 — now represented by the Treaty 7 Management Corporation — have since been involved in claims negotiations with the federal government relating to land surrenders, improperly performed surveys and fraudulent deals, many of which are still ongoing. | <urn:uuid:bc675848-9d54-4cad-b460-5cedd3b27e8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/treaty-7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.980851 | 2,279 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.429884016... | 6 | Treaty 7 is the last of the Numbered Treaties made between the Government of Canada and the Plains First Nations (see Indigenous Peoples: Plains). It was signed on 22 September 1877 by five First Nations: the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood), Piikani (Peigan), Stoney-Nakoda, and Tsuut’ina (Sarcee). Different understandings of the treaty’s purpose, combined with significant culture and language barriers and what some have argued were deliberate attempts to mislead the First Nations on the part of the government negotiators, have led to ongoing conflicts and claims.
The written treaty ceded roughly 130,000 km² of land from the Rocky Mountains to the west, the Cypress Hills to the east, the Red Deer River to the north, and the US border to the south. All nations kept the rights to use the land for hunting.
In 1870, the newly created nation of Canada acquired Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Rupert’s Land was an enormous area of land stretching north and west. One year later, British Columbia entered Confederation based in part on the promise that a transcontinental railway would connect it to the rest of Canada within 10 years. In order to construct the railway and encourage future settlement, the government considered it necessary to extinguish Aboriginal title to the land (see Indigenous Territory). Bound by the terms of the Royal Proclamation, Canada was responsible for the protection of its Indigenous people and promised to preserve their rights to unceded (unsurrendered) traditional territories.
The mid-19th century was a time of upheaval for the Indigenous nations that eventually signed Treaty 7. There had been repeated outbreaks of smallpox, and the buffalo herds upon which they had relied began to diminish, in part due to increased competition from Cree and Métis hunters (see Buffalo Hunt). At the same time, settlers from the United States set up trading forts and introduced whiskey into communities, causing significant chaos at trading forts. In 1874, the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) arrived under Colonel James Macleod and put an end to the trade. The First Nations were thankful and, by many accounts, came to trust Macleod. However, the extent to which this trust determined their willingness to sign a treaty has been disputed.
While the federal government sought to extinguish (take away) Aboriginal title to the land prior to settlement, the First Nations sought to make peace between themselves, the government and incoming settlers.
In the summer of 1875, Crowfoot, one of the leaders of the Siksika, was informed by a local Methodist missionary named John McDougall (who had a year earlier taken a government commission to explain the arrival of the NWMP to local Indigenous nations) that treaties were being planned for Blackfoot territory. Soon after, Crowfoot had a meeting with Major General Edward Selby Smyth, who was out west inspecting the NWMP, to discuss the government’s plans for his territories.
That fall, Crowfoot and the Siksika met with the other members of the Blackfoot Confederacy, the Piikani and Kainai. A petition was drawn up and sent to the lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, Alexander Morris. The petition listed a series of complaints, such as the arrival of settlers and Cree and Métis buffalo hunters, and requested the presence of an Indian commissioner so that the “invasion” of their country would stop until a treaty had been negotiated.
Meanwhile, the Lakota, who had just defeated the US Army at the Battle of Little Bighorn, arrived in Canada and met with the Blackfoot. In 1877, Sitting Bull met with Crowfoot
face-to-face. Although they made an alliance of peace rather than war, the possibility of facing off against a large, united group of Indigenous nations gave the Canadian government yet another reason to negotiate a treaty.
Negotiations were eventually set for the fall of 1877. Although the nations involved in Treaty 7 had not had extensive contact with the Canadian government, each had a history of treaty-making in order to resolve conflicts with other Indigenous groups. Some leaders from the Blackfoot Confederacy had also been involved in an 1855 treaty with the US government; many of the promises on the American side had not been fulfilled, leaving them frustrated and skeptical.
The treaty commissioners were David Laird, who had recently been appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, and James Macleod, commissioner of the NWMP. The question of who was given authority to negotiate on behalf of each Indigenous nation involved is more complex. The Blackfoot Confederacy, for example, did not have a distinct hierarchical structure; the person in charge varied depending on the situation. Although Crowfoot negotiated on their behalf, it is uncertain if his people saw him as their leader in this negotiation.
It is also clear, based on First Nations testimony, that they had a different understanding of the purpose of the negotiation. Each understood it to be primarily a peace treaty, whereby they allowed settlement and promoted peaceful cohabitation in exchange for a series of promises. None thought that it was a land surrender. Part of the confusion arose from cultural misunderstandings, but also from serious translation issues. Jerry Potts, one of the interpreters brought along by the commissioners, has been accused not only of having little or no fluency in the languages spoken by the Treaty 7 nations, but also of having a poor grasp of English — especially with legal terms.
The site for the treaty was originally set to be Fort Macleod, but the Siksika preferred to meet at Blackfoot Crossing, a site on their territory. This was a problem for some of the other nations, as it was distant from their hunting grounds. In addition, a few Kainai chiefs said they would not attend — another suggestion of the relative unimportance that many attached to this negotiation. When the treaty commissioners arrived on 16 September 1877, the Siksika, Stoney-Nakoda and Tsuut’inawere already there. At a meeting the next day, it was decided that they would postpone the treaty-making process for two days to give the Kainai and Piikani time to get there.
On 19 September, the commissioners and some of the leaders met to discuss terms. Not all the leaders had yet arrived, including the main Kainai bands. Negotiations continued, however. Laird gave a speech in which he listed the positive efforts of the government, including passing laws to protect the buffalo, on which everyone was dependent for food, and putting an end to the whiskey forts. He added, however, that the buffalo would soon be gone, and that the government wanted the Indigenous people to switch to agriculture and ranching and would be given support to do so. Many of the leaders wanted assurances that they would be able to continue to hunt and fish in their traditional lands. Annual payments, reserve land, and education were also discussed. However, Crowfoot said a decision could not be reached until the arrival of Red Crow, the head chief of the Kainai.
On 21 September, Red Crow arrived. He was a friend of Macleod and trusted him. After Crowfoot explained what he believed to be the terms of the treaty, Red Crow assented (agreed). While some leaders were still hesitant, a consensus was soon reached and, on 22 September, all parties signed the agreement.
Terms of the Treaty
In exchange, each group was to receive land equal to 2.59 m2(6.47 km2) per family of five, and in proportion to that number depending on whether the family was larger or smaller. The Siksika, Tsuut’ina and Kainai were given a reserve along the Bow River; the Piikani were assigned a reserve at an area near the Porcupine Hills called Crow’s Creek; and the Stoney-Nakoda, on the advice of John McDougall, the Methodist who had been ministering to them, were granted a reserve near the Methodist mission in Morleyville.
An immediate payment of $12 was given to every man, woman and child. Annual payments of $25 would be given to every chief, $15 for every minor chief or councillor and $5 to all others. All chiefs were also to receive a Winchester rifle, while head chiefs and Stoney chiefs were to receive a medal and flag to commemorate the treaty. Chiefs and councillors were also to receive a new suit of clothing every three years.
The government agreed to pay the salaries of teachers on reserves. It also agreed to distribute $2,000 worth of ammunition each year. Various tools were also promised by the government, including axes and handsaws.
Finally, each family was to be given cattle in proportion to their size (two for a family of five; three for a family of five to ten; four for a family of ten and up); chiefs were promised one bull each for the use of their band. It was possible to receive one less cow in exchange for farming tools, if that was the band’s wish.
Modern Interpretations and Implications
It is generally agreed that none of Indigenous nations involved in the treaty realized they were surrendering their land, and that none would have agreed to it had they understood the consequences. For the most part, the treaty did not have the effect the First Nations desired: Cree and Métis hunters continued to trespass, the buffalo disappeared, and settlers continued to arrive. The promised support for the transition to an agricultural lifestyle did not take place, and in most cases the land was unsuitable. Only two years after signing the treaty, a local Catholic priest who had encouraged the nations to sign a treaty described in a letter to David Laird their extreme poverty: “I have never seen them so depressed as they are now; I have never seen them before in want of food… They have suffered fearfully from hunger.” He went on to argue that, as to the question of whether the Treaty 7 nations understood “the real nature of the treaty” — land surrender — “my answer to this question is unhesitatingly negative.” There was, and remains, widespread feeling that the government has not lived up to its promises or dealt fairly with them.
The difference between written and oral cultures — including the settlers’ favouring of written documents over oral tradition in terms of legality — has led many elders to claim that there were promises made during the negotiations that never made it into the text of Treaty 7. It is probable that this is the case, given the translation difficulties, differing cultural understandings of binding agreements and the haste with which the government wanted to conclude the negotiations. All the nations involved in Treaty 7 — now represented by the Treaty 7 Management Corporation — have since been involved in claims negotiations with the federal government relating to land surrenders, improperly performed surveys and fraudulent deals, many of which are still ongoing. | 2,283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Independent research confirms the benefits of music to your baby in the womb
A newborn human shows preference for his or her mother’s voice and to musical pieces to which he or she was previously exposed, indicating a capacity to learn while in utero.
Our results show that prenatal exposure to music can have long-term effects on the developing brain and enhance neural responsiveness to the sounds used in the prenatal training.
Prenatal music exposure to mother significantly and favorably influences neonatal behavior. Infants of mothers exposed to music during pregnancy performed significantly better on 5 of 7 behavior assessment metrics.
We have discovered that babies can remember and prefer music they heard before they were born, over 12 months later. Babies who hear the same music that was played while in the womb fall asleep faster and sleep longer than babies who did not hear music.
Fetuses responded with heart rate acceleration and motor response to both music and voice. This was statistically significant. There was no significant difference between the fetal heart rate acceleration to music and voice.
In the youngest fetuses, heart rates generally accelerated at the onset of music if it was played loudly; this was thought to indicate arousal. If the same music was played more softly, heart rates generally decelerated at the onset of music, which was thought to indicate attention.
There were marked differences between those babies who had heard four hours of music in utero and those who had not. The music group changed sleep-wake state more efficiently and spent more time awake than the non-music group.
The safe and comfortable way to share music with your baby in the womb.
© Mbrio Technologies 2020 | <urn:uuid:9e774046-bf1c-44da-a8b7-3f1fdfd50fc6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mbriotech.com/science-and-research/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.980423 | 334 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.27819892764091... | 5 | Independent research confirms the benefits of music to your baby in the womb
A newborn human shows preference for his or her mother’s voice and to musical pieces to which he or she was previously exposed, indicating a capacity to learn while in utero.
Our results show that prenatal exposure to music can have long-term effects on the developing brain and enhance neural responsiveness to the sounds used in the prenatal training.
Prenatal music exposure to mother significantly and favorably influences neonatal behavior. Infants of mothers exposed to music during pregnancy performed significantly better on 5 of 7 behavior assessment metrics.
We have discovered that babies can remember and prefer music they heard before they were born, over 12 months later. Babies who hear the same music that was played while in the womb fall asleep faster and sleep longer than babies who did not hear music.
Fetuses responded with heart rate acceleration and motor response to both music and voice. This was statistically significant. There was no significant difference between the fetal heart rate acceleration to music and voice.
In the youngest fetuses, heart rates generally accelerated at the onset of music if it was played loudly; this was thought to indicate arousal. If the same music was played more softly, heart rates generally decelerated at the onset of music, which was thought to indicate attention.
There were marked differences between those babies who had heard four hours of music in utero and those who had not. The music group changed sleep-wake state more efficiently and spent more time awake than the non-music group.
The safe and comfortable way to share music with your baby in the womb.
© Mbrio Technologies 2020 | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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O'Neill, Shane (c.1530–67). The legitimate son of Con O'Neill, he was passed over in 1542 when his father was created earl of Tyrone, presumably because of his youth, and remainder given to an illegitimate son, Matthew. As soon as he grew up he claimed the inheritance, insisting that Matthew's claim was entirely spurious, and by 1557 had driven his father and Matthew O'Neill to take refuge in the Pale. In 1558 he killed Matthew, but at her succession Elizabeth offered to recognize him if he submitted to the lord deputy, Sussex. The negotiations broke down amid mutual mistrust, but O'Neill held his own against Sussex and in 1562 visited Elizabeth in London, where he and his followers (who spoke mostly Irish) created a sensation. On his return to Ireland, he resumed his warfare with gusto, particularly against the Macdonnells. Fresh attempts by Sussex and then Sir Henry Sidney to subdue him failed, but O'Neill, appealing to his old enemies the Macdonnells for support, was assassinated in June 1567.
J. A. Cannon
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You Might Also Like | <urn:uuid:a1c75187-bf39-4e99-a853-15d955d7fb07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/british-and-irish-history-biographies/shane-oneill | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.982657 | 260 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.21014618873... | 1 | All Sources -
Updated Media sources (1) About encyclopedia.com content Print Topic
O'Neill, Shane (c.1530–67). The legitimate son of Con O'Neill, he was passed over in 1542 when his father was created earl of Tyrone, presumably because of his youth, and remainder given to an illegitimate son, Matthew. As soon as he grew up he claimed the inheritance, insisting that Matthew's claim was entirely spurious, and by 1557 had driven his father and Matthew O'Neill to take refuge in the Pale. In 1558 he killed Matthew, but at her succession Elizabeth offered to recognize him if he submitted to the lord deputy, Sussex. The negotiations broke down amid mutual mistrust, but O'Neill held his own against Sussex and in 1562 visited Elizabeth in London, where he and his followers (who spoke mostly Irish) created a sensation. On his return to Ireland, he resumed his warfare with gusto, particularly against the Macdonnells. Fresh attempts by Sussex and then Sir Henry Sidney to subdue him failed, but O'Neill, appealing to his old enemies the Macdonnells for support, was assassinated in June 1567.
J. A. Cannon
More From encyclopedia.com
You Might Also Like | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Here’s a question for a particularly fiendish pub quiz: what contribution did the Indonesian island of Lombok make to medieval English constitutional history? The answer is that when its volcano erupted in 1257, it caused dark skies and cold temperatures for a year or more, prompting a failed harvest (the second in a row) in the British Isles. The famine and general chaos that followed helped to bring about a political crisis the following year, during which the powers of the King of England were dramatically curtailed.
What happened in early May 1258 was nothing less than a revolution. King Henry III was given an ultimatum by a group of noblemen: agree to the setting up of a committee to govern the country, promise to act only on its instructions, and hand over the royal seal (the essential sign of authority for all royal decrees) to an official chosen by that committee. Four centuries later, Charles I would go to war to avoid submitting to such humiliating conditions.
But King Henry had little choice but to accept. And during the next seven years, the restrictions on his power would become even heavier. In 1264, having tried to shake off his yoke, he was heavily defeated in battle and forced to become a puppet monarch. Paraded like a trophy, he was obliged to look on mutely as proclamations were read out – theoretically on his behalf – in Westminster Hall. Hearing of these conditions, the King of France said that he would rather be a plough-boy than rule on such terms.
Of all the factors that contributed to these developments, the most important was the driving will of one individual: Simon de Montfort. Old-fashioned history books used to celebrate him as the founder of English parliamentary democracy because, once he was in charge, he called knights of the shires to appear at all parliaments (not just the ones that discussed taxation), and also summoned representatives of the towns. These were certainly innovations, though modern historians fit them into long-term patterns of development that were happening anyway. Yet, after the revolution he had already pushed through, this enhancing of parliament was merely the icing on the cake.
The old “Whig” view of history also portrayed Simon as driven by high-minded constitutional principles of a rather Victorian kind. That interpretation has not fared well. It would not be very difficult, in fact, to tell the story of his exploits as a case study in sheer power politics, animated by personal ambition and even more personal resentment.
He had begun his career as a man on the make. His father, a famous military commander, had withdrawn from his English estates and titles to settle in France. Yet as a younger son, not destined to inherit the French estates, Simon managed to claw his way back into the English nobility. Nor did he stop there. He seduced (or so it was said) King Henry’s sister, whom he then married. For a while he was Henry’s right-hand man, but the relationship was soon embittered by personal quarrels, several of them about money. These disputes became ever more serious.
Sent to govern the King’s unruly French territory of Gascony, Simon imposed such draconian measures that Henry felt obliged to hold a public inquiry into his actions. When that inquiry found in Simon’s favour – a sign of how his political star was rising – Henry dismissed him; loftily, Simon waved aside the letters informing him of the decision, saying that they did not count because they were “made more by the will of the King than by reason”. A rebel’s charter indeed, prompting the obvious question: who is to decide what is reasonable and what is not?
Some of his own actions would not pass any test of reasonableness. The most notorious were his attacks on Jews. When he was first restored to the family title of Earl of Leicester, he issued an order banning them from the town. Worse would follow during the years of political turmoil, when he and his supporters raided the Jews of Worcester, London and Winchester for their money, killing many in the process. There were also some shocking attacks on the property of abbeys and priories.
But the important thing about Simon de Montfort, and one of the many fascinating things about this book, is that his story cannot be reduced just to his own wilful pursuit of self-interest. While he was certainly no modern democrat, he did have a moral code of justice that required him to consider the interests of ordinary (Christian) citizens – a case of what Sophie Thérèse Ambler calls, in one of her memorable phrases, “conscience-driven lordship”. King Henry had been turning the legal system into a machine for extracting money by fining people for things that were not their fault; Simon wanted to put a stop to that.
It’s hard to get into the heads of people who lived 800 years ago. This book goes further than you might think possible, by a clever use of letters, legal documents and chronicles; at times, we really can hear this man speak. But what he has to say derives from a mindset utterly remote from our own. From his father, Simon had imbibed a noble code of honour, in which a man’s oath was sacred. (The new constitution he devised really depended on the oaths of nobles to sustain it, and he was dismayed to see how easily some of them broke their word.)
The code of honour involved knightly chivalry, of course, and at the same time it had a deeply religious basis. Yet, as Ambler shows, those two things – worldly honour and divine duty – were now being pulled apart. The mentality of holy war, developed for crusades and then directed against Christian heretics, was seeping into ordinary warfare – a Manichaean view in which the enemy were an embodiment of evil and deserved no quarter. That was the opposite of traditional chivalry, and Simon itself would suffer its effects at his final battle in 1265, when Henry’s men killed and decapitated him, amputated his hands and feet, and chopped off his testicles.
This is a remarkable book: beautifully presented (with good maps and illustrations), finely written and based on a deep, scholarly knowledge of the sources. It’s rare to find a story and a storyteller so well matched.
Buy at Telegraph Books or call 0844 871 1514 to order for £16.99 | <urn:uuid:51f0bf84-7fdb-4f42-8315-d6abea1a21a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/song-simon-de-montfortby-sophie-therese-ambler-reviewthe-tenacious/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.988186 | 1,342 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.30864536762... | 3 | Here’s a question for a particularly fiendish pub quiz: what contribution did the Indonesian island of Lombok make to medieval English constitutional history? The answer is that when its volcano erupted in 1257, it caused dark skies and cold temperatures for a year or more, prompting a failed harvest (the second in a row) in the British Isles. The famine and general chaos that followed helped to bring about a political crisis the following year, during which the powers of the King of England were dramatically curtailed.
What happened in early May 1258 was nothing less than a revolution. King Henry III was given an ultimatum by a group of noblemen: agree to the setting up of a committee to govern the country, promise to act only on its instructions, and hand over the royal seal (the essential sign of authority for all royal decrees) to an official chosen by that committee. Four centuries later, Charles I would go to war to avoid submitting to such humiliating conditions.
But King Henry had little choice but to accept. And during the next seven years, the restrictions on his power would become even heavier. In 1264, having tried to shake off his yoke, he was heavily defeated in battle and forced to become a puppet monarch. Paraded like a trophy, he was obliged to look on mutely as proclamations were read out – theoretically on his behalf – in Westminster Hall. Hearing of these conditions, the King of France said that he would rather be a plough-boy than rule on such terms.
Of all the factors that contributed to these developments, the most important was the driving will of one individual: Simon de Montfort. Old-fashioned history books used to celebrate him as the founder of English parliamentary democracy because, once he was in charge, he called knights of the shires to appear at all parliaments (not just the ones that discussed taxation), and also summoned representatives of the towns. These were certainly innovations, though modern historians fit them into long-term patterns of development that were happening anyway. Yet, after the revolution he had already pushed through, this enhancing of parliament was merely the icing on the cake.
The old “Whig” view of history also portrayed Simon as driven by high-minded constitutional principles of a rather Victorian kind. That interpretation has not fared well. It would not be very difficult, in fact, to tell the story of his exploits as a case study in sheer power politics, animated by personal ambition and even more personal resentment.
He had begun his career as a man on the make. His father, a famous military commander, had withdrawn from his English estates and titles to settle in France. Yet as a younger son, not destined to inherit the French estates, Simon managed to claw his way back into the English nobility. Nor did he stop there. He seduced (or so it was said) King Henry’s sister, whom he then married. For a while he was Henry’s right-hand man, but the relationship was soon embittered by personal quarrels, several of them about money. These disputes became ever more serious.
Sent to govern the King’s unruly French territory of Gascony, Simon imposed such draconian measures that Henry felt obliged to hold a public inquiry into his actions. When that inquiry found in Simon’s favour – a sign of how his political star was rising – Henry dismissed him; loftily, Simon waved aside the letters informing him of the decision, saying that they did not count because they were “made more by the will of the King than by reason”. A rebel’s charter indeed, prompting the obvious question: who is to decide what is reasonable and what is not?
Some of his own actions would not pass any test of reasonableness. The most notorious were his attacks on Jews. When he was first restored to the family title of Earl of Leicester, he issued an order banning them from the town. Worse would follow during the years of political turmoil, when he and his supporters raided the Jews of Worcester, London and Winchester for their money, killing many in the process. There were also some shocking attacks on the property of abbeys and priories.
But the important thing about Simon de Montfort, and one of the many fascinating things about this book, is that his story cannot be reduced just to his own wilful pursuit of self-interest. While he was certainly no modern democrat, he did have a moral code of justice that required him to consider the interests of ordinary (Christian) citizens – a case of what Sophie Thérèse Ambler calls, in one of her memorable phrases, “conscience-driven lordship”. King Henry had been turning the legal system into a machine for extracting money by fining people for things that were not their fault; Simon wanted to put a stop to that.
It’s hard to get into the heads of people who lived 800 years ago. This book goes further than you might think possible, by a clever use of letters, legal documents and chronicles; at times, we really can hear this man speak. But what he has to say derives from a mindset utterly remote from our own. From his father, Simon had imbibed a noble code of honour, in which a man’s oath was sacred. (The new constitution he devised really depended on the oaths of nobles to sustain it, and he was dismayed to see how easily some of them broke their word.)
The code of honour involved knightly chivalry, of course, and at the same time it had a deeply religious basis. Yet, as Ambler shows, those two things – worldly honour and divine duty – were now being pulled apart. The mentality of holy war, developed for crusades and then directed against Christian heretics, was seeping into ordinary warfare – a Manichaean view in which the enemy were an embodiment of evil and deserved no quarter. That was the opposite of traditional chivalry, and Simon itself would suffer its effects at his final battle in 1265, when Henry’s men killed and decapitated him, amputated his hands and feet, and chopped off his testicles.
This is a remarkable book: beautifully presented (with good maps and illustrations), finely written and based on a deep, scholarly knowledge of the sources. It’s rare to find a story and a storyteller so well matched.
Buy at Telegraph Books or call 0844 871 1514 to order for £16.99 | 1,328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Howard Taft
|For real world on Taft, see William Howard Taft on Wikipedia.|
William Howard Traft
William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 – March 8, 1930) was the twenty-seventh president of the United States of America.
Prior to his presidency (1909-1913), Taft was a born into the influential Taft family and was educated in law. In his early 30s, he was appointed Solicitor General of the United States by President Benjamin Harrison. He went on to serve the United States Court of Appeals while serving as the first dean and a professor of constitutional law at the University of Cincinnati until 1900. From 1901 to 1904, Taft was appointed as the first civilian Governor-General of the Philippines by President McKinley.
He left the governorship in 1904 to serve as President Theodore Roosevelt's Secretary of War. He ran on the Republican ticket in 1908 and won the Presidency after Roosevelt stated he was not running for a third term. His presidency saw a shift in presidential conduct in which the rule of the law took precedent over the political charisma of Roosevelt's presidency. After his presidency, he returned to law a served as the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court between 1921 and 1930. The Taft tunnel beneath Washington, D.C. was named to commemorate him.
William Howard Taft is mentioned only in Fallout 3. | <urn:uuid:b76449a8-ebcd-4393-818c-ffb4e69ce6fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fallout.gamepedia.com/William_Howard_Taft | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.984283 | 287 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.5309078097343... | 2 | William Howard Taft
|For real world on Taft, see William Howard Taft on Wikipedia.|
William Howard Traft
William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 – March 8, 1930) was the twenty-seventh president of the United States of America.
Prior to his presidency (1909-1913), Taft was a born into the influential Taft family and was educated in law. In his early 30s, he was appointed Solicitor General of the United States by President Benjamin Harrison. He went on to serve the United States Court of Appeals while serving as the first dean and a professor of constitutional law at the University of Cincinnati until 1900. From 1901 to 1904, Taft was appointed as the first civilian Governor-General of the Philippines by President McKinley.
He left the governorship in 1904 to serve as President Theodore Roosevelt's Secretary of War. He ran on the Republican ticket in 1908 and won the Presidency after Roosevelt stated he was not running for a third term. His presidency saw a shift in presidential conduct in which the rule of the law took precedent over the political charisma of Roosevelt's presidency. After his presidency, he returned to law a served as the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court between 1921 and 1930. The Taft tunnel beneath Washington, D.C. was named to commemorate him.
William Howard Taft is mentioned only in Fallout 3. | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lictor: bodyguard in ancient Rome, whose task it was to protect magistrates.
The word lictor may be derived from the Latin verb ligare, which means "to bind". This is sometimes said to refer to the fasces they carried, which were a set of rods that were bound in the form of a bundle, and contained an ax. In other words, the lictor was the man who prepared the fasces, the "binder", or had to - according to other sources - bind the hands of criminals. An alternative for these unconvincing etymologies is that the word is derived from the Etruscan root lauchum, which means "royal". There is something to be said for this, because the lictors had once been the bodyguard of the Etruscan and Roman kings, and the fasces are probably an Etruscan invention.
According to the Roman tradition, in the archaic age, each of the kings of the twelve-city league of Etruria had twelve lictors. Unfortunately, we have no proof that there were ever twelve member towns of this league. Given the plurality of constitutions in the better known fifth and fourth centuries, it is highly unlikely that there were ever twelve Etruscan kings. The tradition seems to be invented to explain why the Roman kings had twelve lictors.
After the fall of the Roman monarchy, the lictor and his fasces were the symbols of those magistrates that held imperium, which means that they had the right to command and interpret the flight of the birds. A consul was escorted by twelve lictors and a praetor by six. On special occasions, this number varied. For example, the arch of Titus shows a triumphator with thirteen lictors; it seems that the additional guard was there to give added luster to the occasion. Likewise, when a dictator was appointed during a crisis, he had an escort of twenty-four lictors to show that he was more powerful than both consuls. The other magistrates -quaestor, aedile, censor- held no imperium and were not escorted by a bodyguard.
Other persons entitled to a lictor were the Vestal Virgins (although this was technical not an ordinary lictor, but a lictor curiatus), and the governors of the provinces (proconsuls and propraetors), who had six bodyguards. The commanders of the legions were surrounded by five lictors, indicating that they were subordinate to the governors. Finally, in Egypt, the sacred bull Apis was protected by a lictor.
Lictors had several tasks. In the first place, they had to stand next to the magistrate when he addressed the crowd. This explains why the speaker's platform on the Roman Forum (Rostra) is so large: not only the consul had to stand over there, but his entire escort as well. When the magistrate left the Forum, or arrived, the lictors had to make room. This also implied minor jobs like opening gates and knocking on doors. The lictor was also responsible for the safety of the magistrate when he was at home. We read about visits to temples, theaters and even baths.
Lictors were also responsible for arresting and punishing people. This was the function implied in the fasces: the rods could be used to lash people, the ax to execute them. Probably, this last task had already become a dead letter by the middle of the fifth century. After the Laws of the twelve tables, no Roman magistrate could summarily execute a Roman citizen.
A magistrate was never seen without his lictors, except for two occasions: when he entered a free city, and when he visited a higher magistrate. So, when a praetor visited a consul, the lictors remained outside.
A special group of lictors was that of the thirty lictores curiati. They had religious tasks, and served the pontifex maximus (high priest) and the priests known as flamines They had tasks when a sacrifice was brought, represented the assembly of the tribes (comitia curiata), and were responsible for the protection of the Vestal Virgins. After the fall of the republic, they also protected female members of the imperial family.
Not everybody could become lictor. One had to be strong and had to be a free man - something that was shown by the fact that in the city, the lictor wore a toga. This cannot have been practical if the lictor had to protect his magistrate with violence, and it comes as no surprise that he wore a cape when he was in a military camp. In return for his services a lictor received a salary of 600 sesterces (at the beginning of our era), which was two-thirds of the earnings of a legionary. It was a decent income. | <urn:uuid:94b2096c-4bad-4e1f-89b8-66a81f1962b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/lictor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.988776 | 1,033 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.134968355298... | 9 | Lictor: bodyguard in ancient Rome, whose task it was to protect magistrates.
The word lictor may be derived from the Latin verb ligare, which means "to bind". This is sometimes said to refer to the fasces they carried, which were a set of rods that were bound in the form of a bundle, and contained an ax. In other words, the lictor was the man who prepared the fasces, the "binder", or had to - according to other sources - bind the hands of criminals. An alternative for these unconvincing etymologies is that the word is derived from the Etruscan root lauchum, which means "royal". There is something to be said for this, because the lictors had once been the bodyguard of the Etruscan and Roman kings, and the fasces are probably an Etruscan invention.
According to the Roman tradition, in the archaic age, each of the kings of the twelve-city league of Etruria had twelve lictors. Unfortunately, we have no proof that there were ever twelve member towns of this league. Given the plurality of constitutions in the better known fifth and fourth centuries, it is highly unlikely that there were ever twelve Etruscan kings. The tradition seems to be invented to explain why the Roman kings had twelve lictors.
After the fall of the Roman monarchy, the lictor and his fasces were the symbols of those magistrates that held imperium, which means that they had the right to command and interpret the flight of the birds. A consul was escorted by twelve lictors and a praetor by six. On special occasions, this number varied. For example, the arch of Titus shows a triumphator with thirteen lictors; it seems that the additional guard was there to give added luster to the occasion. Likewise, when a dictator was appointed during a crisis, he had an escort of twenty-four lictors to show that he was more powerful than both consuls. The other magistrates -quaestor, aedile, censor- held no imperium and were not escorted by a bodyguard.
Other persons entitled to a lictor were the Vestal Virgins (although this was technical not an ordinary lictor, but a lictor curiatus), and the governors of the provinces (proconsuls and propraetors), who had six bodyguards. The commanders of the legions were surrounded by five lictors, indicating that they were subordinate to the governors. Finally, in Egypt, the sacred bull Apis was protected by a lictor.
Lictors had several tasks. In the first place, they had to stand next to the magistrate when he addressed the crowd. This explains why the speaker's platform on the Roman Forum (Rostra) is so large: not only the consul had to stand over there, but his entire escort as well. When the magistrate left the Forum, or arrived, the lictors had to make room. This also implied minor jobs like opening gates and knocking on doors. The lictor was also responsible for the safety of the magistrate when he was at home. We read about visits to temples, theaters and even baths.
Lictors were also responsible for arresting and punishing people. This was the function implied in the fasces: the rods could be used to lash people, the ax to execute them. Probably, this last task had already become a dead letter by the middle of the fifth century. After the Laws of the twelve tables, no Roman magistrate could summarily execute a Roman citizen.
A magistrate was never seen without his lictors, except for two occasions: when he entered a free city, and when he visited a higher magistrate. So, when a praetor visited a consul, the lictors remained outside.
A special group of lictors was that of the thirty lictores curiati. They had religious tasks, and served the pontifex maximus (high priest) and the priests known as flamines They had tasks when a sacrifice was brought, represented the assembly of the tribes (comitia curiata), and were responsible for the protection of the Vestal Virgins. After the fall of the republic, they also protected female members of the imperial family.
Not everybody could become lictor. One had to be strong and had to be a free man - something that was shown by the fact that in the city, the lictor wore a toga. This cannot have been practical if the lictor had to protect his magistrate with violence, and it comes as no surprise that he wore a cape when he was in a military camp. In return for his services a lictor received a salary of 600 sesterces (at the beginning of our era), which was two-thirds of the earnings of a legionary. It was a decent income. | 1,019 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Long before there were credit cards, or even plastic, for that matter, Americans relied on credit, which, for day-to-day matters typically took the form charge accounts with local retailers. It was not only the consumer, however, that relied on credit, but also the retailer. From the earliest days of the United States, credit has been a part of the American way of doing business.
In the early years of the nation, we were primarily an agrarian society, which meant that, for many, income rested upon when the crops were harvested and sold. Credit and charge accounts, rather than the more structured repayment of an installment purchase, which was as common in the early days of the nation as it is today, if not more so, were more individual in nature, relying heavily on the personal relationship between the consumer and the retailer.
What was called store or book credit was a charge account with a retailer. As the name suggests, the records were kept in a ledger, or book. This type of arrangement took place throughout the nation, in cities big and small. It was also a feature of company towns, meaning those that sprung up around a particular factory or industry, such as in coal mining towns, where food and general goods were purchased at a company store on credit until the worker received his pay and would pay the tab and begin again.
Thus, for many retailers, particularly those in rural, farming country or those that were in company towns, without being willing to extend credit through credit and charge accounts, they would not be able to stay in business at all. Credit and charge accounts were mutually beneficial to consumer and retailer, with many retailers having more charge account business than actual cash at the time of sale business.
Because of the more personal nature of the business relationship, repayment schedules tended to vary, according to when the consumer had funds available. A farmer may pay with the yearly sale of crops, whereas a wage worker would pay upon receiving his salary, whether that was weekly or monthly. During hard times, fluctuations of fortune or illness or injury, retailers would often extend credit to tide a trustworthy, longtime customer through, even though payments were sporadic or widely spaced. It was one of the advantages that this local, more personal system had.
Naturally, extending credit had its risks then, as it does today. Then, as now, the court system was used to resolve matters of unpaid debt. However, there was a significant difference between how debtors were dealt with in the past and how they are handled today. Well into the 1800s we had debtors’ prisons, which was certainly more of a hardship than the consequences of today. However, for the average retailer, the gains to be had by working with credit and charge accounts outweighed the occasional loss experienced through non-payment.
Credit cards and other more modern and impersonal means of credit and charge account purchasing became a fixture in the consumer-retailer relationship in the 1950s. However, even today the traditional, more personal and informal types of charge accounts do still exist. Now, as they did then, these arrangements tend to be based on relationships, which means we can expect to always see some form of the book credit retail system that has been with us for as long as we’ve been the United States.
Consumer credit has been a part of the American economy from the beginning. Without extending some sort of credit to customers, many businesses simply would not have been able to operate. Today’s modern means, the credit card, has greatly reduced the degree to which individual retailers personally extend credit to consumers. However, credit itself remains as essential part of the retail economy as it ever was.
- A brief history of credit scoring and credit reporting
- A brief history of credit cards
- Women and Credit – A Brief History
- A brief history of Credit Unions
Latest posts by Liz, Financial Advisor (see all)
- Beating the Fear That Comes with Serious Debt Problems - November 25, 2019
- 5 Steps to Building Great Credit - July 2, 2018
- Understanding Credit Card Terminology - May 29, 2018 | <urn:uuid:199bf8a5-adcb-41b4-a46f-301557e1c129> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.directlendingsolutions.com/history_of_credit.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.989088 | 841 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1794056... | 1 | Long before there were credit cards, or even plastic, for that matter, Americans relied on credit, which, for day-to-day matters typically took the form charge accounts with local retailers. It was not only the consumer, however, that relied on credit, but also the retailer. From the earliest days of the United States, credit has been a part of the American way of doing business.
In the early years of the nation, we were primarily an agrarian society, which meant that, for many, income rested upon when the crops were harvested and sold. Credit and charge accounts, rather than the more structured repayment of an installment purchase, which was as common in the early days of the nation as it is today, if not more so, were more individual in nature, relying heavily on the personal relationship between the consumer and the retailer.
What was called store or book credit was a charge account with a retailer. As the name suggests, the records were kept in a ledger, or book. This type of arrangement took place throughout the nation, in cities big and small. It was also a feature of company towns, meaning those that sprung up around a particular factory or industry, such as in coal mining towns, where food and general goods were purchased at a company store on credit until the worker received his pay and would pay the tab and begin again.
Thus, for many retailers, particularly those in rural, farming country or those that were in company towns, without being willing to extend credit through credit and charge accounts, they would not be able to stay in business at all. Credit and charge accounts were mutually beneficial to consumer and retailer, with many retailers having more charge account business than actual cash at the time of sale business.
Because of the more personal nature of the business relationship, repayment schedules tended to vary, according to when the consumer had funds available. A farmer may pay with the yearly sale of crops, whereas a wage worker would pay upon receiving his salary, whether that was weekly or monthly. During hard times, fluctuations of fortune or illness or injury, retailers would often extend credit to tide a trustworthy, longtime customer through, even though payments were sporadic or widely spaced. It was one of the advantages that this local, more personal system had.
Naturally, extending credit had its risks then, as it does today. Then, as now, the court system was used to resolve matters of unpaid debt. However, there was a significant difference between how debtors were dealt with in the past and how they are handled today. Well into the 1800s we had debtors’ prisons, which was certainly more of a hardship than the consequences of today. However, for the average retailer, the gains to be had by working with credit and charge accounts outweighed the occasional loss experienced through non-payment.
Credit cards and other more modern and impersonal means of credit and charge account purchasing became a fixture in the consumer-retailer relationship in the 1950s. However, even today the traditional, more personal and informal types of charge accounts do still exist. Now, as they did then, these arrangements tend to be based on relationships, which means we can expect to always see some form of the book credit retail system that has been with us for as long as we’ve been the United States.
Consumer credit has been a part of the American economy from the beginning. Without extending some sort of credit to customers, many businesses simply would not have been able to operate. Today’s modern means, the credit card, has greatly reduced the degree to which individual retailers personally extend credit to consumers. However, credit itself remains as essential part of the retail economy as it ever was.
- A brief history of credit scoring and credit reporting
- A brief history of credit cards
- Women and Credit – A Brief History
- A brief history of Credit Unions
Latest posts by Liz, Financial Advisor (see all)
- Beating the Fear That Comes with Serious Debt Problems - November 25, 2019
- 5 Steps to Building Great Credit - July 2, 2018
- Understanding Credit Card Terminology - May 29, 2018 | 849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated on
President’s Day is a Federal holiday celebrated in the United States. It is celebrated the third Monday in February. Originally, this date was known as Washington’s Birthday, but since President Lincoln and Washington’s birthdays are so close together ,this day has been made the official President’s Day.
It is honoring the two great presidents – and there are some very interesting tidbits about it:
George Washington was actually born on February 11,1731, but everyone knows that his birthday is listed as February 22nd. When he was born the colonies were using the Julian calendar, which was 11 days behind the Gregorian calendar. And then when in 1752, Britain and colonies switched to Gregorian calendar, Washington’s birthday was moved to February 22nd.
George Washington created the Purple heart – medal that recognizing soldiers who have been injured in battle. He was a great leader with tons of courage and that earned him the nickname “The Founder of his Country”.
During his last year as president, his birthday was declared a holiday and was known as “Washington’s birthday”, until 1885 when then president Chester A. Arthur signed a legislation that made it a federal holiday.
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12,1809 and his biggest accomplishment is preserving United States during the Civil War. To this day, there are some states that celebrate Lincoln’s birthday as their state holiday – but it was never a holiday elevated to the federal level.
The uniform Monday Holiday Bill was passed by the Congress in 1968, making the third Monday in February “President’s Day” .Subsequent promotions and marketing efforts in 1980’s by businesses really made President’s Day commercial holiday and the public started referring to the holiday by the name of “The President’s Day”.
How To Celebrate President’s Day
If you would like to celebrate and acknowledge this holiday, here are a few ideas:
Read the Gettysburg Address for yourself or read it to your family. Remember that Lincoln was a very powerful writer and orator:
“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate…we can not consecrate…we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us-that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion-that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain-that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom-and that government: of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
Visit a Civil War battlefield. Gettysburg is the most well-known, but there are many other national monuments that honor the soldiers who died during the Civil War.
Here is where you can find Civil War Battlefields in your state:
Bake a Cherry Pie! Or if you don’t feel like baking one, just get one to eat. George Washington may not have ever chopped down that cherry tree, but why waste a good story?
Here is how the legend goes:
When George Washington was about six years old, he was made the wealthy master of a hatchet of which, like most little boys, he was extremely fond. He went about chopping everything that came his way.
One day, as he wandered about the garden amusing himself by hacking his mother’s pea- sticks, he found a beautiful, young English cherry tree, of which his father was most proud. He tried the edge of his hatchet on the trunk of the tree and barked it so that it died.
Some time after this, his father discovered what had happened to his favorite tree. He came into the house in great anger, and demanded to know who the mischievous person was who had cut away the bark. Nobody could tell him anything about it.
Just then George, with his little hatchet, came into the room.
“George,” said his father, “do you know who has killed my beautiful little cherry tree yonder in the garden? I would not have taken five guineas for it!”
This was a hard question to answer, and for a moment George was staggered by it, but quickly recovering himself he cried: —
“I cannot tell a lie, father, you know I cannot tell a lie! I did cut it with my little hatchet.”
The anger died out of his father’s face, and taking the boy tenderly in his arms, he said: —
“My son, that you should not be afraid to tell the truth is more to me than a thousand trees! yes, though they were blossomed with silver and had leaves of the purest gold!”
And here is a recipe for a great Super Simple Cherry Pie for you:
- 4 cups of pitted Tart Cherries, well drained
- 1 tsp of vanilla
- 1/4 cup of granulated sugar
- 2 tbsp of cornstarch
- Half a package of frozen puff pastry, thawed (1 piece)
- 1 egg, lightly beaten
- In large bowl, stir cherries with vanilla.
- In another bowl, stir sugar with cornstarch; stir into cherries until blended.
- On lightly floured surface, roll puff pastry into thin 14-inch circle. (Edges will not be even.)
- Lift onto ungreased baking sheet.
- Spoon cherry mixture into centre; gently fold up edges of pastry to partially cover the filling, leaving centre uncovered.
- Brush pastry with egg.
- Bake on rack below centre of 400°F oven until pastry is golden and filling is bubbly, about 40 minutes.
- Let cool before cutting.
Have a great holiday and I hope you have enjoyed receiving all this information. As always, your comments, suggestiong and input is very welcomed! | <urn:uuid:da3f40e9-e390-4a94-9708-ea3e6ebc9a51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mama-knows.com/featured-articles/all-about-presidents-day.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.981025 | 1,456 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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President’s Day is a Federal holiday celebrated in the United States. It is celebrated the third Monday in February. Originally, this date was known as Washington’s Birthday, but since President Lincoln and Washington’s birthdays are so close together ,this day has been made the official President’s Day.
It is honoring the two great presidents – and there are some very interesting tidbits about it:
George Washington was actually born on February 11,1731, but everyone knows that his birthday is listed as February 22nd. When he was born the colonies were using the Julian calendar, which was 11 days behind the Gregorian calendar. And then when in 1752, Britain and colonies switched to Gregorian calendar, Washington’s birthday was moved to February 22nd.
George Washington created the Purple heart – medal that recognizing soldiers who have been injured in battle. He was a great leader with tons of courage and that earned him the nickname “The Founder of his Country”.
During his last year as president, his birthday was declared a holiday and was known as “Washington’s birthday”, until 1885 when then president Chester A. Arthur signed a legislation that made it a federal holiday.
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12,1809 and his biggest accomplishment is preserving United States during the Civil War. To this day, there are some states that celebrate Lincoln’s birthday as their state holiday – but it was never a holiday elevated to the federal level.
The uniform Monday Holiday Bill was passed by the Congress in 1968, making the third Monday in February “President’s Day” .Subsequent promotions and marketing efforts in 1980’s by businesses really made President’s Day commercial holiday and the public started referring to the holiday by the name of “The President’s Day”.
How To Celebrate President’s Day
If you would like to celebrate and acknowledge this holiday, here are a few ideas:
Read the Gettysburg Address for yourself or read it to your family. Remember that Lincoln was a very powerful writer and orator:
“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate…we can not consecrate…we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us-that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion-that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain-that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom-and that government: of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
Visit a Civil War battlefield. Gettysburg is the most well-known, but there are many other national monuments that honor the soldiers who died during the Civil War.
Here is where you can find Civil War Battlefields in your state:
Bake a Cherry Pie! Or if you don’t feel like baking one, just get one to eat. George Washington may not have ever chopped down that cherry tree, but why waste a good story?
Here is how the legend goes:
When George Washington was about six years old, he was made the wealthy master of a hatchet of which, like most little boys, he was extremely fond. He went about chopping everything that came his way.
One day, as he wandered about the garden amusing himself by hacking his mother’s pea- sticks, he found a beautiful, young English cherry tree, of which his father was most proud. He tried the edge of his hatchet on the trunk of the tree and barked it so that it died.
Some time after this, his father discovered what had happened to his favorite tree. He came into the house in great anger, and demanded to know who the mischievous person was who had cut away the bark. Nobody could tell him anything about it.
Just then George, with his little hatchet, came into the room.
“George,” said his father, “do you know who has killed my beautiful little cherry tree yonder in the garden? I would not have taken five guineas for it!”
This was a hard question to answer, and for a moment George was staggered by it, but quickly recovering himself he cried: —
“I cannot tell a lie, father, you know I cannot tell a lie! I did cut it with my little hatchet.”
The anger died out of his father’s face, and taking the boy tenderly in his arms, he said: —
“My son, that you should not be afraid to tell the truth is more to me than a thousand trees! yes, though they were blossomed with silver and had leaves of the purest gold!”
And here is a recipe for a great Super Simple Cherry Pie for you:
- 4 cups of pitted Tart Cherries, well drained
- 1 tsp of vanilla
- 1/4 cup of granulated sugar
- 2 tbsp of cornstarch
- Half a package of frozen puff pastry, thawed (1 piece)
- 1 egg, lightly beaten
- In large bowl, stir cherries with vanilla.
- In another bowl, stir sugar with cornstarch; stir into cherries until blended.
- On lightly floured surface, roll puff pastry into thin 14-inch circle. (Edges will not be even.)
- Lift onto ungreased baking sheet.
- Spoon cherry mixture into centre; gently fold up edges of pastry to partially cover the filling, leaving centre uncovered.
- Brush pastry with egg.
- Bake on rack below centre of 400°F oven until pastry is golden and filling is bubbly, about 40 minutes.
- Let cool before cutting.
Have a great holiday and I hope you have enjoyed receiving all this information. As always, your comments, suggestiong and input is very welcomed! | 1,405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Jones Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Frederick McKinley Jones was an American mechanical inventor who patented over 60 inventions during his lifetime.
Frederick McKinley Jones, commonly known as Frederick Jones was born on May 17, 1893, in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was the son of an Irish American John Jones and his African American wife. His mother left them when he was a child. He grew up under the care of his father. At the age of seven, he went to live and study under Father Ryan at the local Catholic Church. Jones was not accepted to any children home partly due to his maternal African heritage. His father died when he was 9.
Jones worked at the parish and expressed a clear interest in mechanics. He was encouraged by his mentor Father Ryan to pursue the vocation. He interacted with various models of cars as he cleaned them at the church. He worked hard to please his wealthy car owners during their visits at the car wash. He became inquisitive to understand the mechanical nature of any car he came across. He grasped the mechanical systems fast. He taught himself by practically doing things, rather the conventional theory. Car owners volunteered information to his questions.
In 1904, Jones left the confines of the parish at the age of 11. He was employed at a garage in his hometown. He cleaned the garage and continued observing and helping out in mechanics. At the age of 14, Jones became a fulltime mechanic. He became the garage mechanical supervisor the following year. He developed an interest in car racing. He started working on racing cars. He angered his employer who discouraged him for his age. Jones persisted in his ambition and often quarreled with his employer. He was sacked from the job at the age of 19.
He left and got employed as a mechanic at a hotel in Minneapolis. He was noticed by a visitor who offered him work on his farm. Oscar Younggren put Jones in charge of the mechanical maintenance of the 50,000-acre farm in Hallock. He worked on the farm for two years. In 1915 Younggren sold the farm. Jones stayed in Hallock and worked as a mechanic for the next 18 years. He started studying electrical engineering through a correspondence program.
He joined the military and fought in WW1. After he was discharged, Jones returned to Hallock. During his military service, Jones was attached to an African American unit. After his seniors discovered his talent, Jones was given more responsibilities. He wired electrical gadgets and did other mechanical repairs for units in the camps. He became in charge of the military communication systems on the battlefield. Jones worked on military vehicles and deployment portable medical equipment. He was discharged with the rank of Sergeant, a rare fete for an African American then.
In Hallock, Jones built a film projector. He added sound to the moving pictures. He constructed a radio transmitter for the town. He was employed by Joseph Numero, a businessman from Minneapolis. Jones was tasked to improve the sound quality of the film production machines at Cinema Supplies. He improved the sound clarity on the machines Numero supplied to the market. He never patented his inventions exposing his ideas to piracy and duplications. Jones created a movie theater ticket dispensing machine. He patented the machine on June 17, 1939.
Jones created the first truck refrigerated system for a business friend of Numero. Harry Werner transported perishable food using trucks. Due to the heat in the trucks, he suffered loses for lack of preservation. He approached Jones for help. Jones created the system which Numero thought as farfetched. He patented his invention in July 1940.
Jones and Numero founded a partnership company called the U.S. Thermo Control Company. They created a mass production of refrigeration facilities across the market. It later changed its name to U.S. Thermo Control Corporation. Jones worked with electrical and mechanical engineers at the company. He baffled them with his grasp of systems without any formal training. He was impatient with the theoretical students. He emphasized on a hands-on approach to fixing problems by practically getting involved.
His refrigeration inventions created a boom in the transportation of fresh food to far-flung areas. His invention was mounted on airplanes, ships, and hospitals. He made cooling units for the US military during WW2. The military used the units to transport and preserve medical, food and blood supplies to the frontline in battle. When the war ended, Jones created cooling systems for ambulances and other medical carrier units. Jones also invented portable X-ray machines, sound systems, and propeller engines. Ones lost most of his inventions to piracy. People stole his ideas and patented them before he could claim them. In all his inventions, Jones patented 61 of them.
In 1944, he became the first black member of the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers. In 1977, the Minnesota Inventors inducted him into their Hall of Fame.
Frederick Jones died on February 21, 1961, of lung cancer in Minneapolis. His invention formula in refrigeration is still in use decades after his death. | <urn:uuid:de4eb3ec-5b72-41f1-aa0f-4b071f290cb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/frederick-jones/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.98747 | 1,033 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.121773347258567... | 4 | Frederick Jones Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Frederick McKinley Jones was an American mechanical inventor who patented over 60 inventions during his lifetime.
Frederick McKinley Jones, commonly known as Frederick Jones was born on May 17, 1893, in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was the son of an Irish American John Jones and his African American wife. His mother left them when he was a child. He grew up under the care of his father. At the age of seven, he went to live and study under Father Ryan at the local Catholic Church. Jones was not accepted to any children home partly due to his maternal African heritage. His father died when he was 9.
Jones worked at the parish and expressed a clear interest in mechanics. He was encouraged by his mentor Father Ryan to pursue the vocation. He interacted with various models of cars as he cleaned them at the church. He worked hard to please his wealthy car owners during their visits at the car wash. He became inquisitive to understand the mechanical nature of any car he came across. He grasped the mechanical systems fast. He taught himself by practically doing things, rather the conventional theory. Car owners volunteered information to his questions.
In 1904, Jones left the confines of the parish at the age of 11. He was employed at a garage in his hometown. He cleaned the garage and continued observing and helping out in mechanics. At the age of 14, Jones became a fulltime mechanic. He became the garage mechanical supervisor the following year. He developed an interest in car racing. He started working on racing cars. He angered his employer who discouraged him for his age. Jones persisted in his ambition and often quarreled with his employer. He was sacked from the job at the age of 19.
He left and got employed as a mechanic at a hotel in Minneapolis. He was noticed by a visitor who offered him work on his farm. Oscar Younggren put Jones in charge of the mechanical maintenance of the 50,000-acre farm in Hallock. He worked on the farm for two years. In 1915 Younggren sold the farm. Jones stayed in Hallock and worked as a mechanic for the next 18 years. He started studying electrical engineering through a correspondence program.
He joined the military and fought in WW1. After he was discharged, Jones returned to Hallock. During his military service, Jones was attached to an African American unit. After his seniors discovered his talent, Jones was given more responsibilities. He wired electrical gadgets and did other mechanical repairs for units in the camps. He became in charge of the military communication systems on the battlefield. Jones worked on military vehicles and deployment portable medical equipment. He was discharged with the rank of Sergeant, a rare fete for an African American then.
In Hallock, Jones built a film projector. He added sound to the moving pictures. He constructed a radio transmitter for the town. He was employed by Joseph Numero, a businessman from Minneapolis. Jones was tasked to improve the sound quality of the film production machines at Cinema Supplies. He improved the sound clarity on the machines Numero supplied to the market. He never patented his inventions exposing his ideas to piracy and duplications. Jones created a movie theater ticket dispensing machine. He patented the machine on June 17, 1939.
Jones created the first truck refrigerated system for a business friend of Numero. Harry Werner transported perishable food using trucks. Due to the heat in the trucks, he suffered loses for lack of preservation. He approached Jones for help. Jones created the system which Numero thought as farfetched. He patented his invention in July 1940.
Jones and Numero founded a partnership company called the U.S. Thermo Control Company. They created a mass production of refrigeration facilities across the market. It later changed its name to U.S. Thermo Control Corporation. Jones worked with electrical and mechanical engineers at the company. He baffled them with his grasp of systems without any formal training. He was impatient with the theoretical students. He emphasized on a hands-on approach to fixing problems by practically getting involved.
His refrigeration inventions created a boom in the transportation of fresh food to far-flung areas. His invention was mounted on airplanes, ships, and hospitals. He made cooling units for the US military during WW2. The military used the units to transport and preserve medical, food and blood supplies to the frontline in battle. When the war ended, Jones created cooling systems for ambulances and other medical carrier units. Jones also invented portable X-ray machines, sound systems, and propeller engines. Ones lost most of his inventions to piracy. People stole his ideas and patented them before he could claim them. In all his inventions, Jones patented 61 of them.
In 1944, he became the first black member of the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers. In 1977, the Minnesota Inventors inducted him into their Hall of Fame.
Frederick Jones died on February 21, 1961, of lung cancer in Minneapolis. His invention formula in refrigeration is still in use decades after his death. | 1,071 | ENGLISH | 1 |
in the quotation from the Iliad we have just made, oxen were employed.
The only priests of these Aryans are the keepers of shrines and sacred places. There are chiefs, who are heads of families and who also perform sacrifices, but there does not seem to be much mystery or sacramental feeling in their religion. When the Greeks go to war, these heads and elders meet in council and appoint a king, whose powers are very loosely defined. There are no laws, but only customs; and no exact standards of conduct.
The social life of the early Greeks centred about the households of these leading men. There were no doubt huts for herds and the like, and outlying farm buildings; but the hall of the chief was a comprehensive centre, to which everyone went to feast, to hear the bards, to take part in games and exercises. The primitive craftsmen were gathered there. About it were cowsheds and stabling and such-like offices. Unimportant people slept about anywhere as retainers did in the mediæval castles and as people still do in Indian households. Except for quite personal possessions, there was still an air of patriarchal communism about the tribe. The tribe, or the chief as the head of the tribe, owned the grazing lands; forest and rivers were the wild.
The Aryan civilization seems, and indeed all early communities seem, to have been without the little separate households that make up the mass of the population in western Europe or America to-day. The tribe was a big family; the nation a group of tribal families; a household often contained hundreds of people. Human society began, just as herds and droves begin among animals, by the family delaying its breaking up. Nowadays the lions in East Africa are apparently becoming social animals in this way, | <urn:uuid:ef2e40c3-47cb-445b-bbc6-98dce8f19425> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/202 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.985616 | 371 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.316131979227... | 1 | in the quotation from the Iliad we have just made, oxen were employed.
The only priests of these Aryans are the keepers of shrines and sacred places. There are chiefs, who are heads of families and who also perform sacrifices, but there does not seem to be much mystery or sacramental feeling in their religion. When the Greeks go to war, these heads and elders meet in council and appoint a king, whose powers are very loosely defined. There are no laws, but only customs; and no exact standards of conduct.
The social life of the early Greeks centred about the households of these leading men. There were no doubt huts for herds and the like, and outlying farm buildings; but the hall of the chief was a comprehensive centre, to which everyone went to feast, to hear the bards, to take part in games and exercises. The primitive craftsmen were gathered there. About it were cowsheds and stabling and such-like offices. Unimportant people slept about anywhere as retainers did in the mediæval castles and as people still do in Indian households. Except for quite personal possessions, there was still an air of patriarchal communism about the tribe. The tribe, or the chief as the head of the tribe, owned the grazing lands; forest and rivers were the wild.
The Aryan civilization seems, and indeed all early communities seem, to have been without the little separate households that make up the mass of the population in western Europe or America to-day. The tribe was a big family; the nation a group of tribal families; a household often contained hundreds of people. Human society began, just as herds and droves begin among animals, by the family delaying its breaking up. Nowadays the lions in East Africa are apparently becoming social animals in this way, | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Passive To be + Past Participle Spanish is spoken in Cuba. (Negative) Not + 1st helping verb Spanish is not spoken in France.
Sentences are either in the activeor the passive voice.Active and Passive sentences have the same meaningIn writing, we prefer the active voice because it is more direct.
The Passive • Use the passive when it is not important to emphasize or even mention the doer (agent) of the action. • If the doer (agent) is important, the active voice is usually preferable.
The Passive occurs in the following circumstances: In scientific writing 3ml of HCL was added to the test tube and heated to 37%
When we want to emphasize what happened, not who did it.Jack was promoted last month.
In journalism, or other writing, when the writer cannot or does not want to identify the agent.The suspect is being questioned right now.
When the performer of the action is unknown.The wheel was invented during the bronze Age.
When the performer of the action is unimportant.Smoking is prohibited in airplanes.Cats are not allowed in the apartment.
Use of passive without by • Agent is unknown or not important • Clear from context –The book is sold at the auction for $50.00 • To avoid mentioning who – Some mistakes were made. • In scientific and technical writing and newspaper articles. • Very general (people, everyone, someone), impersonal subjects.
Use of passive with by • For additional new information My car was hit by a truck. • Information about agent is too important to omit. – It was signed by the president himself. • Proper names or famous people. This article was written by John Delgado. • Agent is surprising • To give credit to the creator of something.
Active sentences can take objectsPassive sentences do not take objects.The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive sentence.
Millions of people read the magazine.Active sentence: The focus is on people. The subject performs the action of the verb.
The magazine is read by millions of peoplePassive sentence: The focus is on magazine. The subject receives the action of the verb..
Passive sentences are only formed with transitive verbs.(do, take, buy, eat, give, make, etc)
You can not write passive sentences with intransitive verbs.(seem, happen, live, go, fall, or die)You can not say:He was diedyou have to say:He was killed
Simple present They serve lunch on the plane. Lunch is served on the plane.
Present Progressive They are serving lunch on the plane. Lunch is being served on the plane.
Simple Past They served lunch on the plane. Lunch was served on the plane.
Past Progressive They were serving lunch on the plane. Lunch was being served on the plane.
Present Perfect They have served lunch on the plane. Lunch has been served on the plane.
Past Perfect They had served lunch on the plane Lunch had been served on the plane
Future They will serve lunch on the plane. Lunch will be served on the plane. They are going to serve lunch on the plane. Lunch is going to be served on the plane.
Future Perfect They will have served lunch on the plane Lunch will have been served on the plane.
Modals • Lunch should be served on the plane • Lunch can be served • Lunch could be served • Lunch might be served • Lunch must be served • Lunch would be served • Lunch has to be served
Active Sentences They paint the house every 3 years. They painted the house last year. They will paint the house next year. They are painting the house now. They were painting the house all last week. They have just painted the house. They had just painted the house when the roof collapsed. They will have painted the house by next Tuesday. They expect to paint the house today. Passive Sentences The house is paintedevery three years. The house was painted last year. The house will be painted next year. The house is being painted now. The house was being painted all last week. The house has just been painted. The house had just been painted when the roof collapsed. The house will have been painted by next Tuesday. The house is expected to be painted today. Forms of the Passive
Passive Causative Get or have +object + past participle Sue gets her hair done once a week. I’ll have my house painted next week.
Use the Get or Have Passive : • To emphasize action rather than state (get passive is only used with action verbs and can not be used with stative verbs) • With living things • For services that you arrange for someone to do for you. • In conversation and not in formal speaking, and rarely in writing. | <urn:uuid:e88c0baa-079f-4be7-a2b8-9738131bb764> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/talitha/the-passive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.981774 | 990 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.01751138456... | 1 | The Passive To be + Past Participle Spanish is spoken in Cuba. (Negative) Not + 1st helping verb Spanish is not spoken in France.
Sentences are either in the activeor the passive voice.Active and Passive sentences have the same meaningIn writing, we prefer the active voice because it is more direct.
The Passive • Use the passive when it is not important to emphasize or even mention the doer (agent) of the action. • If the doer (agent) is important, the active voice is usually preferable.
The Passive occurs in the following circumstances: In scientific writing 3ml of HCL was added to the test tube and heated to 37%
When we want to emphasize what happened, not who did it.Jack was promoted last month.
In journalism, or other writing, when the writer cannot or does not want to identify the agent.The suspect is being questioned right now.
When the performer of the action is unknown.The wheel was invented during the bronze Age.
When the performer of the action is unimportant.Smoking is prohibited in airplanes.Cats are not allowed in the apartment.
Use of passive without by • Agent is unknown or not important • Clear from context –The book is sold at the auction for $50.00 • To avoid mentioning who – Some mistakes were made. • In scientific and technical writing and newspaper articles. • Very general (people, everyone, someone), impersonal subjects.
Use of passive with by • For additional new information My car was hit by a truck. • Information about agent is too important to omit. – It was signed by the president himself. • Proper names or famous people. This article was written by John Delgado. • Agent is surprising • To give credit to the creator of something.
Active sentences can take objectsPassive sentences do not take objects.The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive sentence.
Millions of people read the magazine.Active sentence: The focus is on people. The subject performs the action of the verb.
The magazine is read by millions of peoplePassive sentence: The focus is on magazine. The subject receives the action of the verb..
Passive sentences are only formed with transitive verbs.(do, take, buy, eat, give, make, etc)
You can not write passive sentences with intransitive verbs.(seem, happen, live, go, fall, or die)You can not say:He was diedyou have to say:He was killed
Simple present They serve lunch on the plane. Lunch is served on the plane.
Present Progressive They are serving lunch on the plane. Lunch is being served on the plane.
Simple Past They served lunch on the plane. Lunch was served on the plane.
Past Progressive They were serving lunch on the plane. Lunch was being served on the plane.
Present Perfect They have served lunch on the plane. Lunch has been served on the plane.
Past Perfect They had served lunch on the plane Lunch had been served on the plane
Future They will serve lunch on the plane. Lunch will be served on the plane. They are going to serve lunch on the plane. Lunch is going to be served on the plane.
Future Perfect They will have served lunch on the plane Lunch will have been served on the plane.
Modals • Lunch should be served on the plane • Lunch can be served • Lunch could be served • Lunch might be served • Lunch must be served • Lunch would be served • Lunch has to be served
Active Sentences They paint the house every 3 years. They painted the house last year. They will paint the house next year. They are painting the house now. They were painting the house all last week. They have just painted the house. They had just painted the house when the roof collapsed. They will have painted the house by next Tuesday. They expect to paint the house today. Passive Sentences The house is paintedevery three years. The house was painted last year. The house will be painted next year. The house is being painted now. The house was being painted all last week. The house has just been painted. The house had just been painted when the roof collapsed. The house will have been painted by next Tuesday. The house is expected to be painted today. Forms of the Passive
Passive Causative Get or have +object + past participle Sue gets her hair done once a week. I’ll have my house painted next week.
Use the Get or Have Passive : • To emphasize action rather than state (get passive is only used with action verbs and can not be used with stative verbs) • With living things • For services that you arrange for someone to do for you. • In conversation and not in formal speaking, and rarely in writing. | 966 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During 200 B.C.E. to 1450 B.C.E. the interaction along the Silk Roads continued in the amount of people that were trading along it and how the Silk Road is where people had traded mainly traded their luxurious goods but, it had changed by the Mongols who had come in and they made the Silk Road safer for everyone to trade. Also, the spread of disease like the Bubonic Plague had changed the interaction along the Silk Road.
The change of the Mongols coming in and making the Silk Road a very safe place to trade was significant to the entire world. It allowed merchants (they were the ones that mainly traded) and others to give their luxury goods and technological innovations by not having the fear of having anything stolen. This had impacted the Mongols into a positive way because it made their reputation of coming into Eurasia and changing the process of trading for the entire world. The cause of this was trading was a “major activity” that people all around the world did and the Mongols wanted to improve upon it. The effect of this happening was it had made everyone who traded less freighting to give luxury goods away because it was organized and secure.
Another change within the Silk Roads was that disease was becoming a major impact. Since the Silk Road was mainly throughout present-day Asia and Europe it had high rates of disease to spread. The known disease that affected the Europeans mostly was the Bubonic Plague. It had killed nearly a third of there population. Globally the world was affected also because it spread in India and China also but didn’t do as much harm. The cause of this was that disease would easily spread because there is people coming from all around Eurasia and they could catch it and spread the disease. The effect of the Bubonic plague was that the population mainly in Europe had dropped drastically but also other parts of Eurasia. | <urn:uuid:440f61b5-2be4-4e1d-adc5-6578412f21be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Ccot-Silk-Roads-556121.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.994521 | 384 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.06748627871274... | 1 | During 200 B.C.E. to 1450 B.C.E. the interaction along the Silk Roads continued in the amount of people that were trading along it and how the Silk Road is where people had traded mainly traded their luxurious goods but, it had changed by the Mongols who had come in and they made the Silk Road safer for everyone to trade. Also, the spread of disease like the Bubonic Plague had changed the interaction along the Silk Road.
The change of the Mongols coming in and making the Silk Road a very safe place to trade was significant to the entire world. It allowed merchants (they were the ones that mainly traded) and others to give their luxury goods and technological innovations by not having the fear of having anything stolen. This had impacted the Mongols into a positive way because it made their reputation of coming into Eurasia and changing the process of trading for the entire world. The cause of this was trading was a “major activity” that people all around the world did and the Mongols wanted to improve upon it. The effect of this happening was it had made everyone who traded less freighting to give luxury goods away because it was organized and secure.
Another change within the Silk Roads was that disease was becoming a major impact. Since the Silk Road was mainly throughout present-day Asia and Europe it had high rates of disease to spread. The known disease that affected the Europeans mostly was the Bubonic Plague. It had killed nearly a third of there population. Globally the world was affected also because it spread in India and China also but didn’t do as much harm. The cause of this was that disease would easily spread because there is people coming from all around Eurasia and they could catch it and spread the disease. The effect of the Bubonic plague was that the population mainly in Europe had dropped drastically but also other parts of Eurasia. | 384 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tuesday, August 24, 2010
Claiming Fannie Cobb
The Western Cherokee received formal title to their land by virtue of a treaty between the United States and the Cherokee, where the Cherokee Nation ceded an area in the east Nation equal to that land occupied by the Western Cherokee in Arkansas. Under this same treaty the U.S. government began actively encouraging Native Americans to move west. It became known as the Trail of Tears. The Choctaw were the first in 1831. The Seminole were removed in 1832, the Creek in 1834, then the Chickasaw in 1837. By the early 1830's, more than 4,000 Native Americans were living west of the Mississippi.
Many Native Americans suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their destinations, and many died. The Cherokee were the last to be removed. The U.S. Government tried to remove them in 1835, but most resisted, so they were forcibly removed. In the end, some 46,000 Native Americans had been removed from their homelands.
Between 1839 and 1846, the Indian Nation became divided over who owned the land. A third treaty, signed in August of 1846, determined that the lands occupied by the tribe belonged to all the members. At the same time, the Federal Government admitted that it had, among other things, improperly charged the Cherokee against the $5,000,000 they received for their lands back East. Three lawsuits were filed with the United States Court of Claims ruling in favor of the Cherokee. As a result, over one million dollars was awarded to the Eastern Cherokee.
The Department of Interior assigned a Mr. Guion Miller as special agent to identify those who were eligible to receive $133.18 that was given to each person. The Guion Miller Roll was made to distribute the money to all Eastern Cherokee that were alive on May 28, 1906, who could prove that they were members of the tribe at the time of the treaties of 1835, 1836 and 1845, or were descended from members of the tribe. Each applicant was asked for such information as full English and Indian name, residence, age, place of birth, name of husband or wife, names of children, place of birth and date of death of parents and grandparents, names and ages of brothers and sisters, and names of uncles and aunts. Mr. Miller released his report on May 28, 1909. Over 45,000 applications representing 90,000 individuals were filed with only 30,254 individuals being found eligible. 27,051 of those eligible lived west of the Mississippi River, with another 3,203 living east of the Mississippi River.
According to the records of the U.S. Court of Claims, over 250 of the applicants claimed to be a descendant of Fannie Cobb, a full-blooded Cherokee who lived in Fentress County, Tennessee.
Fannie Coker Cobb was my fifth great-grandmother on my mothers side. Her son, Jesse's granddaughter, Deborah, married George Boles, who was my grandfather's grandfather.
According to the book, Extract of the Rejected Applications of the Guion Miller Roll of the Eastern Cherokee, Vol. 3, (2006) by Jo Ann Curls Page, several of the descendants on my mother's side were among those applications which were denied. They included George and Deborah Boles and some of their children, including Barlow, Doll, Hige (my great-grandfather) and George's father, John Boles.
In his claim filed in 1907, Deborah's brother, Asa Smith, wrote that he was applying "for such share as may be due me of the fund appropriated in favor of the Eastern Cherokees through my grandfather Jesse Cobb. His mother was a Coker and she was a Cherokee Indian. She married a Cobb, my mother's maiden name: Fannie Cobb." The claim was denied.
If Fannie Cobb was a full-blooded Cherokee, then one of three things happened to cause their applications to be rejecrted. They either failed to fill out the applications correctly, failed to prove their direct relation to Fannie or they failed to prove she was a full-blooded Cherokee. Fannie Coker Cobb died five years before the U.S. Court of Claims ruling.
I came across a word the other day: Presumptuous [pri-zuhmp-choo-uhs], adjective It means failing to observe the limits of what is p...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | <urn:uuid:4fdb014b-1f20-40a4-b781-447b36f9a344> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.randyspecktacular.com/2010/08/claiming-fannie-cobb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00327.warc.gz | en | 0.985841 | 1,027 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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Claiming Fannie Cobb
The Western Cherokee received formal title to their land by virtue of a treaty between the United States and the Cherokee, where the Cherokee Nation ceded an area in the east Nation equal to that land occupied by the Western Cherokee in Arkansas. Under this same treaty the U.S. government began actively encouraging Native Americans to move west. It became known as the Trail of Tears. The Choctaw were the first in 1831. The Seminole were removed in 1832, the Creek in 1834, then the Chickasaw in 1837. By the early 1830's, more than 4,000 Native Americans were living west of the Mississippi.
Many Native Americans suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their destinations, and many died. The Cherokee were the last to be removed. The U.S. Government tried to remove them in 1835, but most resisted, so they were forcibly removed. In the end, some 46,000 Native Americans had been removed from their homelands.
Between 1839 and 1846, the Indian Nation became divided over who owned the land. A third treaty, signed in August of 1846, determined that the lands occupied by the tribe belonged to all the members. At the same time, the Federal Government admitted that it had, among other things, improperly charged the Cherokee against the $5,000,000 they received for their lands back East. Three lawsuits were filed with the United States Court of Claims ruling in favor of the Cherokee. As a result, over one million dollars was awarded to the Eastern Cherokee.
The Department of Interior assigned a Mr. Guion Miller as special agent to identify those who were eligible to receive $133.18 that was given to each person. The Guion Miller Roll was made to distribute the money to all Eastern Cherokee that were alive on May 28, 1906, who could prove that they were members of the tribe at the time of the treaties of 1835, 1836 and 1845, or were descended from members of the tribe. Each applicant was asked for such information as full English and Indian name, residence, age, place of birth, name of husband or wife, names of children, place of birth and date of death of parents and grandparents, names and ages of brothers and sisters, and names of uncles and aunts. Mr. Miller released his report on May 28, 1909. Over 45,000 applications representing 90,000 individuals were filed with only 30,254 individuals being found eligible. 27,051 of those eligible lived west of the Mississippi River, with another 3,203 living east of the Mississippi River.
According to the records of the U.S. Court of Claims, over 250 of the applicants claimed to be a descendant of Fannie Cobb, a full-blooded Cherokee who lived in Fentress County, Tennessee.
Fannie Coker Cobb was my fifth great-grandmother on my mothers side. Her son, Jesse's granddaughter, Deborah, married George Boles, who was my grandfather's grandfather.
According to the book, Extract of the Rejected Applications of the Guion Miller Roll of the Eastern Cherokee, Vol. 3, (2006) by Jo Ann Curls Page, several of the descendants on my mother's side were among those applications which were denied. They included George and Deborah Boles and some of their children, including Barlow, Doll, Hige (my great-grandfather) and George's father, John Boles.
In his claim filed in 1907, Deborah's brother, Asa Smith, wrote that he was applying "for such share as may be due me of the fund appropriated in favor of the Eastern Cherokees through my grandfather Jesse Cobb. His mother was a Coker and she was a Cherokee Indian. She married a Cobb, my mother's maiden name: Fannie Cobb." The claim was denied.
If Fannie Cobb was a full-blooded Cherokee, then one of three things happened to cause their applications to be rejecrted. They either failed to fill out the applications correctly, failed to prove their direct relation to Fannie or they failed to prove she was a full-blooded Cherokee. Fannie Coker Cobb died five years before the U.S. Court of Claims ruling.
I came across a word the other day: Presumptuous [pri-zuhmp-choo-uhs], adjective It means failing to observe the limits of what is p...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | 1,119 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Māori children had a range of toys, including teka (darts), pōtaka (tops), pīrori (hoops), manu taratahi (kites) and pouturu (stilts). Karetao were a type of carved wooden puppet or jumping jack with arms that could be moved by a string. Small flax canoes were floated down rivers. Children made small model pā for games of mock combat.
Making a shanghai
A suitable prong was cut from a tree and trimmed. A piece of bootlace 7–10 centimetres in length was tied to each side of the prong, then a 20–22-centimetre length of elastic was tied to the bootlace. A holder for missiles – a small oval piece of leather from an old boot – was attached to the elastic with short pieces of boot lace. With a collection of small stones as ammunition, the shanghai was ready to go.
In the early period of European settlement the majority of settler children largely relied on homemade toys. Kites, stilts, bows and arrows, model boats, wooden animals, rag dolls and wooden dolls were all produced from material at hand. An essential boys’ toy was the shanghai, a home-made catapult used for hunting and general mischief. One ‘toy’ that was purchased rather than made was the pocket knife – a vital piece of equipment for the colonial boy.
Hoops and tops were among the most common 19th-century toys. Iron hoops could be purchased cheaply from a local blacksmith and trundled about with a stick. Tops could be made at home from a convenient piece of wood. The whip that propelled the top was constructed from readily available flax.
The children of wealthier families had a much wider range of toys, including manufactured items. Specialist toy shops were found around the colony by the 1860s and department stores also had toy sections. Most toys were imported, including mechanical wind-up metal toys, lead or tin soldiers, miniature tea sets, dolls’ houses, and wax or porcelain dolls. Teddy bears and golliwogs made their appearance in the 1890s. Boys already played with improvised guns, but with mass production toy guns became widely available. In the 1960s some parents began to campaign against the sale of toy guns on the grounds that they encouraged violence.
Toys for the very young
In the 19th-century infants’ toys generally consisted of improvised items such as rattles made from household materials. Many dolls and soft toys were home-made. In the 20th century mass-produced teddy bears and other infants’ toys became widely available. The development of plastic greatly extended the range of infants’ toys. In the later 20th century the idea that toys should help child development meant many more toys were designed specifically for the very young.
Toys of the 1950s
In his poem ‘1950s’ Bill Manhire lists toys from the era: ‘My cricket bat. My football boots./My fishing rod. My hula hoop./My cowboy chaps. My scooter./Draughts. Happy families. Euchre./Ludo. Snap. My Davy Crockett hat./My bicycle. My bow and arrow./My puncture kit. My cat./The straight and narrow. Fancy that.’1
Toys for fun and learning
In the mid-20th century more toys became available at lower prices. In the 1930s and 1940s New Zealand toy manufacturers had an impact on the local market. Jack Underwood, who began manufacturing metal toys in his basement, went on to set up the Fun Ho! toy company. Hector and John Ramsey mass-produced the classic Buzzy Bee designed by Maurice Schlesinger and developed a range of other wooden toys from the 1940s. New Zealand toy companies were largely swamped by large overseas manufacturers in the later 20th century. Fashions for particular toys such as hula hoops, yo-yos, frisbees and diabolos (toys that are spun on a hand-held string track) were promoted through the mass media. Clockwork and then electric train sets were coveted by children of all ages.
In the 20th century toys were increasingly designed to be educational as well as entertaining. Meccano construction sets had been imported into New Zealand since the early 1900s. They consisted of metal pieces that were bolted together to make vehicles and buildings. In the later 20th-century Lego sets, with plastic push-together blocks, became the construction sets of choice. Changing attitudes are reflected in the fact that Meccano was largely seen as a toy for boys, whereas Lego was regarded as suitable for girls and boys. Lego retained its popularity into the 21st century. | <urn:uuid:b0fe9544-d24a-44dd-916c-af9598e7b3a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/childrens-play/page-6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00385.warc.gz | en | 0.984648 | 994 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.708296835422... | 16 | Māori children had a range of toys, including teka (darts), pōtaka (tops), pīrori (hoops), manu taratahi (kites) and pouturu (stilts). Karetao were a type of carved wooden puppet or jumping jack with arms that could be moved by a string. Small flax canoes were floated down rivers. Children made small model pā for games of mock combat.
Making a shanghai
A suitable prong was cut from a tree and trimmed. A piece of bootlace 7–10 centimetres in length was tied to each side of the prong, then a 20–22-centimetre length of elastic was tied to the bootlace. A holder for missiles – a small oval piece of leather from an old boot – was attached to the elastic with short pieces of boot lace. With a collection of small stones as ammunition, the shanghai was ready to go.
In the early period of European settlement the majority of settler children largely relied on homemade toys. Kites, stilts, bows and arrows, model boats, wooden animals, rag dolls and wooden dolls were all produced from material at hand. An essential boys’ toy was the shanghai, a home-made catapult used for hunting and general mischief. One ‘toy’ that was purchased rather than made was the pocket knife – a vital piece of equipment for the colonial boy.
Hoops and tops were among the most common 19th-century toys. Iron hoops could be purchased cheaply from a local blacksmith and trundled about with a stick. Tops could be made at home from a convenient piece of wood. The whip that propelled the top was constructed from readily available flax.
The children of wealthier families had a much wider range of toys, including manufactured items. Specialist toy shops were found around the colony by the 1860s and department stores also had toy sections. Most toys were imported, including mechanical wind-up metal toys, lead or tin soldiers, miniature tea sets, dolls’ houses, and wax or porcelain dolls. Teddy bears and golliwogs made their appearance in the 1890s. Boys already played with improvised guns, but with mass production toy guns became widely available. In the 1960s some parents began to campaign against the sale of toy guns on the grounds that they encouraged violence.
Toys for the very young
In the 19th-century infants’ toys generally consisted of improvised items such as rattles made from household materials. Many dolls and soft toys were home-made. In the 20th century mass-produced teddy bears and other infants’ toys became widely available. The development of plastic greatly extended the range of infants’ toys. In the later 20th century the idea that toys should help child development meant many more toys were designed specifically for the very young.
Toys of the 1950s
In his poem ‘1950s’ Bill Manhire lists toys from the era: ‘My cricket bat. My football boots./My fishing rod. My hula hoop./My cowboy chaps. My scooter./Draughts. Happy families. Euchre./Ludo. Snap. My Davy Crockett hat./My bicycle. My bow and arrow./My puncture kit. My cat./The straight and narrow. Fancy that.’1
Toys for fun and learning
In the mid-20th century more toys became available at lower prices. In the 1930s and 1940s New Zealand toy manufacturers had an impact on the local market. Jack Underwood, who began manufacturing metal toys in his basement, went on to set up the Fun Ho! toy company. Hector and John Ramsey mass-produced the classic Buzzy Bee designed by Maurice Schlesinger and developed a range of other wooden toys from the 1940s. New Zealand toy companies were largely swamped by large overseas manufacturers in the later 20th century. Fashions for particular toys such as hula hoops, yo-yos, frisbees and diabolos (toys that are spun on a hand-held string track) were promoted through the mass media. Clockwork and then electric train sets were coveted by children of all ages.
In the 20th century toys were increasingly designed to be educational as well as entertaining. Meccano construction sets had been imported into New Zealand since the early 1900s. They consisted of metal pieces that were bolted together to make vehicles and buildings. In the later 20th-century Lego sets, with plastic push-together blocks, became the construction sets of choice. Changing attitudes are reflected in the fact that Meccano was largely seen as a toy for boys, whereas Lego was regarded as suitable for girls and boys. Lego retained its popularity into the 21st century. | 1,019 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The autobiography of the life of Frederick Douglass gives us a glimpse into the life of a slave and eventually a freeman in the 1800's. Frederick knew that learning and knowledge make all the difference in the world, as Frederick Douglass proves this by changing himself from another man's slave into a widely respected writer. A person is not necessarily what others label him; the self is completely independent, and through learning you can move the unseen mountains. Culture, society, and common beliefs are our bridge to communication with one another. Douglass could never really explain all of what and how he felt about himself in his earlier slave days. He does, however, give a very accurate description of the life and times of a slave.
Our first peek of Douglass is as a small boy born into slavery in Tuckahoe, Maryland in approximately 1817, without a birthday, father, or any sort of identity. "I have no accurate knowledge of my age A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood." (Douglass, p. 1) Forced to eat his meals of mush out of a trough, wearing nothing but a long, coarsely woven shirt, and being kept in complete mental darkness, Douglass was completely dehumanized even before he experienced the horrible violence of the slaveholders towards their slaves (Douglass, p. 6). Children were uprooted from the arms of their mothers, "before the child has reached its twelfth month, its mother is taken from it" (Douglass, p. 1) and sold to other slaveholders. .
Brutal whippings occurred for even the smallest imagined offense. Mr. Plummer was his first overseer and under him he would see his first look at slavery, as he would soon grow to know very well. "He would at times seem to take great pleasure in whipping a slave. I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heart-rending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back till she was literally covered with blood (Douglass, p. | <urn:uuid:5c11debc-e6ee-4a83-8ce7-8165a399f86c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/58451.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.986618 | 441 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.0775163844227790... | 2 | The autobiography of the life of Frederick Douglass gives us a glimpse into the life of a slave and eventually a freeman in the 1800's. Frederick knew that learning and knowledge make all the difference in the world, as Frederick Douglass proves this by changing himself from another man's slave into a widely respected writer. A person is not necessarily what others label him; the self is completely independent, and through learning you can move the unseen mountains. Culture, society, and common beliefs are our bridge to communication with one another. Douglass could never really explain all of what and how he felt about himself in his earlier slave days. He does, however, give a very accurate description of the life and times of a slave.
Our first peek of Douglass is as a small boy born into slavery in Tuckahoe, Maryland in approximately 1817, without a birthday, father, or any sort of identity. "I have no accurate knowledge of my age A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood." (Douglass, p. 1) Forced to eat his meals of mush out of a trough, wearing nothing but a long, coarsely woven shirt, and being kept in complete mental darkness, Douglass was completely dehumanized even before he experienced the horrible violence of the slaveholders towards their slaves (Douglass, p. 6). Children were uprooted from the arms of their mothers, "before the child has reached its twelfth month, its mother is taken from it" (Douglass, p. 1) and sold to other slaveholders. .
Brutal whippings occurred for even the smallest imagined offense. Mr. Plummer was his first overseer and under him he would see his first look at slavery, as he would soon grow to know very well. "He would at times seem to take great pleasure in whipping a slave. I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heart-rending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back till she was literally covered with blood (Douglass, p. | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the greatest emperors known to Indian history, Ashoka, was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and the son of Bindusar. The land he ruled stretched from the Himalayas, Nepal and Kashmir to Mysore in the South. From Afghanistan in the N.E. to the banks of the River Brahmaputra in the East. In the West his territory covered
Saurashtra and Junagarh.
Born in 294 BC as second son to Bindusar,
the King of Patliputra, Ashoka was not heir apparent. After his father
died, his elder brother Suman was to take over the reins of the Kingdom.
But as most of the ministers found Ashoka more efficient, they helped him
Ashoka was a good administrator and
at first set about restoring peace in his kingdom. This took about 3 years,
after which he formally accepted the throne and was crowned King in 273
BC. During his reign, the country made progress in terms of science and technology as well as advanced in medicine and surgery. Religion was
emphasized and so the people were honest and straightforward and truthful.
Stealing was unheard of.
Ashoka, himself was a great philanthropist
and worked day and night for the welfare of his people. He knew exactly
what was going on in each part of his vast territory. He would not partake
any of his meals until and unless he had fed a thousand Brahmins.
The Kalinga War
This was the first and last battle
that Ashoka ever fought and serves as a watermark in his life as it changed
his course forever. It was during this war that he earned the title Ashoka
Kalinga was a prosperous little kingdom
lying between the river Godavari and Mahanadi, close to the Bay of Bengal.
It had an infantry of 60,000 men, 10,000 horsemen and 600 elephants. Ashoka
wanted to capture this fertile land, and so had it surrounded. But the
brave and loyal people of Kalinga did not want to lose their independence.
A fierce battle followed, in which
there were too many casualties. There were more than a lakh prisoners of
war. In the midst of the battlefield, Ashoka stood with the wounded, crippled
and the dead all around him. This was the consequence of his greed. A new
light dawned on him, and he swore that he would never wage war again.
Ashoka was initiated into Buddhism,
after which his life was completely transformed. He religiously followed
the principles of Buddhism - that of truth, charity, kindness, purity and
He did his bit towards the propagation
of this religion by engraving it's principles on pillars throughout his
kingdom. The Ashoka pillars, as they are now called, were over 40 feet
high and extremely heavy. He also attempted to spread this religion to
Syria, Egypt and Macedonia, and sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra
to Sri Lanka for this purpose.
Ashoka opened charitable hospitals
and dispensaries for the welfare of the poor. He planted trees to provide
shade and opened inns for the shelter of travelers and laid out green parks
and gardens to beautify his kingdom. Wells and tanks were also constructed
for the benefit of his people. He believed in non-violence and so
he banned the sacrifice of animals. Besides this he opened clinics for
birds and animals too. His good works earned him the name of Devanamapriya
He died in 232 BC. After doing a
great deal of good for his kingdom and the world at large. His fame has
spread far and wide. To commemorate his rule and its implications the Government of India has adopted the Ashoka Chakra as its national symbol, which can
be seen till today on the national flag.
Sorry. Due to our site's regulations and policies, your message has not been posted. Our moderating team has been notified about your message. If the message is found to be genuine and still did not get posted, you may not post the message again as it will automatically get posted for you within 24hrs time (excluding weekends).
- The Indiaparenting Team | <urn:uuid:4b7847dd-88e1-49bc-a026-d08ebac2e860> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indiaparenting.com/stories/83_2230/ashoka-the-great.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.984594 | 887 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.34913688898086... | 1 | One of the greatest emperors known to Indian history, Ashoka, was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and the son of Bindusar. The land he ruled stretched from the Himalayas, Nepal and Kashmir to Mysore in the South. From Afghanistan in the N.E. to the banks of the River Brahmaputra in the East. In the West his territory covered
Saurashtra and Junagarh.
Born in 294 BC as second son to Bindusar,
the King of Patliputra, Ashoka was not heir apparent. After his father
died, his elder brother Suman was to take over the reins of the Kingdom.
But as most of the ministers found Ashoka more efficient, they helped him
Ashoka was a good administrator and
at first set about restoring peace in his kingdom. This took about 3 years,
after which he formally accepted the throne and was crowned King in 273
BC. During his reign, the country made progress in terms of science and technology as well as advanced in medicine and surgery. Religion was
emphasized and so the people were honest and straightforward and truthful.
Stealing was unheard of.
Ashoka, himself was a great philanthropist
and worked day and night for the welfare of his people. He knew exactly
what was going on in each part of his vast territory. He would not partake
any of his meals until and unless he had fed a thousand Brahmins.
The Kalinga War
This was the first and last battle
that Ashoka ever fought and serves as a watermark in his life as it changed
his course forever. It was during this war that he earned the title Ashoka
Kalinga was a prosperous little kingdom
lying between the river Godavari and Mahanadi, close to the Bay of Bengal.
It had an infantry of 60,000 men, 10,000 horsemen and 600 elephants. Ashoka
wanted to capture this fertile land, and so had it surrounded. But the
brave and loyal people of Kalinga did not want to lose their independence.
A fierce battle followed, in which
there were too many casualties. There were more than a lakh prisoners of
war. In the midst of the battlefield, Ashoka stood with the wounded, crippled
and the dead all around him. This was the consequence of his greed. A new
light dawned on him, and he swore that he would never wage war again.
Ashoka was initiated into Buddhism,
after which his life was completely transformed. He religiously followed
the principles of Buddhism - that of truth, charity, kindness, purity and
He did his bit towards the propagation
of this religion by engraving it's principles on pillars throughout his
kingdom. The Ashoka pillars, as they are now called, were over 40 feet
high and extremely heavy. He also attempted to spread this religion to
Syria, Egypt and Macedonia, and sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra
to Sri Lanka for this purpose.
Ashoka opened charitable hospitals
and dispensaries for the welfare of the poor. He planted trees to provide
shade and opened inns for the shelter of travelers and laid out green parks
and gardens to beautify his kingdom. Wells and tanks were also constructed
for the benefit of his people. He believed in non-violence and so
he banned the sacrifice of animals. Besides this he opened clinics for
birds and animals too. His good works earned him the name of Devanamapriya
He died in 232 BC. After doing a
great deal of good for his kingdom and the world at large. His fame has
spread far and wide. To commemorate his rule and its implications the Government of India has adopted the Ashoka Chakra as its national symbol, which can
be seen till today on the national flag.
Sorry. Due to our site's regulations and policies, your message has not been posted. Our moderating team has been notified about your message. If the message is found to be genuine and still did not get posted, you may not post the message again as it will automatically get posted for you within 24hrs time (excluding weekends).
- The Indiaparenting Team | 892 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subhas Chandra Bose:
the Man and his Times
If there was one man in India’s freedom struggle who fascinated milliona irrespective of their religion, caste or language, it was Subhas Chandra Bose who received unabashed hero-worship from his followers. If Mahatma Gandhi represented the noble spirit of the country, Subhas was the living symbol of national unity and the aspirations of the nation.
Netaji, as he was known in his Indian National Army, had the unique charisma that moved countrymen for his integrity and commitment to the cause of independence. His adventuristic pursuit of the struggle for freedom made his name a household word all over India. A whole generation of Indians refused to believe that he was no more among them and pined for his reappearance. Not only the countrymen, even Lord Wavell who was then the Viceroy of India, was sceptical when he heard the news of Subhas Bose’s death and felt that the report of the plane crash was a cover-up and that Subhas was in hiding. Gradually, the country accepted that Netaji was no more. The Indians knew that if he were alive, he would have come out to fight the British as well as the secessionists to prevent a partition of India.
Still, for decades after his disappearance from the world scene, there was no dearth of people in India who believed that some day he would come out. Rumours of his being alive kept floating. Each rumour was followed up, investigated and found incorrect.
In a period of disillusionment, he has been a leader of hope to his people. A like of him has not been seen in India’s long struggle for freedom. All manner of legends and myths have grown around his name.
A book on a leader of this stature is expected to bring Netaji and his mission back to life. The reader would look upon the author to tell the story of one of India’s great revolutionaries since 1857, in all its dimensions. The reader would look forward to an opportunity to view all stages of the life of a man who stands out distinctively in modern India’s history, for his matchless personal charm, courage, heroism and sacrificial patriotism. The reader would hope to have and understanding of Netaji’s total personality, his political philosophy, his world-view and the image of India that he set out to build. A book on the life and times of Subhas Chandra Bose is expected to shed light on this aspect of the Indian liberation movement, which has unfortunately been largely overlooked.
What does not find adequate mention is his childhood when as a schoolboy in a missionary school he found the milieu foreign to his nature. When he graduated and left for England to qualify for the Indian Civil Service (ICS), his sense of mission—Indiasalvation from political, economic, social and spiritual slavery—was not in doubt. It surprised no one when he decided to quit the ICS and jump into the freedom struggle.
His exile in Burma from 1924 to 1927, and then enforced exile in Europe from 1933 to 1936 transformed him into a statesman who parleyed with world leaders on equal terms and who had a vision of his country’s interests in the interplay of world forces in peace and war.
On his return to public life after a stay in Europe and a spell in prison, Subhas marched ahead of the national leadership with his call for national planning and socialist reconstruction of India (at Haripura in 1938), an ultimatum to the British to quit India (at Tripuri in 1939) and for the Left consolidation (at Ramgarh in 1940). Thus, he represented an alternative current in India’s national politics, competing with the major current led by Mahatma Gandhi.
His Great Escape from India, his under-sea journey from Europe to the Far East and the formation of the India National Army, all find mention in the narrative by the soldier-author, but mostly as part of a review of the war as it progressed in different theatres. Reading the book, one feels at times that one is reading a brief history of the war in which names such as Rash Behari Bose, Subhas Chandra Bose, Mohan Singh and some others find mention at appropriate places. It does not read like the life story of one of the most prominent personalities involved in India’s freedom struggle.
A remarkable section of the book is of course the one that describes the last days of Netaji. The air crash in Formosa, the treatment given to him, his last words, the cremation on instructions from Tokyo, are all described in considerable detail. So are the various rumours about his being seen at different places, the investigation of the rumours and the inevitable conclusion.
The book concludes with post-war developments such as the INA trial at the Red Fort, and other political events of post-war India. The soldier-author is at his best while describing the war, and very often the personality of Subhas Chandra Bose takes the back seat. | <urn:uuid:348db780-40f3-4a39-a909-f188a1e64554> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060122/spectrum/book2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.980752 | 1,048 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.44966745376... | 1 | Subhas Chandra Bose:
the Man and his Times
If there was one man in India’s freedom struggle who fascinated milliona irrespective of their religion, caste or language, it was Subhas Chandra Bose who received unabashed hero-worship from his followers. If Mahatma Gandhi represented the noble spirit of the country, Subhas was the living symbol of national unity and the aspirations of the nation.
Netaji, as he was known in his Indian National Army, had the unique charisma that moved countrymen for his integrity and commitment to the cause of independence. His adventuristic pursuit of the struggle for freedom made his name a household word all over India. A whole generation of Indians refused to believe that he was no more among them and pined for his reappearance. Not only the countrymen, even Lord Wavell who was then the Viceroy of India, was sceptical when he heard the news of Subhas Bose’s death and felt that the report of the plane crash was a cover-up and that Subhas was in hiding. Gradually, the country accepted that Netaji was no more. The Indians knew that if he were alive, he would have come out to fight the British as well as the secessionists to prevent a partition of India.
Still, for decades after his disappearance from the world scene, there was no dearth of people in India who believed that some day he would come out. Rumours of his being alive kept floating. Each rumour was followed up, investigated and found incorrect.
In a period of disillusionment, he has been a leader of hope to his people. A like of him has not been seen in India’s long struggle for freedom. All manner of legends and myths have grown around his name.
A book on a leader of this stature is expected to bring Netaji and his mission back to life. The reader would look upon the author to tell the story of one of India’s great revolutionaries since 1857, in all its dimensions. The reader would look forward to an opportunity to view all stages of the life of a man who stands out distinctively in modern India’s history, for his matchless personal charm, courage, heroism and sacrificial patriotism. The reader would hope to have and understanding of Netaji’s total personality, his political philosophy, his world-view and the image of India that he set out to build. A book on the life and times of Subhas Chandra Bose is expected to shed light on this aspect of the Indian liberation movement, which has unfortunately been largely overlooked.
What does not find adequate mention is his childhood when as a schoolboy in a missionary school he found the milieu foreign to his nature. When he graduated and left for England to qualify for the Indian Civil Service (ICS), his sense of mission—Indiasalvation from political, economic, social and spiritual slavery—was not in doubt. It surprised no one when he decided to quit the ICS and jump into the freedom struggle.
His exile in Burma from 1924 to 1927, and then enforced exile in Europe from 1933 to 1936 transformed him into a statesman who parleyed with world leaders on equal terms and who had a vision of his country’s interests in the interplay of world forces in peace and war.
On his return to public life after a stay in Europe and a spell in prison, Subhas marched ahead of the national leadership with his call for national planning and socialist reconstruction of India (at Haripura in 1938), an ultimatum to the British to quit India (at Tripuri in 1939) and for the Left consolidation (at Ramgarh in 1940). Thus, he represented an alternative current in India’s national politics, competing with the major current led by Mahatma Gandhi.
His Great Escape from India, his under-sea journey from Europe to the Far East and the formation of the India National Army, all find mention in the narrative by the soldier-author, but mostly as part of a review of the war as it progressed in different theatres. Reading the book, one feels at times that one is reading a brief history of the war in which names such as Rash Behari Bose, Subhas Chandra Bose, Mohan Singh and some others find mention at appropriate places. It does not read like the life story of one of the most prominent personalities involved in India’s freedom struggle.
A remarkable section of the book is of course the one that describes the last days of Netaji. The air crash in Formosa, the treatment given to him, his last words, the cremation on instructions from Tokyo, are all described in considerable detail. So are the various rumours about his being seen at different places, the investigation of the rumours and the inevitable conclusion.
The book concludes with post-war developments such as the INA trial at the Red Fort, and other political events of post-war India. The soldier-author is at his best while describing the war, and very often the personality of Subhas Chandra Bose takes the back seat. | 1,044 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wu Zetian was the powerful woman in the history of China, having made herself Emperor and then ruling a vast territory for 15 years. She was ruthless and cruel, when necessary, but also highly efficient and able to rule a contented populace with justice and benevolence.
Wu Zetian was born into a non-aristocratic family in 624 AD and entered the royal household as a serving maid, her job including changing the Emperor’s bedsheets. When the Emperor died she was sent to a Buddhist nunnery, but she escaped and returned to the palace as a concubine of Gaozong, the new Emperor.
She now began to develop the notion of reaching the very top, and had no compunctions about the methods she would use to get there. She started by killing the child she had given birth to, courtesy of the Emperor, and framed the Empress for the murder. The Empress was promptly exiled, leaving Wu Zetian in prime position.
There were other concubines, however, but these were disposed of by having their limbs cut off and their bodies drowned in a vat of wine. That – at least – is the story that has come down through history, but one also has to bear in mind that such stories are often told by people who wish to blacken reputations.
Be that as it may, Wu Zetian was now unrivalled, and she only had to wait for the Emperor and his sons to die before she declared herself to be Emperor, at the age of 65.
Her 15 year reign was not marked by any outstanding events, although she was able to counter threats from external forces and thus strengthen the Tang Dynasty.
Wu Zetian’s reputation, as mentioned above, suffered from criticism by others who resented her presence as a woman wielding supreme power. One cause of her unpopularity was that she encouraged the spread of Buddhism, which was a foreign import from India and was also more attuned to the spiritual needs of women.
However, the denigration went much further than that and included a decision by the Court not to mark her tomb with any record of her achievements, which is unlikely to have been the case had she been male.
Wu Zetian certainly appears to been a ruler one would not wish to get on the wrong side of, but that was also true of many Emperors throughout Chinese history who did not get such a bad posthumous press. The history of misogyny is extremely long. | <urn:uuid:73087aa3-783f-4173-b610-9e1f77c15f44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virily.com/culture/wu-zetian-a-powerful-woman-from-chinese-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.993815 | 515 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.15639230608940125... | 3 | Wu Zetian was the powerful woman in the history of China, having made herself Emperor and then ruling a vast territory for 15 years. She was ruthless and cruel, when necessary, but also highly efficient and able to rule a contented populace with justice and benevolence.
Wu Zetian was born into a non-aristocratic family in 624 AD and entered the royal household as a serving maid, her job including changing the Emperor’s bedsheets. When the Emperor died she was sent to a Buddhist nunnery, but she escaped and returned to the palace as a concubine of Gaozong, the new Emperor.
She now began to develop the notion of reaching the very top, and had no compunctions about the methods she would use to get there. She started by killing the child she had given birth to, courtesy of the Emperor, and framed the Empress for the murder. The Empress was promptly exiled, leaving Wu Zetian in prime position.
There were other concubines, however, but these were disposed of by having their limbs cut off and their bodies drowned in a vat of wine. That – at least – is the story that has come down through history, but one also has to bear in mind that such stories are often told by people who wish to blacken reputations.
Be that as it may, Wu Zetian was now unrivalled, and she only had to wait for the Emperor and his sons to die before she declared herself to be Emperor, at the age of 65.
Her 15 year reign was not marked by any outstanding events, although she was able to counter threats from external forces and thus strengthen the Tang Dynasty.
Wu Zetian’s reputation, as mentioned above, suffered from criticism by others who resented her presence as a woman wielding supreme power. One cause of her unpopularity was that she encouraged the spread of Buddhism, which was a foreign import from India and was also more attuned to the spiritual needs of women.
However, the denigration went much further than that and included a decision by the Court not to mark her tomb with any record of her achievements, which is unlikely to have been the case had she been male.
Wu Zetian certainly appears to been a ruler one would not wish to get on the wrong side of, but that was also true of many Emperors throughout Chinese history who did not get such a bad posthumous press. The history of misogyny is extremely long. | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During early twentieth century, racial discrimination was the order of the day. The society had placed stereotypes on almost every racial group in the country, most of which were negative. The black Americans were the most affected group. They were regarded to as being violent, illiterate and unreasonable people, stereotypes that existed ever since the time of slavery.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
I remember one incident back in 1947, early in the month of April. The rainy season was just about to set in and therefore plans to prepare land for planting in the plantations were underway. In a group of five girls, we walked towards the farm because we did not want to board commuter buses to avoid the usual insults from the whites. We could see large groups of black men and women busy working in the neighboring fields. They carried huge sacs of manure and did heavy tasks with only short breaks in between. Upon arrival, the supervisor shouted at us that we ought to run to our respective work stations lest he whipped us. I vividly remember one lady who had sat down for a while to nurse her baby. The baby was crying so much and this attracted the supervisor’s attention. He approached the lady, snatched the baby from her and sat it carelessly on the grass. He threatened to kill the baby by claiming that it made the woman to become lazy at work. The woman’s plight and wailing from the baby were falling on deaf years of the supervisor. I felt so hurt by the heartless act and was so mad at the offender but there is nothing much I could do.
It is worth noing that the end result of stereotyping a specific group within a community is not healthy. This is because most of the time, the target group lives up to accept the stigma. Whether they are positive or negative stereotypes, they have a considerable effect on the individual’s life. In the case of African American men, their stereotypes have been strongly fixed into people’s minds especially because of the influence of the media (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). Black Americans were viewed as people who could not control their actions. They were viewed as people who could do whatever they wanted without caring whether it is right or not. That is the reason why they were associated with violence and other related crimes such as murder and rape among others.
The struggle against racial discrimination comes a long way. During the time of slavery black people were looked down upon by whites. It was the duty of black people to satisfy their masters, mostly as sex objects or engage in hard labor. Failure to that, they would get corporal punishment (MARTIN, 2009). There was a strong belief that white men were superior to other people in the world. Black people were believed to be immoral and unruly, while the Asians were conniving, the Mexicans were believed to be either extremely lazy or intrusive. Extreme mistreatment of non-whites was a common occurrence and well accepted in the society.
Perhaps, the greatest achievement towards fight against racial discrimination was the election of Barack Obama, as the first black president in the United States. During his campaign for presidency, Obama faced criticism from radicals that are known for racial profiling. There are those who even questioned his rightful quest for presidency based on his origin. However, during his term in office, Obama’s administration has facilitated developments that will see an end to discrimination against the minority groups in the society.
In the history of the US such ideas lead to extreme mistreatment of non-Whites. Oppression in various forms went unanswered despite legal attempts in the justice system, which at times even led to unlawful and immoral massacres of people in these categories. Despite the odds, the United States has witnessed people who have come out strongly to oppose and condemn brutal acts of discrimination against race or religion. There are great leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr who played a pivotal role in Civil Rights movement in the United States of America (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). He was deeply convinced that people from this nation will one day live in a harmonious way without segregating anyone against race, color or religion. Many developments occurred in the social framework since this period of liberation to date. Half a century after the death of Martin Luther King Jr, United States got its first black president. President Obama has truly lived the dream that Civil Right activists were fighting for (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). He has also played a great role in ensuring equality among all groups of people in the society for a peaceful co-existence that is characterized with mutual respect.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:e9166ed4-f9f0-4242-88c0-7f87f13fadf4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-expert.com/essays/sociology/a-hundred-years-of-change.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.985536 | 974 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2061967700719... | 1 | During early twentieth century, racial discrimination was the order of the day. The society had placed stereotypes on almost every racial group in the country, most of which were negative. The black Americans were the most affected group. They were regarded to as being violent, illiterate and unreasonable people, stereotypes that existed ever since the time of slavery.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
I remember one incident back in 1947, early in the month of April. The rainy season was just about to set in and therefore plans to prepare land for planting in the plantations were underway. In a group of five girls, we walked towards the farm because we did not want to board commuter buses to avoid the usual insults from the whites. We could see large groups of black men and women busy working in the neighboring fields. They carried huge sacs of manure and did heavy tasks with only short breaks in between. Upon arrival, the supervisor shouted at us that we ought to run to our respective work stations lest he whipped us. I vividly remember one lady who had sat down for a while to nurse her baby. The baby was crying so much and this attracted the supervisor’s attention. He approached the lady, snatched the baby from her and sat it carelessly on the grass. He threatened to kill the baby by claiming that it made the woman to become lazy at work. The woman’s plight and wailing from the baby were falling on deaf years of the supervisor. I felt so hurt by the heartless act and was so mad at the offender but there is nothing much I could do.
It is worth noing that the end result of stereotyping a specific group within a community is not healthy. This is because most of the time, the target group lives up to accept the stigma. Whether they are positive or negative stereotypes, they have a considerable effect on the individual’s life. In the case of African American men, their stereotypes have been strongly fixed into people’s minds especially because of the influence of the media (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). Black Americans were viewed as people who could not control their actions. They were viewed as people who could do whatever they wanted without caring whether it is right or not. That is the reason why they were associated with violence and other related crimes such as murder and rape among others.
The struggle against racial discrimination comes a long way. During the time of slavery black people were looked down upon by whites. It was the duty of black people to satisfy their masters, mostly as sex objects or engage in hard labor. Failure to that, they would get corporal punishment (MARTIN, 2009). There was a strong belief that white men were superior to other people in the world. Black people were believed to be immoral and unruly, while the Asians were conniving, the Mexicans were believed to be either extremely lazy or intrusive. Extreme mistreatment of non-whites was a common occurrence and well accepted in the society.
Perhaps, the greatest achievement towards fight against racial discrimination was the election of Barack Obama, as the first black president in the United States. During his campaign for presidency, Obama faced criticism from radicals that are known for racial profiling. There are those who even questioned his rightful quest for presidency based on his origin. However, during his term in office, Obama’s administration has facilitated developments that will see an end to discrimination against the minority groups in the society.
In the history of the US such ideas lead to extreme mistreatment of non-Whites. Oppression in various forms went unanswered despite legal attempts in the justice system, which at times even led to unlawful and immoral massacres of people in these categories. Despite the odds, the United States has witnessed people who have come out strongly to oppose and condemn brutal acts of discrimination against race or religion. There are great leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr who played a pivotal role in Civil Rights movement in the United States of America (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). He was deeply convinced that people from this nation will one day live in a harmonious way without segregating anyone against race, color or religion. Many developments occurred in the social framework since this period of liberation to date. Half a century after the death of Martin Luther King Jr, United States got its first black president. President Obama has truly lived the dream that Civil Right activists were fighting for (Lewis & Krysan, 2006). He has also played a great role in ensuring equality among all groups of people in the society for a peaceful co-existence that is characterized with mutual respect.
Most popular orders | 983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A different way of approach on the educational section is the Montessori approach, which guides children to discover their needs involving body and mind. From our early stage of existence we notice that we have the ability to absorb with greater ease much more things, and as we get older this ability fades out. That is the reason why we start attending school from our early years, as the age between six and twelve is considered as calm and conductive to learning. This is a method that gives children the freedom to explore their own needs through senses and special learning materials. It is not based on a pre-defined curriculum which would possibly cause the reaction of the child, but it gives them the chance to construct their selves within a ‘favorable environment’.
The Montessori Method was found in the early 1900s by Dr. Maria Montessori, the first woman in Italy to receive a medical degree. Her main contributions in raising and educating children were the preparation of a natural and life – supporting environment, their observation in living freely in this environment and the continuous adaptation of the environment in order that the child may fulfill his or her greatest potential, physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually. | <urn:uuid:a7958405-9aa1-4f2c-8d88-2551bd307ea4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pikark.com/montessori_method_in_design/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.982223 | 241 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.6350647... | 4 | A different way of approach on the educational section is the Montessori approach, which guides children to discover their needs involving body and mind. From our early stage of existence we notice that we have the ability to absorb with greater ease much more things, and as we get older this ability fades out. That is the reason why we start attending school from our early years, as the age between six and twelve is considered as calm and conductive to learning. This is a method that gives children the freedom to explore their own needs through senses and special learning materials. It is not based on a pre-defined curriculum which would possibly cause the reaction of the child, but it gives them the chance to construct their selves within a ‘favorable environment’.
The Montessori Method was found in the early 1900s by Dr. Maria Montessori, the first woman in Italy to receive a medical degree. Her main contributions in raising and educating children were the preparation of a natural and life – supporting environment, their observation in living freely in this environment and the continuous adaptation of the environment in order that the child may fulfill his or her greatest potential, physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great Dismal Swamp is a national wildlife refuge, but recently archaeologists discovered that it was once a secret community for people escaping slavery.
The people escaping were likely enslaved in nearby plantations in Virginia and North Carolina.
The area was a stop in the underground railroad, so it was possible that some of the people were also from other states, too, according to historians.
The Great Dismal Swamp is now a refuge for wildlife but back then it was a refuge for people escaping slavery, one historian said.
Beginning in the 1600s, they found a secret permanent settlement in the Great Dismal Swamp.
These types of settlements are called "Maroon Communities"—which were groups of people that came together because individually they had run away from slavery.
Researchers have yet to find anyone willing to share family history in connection with the Dismal Swamp Maroons. | <urn:uuid:bc11d653-96e2-448b-b1f6-b80eca4376de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.13newsnow.com/article/news/local/virginia/deep-in-great-dismal-swamp-archaeologists-unearth-refuge-for-escaped-slaves/291-3a5844b5-4279-418a-82d6-5961eb5d288c | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.986246 | 174 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1984046399593... | 1 | The Great Dismal Swamp is a national wildlife refuge, but recently archaeologists discovered that it was once a secret community for people escaping slavery.
The people escaping were likely enslaved in nearby plantations in Virginia and North Carolina.
The area was a stop in the underground railroad, so it was possible that some of the people were also from other states, too, according to historians.
The Great Dismal Swamp is now a refuge for wildlife but back then it was a refuge for people escaping slavery, one historian said.
Beginning in the 1600s, they found a secret permanent settlement in the Great Dismal Swamp.
These types of settlements are called "Maroon Communities"—which were groups of people that came together because individually they had run away from slavery.
Researchers have yet to find anyone willing to share family history in connection with the Dismal Swamp Maroons. | 178 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE ARYAN-SPEAKING PEOPLES IN PREHISTORIC TIMES
WE have spoken of the Aryan language as probably arising in the region of the Danube and South Russia and spreading from that region of origin. We say "probably," because it is by no means certainly proved that that was the centre; there have been vast discussions upon this point and wide divergences of opinion. We give the prevalent view. As it spread widely, Aryan began to differentiate into a number of subordinate languages. To the west and south it encountered the Basque language, which was then widely spread in Spain, and also possibly various Hamitic Mediterranean languages.
The Neolithic Mediterranean race, the Iberian race, was distributed over Great Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, north Africa, south Italy, and, in a more civilized state, Greece and Asia Minor. It was probably closely related to the Egyptian. To judge by its European vestiges it was a rather small human type, generally with an oval face and a long head. It buried its chiefs and important people in megalithic chambers—i.e. made of big stones—covered over by great mounds of earth; and these mounds of earth, being much longer than they are broad, are spoken of as the long barrows. These people sheltered at times in caves, and also buried some of their dead therein; and from the traces of charred, broken, and cut human bones, including the bones of children, it is inferred that they were cannibals. These short | <urn:uuid:a066d653-a946-4b0c-bd43-6843b24e1ee9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/191 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.983131 | 320 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.5055243968... | 1 | THE ARYAN-SPEAKING PEOPLES IN PREHISTORIC TIMES
WE have spoken of the Aryan language as probably arising in the region of the Danube and South Russia and spreading from that region of origin. We say "probably," because it is by no means certainly proved that that was the centre; there have been vast discussions upon this point and wide divergences of opinion. We give the prevalent view. As it spread widely, Aryan began to differentiate into a number of subordinate languages. To the west and south it encountered the Basque language, which was then widely spread in Spain, and also possibly various Hamitic Mediterranean languages.
The Neolithic Mediterranean race, the Iberian race, was distributed over Great Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, north Africa, south Italy, and, in a more civilized state, Greece and Asia Minor. It was probably closely related to the Egyptian. To judge by its European vestiges it was a rather small human type, generally with an oval face and a long head. It buried its chiefs and important people in megalithic chambers—i.e. made of big stones—covered over by great mounds of earth; and these mounds of earth, being much longer than they are broad, are spoken of as the long barrows. These people sheltered at times in caves, and also buried some of their dead therein; and from the traces of charred, broken, and cut human bones, including the bones of children, it is inferred that they were cannibals. These short | 318 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Transportation forms the backbone of any society, as it makes everyday life much simpler. Read on to know about the history of transportation and how it has evolved through the ages.
The history of transportation goes back to the pre-historic ages when man learned to live in groups and traveled extensively in search of food and shelter. The pre-historic transportation mostly consisted of walking and swimming (when required). Gradually, man learned to use animals to carry himself, as well as his belongings. Use of animals as a means of conveyance was revolutionized by the invention of the wheel, which can be given the credit for changing the whole concept of it.
With time, man wanted speed as well as capacity in his transit. This need, as well as man’s curious nature, subsequently led to the invention of various machines, like steam engines and aircrafts. The evolution of transportation can be broadly divided into 4 categories based on their medium.
Transportation by road is probably the oldest mode of travel. As early as the prehistoric times, man knew how to walk, both on twos and fours. After the invention of wheels, road transport revolutionized in a big way. Roads were first constructed by Romans in order to enable the armies to travel faster. They made the use of wheels very comfortable, which was otherwise inconvenient and uncomfortable on rugged surfaces. When it came to ice, land transport has always consisted of only and only sledges. Initially, sledges were pulled by animals, but with the advent of machines, animals were relieved of this burden. Still, animals are widely used in many places.
Coming back to roads, man kept inventing means that would speed up the process, giving birth to machines like bicycles, buggies, and cars and various machinery using engines. Road conveyance was very slow and costly till the industrial revolution. The invention of engines in this time period (steam and fuel) subsequently led to inventions of vehicles of different capacities and speeds. So today, we have cars, trucks, buses, bikes, and many more machines that help us travel and transport faster and more efficiently.
Historically, water transportation became very important because of man’s tendency to settle down around water bodies. Important cities were established along the banks of rivers and shores of oceans in order to make sure that the civilization never ran out of both, food and water. Transportation actually came into picture when man discovered his business skills, and when his greed to conquer and rule grew. Some people traveled to learn, while some traveled to fight. Both ways, human beings had to find means of conveyance on water.
Initially, boats were constructed by tying bamboo shafts together. But this was a very basic invention and came handy when traveling for short distances. With the passing time and rising need, man learned to create bigger boats that used manpower or winds for propagation. Man is known to have traveled far and wide using boats and ships. Wars on seas have been reported as old as 30 BCE. The invention of engines revolutionized this mode as greatly as any other mode of transport.
These days, huge ships travel the lengths of oceans in the form of either the naval forces of a country or the luxurious cruise ships, a style statement for the rich and famous. They are unsinkable cities that are propelled by huge engines on the water surface. This is, however, a slow mode of conveyance these days as compared to many others that have come into picture. But who wants to hurry up when you are inside a five star cruise which is as good as a complete city with no flaws at all?
The usage of rails for the purpose of transportation started around 500 years ago. Initially, it consisted of man or horse power, and sometimes also of rails made of wood. The modern railway system finds its origin in England in the early 1800s. Historically, it was known as a wagon way, and its traces have been found as early as 600 BCE in Greece. The Greek system also used wagons that were pulled by either men or animals on the grooves made in limestone. Making of grooves on flat surfaces made the wagons follow a particular path, without being manually directed to do so. In their initial days, they were only 6-9 km long. There are discoveries that indicate their use in the Roman empire also.
As the centuries passed, man invented various machines that helped the growth of railways indirectly. For example, the invention of steam engine gave rail travel a new meaning, and remained an astounding invention of the century that was upgraded only in late 1900s by the fuel engine. Railways these days form the backbone of the economy of any country. They are a very fast and economic way of travel, as well as transport, over huge distances.
Air Transport and Space Travel
Man has always been a very curious and revolting child of God. He has always wanted to possess things he doesn’t have. This characteristic invariably gave way to many inventions that have made (and will continue making) our lives easier and luxurious every day. One of the most revolutionizing invention of the history of mankind is the airplane. It was invented by the Wright brothers of Ohio in 1903. Since its invention, it has been modified and glorified into the fastest known mode of conveyance and travel.
A man can now think of traveling thousands of miles in just a few hours. This would have sounded like a wild dream a few centuries ago, but man’s curiosity and willingness have made it a reality. Inventions and discoveries of fuels, that are efficient both in terms of money and usage, have given man easy accessibility to this mode of transport. Nowadays, even a common man can dream of getting aboard an airplane.
These days, air transport is not only being used to connect two places on Earth, but it is also being used in connecting two random places in the Universe. The inventions and discoveries have led man to travel to the moon and learn about it. Hence, the most speculated phenomenon since ages is no longer a mystery, thanks to the Jet Age, or shall we say the Space Age.
Transportation is one of the very initial processes that man started, and its history cannot be dated back to an exact time period. But, we can easily assume that it has existed since man wanted to move around and explore. So, one can guess how old this process is and one can also be sure how long this process will go on. It can be easily concluded that the process of transportation is as old as man himself and will remain till he exists on the face of the Earth. | <urn:uuid:6400f62c-1338-41d0-b1de-2b9bf3818052> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wheelzine.com/history-of-transportation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.982224 | 1,342 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.0373678356409... | 7 | Transportation forms the backbone of any society, as it makes everyday life much simpler. Read on to know about the history of transportation and how it has evolved through the ages.
The history of transportation goes back to the pre-historic ages when man learned to live in groups and traveled extensively in search of food and shelter. The pre-historic transportation mostly consisted of walking and swimming (when required). Gradually, man learned to use animals to carry himself, as well as his belongings. Use of animals as a means of conveyance was revolutionized by the invention of the wheel, which can be given the credit for changing the whole concept of it.
With time, man wanted speed as well as capacity in his transit. This need, as well as man’s curious nature, subsequently led to the invention of various machines, like steam engines and aircrafts. The evolution of transportation can be broadly divided into 4 categories based on their medium.
Transportation by road is probably the oldest mode of travel. As early as the prehistoric times, man knew how to walk, both on twos and fours. After the invention of wheels, road transport revolutionized in a big way. Roads were first constructed by Romans in order to enable the armies to travel faster. They made the use of wheels very comfortable, which was otherwise inconvenient and uncomfortable on rugged surfaces. When it came to ice, land transport has always consisted of only and only sledges. Initially, sledges were pulled by animals, but with the advent of machines, animals were relieved of this burden. Still, animals are widely used in many places.
Coming back to roads, man kept inventing means that would speed up the process, giving birth to machines like bicycles, buggies, and cars and various machinery using engines. Road conveyance was very slow and costly till the industrial revolution. The invention of engines in this time period (steam and fuel) subsequently led to inventions of vehicles of different capacities and speeds. So today, we have cars, trucks, buses, bikes, and many more machines that help us travel and transport faster and more efficiently.
Historically, water transportation became very important because of man’s tendency to settle down around water bodies. Important cities were established along the banks of rivers and shores of oceans in order to make sure that the civilization never ran out of both, food and water. Transportation actually came into picture when man discovered his business skills, and when his greed to conquer and rule grew. Some people traveled to learn, while some traveled to fight. Both ways, human beings had to find means of conveyance on water.
Initially, boats were constructed by tying bamboo shafts together. But this was a very basic invention and came handy when traveling for short distances. With the passing time and rising need, man learned to create bigger boats that used manpower or winds for propagation. Man is known to have traveled far and wide using boats and ships. Wars on seas have been reported as old as 30 BCE. The invention of engines revolutionized this mode as greatly as any other mode of transport.
These days, huge ships travel the lengths of oceans in the form of either the naval forces of a country or the luxurious cruise ships, a style statement for the rich and famous. They are unsinkable cities that are propelled by huge engines on the water surface. This is, however, a slow mode of conveyance these days as compared to many others that have come into picture. But who wants to hurry up when you are inside a five star cruise which is as good as a complete city with no flaws at all?
The usage of rails for the purpose of transportation started around 500 years ago. Initially, it consisted of man or horse power, and sometimes also of rails made of wood. The modern railway system finds its origin in England in the early 1800s. Historically, it was known as a wagon way, and its traces have been found as early as 600 BCE in Greece. The Greek system also used wagons that were pulled by either men or animals on the grooves made in limestone. Making of grooves on flat surfaces made the wagons follow a particular path, without being manually directed to do so. In their initial days, they were only 6-9 km long. There are discoveries that indicate their use in the Roman empire also.
As the centuries passed, man invented various machines that helped the growth of railways indirectly. For example, the invention of steam engine gave rail travel a new meaning, and remained an astounding invention of the century that was upgraded only in late 1900s by the fuel engine. Railways these days form the backbone of the economy of any country. They are a very fast and economic way of travel, as well as transport, over huge distances.
Air Transport and Space Travel
Man has always been a very curious and revolting child of God. He has always wanted to possess things he doesn’t have. This characteristic invariably gave way to many inventions that have made (and will continue making) our lives easier and luxurious every day. One of the most revolutionizing invention of the history of mankind is the airplane. It was invented by the Wright brothers of Ohio in 1903. Since its invention, it has been modified and glorified into the fastest known mode of conveyance and travel.
A man can now think of traveling thousands of miles in just a few hours. This would have sounded like a wild dream a few centuries ago, but man’s curiosity and willingness have made it a reality. Inventions and discoveries of fuels, that are efficient both in terms of money and usage, have given man easy accessibility to this mode of transport. Nowadays, even a common man can dream of getting aboard an airplane.
These days, air transport is not only being used to connect two places on Earth, but it is also being used in connecting two random places in the Universe. The inventions and discoveries have led man to travel to the moon and learn about it. Hence, the most speculated phenomenon since ages is no longer a mystery, thanks to the Jet Age, or shall we say the Space Age.
Transportation is one of the very initial processes that man started, and its history cannot be dated back to an exact time period. But, we can easily assume that it has existed since man wanted to move around and explore. So, one can guess how old this process is and one can also be sure how long this process will go on. It can be easily concluded that the process of transportation is as old as man himself and will remain till he exists on the face of the Earth. | 1,347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new and smartphone friendly version of Jenga has been produced to help teach math.
QR codes are starting to play yet another important role in education, as a new version of an old game has been developed in order to assist in teaching children about fractions and how they work.
These smartphone friendly barcodes have been used for several years to help teach children various lessons.
Teachers are always coming up with new and innovative ways to apply the codes to help with everything from physical education to health and now mathematics, as well. The latest development is the addition of QR codes to the blocks in the game of Jenga. This innovative idea was developed to make fractions easier to understand for young children.
The QR codes are applied to each block so that they can be scanned using mobile devices.
The idea for the QR codes on Jenga blocks first belonged to Tabitha Carro. This inspired teacher decided to generate the barcodes and add them to the game pieces in order to help to teach fourth graders how easy fractions can actually be. Carro took the initiative to apply labels to each of the game’s 54 blocks.
Each game piece label included a simple fractions question that had to be solved by the players, which was accompanied by QR codes. The children were assigned to small groups to construct one tower at a time. Each participating child would take his or her turn, removing a block from the pool. He or she would be required to solve the problem printed on that block and then tell the answer to the playing group.
The group could then scan the QR codes in order to verify whether or not the answer was correct. Each of the barcodes was unique to its question, so that it took only one scan in order to discover the answer. If the answer was determined to be incorrect, that block was required to be returned to the pool. The game continues onward until all 54 questions have been correctly answered and each block has been worked into the group’s tower. | <urn:uuid:4e676048-9718-47a7-8990-49b500f2d44b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.qrcodepress.com/qr-codes-are-helping-to-teach-fractions-to-children/8518939/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.981847 | 409 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.561675667762... | 5 | A new and smartphone friendly version of Jenga has been produced to help teach math.
QR codes are starting to play yet another important role in education, as a new version of an old game has been developed in order to assist in teaching children about fractions and how they work.
These smartphone friendly barcodes have been used for several years to help teach children various lessons.
Teachers are always coming up with new and innovative ways to apply the codes to help with everything from physical education to health and now mathematics, as well. The latest development is the addition of QR codes to the blocks in the game of Jenga. This innovative idea was developed to make fractions easier to understand for young children.
The QR codes are applied to each block so that they can be scanned using mobile devices.
The idea for the QR codes on Jenga blocks first belonged to Tabitha Carro. This inspired teacher decided to generate the barcodes and add them to the game pieces in order to help to teach fourth graders how easy fractions can actually be. Carro took the initiative to apply labels to each of the game’s 54 blocks.
Each game piece label included a simple fractions question that had to be solved by the players, which was accompanied by QR codes. The children were assigned to small groups to construct one tower at a time. Each participating child would take his or her turn, removing a block from the pool. He or she would be required to solve the problem printed on that block and then tell the answer to the playing group.
The group could then scan the QR codes in order to verify whether or not the answer was correct. Each of the barcodes was unique to its question, so that it took only one scan in order to discover the answer. If the answer was determined to be incorrect, that block was required to be returned to the pool. The game continues onward until all 54 questions have been correctly answered and each block has been worked into the group’s tower. | 397 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Constantius. I. Surnamed Chlorus(the Pale), a Roman emperor, father of Constantine the Great, born about A. D. 250, died at York, England, in July, 306. During his short reign the emperor Carus purposed to adopt Constantius, then governor of Dalma-tia, in place of his own son, the unworthy Carinus; but his sudden death in 283 prevented the execution of this project. Constantius afterward served with distinction, especially under Diocletian. In 292 the joint emperors Diocletian and Maximian made over a part of the actual exercise of government to their favorite generals, Galerius and Constantius, with the title of Csesars, obliging each of them to divorce his wife and marry a daughter of one of the emperors. Constantius, who was appointed by Diocletian, received the government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, his capital being the modern Treves. He defeated the Franks on the lower Rhine, the Alemanni on the upper Rhine, and the usurper Allectus in Britain. He governed with great humanity, and gave special protection to the Christians. In 305, when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, Constantius and Galerius were proclaimed Augusti, the precedence being assigned to the former.
He died while on an expedition against Scotland, 14 years after he was created Caesar, and 15 months after receiving the title of Augustus. II. A Roman emperor, second son of Constantine the Great by his second wife Fausta, born at Sirmium in Pannonia, Aug. 6, 317, died at Mopsocrene in Cilicia, Nov. 3, 361. After the death of Constantine the empire was apportioned between his three sons, Constantius, then 20 years of age, receiving Thrace and the countries of the East, including Egypt. He, however, seized upon Constantinople, which had been assigned to his elder brother Constantine, and put to death two of his uncles and seven of his cousins; but it was soon agreed between the three brothers that Constantinople should be restored to Constantine. He waged a protracted war against the Persians, which prevented him from taking any part in the struggles between his brothers in the West. Constantine was killed in 340 and Constans in 350. Constantius thereupon marched against Magnentius, who had been proclaimed in Gaul and Italy, and against Vetranio in Illyricum. They offered to compromise by acknowledging him as emperor of the East,. with the preeminence in rank.
He refused, having been, as he said, directed to do so by a vision of his father, the great Constantine. He offered, however, to acknowledge Vetranio as his colleague and equal, on condition that he would abandon Magnentius. A conference was appointed, but the soldiers of Vetranio deserted him, whereupon he abandoned all his claims, and was assigned an honorable abode at Prusa. Oonstantius then marched against Magnentius, whom he encountered and defeated in the bloody battle of Mursa (now Eszek) in Pannonia (Sept. 28, 351), and thus became sole emperor. He had in the mean time given the title of Caesar to his cousin Gallus, and sent him to Antioch to govern the East; but in 354 he caused him to be beheaded, appointed Julian, the brother of Gallus, as Caesar, and sent him to Gaul, where he waged a successful war against the Ale-manni and Franks. Growing jealous of the renown of Julian, he ordered the recall of the legions from Gaul. A revolt ensued, and the troops proclaimed Julian emperor. Constantius moved against him, but died on the way, and Julian, afterward known as "the Apostate," whom it is said he appointed his heir on his deathbed, was peacefully acknowledged by the whole empire.
Constantius is known for his zealous endeavors to establish a uniformity of faith throughout the empire. He favored the Arians, expelled Athanasius from Alexandria, persecuted the Catholics and the Novatians, and endeavored to put down pagan rites and ceremonies. III. A general of the Roman emperor Honorius, died in 421. He defeated Gerontius and a soldier named Constantine who had revolted and been proclaimed as emperor in Britain in 411; was made consul of Rome in 414 and 417; married Placidia, sister of Honorius, and was proclaimed joint emperor with him in 421, but died seven months after. His son became the emperor Valentinian III. | <urn:uuid:08e5c818-a737-4871-914d-fffdeaa957bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chestofbooks.com/reference/American-Cyclopaedia-3/Constantius-I-Surnamed-Chlorus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.986897 | 953 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3627825379371... | 4 | Constantius. I. Surnamed Chlorus(the Pale), a Roman emperor, father of Constantine the Great, born about A. D. 250, died at York, England, in July, 306. During his short reign the emperor Carus purposed to adopt Constantius, then governor of Dalma-tia, in place of his own son, the unworthy Carinus; but his sudden death in 283 prevented the execution of this project. Constantius afterward served with distinction, especially under Diocletian. In 292 the joint emperors Diocletian and Maximian made over a part of the actual exercise of government to their favorite generals, Galerius and Constantius, with the title of Csesars, obliging each of them to divorce his wife and marry a daughter of one of the emperors. Constantius, who was appointed by Diocletian, received the government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, his capital being the modern Treves. He defeated the Franks on the lower Rhine, the Alemanni on the upper Rhine, and the usurper Allectus in Britain. He governed with great humanity, and gave special protection to the Christians. In 305, when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, Constantius and Galerius were proclaimed Augusti, the precedence being assigned to the former.
He died while on an expedition against Scotland, 14 years after he was created Caesar, and 15 months after receiving the title of Augustus. II. A Roman emperor, second son of Constantine the Great by his second wife Fausta, born at Sirmium in Pannonia, Aug. 6, 317, died at Mopsocrene in Cilicia, Nov. 3, 361. After the death of Constantine the empire was apportioned between his three sons, Constantius, then 20 years of age, receiving Thrace and the countries of the East, including Egypt. He, however, seized upon Constantinople, which had been assigned to his elder brother Constantine, and put to death two of his uncles and seven of his cousins; but it was soon agreed between the three brothers that Constantinople should be restored to Constantine. He waged a protracted war against the Persians, which prevented him from taking any part in the struggles between his brothers in the West. Constantine was killed in 340 and Constans in 350. Constantius thereupon marched against Magnentius, who had been proclaimed in Gaul and Italy, and against Vetranio in Illyricum. They offered to compromise by acknowledging him as emperor of the East,. with the preeminence in rank.
He refused, having been, as he said, directed to do so by a vision of his father, the great Constantine. He offered, however, to acknowledge Vetranio as his colleague and equal, on condition that he would abandon Magnentius. A conference was appointed, but the soldiers of Vetranio deserted him, whereupon he abandoned all his claims, and was assigned an honorable abode at Prusa. Oonstantius then marched against Magnentius, whom he encountered and defeated in the bloody battle of Mursa (now Eszek) in Pannonia (Sept. 28, 351), and thus became sole emperor. He had in the mean time given the title of Caesar to his cousin Gallus, and sent him to Antioch to govern the East; but in 354 he caused him to be beheaded, appointed Julian, the brother of Gallus, as Caesar, and sent him to Gaul, where he waged a successful war against the Ale-manni and Franks. Growing jealous of the renown of Julian, he ordered the recall of the legions from Gaul. A revolt ensued, and the troops proclaimed Julian emperor. Constantius moved against him, but died on the way, and Julian, afterward known as "the Apostate," whom it is said he appointed his heir on his deathbed, was peacefully acknowledged by the whole empire.
Constantius is known for his zealous endeavors to establish a uniformity of faith throughout the empire. He favored the Arians, expelled Athanasius from Alexandria, persecuted the Catholics and the Novatians, and endeavored to put down pagan rites and ceremonies. III. A general of the Roman emperor Honorius, died in 421. He defeated Gerontius and a soldier named Constantine who had revolted and been proclaimed as emperor in Britain in 411; was made consul of Rome in 414 and 417; married Placidia, sister of Honorius, and was proclaimed joint emperor with him in 421, but died seven months after. His son became the emperor Valentinian III. | 1,022 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’ would have turned 91 years old. And even after 52 years of his death, his words resonate more than ever.
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s inspirational speeches played a crucial role in terminating the legal segregation of African-American citizens in the United States. His activism was also critical for the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as well as the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Dr. King won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and he still is one of the most inspirational and significant African-American leaders in history.
Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and civil-rights activist, who had a tremendous impact on race problems existing in the mid-1950s in the United States.
Born as Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929, he was the middle child of Michael King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. Although the King family had initial roots in Georgia, they later moved to Atlanta in 1893, where they started to preach in a small Baptist Church.
Later, Michael King Sr. took over the ministry of his father-in-law and became himself a successful minister of his own. At that time he adopted the name Martin Luther King Sr. in honor of the German Protestant leader Martin Luther. Later, Michael Jr. follows his father’s steps and became Martin Luther King Jr.
The King children were raised in a loving and secure environment, having a more disciplinary father, while their mother was rather gentle with their education. But it was not enough to protect their growing children from racial prejudice.
Martin Luther King Sr. was against this violence against black people because as a minister he considered segregation and racism to be an affront to God’s will. Being strongly opposed to class superiority, he was able to leave a stable impression on Martin Jr.
Stay tuned for the next chapter, on how Dr. King grew up. | <urn:uuid:b370bf8e-66fe-4197-b08d-8470e1b4a956> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://africafutura.com/we-are-celebrating-the-legacy-of-martin-luther-king-part-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.986775 | 398 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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-0.119440943002... | 10 | Today, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’ would have turned 91 years old. And even after 52 years of his death, his words resonate more than ever.
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s inspirational speeches played a crucial role in terminating the legal segregation of African-American citizens in the United States. His activism was also critical for the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as well as the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Dr. King won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and he still is one of the most inspirational and significant African-American leaders in history.
Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and civil-rights activist, who had a tremendous impact on race problems existing in the mid-1950s in the United States.
Born as Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929, he was the middle child of Michael King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. Although the King family had initial roots in Georgia, they later moved to Atlanta in 1893, where they started to preach in a small Baptist Church.
Later, Michael King Sr. took over the ministry of his father-in-law and became himself a successful minister of his own. At that time he adopted the name Martin Luther King Sr. in honor of the German Protestant leader Martin Luther. Later, Michael Jr. follows his father’s steps and became Martin Luther King Jr.
The King children were raised in a loving and secure environment, having a more disciplinary father, while their mother was rather gentle with their education. But it was not enough to protect their growing children from racial prejudice.
Martin Luther King Sr. was against this violence against black people because as a minister he considered segregation and racism to be an affront to God’s will. Being strongly opposed to class superiority, he was able to leave a stable impression on Martin Jr.
Stay tuned for the next chapter, on how Dr. King grew up. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jane Austen was born in the United Kingdom in the late 18th century. She lived in south-east England her whole life. She hardly ever ventured beyond that corner of the country.
The Austen family was upper middle class. It was on the fringes of the gentry. British society was very stratified at the time. The king was at the top. Just below the royal family was the nobility. Noblemen had titles like ‘duke’ and ‘lord.’ Below the nobility were the gentry. The gentry were people who owned a lot of land. The Austen family aspired to be members of the gentry but did not have enough money. The nobility and gentry between them made up a tiny proportion of the population: perhaps 3%. The middle class made up perhaps 20% of the population. The Austens were the top end of middle class. They desperately wanted social promotion. Over 75% of people were working class. Most of them were poor. Many working class people were illiterate.
Jane was a very bookish child. Her family disapproved of her excessive erudition. It was off putting to suitors.
In those days almost everyone married. The legal age of marriage was 12. But very few people wed that young. Girls married from their mid teens to their early 20s. Males tended to marry anywhere from their late teens to late 20s. If a woman was unmarried at 25 people would say she was ‘an old maid’. In this case ‘maid’ meant ‘virgin’. She was seen to have failed. Very few men would be willing to marry a woman of that age.
Divorce was extremely rare back then. It was a very protracted and costly legal process. It was considered to be an utter disgrace. It did not matter is a woman’s husband committed adultery. If she divorced him she would be shamed too. Therefore a woman’s choice of husband was critical. She would probably marry only once.
Girls received less schooling than boys at the time. All higher education was closed to females. The jobs that women did were almost always worse paid than those men did. A woman was thus financially dependent on a man.
When Jane Austen reached the normal age for marriage about 16 she started going to balls. Dancing is a mating ritual. Dancing made it acceptable to touch the opposite sex. People could indicate how much they desired the other person.
In the 18th century a person would wink with the right eye to indicate ‘I am attracted to you.’ A person would wink with the left eye to say ‘I am not attracted to you.’ Some people have driver’s dyslexia and cannot tell left from right. They would get themselves in a sticky situation or indeed miss out on a golden opportunity.
Jane Austen lived with her parents after she reached adulthood. Her siblings wed. One of her brothers became an officer in the Royal Navy. She wrote frenetically. Her novels are The Watsons, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice and Persuasion.
Austen wrote whereof she knew. The locale of her oeuvre is always southern England. She focuses on the border between the middle class and the upper class. The themes are social climbing, money, snobbery, marriage, manners and familial reputation. These were all issues she had to tussle with.
On the marriage market people looked for money. Should a woman marry a wealthy man even if she dislikes him? Should a man wed an ugly woman who was given a handsome dowry? Did feelings matter? Austen believed that a woman needed to find a trade off between emotion and money when choosing a husband. It was foolish to say that money did not matter. Some people lived in abject penury at the time. There were beggars almost starving in the street. If she married a pauper she could end up like them.
A man proposed marriage to Jane. She accepted. She went to bed. The next morning she came down and told him that she had changed her mind. She never wed. SOme believe that she was a lesbian.
In time she wrote was an epoch of rapid and sweeping change. She lived through the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars and radical ferment in the UK. The Romantic Movement flourished. The classics were the mainstay of education at the time. Yet her prose is sparse and bereft of Latin tags. She felt them pretentious. Her work is free of any ideological slant. She appeared to hold the Romantic Movement in contempt.
Austen moved to Winchester when she fell ill in her late 30s. She lived there a few weeks before dying. | <urn:uuid:310416e9-268d-4f4e-83fd-0371c13bb03b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gcalers.wordpress.com/2019/12/03/jane-austen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.992736 | 996 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Jane Austen was born in the United Kingdom in the late 18th century. She lived in south-east England her whole life. She hardly ever ventured beyond that corner of the country.
The Austen family was upper middle class. It was on the fringes of the gentry. British society was very stratified at the time. The king was at the top. Just below the royal family was the nobility. Noblemen had titles like ‘duke’ and ‘lord.’ Below the nobility were the gentry. The gentry were people who owned a lot of land. The Austen family aspired to be members of the gentry but did not have enough money. The nobility and gentry between them made up a tiny proportion of the population: perhaps 3%. The middle class made up perhaps 20% of the population. The Austens were the top end of middle class. They desperately wanted social promotion. Over 75% of people were working class. Most of them were poor. Many working class people were illiterate.
Jane was a very bookish child. Her family disapproved of her excessive erudition. It was off putting to suitors.
In those days almost everyone married. The legal age of marriage was 12. But very few people wed that young. Girls married from their mid teens to their early 20s. Males tended to marry anywhere from their late teens to late 20s. If a woman was unmarried at 25 people would say she was ‘an old maid’. In this case ‘maid’ meant ‘virgin’. She was seen to have failed. Very few men would be willing to marry a woman of that age.
Divorce was extremely rare back then. It was a very protracted and costly legal process. It was considered to be an utter disgrace. It did not matter is a woman’s husband committed adultery. If she divorced him she would be shamed too. Therefore a woman’s choice of husband was critical. She would probably marry only once.
Girls received less schooling than boys at the time. All higher education was closed to females. The jobs that women did were almost always worse paid than those men did. A woman was thus financially dependent on a man.
When Jane Austen reached the normal age for marriage about 16 she started going to balls. Dancing is a mating ritual. Dancing made it acceptable to touch the opposite sex. People could indicate how much they desired the other person.
In the 18th century a person would wink with the right eye to indicate ‘I am attracted to you.’ A person would wink with the left eye to say ‘I am not attracted to you.’ Some people have driver’s dyslexia and cannot tell left from right. They would get themselves in a sticky situation or indeed miss out on a golden opportunity.
Jane Austen lived with her parents after she reached adulthood. Her siblings wed. One of her brothers became an officer in the Royal Navy. She wrote frenetically. Her novels are The Watsons, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice and Persuasion.
Austen wrote whereof she knew. The locale of her oeuvre is always southern England. She focuses on the border between the middle class and the upper class. The themes are social climbing, money, snobbery, marriage, manners and familial reputation. These were all issues she had to tussle with.
On the marriage market people looked for money. Should a woman marry a wealthy man even if she dislikes him? Should a man wed an ugly woman who was given a handsome dowry? Did feelings matter? Austen believed that a woman needed to find a trade off between emotion and money when choosing a husband. It was foolish to say that money did not matter. Some people lived in abject penury at the time. There were beggars almost starving in the street. If she married a pauper she could end up like them.
A man proposed marriage to Jane. She accepted. She went to bed. The next morning she came down and told him that she had changed her mind. She never wed. SOme believe that she was a lesbian.
In time she wrote was an epoch of rapid and sweeping change. She lived through the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars and radical ferment in the UK. The Romantic Movement flourished. The classics were the mainstay of education at the time. Yet her prose is sparse and bereft of Latin tags. She felt them pretentious. Her work is free of any ideological slant. She appeared to hold the Romantic Movement in contempt.
Austen moved to Winchester when she fell ill in her late 30s. She lived there a few weeks before dying. | 981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bordatella Pertussis, a bacterium causes whooping cough, which is also known as 'Pertussis'. This bacterial infection was once a serious killer with reports of almost 100,000 cases a year, before the vaccine was introduced in the 1950s. The immunization for the children against the disease is given as babies and before school. The research team in their study that was reported in the British Medical Journal cautioned that the GP's should consider the diagnosis of whooping cough even in fully immunised children.
Reports have indicated that the number of cases of whooping cough has fallen significantly over the past 20 years. But last years statistics from the Health Protection Agency show an increase in the number of younger children who were diagnosed with the condition. Figures show that in 2004, there were 237 cases among children aged four and under, with the numbers having raised to 289 in
It was explained that there was no life-long immunity against the infection with the Pertussis vaccine. Researchers explained that GP's now-a days are tending to view the condition as only affecting very young children who have not been immunised and who have classic features such as whoop.
The researchers had conducted their study on 172 children between ages 5 to 16 years who visited their family doctor with a cough that had lasted at least 14 days. Researchers recorded the length of time that they had been affected by the cough, and its severity, they also checked the child's immunisation records. Blood samples were taken to test for Pertussis infection and the parents and children were asked to make a diary on the history of heir cough.
The researchers found that 64 (37.2%) of the children had verified a recent Pertussis infection, and that 55 (85.9%) of them had been fully immunised. They explained that children with Pertussis were highly likely than others to have whooping, vomiting, and sputum production. They further explained that it was very likely that they might be still coughing almost two months after the start of their illness, or continue to have more than five coughing episodes per day, which causes sleep disturbance for their parents.
Dr Anthony Harnden, an Oxford University lecturer and GP in Oxfordshire, who led the research, explained that the vaccination policy did work. He said, "The immunisation is very effective - we know that because very few infants die of whooping cough. But what the immunisation does not do is last for a long time."
He also added, "Our main message is that doctors should consider a diagnosis of whooping cough even in a fully immunised child."
Dr Hardman said, "There's a debate about whether we should introduce an adolescent booster, but that could push it upwards into the parent population, which has its own set of problems. That's the dilemma." Meanwhile a spokesman for the Health Protection Agency said, "We're fully aware that protection from the vaccine wears off. But it's very good at protecting young babies, and they're the ones who can die from whooping cough. So we've built the whole vaccination programme is built around them."
Dr Graham Archard, vice chairman of the Royal College of General Practitioners, said that it would be irrational to suggest that GPs have been performing at a lower standard that patients may expect. He said, "Making a diagnosis of whooping cough necessitates uncomfortable blood tests which are usually avoided in young children unless there is clear benefit in undertaking the blood test. This new evidence asks many questions of how GPs and other clinicians should be expected to deal with the huge number of children presenting with coughs, of which 40% may have whooping cough."
A Spokeswoman from the Department of Health stressing on the importance for the children to receive all their childhood vaccines, said, "The vaccine is very effective, especially in protecting against severe disease." | <urn:uuid:99ca04bf-7c8c-498d-8cb2-83e5ff241de1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=12102 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.986234 | 796 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.1799163222... | 1 | Bordatella Pertussis, a bacterium causes whooping cough, which is also known as 'Pertussis'. This bacterial infection was once a serious killer with reports of almost 100,000 cases a year, before the vaccine was introduced in the 1950s. The immunization for the children against the disease is given as babies and before school. The research team in their study that was reported in the British Medical Journal cautioned that the GP's should consider the diagnosis of whooping cough even in fully immunised children.
Reports have indicated that the number of cases of whooping cough has fallen significantly over the past 20 years. But last years statistics from the Health Protection Agency show an increase in the number of younger children who were diagnosed with the condition. Figures show that in 2004, there were 237 cases among children aged four and under, with the numbers having raised to 289 in
It was explained that there was no life-long immunity against the infection with the Pertussis vaccine. Researchers explained that GP's now-a days are tending to view the condition as only affecting very young children who have not been immunised and who have classic features such as whoop.
The researchers had conducted their study on 172 children between ages 5 to 16 years who visited their family doctor with a cough that had lasted at least 14 days. Researchers recorded the length of time that they had been affected by the cough, and its severity, they also checked the child's immunisation records. Blood samples were taken to test for Pertussis infection and the parents and children were asked to make a diary on the history of heir cough.
The researchers found that 64 (37.2%) of the children had verified a recent Pertussis infection, and that 55 (85.9%) of them had been fully immunised. They explained that children with Pertussis were highly likely than others to have whooping, vomiting, and sputum production. They further explained that it was very likely that they might be still coughing almost two months after the start of their illness, or continue to have more than five coughing episodes per day, which causes sleep disturbance for their parents.
Dr Anthony Harnden, an Oxford University lecturer and GP in Oxfordshire, who led the research, explained that the vaccination policy did work. He said, "The immunisation is very effective - we know that because very few infants die of whooping cough. But what the immunisation does not do is last for a long time."
He also added, "Our main message is that doctors should consider a diagnosis of whooping cough even in a fully immunised child."
Dr Hardman said, "There's a debate about whether we should introduce an adolescent booster, but that could push it upwards into the parent population, which has its own set of problems. That's the dilemma." Meanwhile a spokesman for the Health Protection Agency said, "We're fully aware that protection from the vaccine wears off. But it's very good at protecting young babies, and they're the ones who can die from whooping cough. So we've built the whole vaccination programme is built around them."
Dr Graham Archard, vice chairman of the Royal College of General Practitioners, said that it would be irrational to suggest that GPs have been performing at a lower standard that patients may expect. He said, "Making a diagnosis of whooping cough necessitates uncomfortable blood tests which are usually avoided in young children unless there is clear benefit in undertaking the blood test. This new evidence asks many questions of how GPs and other clinicians should be expected to deal with the huge number of children presenting with coughs, of which 40% may have whooping cough."
A Spokeswoman from the Department of Health stressing on the importance for the children to receive all their childhood vaccines, said, "The vaccine is very effective, especially in protecting against severe disease." | 821 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Behind Protective Walls
Most people are familiar with a fireproof dish. What is more unusual is to talk about a “fireproof house”. It is, nevertheless, what the Round Tower has been called. And rightly so, since its robust walls have offered protection for centuries to Copenhageners who sought shelter from fire and bombs.
Many of the latter were dropped during World War II. Thus, when Denmark was occupied in 1940, the question of how to provide protection for the people during the Allied air raids quickly arose. In Copenhagen, dugouts and air raid shelters started being built and arranged in parks, green spaces and other available places, for the ambition was that everyone should be able to reach safety in less than three minutes. In Tivoli alone, shelters were built for 20,000 people. In other parts of the city existing localities were fitted out for the purpose – for instance the lower part of the Round Tower, which could be turned into a shelter with sandbags, benches adjusted to the sloping floor and room for 600.
As mentioned before, it was not the first time the solid tower was chosen to protect the Copenhageners when they were in danger. A 1.60 m thick outer wall made of stone is, after all, more than most people had at their disposal. Thus, it is conceivable that the Spiral Samp was already used as a refuge, at the time when the city was bombarded during the Swedish siege from 1658-60, and again in 1700, when an enemy fleet with ships from England, Holland and Sweden fired cannonballs over the city in the beginning of the Great Northern War.
However, as far as is known, there exists no verified information about the Round Tower being used as a shelter before the fire of Copenhagen in 1728, during which the Spiral Ramp was filled up with a stream of people and those belongings that they had managed to rescue from their far less fireproof houses.
“Strangers took up all the space with their household effects in the tower’s passageway below me”, the astronomer Peder Nielsen Horrebow (1679-1764) thus recounts. He and his eldest son had taken shelter in the rooms below the Observatory at the top of the Round Tower after his home had gone up in flames the previous day. But when the fire reached the Trinity Complex as well, where it destroyed the upper part of the tower, Horrebow and his son had to find a way to get down to the street, “which they did not reach until they had laboriously climbed over mountains of huddled furniture”, as it says in a description.
“It must have been an inferno of heat, smoke and panic both inside and outside the Spiral Ramp”
It must have been an inferno of heat, smoke and panic both inside and outside the Spiral Ramp, for the fire also reached the University Library, whose entrance was located inside the Round Tower. The library above the Trinity Church, as well as big parts of the church itself, were destroyed by the fire. A poem written in the time after the fire thus offers a vivid snapshot of how bad it was. “On the Round Tower it is neither possible to see the Sun nor the Moon,” the poem states, “and the star’s path is clouded by fog and flames; / the fire star flares in every corner and nook / and it is awful to see around in Aabenraa [a street close to the Round Tower].”
More Huddled Furniture
The Round Tower itself, however, did more or less make it through the great fire and was again able to function as a shelter for the Copenhageners in 1807, when the British bombarded the city three September nights in a row. According to a description made by Christian Ludvig Strøm (1771-1859), who was the son-in-law of the university librarian Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829), the situation in the Spiral Ramp gradually came to resemble the one in 1728. Nyerup was also the head of the old dormitory Regensen, which is located across the street from the Round Tower, where he and his family therefore lived.
“When the bombardment began shortly after, Nyerup made his way to his post in the University Library”, the son-in-law recounts. “The rest of us went along and camped in the tower’s passageway outside of the library. We thought this to be safer than Regensen, where a grenade killed a servant on the first day and bombs destroyed several rooms in the days that followed. Other people from the city must have had the same idea. On the first night we were probably the only ones there, but the next day a few other families began to arrive, and on the third day the entire passageway was filled from top to bottom with household effects, beds and people. During this huddle, different incidents took place that would have caused a lot of fun under normal circumstances but now they only elicited a brief smile.”
The Round Tower and the Trinity Church both suffered much less damage in 1807 than they did in the fire almost 80 years previously. But the people of Copenhagen were not so fortunate. The medical student Oluf Lundt Bang (1788-1877), who later became a celebrity doctor and, amongst others, treated the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813-55), has depicted the suffering in his versified memoirs, but also the security that the Round Tower’s thick walls were able to offer to the victims of the bombardments:
“Among all the places that provided protection,
one thought that the Round Tower was the safest,
half a hundred families
therefore lived along its spiral ramp.
A screen, sometimes not even that,
separated them from each other,
and no difference was made
with respect to money and rank.
There I visited and provided help to
neighbours from Kannikestræde [another street close to the Round Tower],
who had been badly injured by the bombs,
in the basement where they had sought shelter.
One daughter got her foot shot off,
two others got even more wounds,
now they have moved to the Round Tower
and will have to be cured by me.
The shattered limbs, the wailing people,
the burning houses in the city
soon depressed my merry disposition,
I understood the shame and damage.”
Most of the book stock, which had managed to be re-established in the University Library after the fire in 1728, also found safety behind the protective walls. The manuscripts had been successfully hidden in the basement before it was too late while the most precious books were thrown into the Round Tower’s hollow core. Famous for being an exception, is the only book that, according to tradition, was damaged. Ironically, it is a copy of Marsilius of Padua’s medieval text Defensor Pacis (The Defender of Peace). It is now on display in the Library Hall as the only visible trace of the anguish that the Round Tower has also witnessed. | <urn:uuid:43e0f0b8-5a04-4308-8359-12b635e1623c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rundetaarn.dk/en/article/behind-protective-walls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.984721 | 1,497 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.281193435192... | 10 | Behind Protective Walls
Most people are familiar with a fireproof dish. What is more unusual is to talk about a “fireproof house”. It is, nevertheless, what the Round Tower has been called. And rightly so, since its robust walls have offered protection for centuries to Copenhageners who sought shelter from fire and bombs.
Many of the latter were dropped during World War II. Thus, when Denmark was occupied in 1940, the question of how to provide protection for the people during the Allied air raids quickly arose. In Copenhagen, dugouts and air raid shelters started being built and arranged in parks, green spaces and other available places, for the ambition was that everyone should be able to reach safety in less than three minutes. In Tivoli alone, shelters were built for 20,000 people. In other parts of the city existing localities were fitted out for the purpose – for instance the lower part of the Round Tower, which could be turned into a shelter with sandbags, benches adjusted to the sloping floor and room for 600.
As mentioned before, it was not the first time the solid tower was chosen to protect the Copenhageners when they were in danger. A 1.60 m thick outer wall made of stone is, after all, more than most people had at their disposal. Thus, it is conceivable that the Spiral Samp was already used as a refuge, at the time when the city was bombarded during the Swedish siege from 1658-60, and again in 1700, when an enemy fleet with ships from England, Holland and Sweden fired cannonballs over the city in the beginning of the Great Northern War.
However, as far as is known, there exists no verified information about the Round Tower being used as a shelter before the fire of Copenhagen in 1728, during which the Spiral Ramp was filled up with a stream of people and those belongings that they had managed to rescue from their far less fireproof houses.
“Strangers took up all the space with their household effects in the tower’s passageway below me”, the astronomer Peder Nielsen Horrebow (1679-1764) thus recounts. He and his eldest son had taken shelter in the rooms below the Observatory at the top of the Round Tower after his home had gone up in flames the previous day. But when the fire reached the Trinity Complex as well, where it destroyed the upper part of the tower, Horrebow and his son had to find a way to get down to the street, “which they did not reach until they had laboriously climbed over mountains of huddled furniture”, as it says in a description.
“It must have been an inferno of heat, smoke and panic both inside and outside the Spiral Ramp”
It must have been an inferno of heat, smoke and panic both inside and outside the Spiral Ramp, for the fire also reached the University Library, whose entrance was located inside the Round Tower. The library above the Trinity Church, as well as big parts of the church itself, were destroyed by the fire. A poem written in the time after the fire thus offers a vivid snapshot of how bad it was. “On the Round Tower it is neither possible to see the Sun nor the Moon,” the poem states, “and the star’s path is clouded by fog and flames; / the fire star flares in every corner and nook / and it is awful to see around in Aabenraa [a street close to the Round Tower].”
More Huddled Furniture
The Round Tower itself, however, did more or less make it through the great fire and was again able to function as a shelter for the Copenhageners in 1807, when the British bombarded the city three September nights in a row. According to a description made by Christian Ludvig Strøm (1771-1859), who was the son-in-law of the university librarian Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829), the situation in the Spiral Ramp gradually came to resemble the one in 1728. Nyerup was also the head of the old dormitory Regensen, which is located across the street from the Round Tower, where he and his family therefore lived.
“When the bombardment began shortly after, Nyerup made his way to his post in the University Library”, the son-in-law recounts. “The rest of us went along and camped in the tower’s passageway outside of the library. We thought this to be safer than Regensen, where a grenade killed a servant on the first day and bombs destroyed several rooms in the days that followed. Other people from the city must have had the same idea. On the first night we were probably the only ones there, but the next day a few other families began to arrive, and on the third day the entire passageway was filled from top to bottom with household effects, beds and people. During this huddle, different incidents took place that would have caused a lot of fun under normal circumstances but now they only elicited a brief smile.”
The Round Tower and the Trinity Church both suffered much less damage in 1807 than they did in the fire almost 80 years previously. But the people of Copenhagen were not so fortunate. The medical student Oluf Lundt Bang (1788-1877), who later became a celebrity doctor and, amongst others, treated the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813-55), has depicted the suffering in his versified memoirs, but also the security that the Round Tower’s thick walls were able to offer to the victims of the bombardments:
“Among all the places that provided protection,
one thought that the Round Tower was the safest,
half a hundred families
therefore lived along its spiral ramp.
A screen, sometimes not even that,
separated them from each other,
and no difference was made
with respect to money and rank.
There I visited and provided help to
neighbours from Kannikestræde [another street close to the Round Tower],
who had been badly injured by the bombs,
in the basement where they had sought shelter.
One daughter got her foot shot off,
two others got even more wounds,
now they have moved to the Round Tower
and will have to be cured by me.
The shattered limbs, the wailing people,
the burning houses in the city
soon depressed my merry disposition,
I understood the shame and damage.”
Most of the book stock, which had managed to be re-established in the University Library after the fire in 1728, also found safety behind the protective walls. The manuscripts had been successfully hidden in the basement before it was too late while the most precious books were thrown into the Round Tower’s hollow core. Famous for being an exception, is the only book that, according to tradition, was damaged. Ironically, it is a copy of Marsilius of Padua’s medieval text Defensor Pacis (The Defender of Peace). It is now on display in the Library Hall as the only visible trace of the anguish that the Round Tower has also witnessed. | 1,480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Graham Bell
From the telephone to the modern day communication systems, communication by definition is a process through which information is exchanged between two or more people. The human is not the only race to walk the earth with the capability to communicate with each other as it is known that animals too have their unique methods for communication purposes. Since human developed this process from almost nothing to a very complex system, it will be more appropriate to discuss the communication between human only.
Communication dates back to the beginning of life on earth is about the exchange of information developed from the mere body language to the verbal communication. Verbal communication led to the development of written script. This simple process, specifically during the 19th and the 20th century, underwent significant transformations and developments into becoming a highly sophisticated, well-spread and effective system. Some major inventions contributed heavily to the development of the communication process. Such inventions include the telephone, television, computer and the internet.
This essay reviews the invention of the telephone and briefly discusses the biography of the inventor of the great invention, Alexander Graham Bell (Communication). A brief biography Alexander Graham Bell was born on the 3rd of March, 1847 to Professor Alexander Melville Bell and mother Eliza Grace. Bell’s family was very well-reputed in the fields of elocution and speech recognition. He had two brothers namely Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell. Both his brothers and Bell himself was taught the family profession thoroughly.
However, his brothers passed away due to tuberculosis. Bell’s family included two deaf members, his mother and later his wife. Bell attended two years at Edinburgh’s Royal High School and one year at a private school. He was principally self-taught and learned a vast majority of things from his family. Graham Bell showed signs of genius from an early age.
While still a child, Bell started collecting botanical specimens and experimenting. His first invention was a simple dehusking machine at his best friend’s father’s flour mill. As a result, his friend’s father gave both the boys a workshop to experiment in. Bell also displayed immense love for art, music and nature. He was a self taught pianist and mastered the art of playing the piano. Bell was also well known amongst his family for his mimicry and would often entertain guests.
As a teacher in some schools, Bell started assisting his father till 1868. However, after the catastrophic death of his elder brother, Bell had to shift his family to Canada. He continued assisting his father by lecturing and demonstrating Visible Speech, a system for teaching communication to the deaf. During this period, Bell also continued to experiment with sound. Bell was awarded several prizes including the Volta prize by the French government which earned him enough money to set up a laboratory in Washington.
Bell’s teammates at the Volta Laboratory were Charles Summer and his cousin Chichester Bell. Bell later set up another laboratory near his estate where he conducted new experiments and taught young engineers about his works and ideas. Bell’s first novelty was the Photophone. It was an instrument that made it possible to transit sound on light. The photophone was developed by Bell and his teammate, Charles Summer.
The first successful experiment of the photophone was conducted in 1881 when a message was transmitted over a distance of 200 yards from a building to another. Later on, Bell claimed the photophone to be his greatest innovation, even greater than the telephone. The invention of photophone has led to innovation and development of fiber optics and lasers used for communication in the modern times. In response to the tragedy of the death of his son, Bell designed a metal jacket that was designed to help in breathing for people suffering from problems related to respiration, the disorder Bell’s son suffered and died from. It was Bell’s respect and care for his fellow men that several inventions facilitating people with medical disorders were credited to his name. Bell is lesser known for his experimentation with the energy recycling procedures and the removal of salt from salty waters.
During 1890s, Bell started experiments with kites and flying objects as by that time, he had taken up the challenge of flight. The Wright Brothers became the pioneers of flying when they conducted the experiment of manned flight (Alexander Graham Bell ). Alexander Graham Bell and the deaf Alexander Graham Bell had been well acquainted with deaf almost all of his life. During his childhood, his mother’s hearing became impaired which led him to introduce a sign language with his mother. Moreover, he also developed a technique for speaking into his mother’s forehead, which would allow, hi voice to be heard with clarity. This concern for his mother led Bell to study acoustics.
However, the first breakthrough in this field came when Bell started working with his father. Since his father was a renowned worker in the field of communication with the deaf, Bell was primarily taught by his father. After moving to Canada, Bell’s father received numerous invitations for lecturing and demonstrating his work. However, on several occasions, he refused the offer in favor of his son. This provided a chance for Bell to learn and establish his reputation in the educational world. After only a few lectures, Bell started receiving numerous offers and he continued this practice while still helping his father.
After attending to several universities and colleges, Bell opened his own school in Boston in the year 1872. This was Bell’s first step towards teaching the deaf. He taught his father’s system and the school gained popularity with his first class consisting of 30 students. Due to his deep rooted familiarity with the deaf, Bell always believed that the deaf could be taught to speak. This would result in the complete elimination of the sign language. Bell always had a soft corner for the deaf and worked vigorously hard to serve them in the best possible way (Alexander Graham Bell ).
The Telephone The telephone is and deserves to be named amongst the greatest inventions of man. The ease of communication created by the telephone has led to major developments in the field of communication since the day the historic invention came into being. Moreover, the telephone has been the cornerstone of more complex inventions and modifications of the modes of communications. Bell continued his experimentation with different devices and ideas along with his passion for teaching. By 1874, Bell’s work on the harmonic telegraph had taken up a solid shape and was a huge success. Living in Canada, Bell experimented with a phonautograph.
This machine led Bell to think that it would be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that communicate with sound waves.Since the telegraphic communication was at its peak during this period, Bell was constantly trying to invent a telegraph which could send multiple telegraph messages on the same line. Bell’s closest competitors, Elisha Gray and Thomas Edison were also striving hard to discover something similar. However, due to his thirst for experimenting, Bell went a step further and thought of adding the human voice to the telegraphic messages being sent. This led Bell to a famous scientist, Joseph Henry. Although, the meeting with Joseph Henry did not yield any substantial knowledge for Bell, it sparked a never-ending motivation to create what he had thought.
With his investors, Sanders and Hubbard, ready to finance this project, Bell was determined to achieve this before his competitors. The lack of equipment and ability to construct models was alleviated by a skilled and experienced electrical designer Thomas. A. Watson. The unexpected meeting of Bell and Watson led them to becoming long term partners. Elisha Gray, a competitor of Bell, also designed devices for the transmission of speech through electric signals which led the inventor to claim himself as the original inventor of the telephone.
Both the inventors, Bell and Gray, fought for a patent for their inventions which led the two men to the courtroom to fight a legal conflict. Ultimately, Bell won the case and was granted patent for his remarkable invention. Bell attempted to develop the telegraph into a more effective and speedy communication device. This attempt led Bell to invent the telephone. The telegraph had been in use for the last 3 decades before Bell started his experiments related to electrical signals.
The telegraph though an effective instrument for communication had some drawbacks which later were annulled by the invention of the telephone. The telegraph could only transmit one message at a particular time. This instrument consumed more time and prevented efficient communication. Bell, through his understanding of sound and electric signals, was able to infer the likelihood of sending and receiving numerous messages at a particular time through the same wires. Bell introduced the idea of transmitting several messages at the same time through his principle of sending simultaneous messages.
According to this principle of Bell, simultaneous signals could be transmitted at a time if the pitch of the signals differed from each other. This development is known as the ‘Harmonic telegraph’. Bell informed his future father in law, Gardiner Hubbard, about the likelihood of a device enabling multiple messages to be communicated. Hubbard provided finance to Bell in support of his research also to dismantle the monopolistic power of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was, till then, not known to Hubbard that Bell had developed the idea of a device that would make electrical communication possible.
Bell had hired Thomas Watson as his assistant who was an electrician who worked closely with Bell on his project. By 1875, the duo consisting of Bell and Watson had made it possible to bring the idea of a telephone to life. The team of Bell and Watson had concluded that different tones could vary the power of the electrical current in wires. A transmitter was required to help the duo build the device. The device needed a casing which could vary the electronic current.
Also, a receiver was required to help reproduce such disparity in an audible form. In 1875, Bell discovered that sound could be heard through a metal wire. The very first sound that Bell discovered was that of a clock spring. In March of 1876, Bell accomplished his mission with the invention of the telephone. The telegraph, known to the world for the last three decades, lost its significance as the telephone offered much more convenience, multiplicity and efficiency in communication.
Bell mentioned, in his notes, that the very first message he communicated via his remarkable new invention addressed his assistant Thomas Watson in the room next to the one in which Bell was experimenting (Bellis). Impact of the invention of the telephone The invention of the telephone impacted the entire world soon after its introduction. Both time and cost were saved as communication became more and more effective with the passage of time. Businesses found the telephone to be a problem solving instrument as it made transactions speedy and also reduced costs for businesses. Later on the telephone networks spread around the entire globe connecting millions of people. The telephone, somehow, triggered the struggle for innovation, efficiency and improvement in the communication systems.
As the telephone became more and more accessible to the masses, more and more interaction resulted between people from different locations. Businesses enjoyed a major advantage with the use of the telephone as then they were able to explore many of the unexplored markets in different parts of the world. The telephone proved to be a source of help for the governments, military forces and other institutions in maintaining law and order in the countries and keeping more up to date information about their respective subjects. The increasing use of the telephone led other inventors and specialists to the competitive field of mass communication and technology. The modern day cell phone or mobile phone could not come into being without the inspiration from Bell’s telephone.Internet became known to the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
The internet was the result of the specialists trying to improve the already widespread telephone and mail networks The modern technology of today is capable of producing new and better communication devices at rapid rates. There are hundreds of millions of cell or mobile phone users inhabiting planet Earth today. The telephone is, even today, accessible to almost everyone. The benefits derived from the use of the telephone are too many to mention in this short piece of research but by any measure, the telephone deserves to be named amongst the most important and noteworthy inventions man has ever come up with. Other inventions Alexander Graham Bell is also accredited with some other inventions along with the telephone, for which he is popularly known. This fact is obvious from the 18 patents granted to him along with 12 patents granted in collaboration with other partners.
As discussed earlier, Bell’s genius had no boundaries. His inventions consisted of the photophone, phonograph, a metal jacket to assist breathing, device for locating icebergs and findings on alternative fuel. One of the major inventions, after the telephone, of Graham Bell was the metal detector. This device was primarily used to detect elements of metal in a human body. This was functional if a person was shot and was used to detect and locate the bullet.
This device came into existence when the US President James Garfield was shot. Surgeons needed a way to find the assassin’s bullet, however, due to some complications; the device was unable to do so (Biography). Death Alexander Graham Bell passed away on the 2nd of August, 1922 due to complex diabetes which he suffered from. Bell had also been a patient of a peculiar kind of anemia. Bell believed that a person cannot suffer from any kind of mental problems if he or she kept on observing things and remembered their observations. In addition to the aforementioned belief of Alexander Graham Bell, he also emphasized on the significance of asking questions and searching for answers about things one sees or experiences in life.
The remarkable inventor passed away during the 75th year of his life and left behind his invention for the world to use, develop and remember his name as one of the most celebrated inventors in the history of mankind. | <urn:uuid:d7c74460-9fac-4fcd-9c10-8d28998b46cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://acasestudy.com/alexander-graham-bell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.983215 | 2,810 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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From the telephone to the modern day communication systems, communication by definition is a process through which information is exchanged between two or more people. The human is not the only race to walk the earth with the capability to communicate with each other as it is known that animals too have their unique methods for communication purposes. Since human developed this process from almost nothing to a very complex system, it will be more appropriate to discuss the communication between human only.
Communication dates back to the beginning of life on earth is about the exchange of information developed from the mere body language to the verbal communication. Verbal communication led to the development of written script. This simple process, specifically during the 19th and the 20th century, underwent significant transformations and developments into becoming a highly sophisticated, well-spread and effective system. Some major inventions contributed heavily to the development of the communication process. Such inventions include the telephone, television, computer and the internet.
This essay reviews the invention of the telephone and briefly discusses the biography of the inventor of the great invention, Alexander Graham Bell (Communication). A brief biography Alexander Graham Bell was born on the 3rd of March, 1847 to Professor Alexander Melville Bell and mother Eliza Grace. Bell’s family was very well-reputed in the fields of elocution and speech recognition. He had two brothers namely Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell. Both his brothers and Bell himself was taught the family profession thoroughly.
However, his brothers passed away due to tuberculosis. Bell’s family included two deaf members, his mother and later his wife. Bell attended two years at Edinburgh’s Royal High School and one year at a private school. He was principally self-taught and learned a vast majority of things from his family. Graham Bell showed signs of genius from an early age.
While still a child, Bell started collecting botanical specimens and experimenting. His first invention was a simple dehusking machine at his best friend’s father’s flour mill. As a result, his friend’s father gave both the boys a workshop to experiment in. Bell also displayed immense love for art, music and nature. He was a self taught pianist and mastered the art of playing the piano. Bell was also well known amongst his family for his mimicry and would often entertain guests.
As a teacher in some schools, Bell started assisting his father till 1868. However, after the catastrophic death of his elder brother, Bell had to shift his family to Canada. He continued assisting his father by lecturing and demonstrating Visible Speech, a system for teaching communication to the deaf. During this period, Bell also continued to experiment with sound. Bell was awarded several prizes including the Volta prize by the French government which earned him enough money to set up a laboratory in Washington.
Bell’s teammates at the Volta Laboratory were Charles Summer and his cousin Chichester Bell. Bell later set up another laboratory near his estate where he conducted new experiments and taught young engineers about his works and ideas. Bell’s first novelty was the Photophone. It was an instrument that made it possible to transit sound on light. The photophone was developed by Bell and his teammate, Charles Summer.
The first successful experiment of the photophone was conducted in 1881 when a message was transmitted over a distance of 200 yards from a building to another. Later on, Bell claimed the photophone to be his greatest innovation, even greater than the telephone. The invention of photophone has led to innovation and development of fiber optics and lasers used for communication in the modern times. In response to the tragedy of the death of his son, Bell designed a metal jacket that was designed to help in breathing for people suffering from problems related to respiration, the disorder Bell’s son suffered and died from. It was Bell’s respect and care for his fellow men that several inventions facilitating people with medical disorders were credited to his name. Bell is lesser known for his experimentation with the energy recycling procedures and the removal of salt from salty waters.
During 1890s, Bell started experiments with kites and flying objects as by that time, he had taken up the challenge of flight. The Wright Brothers became the pioneers of flying when they conducted the experiment of manned flight (Alexander Graham Bell ). Alexander Graham Bell and the deaf Alexander Graham Bell had been well acquainted with deaf almost all of his life. During his childhood, his mother’s hearing became impaired which led him to introduce a sign language with his mother. Moreover, he also developed a technique for speaking into his mother’s forehead, which would allow, hi voice to be heard with clarity. This concern for his mother led Bell to study acoustics.
However, the first breakthrough in this field came when Bell started working with his father. Since his father was a renowned worker in the field of communication with the deaf, Bell was primarily taught by his father. After moving to Canada, Bell’s father received numerous invitations for lecturing and demonstrating his work. However, on several occasions, he refused the offer in favor of his son. This provided a chance for Bell to learn and establish his reputation in the educational world. After only a few lectures, Bell started receiving numerous offers and he continued this practice while still helping his father.
After attending to several universities and colleges, Bell opened his own school in Boston in the year 1872. This was Bell’s first step towards teaching the deaf. He taught his father’s system and the school gained popularity with his first class consisting of 30 students. Due to his deep rooted familiarity with the deaf, Bell always believed that the deaf could be taught to speak. This would result in the complete elimination of the sign language. Bell always had a soft corner for the deaf and worked vigorously hard to serve them in the best possible way (Alexander Graham Bell ).
The Telephone The telephone is and deserves to be named amongst the greatest inventions of man. The ease of communication created by the telephone has led to major developments in the field of communication since the day the historic invention came into being. Moreover, the telephone has been the cornerstone of more complex inventions and modifications of the modes of communications. Bell continued his experimentation with different devices and ideas along with his passion for teaching. By 1874, Bell’s work on the harmonic telegraph had taken up a solid shape and was a huge success. Living in Canada, Bell experimented with a phonautograph.
This machine led Bell to think that it would be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that communicate with sound waves.Since the telegraphic communication was at its peak during this period, Bell was constantly trying to invent a telegraph which could send multiple telegraph messages on the same line. Bell’s closest competitors, Elisha Gray and Thomas Edison were also striving hard to discover something similar. However, due to his thirst for experimenting, Bell went a step further and thought of adding the human voice to the telegraphic messages being sent. This led Bell to a famous scientist, Joseph Henry. Although, the meeting with Joseph Henry did not yield any substantial knowledge for Bell, it sparked a never-ending motivation to create what he had thought.
With his investors, Sanders and Hubbard, ready to finance this project, Bell was determined to achieve this before his competitors. The lack of equipment and ability to construct models was alleviated by a skilled and experienced electrical designer Thomas. A. Watson. The unexpected meeting of Bell and Watson led them to becoming long term partners. Elisha Gray, a competitor of Bell, also designed devices for the transmission of speech through electric signals which led the inventor to claim himself as the original inventor of the telephone.
Both the inventors, Bell and Gray, fought for a patent for their inventions which led the two men to the courtroom to fight a legal conflict. Ultimately, Bell won the case and was granted patent for his remarkable invention. Bell attempted to develop the telegraph into a more effective and speedy communication device. This attempt led Bell to invent the telephone. The telegraph had been in use for the last 3 decades before Bell started his experiments related to electrical signals.
The telegraph though an effective instrument for communication had some drawbacks which later were annulled by the invention of the telephone. The telegraph could only transmit one message at a particular time. This instrument consumed more time and prevented efficient communication. Bell, through his understanding of sound and electric signals, was able to infer the likelihood of sending and receiving numerous messages at a particular time through the same wires. Bell introduced the idea of transmitting several messages at the same time through his principle of sending simultaneous messages.
According to this principle of Bell, simultaneous signals could be transmitted at a time if the pitch of the signals differed from each other. This development is known as the ‘Harmonic telegraph’. Bell informed his future father in law, Gardiner Hubbard, about the likelihood of a device enabling multiple messages to be communicated. Hubbard provided finance to Bell in support of his research also to dismantle the monopolistic power of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was, till then, not known to Hubbard that Bell had developed the idea of a device that would make electrical communication possible.
Bell had hired Thomas Watson as his assistant who was an electrician who worked closely with Bell on his project. By 1875, the duo consisting of Bell and Watson had made it possible to bring the idea of a telephone to life. The team of Bell and Watson had concluded that different tones could vary the power of the electrical current in wires. A transmitter was required to help the duo build the device. The device needed a casing which could vary the electronic current.
Also, a receiver was required to help reproduce such disparity in an audible form. In 1875, Bell discovered that sound could be heard through a metal wire. The very first sound that Bell discovered was that of a clock spring. In March of 1876, Bell accomplished his mission with the invention of the telephone. The telegraph, known to the world for the last three decades, lost its significance as the telephone offered much more convenience, multiplicity and efficiency in communication.
Bell mentioned, in his notes, that the very first message he communicated via his remarkable new invention addressed his assistant Thomas Watson in the room next to the one in which Bell was experimenting (Bellis). Impact of the invention of the telephone The invention of the telephone impacted the entire world soon after its introduction. Both time and cost were saved as communication became more and more effective with the passage of time. Businesses found the telephone to be a problem solving instrument as it made transactions speedy and also reduced costs for businesses. Later on the telephone networks spread around the entire globe connecting millions of people. The telephone, somehow, triggered the struggle for innovation, efficiency and improvement in the communication systems.
As the telephone became more and more accessible to the masses, more and more interaction resulted between people from different locations. Businesses enjoyed a major advantage with the use of the telephone as then they were able to explore many of the unexplored markets in different parts of the world. The telephone proved to be a source of help for the governments, military forces and other institutions in maintaining law and order in the countries and keeping more up to date information about their respective subjects. The increasing use of the telephone led other inventors and specialists to the competitive field of mass communication and technology. The modern day cell phone or mobile phone could not come into being without the inspiration from Bell’s telephone.Internet became known to the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
The internet was the result of the specialists trying to improve the already widespread telephone and mail networks The modern technology of today is capable of producing new and better communication devices at rapid rates. There are hundreds of millions of cell or mobile phone users inhabiting planet Earth today. The telephone is, even today, accessible to almost everyone. The benefits derived from the use of the telephone are too many to mention in this short piece of research but by any measure, the telephone deserves to be named amongst the most important and noteworthy inventions man has ever come up with. Other inventions Alexander Graham Bell is also accredited with some other inventions along with the telephone, for which he is popularly known. This fact is obvious from the 18 patents granted to him along with 12 patents granted in collaboration with other partners.
As discussed earlier, Bell’s genius had no boundaries. His inventions consisted of the photophone, phonograph, a metal jacket to assist breathing, device for locating icebergs and findings on alternative fuel. One of the major inventions, after the telephone, of Graham Bell was the metal detector. This device was primarily used to detect elements of metal in a human body. This was functional if a person was shot and was used to detect and locate the bullet.
This device came into existence when the US President James Garfield was shot. Surgeons needed a way to find the assassin’s bullet, however, due to some complications; the device was unable to do so (Biography). Death Alexander Graham Bell passed away on the 2nd of August, 1922 due to complex diabetes which he suffered from. Bell had also been a patient of a peculiar kind of anemia. Bell believed that a person cannot suffer from any kind of mental problems if he or she kept on observing things and remembered their observations. In addition to the aforementioned belief of Alexander Graham Bell, he also emphasized on the significance of asking questions and searching for answers about things one sees or experiences in life.
The remarkable inventor passed away during the 75th year of his life and left behind his invention for the world to use, develop and remember his name as one of the most celebrated inventors in the history of mankind. | 2,791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Early Life
Born in Shadwell, Virginia on the 13th of April, 1743, Thomas Jefferson was the third-born of ten siblings to Jane Randolph Jefferson, who was said to have been a descendant of Scottish and English royalty, and Peter Jefferson, a farmer, surveyor and cartographer. As a child, Thomas enjoyed playing in the woods and practicing his violin for hours at a time. At age nine, he began his formal education, studying Latin and Greek. At fourteen, Thomas was still working on the classical languages, and began studying literature and mathematics as well. Moving away from home, he began higher level studies at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. There, much to his dismay, Thomas discovered that his classmates were more interested in playing cards, betting on horses, and chasing women than learning. But he soon established friendships with several older scholars from whom he learned a great deal. One of these scholars was a prominent lawyer under whom Jefferson studied law for five years, twice the length of study required to pass the bar. In fact, by the time he passed the bar, he was considered to be one of the most learned lawyers in the American Colonies. From 1767 to 1774, Jefferson practiced law in Virginia, and it was during this time that he met and fell in love with a wealthy widow by the name of Martha Wayles Skelton. They were married in 1772 and had six children, of whom only two survived into adulthood.
4. Rise to Power
The beginning of Jefferson’s political career actually seemed to begin after the French and Indian war. The British were in dire straits for revenue, and began taxing the colonists unreasonably without American representation in their Parliament. As an enthusiastic supporter of American independence, Jefferson was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1768. It was in the House of Burgesses that Jefferson joined a radical group of politicians led by Patrick Henry and George Washington. His first political writing, “A Summary View of the Rights of British America”, established Jefferson as an eloquent supporter of American independence. Shortly thereafter, his career went into overdrive. Being appointed to a five-man committee to draft the Declaration of Independence was just the beginning. He served in the House of Delegates, was elected as the second governor of the new state of Virginia, led the Virginia delegation in the Confederation Congress, and replaced Benjamin Franklin as Minister to France. He was then appointed as Secretary of State by George Washington and became a Vice President, before finally being elected as US President twice himself.
Jefferson’s ultimate, and most well-known, contribution to America was his drafting of the Declaration of Independence. Although appointed to a five-man committee to draft the document, he was then elected by the committee to write it. Seventeen days later, his masterpiece was complete. Although there were some minor revisions to his wording, the Declaration of Independence is considered to be one of the most powerful and eloquent tributes to equality and liberty in the world. Another oft-cited document that Jefferson wrote, “A Manual of Parliamentary Practice”, is still considered to be one of the most useful guides for legislative procedures. In addition to writing important documents, President Jefferson doubled the size of the nation when he authorized the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French, which extended the nation from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. As a result, he sent Lewis and Clark out west to explore, and bring back examples of the new areas' flora and fauna. That of Lewis and Clark would prove to be one of the most hugely successful, and historically important, expedititions in American history.
During his second term in office, Jefferson increasingly faced many challenges. The first major one was the Embargo Act of 1807. This act ceased all trade with Europe, which had disastrous results for the American economy, and eventually led to the War of 1812 with Great Britain. Additionally, Jefferson faced many personal challenges as well. While he was an enthusiastic proponent of liberty and freedom, he was also noted as being a prominent slave owner. While he championed the rights and needs of the common people, he lived luxuriously in a mansion in Monticello, Virginia. Jefferson believed in limiting government, yet he expanded it. Finally, though a quiet man who abhorred the bickering and in-fighting of politics, he yet became one of the most dominant political figures of his time nonetheless.
1. Death and Legacy
After retiring from politics in 1809, Jefferson established, designed, and selected scholars to teach at the new University of Virginia, which opened its doors in 1825. This was one of his proudest moments. Jefferson also sold his personal library to the national government, an act that began the path to the establishment of the Library of Congress. Living a fairly quiet life into his final years, Jefferson died in bed on the 4th of July, 1826. Interestingly enough, the date of his death marked the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Signing of the Declaration of Independence, a legacy that has been the foundation of freedom and equality in the United States ever since.
When Was Thomas Jefferson President?
Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States. He was president from 1801 to 1809.
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Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
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Born in Shadwell, Virginia on the 13th of April, 1743, Thomas Jefferson was the third-born of ten siblings to Jane Randolph Jefferson, who was said to have been a descendant of Scottish and English royalty, and Peter Jefferson, a farmer, surveyor and cartographer. As a child, Thomas enjoyed playing in the woods and practicing his violin for hours at a time. At age nine, he began his formal education, studying Latin and Greek. At fourteen, Thomas was still working on the classical languages, and began studying literature and mathematics as well. Moving away from home, he began higher level studies at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. There, much to his dismay, Thomas discovered that his classmates were more interested in playing cards, betting on horses, and chasing women than learning. But he soon established friendships with several older scholars from whom he learned a great deal. One of these scholars was a prominent lawyer under whom Jefferson studied law for five years, twice the length of study required to pass the bar. In fact, by the time he passed the bar, he was considered to be one of the most learned lawyers in the American Colonies. From 1767 to 1774, Jefferson practiced law in Virginia, and it was during this time that he met and fell in love with a wealthy widow by the name of Martha Wayles Skelton. They were married in 1772 and had six children, of whom only two survived into adulthood.
4. Rise to Power
The beginning of Jefferson’s political career actually seemed to begin after the French and Indian war. The British were in dire straits for revenue, and began taxing the colonists unreasonably without American representation in their Parliament. As an enthusiastic supporter of American independence, Jefferson was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1768. It was in the House of Burgesses that Jefferson joined a radical group of politicians led by Patrick Henry and George Washington. His first political writing, “A Summary View of the Rights of British America”, established Jefferson as an eloquent supporter of American independence. Shortly thereafter, his career went into overdrive. Being appointed to a five-man committee to draft the Declaration of Independence was just the beginning. He served in the House of Delegates, was elected as the second governor of the new state of Virginia, led the Virginia delegation in the Confederation Congress, and replaced Benjamin Franklin as Minister to France. He was then appointed as Secretary of State by George Washington and became a Vice President, before finally being elected as US President twice himself.
Jefferson’s ultimate, and most well-known, contribution to America was his drafting of the Declaration of Independence. Although appointed to a five-man committee to draft the document, he was then elected by the committee to write it. Seventeen days later, his masterpiece was complete. Although there were some minor revisions to his wording, the Declaration of Independence is considered to be one of the most powerful and eloquent tributes to equality and liberty in the world. Another oft-cited document that Jefferson wrote, “A Manual of Parliamentary Practice”, is still considered to be one of the most useful guides for legislative procedures. In addition to writing important documents, President Jefferson doubled the size of the nation when he authorized the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French, which extended the nation from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. As a result, he sent Lewis and Clark out west to explore, and bring back examples of the new areas' flora and fauna. That of Lewis and Clark would prove to be one of the most hugely successful, and historically important, expedititions in American history.
During his second term in office, Jefferson increasingly faced many challenges. The first major one was the Embargo Act of 1807. This act ceased all trade with Europe, which had disastrous results for the American economy, and eventually led to the War of 1812 with Great Britain. Additionally, Jefferson faced many personal challenges as well. While he was an enthusiastic proponent of liberty and freedom, he was also noted as being a prominent slave owner. While he championed the rights and needs of the common people, he lived luxuriously in a mansion in Monticello, Virginia. Jefferson believed in limiting government, yet he expanded it. Finally, though a quiet man who abhorred the bickering and in-fighting of politics, he yet became one of the most dominant political figures of his time nonetheless.
1. Death and Legacy
After retiring from politics in 1809, Jefferson established, designed, and selected scholars to teach at the new University of Virginia, which opened its doors in 1825. This was one of his proudest moments. Jefferson also sold his personal library to the national government, an act that began the path to the establishment of the Library of Congress. Living a fairly quiet life into his final years, Jefferson died in bed on the 4th of July, 1826. Interestingly enough, the date of his death marked the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Signing of the Declaration of Independence, a legacy that has been the foundation of freedom and equality in the United States ever since.
When Was Thomas Jefferson President?
Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States. He was president from 1801 to 1809.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,140 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Of recent years a disease of root-crops known to farmers in North Wales is one in which the heart or core of the root is converted into a soft putrid mass but which leaves the rind and mature foliage intact. The disease is prone to appear on land treated with lime as a preventive against the roots being attacked by Plasmodiophora brassicae or when the land has received a heavy dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers. It is common knowledge that nitrogenous manures have a tendency to force the crop and so produce watery, sappy roots which easily fall prey to disease. Recently it was brought to the writer's notice by one of the County Organizers for Agriculture in Wales that some of the farmers in his area were strongly disinclined to lime the land for root-crops because this treatment was favourable to the appearance of “soft-rot.” There is probably some modicum of truth in this contention, for as will be seen below, the writer in the investigation of the present disease found that the organism isolated refused to grow on any media which were not neutral or alkaline. The writer observed and investigated this disease on a crop of white turnips grown on the farm of the University College of North Wales and the land here had received a dressing of nitrate of soda. A casual glance at the crop did not show anything unusual, in fact judging from the amount of green foliage the crop looked very healthy. Closer examination however showed that the very young leaves at the centre of the crown had been destroyed thus forming a tiny wound into which one could push a probe without obstruction to the depth of some three or four inches. The fully expanded leaves very effectively concealed the wound and the disease seemed evidently confined to the internal tissues leaving the foliage and rind quite firm even up to time of harvesting the crop. Indeed the extent of damage was only fully revealed at the time of lifting when the harvester's knife lopped off the foliage only to discover that the roots were bad. | <urn:uuid:4f764324-b2a8-4f24-b74d-a776e66325ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-agricultural-science/article/bacterial-disease-of-turnip-brassica-napus/FCC9B7579AE520DFF4B760135105A863 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.980601 | 409 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Question(redirected from bring into question)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Idioms, Encyclopedia.
QUESTION, punishment, crim. law. A means sometimes employed, in some
countries, by means of torture, to compel supposed great criminals to
disclose their accomplices, or to acknowledge their crimes.
2. This torture is called question, because, as the unfortunate person accused is made to suffer pain, he is asked questions as to his supposed crime or accomplices. The same as torture. This is unknown in the United States. See Poth. Procedure Criminelle, sect. 5, art. 2, Sec. 3.
QUESTION, evidence. An interrogation put to a witness, requesting him to
declare the truth of certain facts as far as he knows them.
2. Questions are either general or leading. By a general question is meant such an one as requires the witness to state all be knows without any suggestion being made to him, as who gave the blow?
3. A leading question is one which leads the mind of the witness to the answer, or suggests it to him, as did A B give the blow ?
4. The Romans called a question by which the fact or supposed fact which the interrogator expected, or wished to find asserted, in and by the answer made to the proposed respondent, a suggestive interrogation, as, is not your name A B? Vide Leading Question.
QUESTION, practice. A point on which the parties are not agreed, and which
is submitted to the decision of a judge and jury.
2. When the doubt or difference arises as to what the law is on a certain state of facts, this is said to be a legal question, and when the party demurs, this is to be decided by the court; when it arises as to the truth or falsehood of facts, this is a question of fact, and is to be decided by the jury. | <urn:uuid:7633f14d-b675-451c-97aa-76a3acac80e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/bring+into+question | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.983897 | 409 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2606752812862396,... | 1 | Question(redirected from bring into question)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Idioms, Encyclopedia.
QUESTION, punishment, crim. law. A means sometimes employed, in some
countries, by means of torture, to compel supposed great criminals to
disclose their accomplices, or to acknowledge their crimes.
2. This torture is called question, because, as the unfortunate person accused is made to suffer pain, he is asked questions as to his supposed crime or accomplices. The same as torture. This is unknown in the United States. See Poth. Procedure Criminelle, sect. 5, art. 2, Sec. 3.
QUESTION, evidence. An interrogation put to a witness, requesting him to
declare the truth of certain facts as far as he knows them.
2. Questions are either general or leading. By a general question is meant such an one as requires the witness to state all be knows without any suggestion being made to him, as who gave the blow?
3. A leading question is one which leads the mind of the witness to the answer, or suggests it to him, as did A B give the blow ?
4. The Romans called a question by which the fact or supposed fact which the interrogator expected, or wished to find asserted, in and by the answer made to the proposed respondent, a suggestive interrogation, as, is not your name A B? Vide Leading Question.
QUESTION, practice. A point on which the parties are not agreed, and which
is submitted to the decision of a judge and jury.
2. When the doubt or difference arises as to what the law is on a certain state of facts, this is said to be a legal question, and when the party demurs, this is to be decided by the court; when it arises as to the truth or falsehood of facts, this is a question of fact, and is to be decided by the jury. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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