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Return to 4th Quarter 2019 articles. Freedom of religion guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment was alive and well in the 19th century as evidenced by the conflict and confrontations between atheism and Christianity. Robert Owen (atheist) and Alexander Campbell (Christian) debated in 1829. A “freethought” movement began around 1850. Charles Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species was published in 1859. The years 1875 to 1914 were known as “The Golden Age of Freethought.” Robert Ingersoll, the foremost leader of this movement, was known as the “great agnostic.” George Walser, a lawyer and an avid follower of Ingersoll, set out to form a freethinker's haven. In 1880, he bought 2,000 acres of land to establish Liberal, Missouri. It was to be an atheist utopia where there would be no God, no hell, no churches, and no saloons. He said Christianity and the Bible were “superstition” and the crude reasoning of primitive humans. People who moved to Liberal signed an agreement promising not to hold religious services on their property. Within a year, William Waggoner bought land adjacent to Liberal and invited believers in Jesus to move there. In response, Walser put a barbed wire fence around Liberal and charged that Waggoner intended to induce the “immigration of Christians who would be strong enough to outnumber the Liberals and defeat the enterprise.” At the Liberal train station, he posted a sign that Christians were not welcome. The battle began. Some people bought homes and began holding worship services to God. Walser would interrupt them, and he even put a stop to this practice after he proved to a court that the services were being held on properties he still partly owned. So the believers then bought land next to Liberal and moved more than a dozen houses from Liberal. In competition, Walser reserved Sunday evenings for debates and speeches at the Universal Mental Liberty Hall. Evolution versus creationism was the favorite subject. Walser founded Free Thought University in 1886 with courses that were “untrammeled by Bible, creed, or isms.” The first saloon was built in 1887, and the churches came in 1889. Walser gave up on his atheist dream and sold his Liberty Hall to the Methodist church. Walser himself eventually became a believer and wrote a book, The Life and Teachings of Jesus, in 1909. Excerpts of that book were read at his funeral in 1910. Today, Darwin Street and Ingersoll Street remind Liberal, Missouri, of its failed atheist heritage. © onajourney. Image from BigStock.com. Scripture links/references are from BibleGateway.com. Unhighlighted scriptures can be looked up at their website.	<urn:uuid:0647fe28-df13-465b-867c-d1f247bc9ab2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.doesgodexist.org/Journals-2019/4thQtr19/BriefHistoryLiberal_MO.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00369.warc.gz	en	0.980647	598	3.265625	3	[ -0.07057856023311615, -0.021705247461795807, -0.23087628185749054, -0.18625307083129883, -0.12915316224098206, 0.10851413011550903, -0.23267516493797302, 0.18108102679252625, 0.047730084508657455, 0.14863896369934082, -0.15483343601226807, 0.20359259843826294, -0.06086857616901398, -0.0401...	1	Return to 4th Quarter 2019 articles. Freedom of religion guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment was alive and well in the 19th century as evidenced by the conflict and confrontations between atheism and Christianity. Robert Owen (atheist) and Alexander Campbell (Christian) debated in 1829. A “freethought” movement began around 1850. Charles Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species was published in 1859. The years 1875 to 1914 were known as “The Golden Age of Freethought.” Robert Ingersoll, the foremost leader of this movement, was known as the “great agnostic.” George Walser, a lawyer and an avid follower of Ingersoll, set out to form a freethinker's haven. In 1880, he bought 2,000 acres of land to establish Liberal, Missouri. It was to be an atheist utopia where there would be no God, no hell, no churches, and no saloons. He said Christianity and the Bible were “superstition” and the crude reasoning of primitive humans. People who moved to Liberal signed an agreement promising not to hold religious services on their property. Within a year, William Waggoner bought land adjacent to Liberal and invited believers in Jesus to move there. In response, Walser put a barbed wire fence around Liberal and charged that Waggoner intended to induce the “immigration of Christians who would be strong enough to outnumber the Liberals and defeat the enterprise.” At the Liberal train station, he posted a sign that Christians were not welcome. The battle began. Some people bought homes and began holding worship services to God. Walser would interrupt them, and he even put a stop to this practice after he proved to a court that the services were being held on properties he still partly owned. So the believers then bought land next to Liberal and moved more than a dozen houses from Liberal. In competition, Walser reserved Sunday evenings for debates and speeches at the Universal Mental Liberty Hall. Evolution versus creationism was the favorite subject. Walser founded Free Thought University in 1886 with courses that were “untrammeled by Bible, creed, or isms.” The first saloon was built in 1887, and the churches came in 1889. Walser gave up on his atheist dream and sold his Liberty Hall to the Methodist church. Walser himself eventually became a believer and wrote a book, The Life and Teachings of Jesus, in 1909. Excerpts of that book were read at his funeral in 1910. Today, Darwin Street and Ingersoll Street remind Liberal, Missouri, of its failed atheist heritage. © onajourney. Image from BigStock.com. Scripture links/references are from BibleGateway.com. Unhighlighted scriptures can be looked up at their website.	613	ENGLISH	1
What would the world we know be like if we experienced it without our senses? Nothing to hear or see, no smells to make our mouth water, unable to experience the thrills touch brings us, and food becoming tasteless. With this being said, it is understandable why the best most effective texts often incorporate vast and effective amounts of sensory into their descriptions. Sight allows us to visually understand our surroundings, express ourselves through objects and actions we are able to experience due to our eyes. Sound allows us to experience music, language, the sounds coming from our environment. Touch allows us to feel things and complete everyday tasks. Taste gives us motivation to eat certain foods. Smell fills our nostrils with the good and bad odors that surround us. All of these senses enhance our everyday lives. What’s also amazing about humans is that when one sense is taken away the others become keener. When the use of sensory words is applied the descriptions are enhanced and the meaning of the book can be more clearly understood in many cases. Using the texts I have studied during my time in this English class, I have complied a list of ways these senses have enhanced the meanings of the novels we have read. In Clay’s Ark by Octavia E. Butler, there was a disease that each member of an enclave had contracted and continued to spread. When the disease began to take over parts of their brain, there senses were stimulated and enhanced. This sensory enhancement was an important part of the book when it came to how the infected were feeling especially in comparison with the uninfected humans they were surrounded by. One of the characters informed another; “We read body language. We see things you wouldn’t even notice- things we didn’t notice before” (Butler, 486). In addition to enhanced sight with the ability to more quickly recognize body language and the meaning behind it as well as see clearly in the dark, the infected could hear much more keenly, and smell things humans would never even consider to have a specific smell like when a woman is at the stage of the month where she is most fertile. Their sense of smell also allowed them to distinguish who else was contaminated with the disease and what stage they were in, and who was uninfected. Their taste preferences also morphed in such a way that raw meat became desirable and the amount that they ate increased tenfold. The children that the infected population produced had senses even keener than their parents. The kids were more animal like in their features and have what we seem to consider more animal instincts and senses. Their hearing, sight, smell, and tastes gave them more animal like abilities. By explaining all of these sensory changes in the text it allowed the reader to have a better understanding of what the infected population was experiencing which in turn enhanced the overall effectiveness of the text in being able to rely certain themes and messages. In another book, Home by Toni Morrison, the main character, Frank Money, had been affected by his past traumas in such a way that in times of stress would alter his vision. His vision would go from vibrant and colorful then turn into a black and white scenery. In one scene when this happened to Frank, he was “just sitting next to a brightly dressed woman. Her flowered skirt was a world’s worth of color, her blouse a loud red. Frank watched the flowers at the hem of her skirt blackening and her red blouse draining of color until it was white as milk,” and the world became devoid of color (Morrison, 23). Then later, when the world had become black and white through his vision, “whatever the world’s palette, his shame and its fury exploded,” meaning that all the color reentered into his world (Morrison, 24). The book Zulus by Percival Everett was heavily filled with descriptive language. One reoccurring theme I noticed throughout the novel was the importance placed on the color white and how the color was altered and effected depending on the situations. The white was described inside and outside of buildings and even to aid in explaining the feelings of emotions. The main character, Alice, describes a scene where the a building was “sickly white and clear, reflecting the sky’s hue” which was pink in color, meaning that the building had been painted white but was tinted with the pink from the sky, no longer pure (Everett, 143). This being said, it seems that most of the buildings looked this way in the tinted world. At one point Alice discovered “the one white building looked white” (Everett, 81). Later in the story, Alice was captured and beheaded by a woman running a rebel community named Rema. When Alice was exposed to what was called the Body room Alice noticed that “the white wall behind Body-woman Rima seeming more than white” (Everett, 105). The novel also uses the color white to aid in expressing Alice’s emotions. Fear and pain are described as “[flashing] white through Alice,” a few times in the book (Everett, 176).	<urn:uuid:f5a27985-bb02-4c6e-a927-0d839530abd6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://morrison.sunygeneseoenglish.org/2019/12/02/sensory-enhancement/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00072.warc.gz	en	0.983509	1,062	3.484375	3	[ 0.20347046852111816, -0.06596754491329193, 0.6311678886413574, 0.21333280205726624, -0.14453920722007751, 0.033880673348903656, 1.0704822540283203, 0.10051852464675903, -0.13551750779151917, 0.04396187886595726, 0.0664350762963295, -0.2954620122909546, -0.03819207102060318, 0.2407941222190...	7	What would the world we know be like if we experienced it without our senses? Nothing to hear or see, no smells to make our mouth water, unable to experience the thrills touch brings us, and food becoming tasteless. With this being said, it is understandable why the best most effective texts often incorporate vast and effective amounts of sensory into their descriptions. Sight allows us to visually understand our surroundings, express ourselves through objects and actions we are able to experience due to our eyes. Sound allows us to experience music, language, the sounds coming from our environment. Touch allows us to feel things and complete everyday tasks. Taste gives us motivation to eat certain foods. Smell fills our nostrils with the good and bad odors that surround us. All of these senses enhance our everyday lives. What’s also amazing about humans is that when one sense is taken away the others become keener. When the use of sensory words is applied the descriptions are enhanced and the meaning of the book can be more clearly understood in many cases. Using the texts I have studied during my time in this English class, I have complied a list of ways these senses have enhanced the meanings of the novels we have read. In Clay’s Ark by Octavia E. Butler, there was a disease that each member of an enclave had contracted and continued to spread. When the disease began to take over parts of their brain, there senses were stimulated and enhanced. This sensory enhancement was an important part of the book when it came to how the infected were feeling especially in comparison with the uninfected humans they were surrounded by. One of the characters informed another; “We read body language. We see things you wouldn’t even notice- things we didn’t notice before” (Butler, 486). In addition to enhanced sight with the ability to more quickly recognize body language and the meaning behind it as well as see clearly in the dark, the infected could hear much more keenly, and smell things humans would never even consider to have a specific smell like when a woman is at the stage of the month where she is most fertile. Their sense of smell also allowed them to distinguish who else was contaminated with the disease and what stage they were in, and who was uninfected. Their taste preferences also morphed in such a way that raw meat became desirable and the amount that they ate increased tenfold. The children that the infected population produced had senses even keener than their parents. The kids were more animal like in their features and have what we seem to consider more animal instincts and senses. Their hearing, sight, smell, and tastes gave them more animal like abilities. By explaining all of these sensory changes in the text it allowed the reader to have a better understanding of what the infected population was experiencing which in turn enhanced the overall effectiveness of the text in being able to rely certain themes and messages. In another book, Home by Toni Morrison, the main character, Frank Money, had been affected by his past traumas in such a way that in times of stress would alter his vision. His vision would go from vibrant and colorful then turn into a black and white scenery. In one scene when this happened to Frank, he was “just sitting next to a brightly dressed woman. Her flowered skirt was a world’s worth of color, her blouse a loud red. Frank watched the flowers at the hem of her skirt blackening and her red blouse draining of color until it was white as milk,” and the world became devoid of color (Morrison, 23). Then later, when the world had become black and white through his vision, “whatever the world’s palette, his shame and its fury exploded,” meaning that all the color reentered into his world (Morrison, 24). The book Zulus by Percival Everett was heavily filled with descriptive language. One reoccurring theme I noticed throughout the novel was the importance placed on the color white and how the color was altered and effected depending on the situations. The white was described inside and outside of buildings and even to aid in explaining the feelings of emotions. The main character, Alice, describes a scene where the a building was “sickly white and clear, reflecting the sky’s hue” which was pink in color, meaning that the building had been painted white but was tinted with the pink from the sky, no longer pure (Everett, 143). This being said, it seems that most of the buildings looked this way in the tinted world. At one point Alice discovered “the one white building looked white” (Everett, 81). Later in the story, Alice was captured and beheaded by a woman running a rebel community named Rema. When Alice was exposed to what was called the Body room Alice noticed that “the white wall behind Body-woman Rima seeming more than white” (Everett, 105). The novel also uses the color white to aid in expressing Alice’s emotions. Fear and pain are described as “[flashing] white through Alice,” a few times in the book (Everett, 176).	1,040	ENGLISH	1
In the 1930’s the United States endured one of the most difficult economic times in the history of our country. This horrible crisis was called The Great Depression. The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was an era never to be forgotten. The Great Depression, though challenging with many hardships, in a way brought America closer together. It caused people to show what they really were made of and highlighted their true character. Americans worked hard and fought to provide for their families. The radio was a welcome diversion and the radio of the 1930’s entertained and educated the masses. The radio was invented somewhere around the 1860’s but Am radio wasn’t invented until the 1900’s by Lee Deforest. Lee Deforest was the first to use the term radio. Am means amplified modulation and was and is used for long distances. Am was the first system utilized to broadcast human voices and talk shows. Another aspect of radio was later invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong. This was referred to as frequency modulation which was a series of wave frequencies that were sent at a low amplification and when these frequencies arrived at the radio they became amplified. Fm wasn’t used until the late 1920’s when entertainment by radio became popular and was on the rise. Radio in the Thirties was composed of sounds of music, dramas and important political speeches. The radio helped people escape the problems that the country was facing at the time and gave them a sense of peace. In the Thirties almost every family owned a radio. The radio was a necessity of life and allowed people to escape the reality of their hardships. Many radio programs became famous but some were more celebrated than others. One radio show that grew in popularity was the radio drama, “Empire Builders”. The “Old Timer,” the main character of the “Empire Builders”, is an American rail worker who sees history in the making. In this drama, we get a glimpse of the history of railroads and its’ development and subsequent use of the Columbia River. Also, another much listened to radio program was NBC Red Network, “The Cremo Singer”. “The Cremo Singer” was the famous Bing Crosby. Cremo was a cigar brand and Bing was a very devoted smoker of all kinds of tobacco products. Smoking interestingly was well accepted during the Thirties. Politically, President Roosevelt also used the radio to his advantage. The president probably had the most important use of the radio. Often the president would make broadcasts over the air on NBC and ABC to deliver his summary of the nations recovery. These radio messages comforted the people giving them a sense of hope and often most of what he proclaimed ended up being somewhat false. During these broadcasts the nation would gather together in neighbors’ homes to hear the comforting news of hoped for economic growth. In conclusion, one could say that radio brought America together. Sadly, many of the radio broadcasts, political speeches, and dramas were lost due to poor preservation methods. As a result few know what radio was truly like during the Thirties. One thing is for certain life in the 1930’s would have been even more dreary without radio.	<urn:uuid:7012ea0e-19b5-407f-a530-90bb924bb0c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-history-radio-1930s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00500.warc.gz	en	0.98704	669	3.375	3	[ -0.16920843720436096, 0.24039751291275024, 0.26237764954566956, -0.12505853176116943, -0.18696758151054382, 0.22506360709667206, -0.00685061514377594, 0.2394721955060959, -0.29831957817077637, -0.16453009843826294, 0.29750773310661316, 0.4883301258087158, 0.33855074644088745, 0.32879957556...	1	In the 1930’s the United States endured one of the most difficult economic times in the history of our country. This horrible crisis was called The Great Depression. The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was an era never to be forgotten. The Great Depression, though challenging with many hardships, in a way brought America closer together. It caused people to show what they really were made of and highlighted their true character. Americans worked hard and fought to provide for their families. The radio was a welcome diversion and the radio of the 1930’s entertained and educated the masses. The radio was invented somewhere around the 1860’s but Am radio wasn’t invented until the 1900’s by Lee Deforest. Lee Deforest was the first to use the term radio. Am means amplified modulation and was and is used for long distances. Am was the first system utilized to broadcast human voices and talk shows. Another aspect of radio was later invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong. This was referred to as frequency modulation which was a series of wave frequencies that were sent at a low amplification and when these frequencies arrived at the radio they became amplified. Fm wasn’t used until the late 1920’s when entertainment by radio became popular and was on the rise. Radio in the Thirties was composed of sounds of music, dramas and important political speeches. The radio helped people escape the problems that the country was facing at the time and gave them a sense of peace. In the Thirties almost every family owned a radio. The radio was a necessity of life and allowed people to escape the reality of their hardships. Many radio programs became famous but some were more celebrated than others. One radio show that grew in popularity was the radio drama, “Empire Builders”. The “Old Timer,” the main character of the “Empire Builders”, is an American rail worker who sees history in the making. In this drama, we get a glimpse of the history of railroads and its’ development and subsequent use of the Columbia River. Also, another much listened to radio program was NBC Red Network, “The Cremo Singer”. “The Cremo Singer” was the famous Bing Crosby. Cremo was a cigar brand and Bing was a very devoted smoker of all kinds of tobacco products. Smoking interestingly was well accepted during the Thirties. Politically, President Roosevelt also used the radio to his advantage. The president probably had the most important use of the radio. Often the president would make broadcasts over the air on NBC and ABC to deliver his summary of the nations recovery. These radio messages comforted the people giving them a sense of hope and often most of what he proclaimed ended up being somewhat false. During these broadcasts the nation would gather together in neighbors’ homes to hear the comforting news of hoped for economic growth. In conclusion, one could say that radio brought America together. Sadly, many of the radio broadcasts, political speeches, and dramas were lost due to poor preservation methods. As a result few know what radio was truly like during the Thirties. One thing is for certain life in the 1930’s would have been even more dreary without radio.	658	ENGLISH	1
Crispus Attucks Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Crispus Attucks was a runaway slave who led the first confrontation with the British in Boston. His death during the skirmishes led to the start of the American war of independence against the British. Crispus Attucks was of mixed blood, with his father an African American slave and his mother a Native American. In 7123, Attucks was born into a slave household. It is believed that his birth happened in the outskirts of Boston USA. The historical records of slave families were poorly kept. So the childhood life of Attucks was not documented until 1750. William Brown was a wealthy slave owner in Boston. He sponsored a reward for a fugitive slave in the Boston Gazette. He was willing to pay out 10 British pounds for the capture of the black slave he named as Crispus. The vague description in the advertisement gave Attucks a chance to blend into society. Attucks had predominantly Native American looks. With an alias Michael Johnson, he easily evaded capture. He managed to get a job as a sailor in one of the many whaling ships that operated in the Caribbean. Most of the experienced sailors were forced into the British military. After establishing a good financial saving, Attucks left the seafaring job to start his own trading business. The merchant venture failed and he returned to the sailing business. In the late years of the 1760s, the British parliament in London introduced several legal laws concerning the colonies. One such law was the Stamp Act which was bitterly opposed by the North American colonies. The law forced that all published materials for the colonies to be done in Britain. Also that after being shipped, the publications would be subject to a levy remitted to the government in London. Other laws which were later called the Townsend Act fueled the tensions further. The British government in the American colonies sent military reinforcements. They were deployed to the simmering hotspots. Boston was one of them. Sporadic fights between the British soldiers and the colonists were daily occurrences in Boston. In the evening of the 5th of March 1770, a group of American colonists marched to a British soldiers post. The colonists were said to be protesting the killing of a young boy in a barbershop. The confrontation turned into a fight. The protesters started hurling stones and snowballs to the soldiers. When the soldiers were overwhelmed they called in for reinforcements. One of the soldiers got injured and they opened fire to the protesters. The protestors suffered five fatalities with several injuries. The first to be killed was Attucks. The killings sparked more protests in Boston and other American cities. In an attempt to quell the countrywide protests, the British organized a trial. Two soldiers were convicted on the lesser charge of manslaughter. The others were released. The protests later became a fully-fledged war of independence from the British rule. Ironically the young lawyer who defended the soldiers in court was John Adams. He went to be the second president of the independent USA from 1797 to 1801. Attucks was seen as the brave Native American who stood up against the British forces. The community hailed him as a martyr. His body was given a “state funeral” by the locals in Boston. Attucks’ body lay in state in Faneuil Hall in Boston. Attucks was buried in the Granary Cemetery. His burial was unprecedentedly attended by many Americans of all races. The burial site has graves of other American independence heroes like Samuel Adams. Samuel was the cousin of the lawyer cum statesman John Adams. In his death, the community reverted to calling him, Crispus Attucks. His life was unknown and insignificant to many. His death became a catalyst to the freedom enjoyed in the US today. His courage has been over the years transformed to a larger than life legend. The story of Attucks is still the subject of interest to many historians in American. His bravery to escaped bondage, his resolve to stage a protest against the British forces will always be an inspiring episode in the American Revolution history. In the US, many commemorative sites are dotted with his name. In Boston in particular, parks, schools, and charitable organizations have been called after him. In Indiana, Texas and Kansas schools have been named after Attucks. The Crispus Attucks Day that was established in 1858 is however not a major celebration in Boston today. More Folk Heroes More People From Massachusetts William Forsyth Sharpe William A. Wellman	<urn:uuid:f7e182a5-e1f7-45fd-b7e1-119721f3646c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/crispus-attucks/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00450.warc.gz	en	0.984874	934	3.5625	4	[ -0.05607454478740692, 0.4459441304206848, 0.47111064195632935, -0.21598413586616516, -0.2679521441459656, -0.2270943522453308, 0.4689827263355255, -0.025275059044361115, -0.17592155933380127, 0.04297274351119995, -0.31511157751083374, -0.6329795718193054, -0.3548720180988312, 0.07551895081...	1	Crispus Attucks Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Crispus Attucks was a runaway slave who led the first confrontation with the British in Boston. His death during the skirmishes led to the start of the American war of independence against the British. Crispus Attucks was of mixed blood, with his father an African American slave and his mother a Native American. In 7123, Attucks was born into a slave household. It is believed that his birth happened in the outskirts of Boston USA. The historical records of slave families were poorly kept. So the childhood life of Attucks was not documented until 1750. William Brown was a wealthy slave owner in Boston. He sponsored a reward for a fugitive slave in the Boston Gazette. He was willing to pay out 10 British pounds for the capture of the black slave he named as Crispus. The vague description in the advertisement gave Attucks a chance to blend into society. Attucks had predominantly Native American looks. With an alias Michael Johnson, he easily evaded capture. He managed to get a job as a sailor in one of the many whaling ships that operated in the Caribbean. Most of the experienced sailors were forced into the British military. After establishing a good financial saving, Attucks left the seafaring job to start his own trading business. The merchant venture failed and he returned to the sailing business. In the late years of the 1760s, the British parliament in London introduced several legal laws concerning the colonies. One such law was the Stamp Act which was bitterly opposed by the North American colonies. The law forced that all published materials for the colonies to be done in Britain. Also that after being shipped, the publications would be subject to a levy remitted to the government in London. Other laws which were later called the Townsend Act fueled the tensions further. The British government in the American colonies sent military reinforcements. They were deployed to the simmering hotspots. Boston was one of them. Sporadic fights between the British soldiers and the colonists were daily occurrences in Boston. In the evening of the 5th of March 1770, a group of American colonists marched to a British soldiers post. The colonists were said to be protesting the killing of a young boy in a barbershop. The confrontation turned into a fight. The protesters started hurling stones and snowballs to the soldiers. When the soldiers were overwhelmed they called in for reinforcements. One of the soldiers got injured and they opened fire to the protesters. The protestors suffered five fatalities with several injuries. The first to be killed was Attucks. The killings sparked more protests in Boston and other American cities. In an attempt to quell the countrywide protests, the British organized a trial. Two soldiers were convicted on the lesser charge of manslaughter. The others were released. The protests later became a fully-fledged war of independence from the British rule. Ironically the young lawyer who defended the soldiers in court was John Adams. He went to be the second president of the independent USA from 1797 to 1801. Attucks was seen as the brave Native American who stood up against the British forces. The community hailed him as a martyr. His body was given a “state funeral” by the locals in Boston. Attucks’ body lay in state in Faneuil Hall in Boston. Attucks was buried in the Granary Cemetery. His burial was unprecedentedly attended by many Americans of all races. The burial site has graves of other American independence heroes like Samuel Adams. Samuel was the cousin of the lawyer cum statesman John Adams. In his death, the community reverted to calling him, Crispus Attucks. His life was unknown and insignificant to many. His death became a catalyst to the freedom enjoyed in the US today. His courage has been over the years transformed to a larger than life legend. The story of Attucks is still the subject of interest to many historians in American. His bravery to escaped bondage, his resolve to stage a protest against the British forces will always be an inspiring episode in the American Revolution history. In the US, many commemorative sites are dotted with his name. In Boston in particular, parks, schools, and charitable organizations have been called after him. In Indiana, Texas and Kansas schools have been named after Attucks. The Crispus Attucks Day that was established in 1858 is however not a major celebration in Boston today. More Folk Heroes More People From Massachusetts William Forsyth Sharpe William A. Wellman	942	ENGLISH	1
Hernan Cortes, the conquistador captain, established a New World Empire with 600 men against a million Aztecs. His conquest in 1519 set in motion the destruction of one of the greatest ancient societies. The Aztecs were reported to be at the height of their civilization during the sixteenth century. Then, Cortes landed on the shores of Tenochtitlan and ordered his ships dismantled – a sign that with his scant provisions of a few horses, canons, and light artillery, he was prepared to sacrifice his life to conquer the Americas. His army was made up of men from Spain’s poorest towns who were seeking to escape their bleak lives; Spain’s army provided the opportunity for riches and adventure. Most of the 600 men were from the Spanish towns of Castile, Andalusia, and Extremadura. The men, who were in search of a better opportunity to make a name for themselves, saw the Spanish army as a route out of poverty as Spain intended to establish itself as one of the world’s super powers. Conquest of other lands promised them riches too enticing to pass up. During that time, in their hometowns, they had no prospect of building a personal fortune. Regular work such as shoe-making was seen as lower class work. Most men were of lesser rank, and they likely would not inherit much, if anything at all, from their family estates. The army didn’t force anyone to enlist but provided the fast route to quick ascension in the ranks. Serving in the army also came with a nobility that they could not otherwise achieve; this proved too much for some to resist. These young men risked life and limb in ambitious expeditions for riches, the assertion of religious conviction, and adventure. The men among them with some wealth were able to purchase the finest fighting equipment. But as it turned out they didn’t need that much equipment to fight the natives in the jungles of Mexico. The Aztecs were known to be brutal warriors, but their defenses and artillery were no matche compared to the weapons of the conquistadors. They were armed with the preferred Toledo steel swords, which could easily hack down enemies with a single slash. They had come well prepared for war, but it was soon evident that the conquistadors didn’t need much. The most common armor was thick leather clothes called (escuapil) which were very protective. Even though they packed heavy metal chest plates (called morions), they were not needed. Most men wore the heavy padded escape as it was sufficient defense. The other artillery equipment such as the harquebuses, and crossbows, proved too heavy and slow to reload. Although it was effective at taking down one enemy at a time, it was not necessary. The conquistadors were religious men of faith and believed that the Aztecs needed to have their savage ways corrected. The Aztec practices appalled the Spaniards, and the conquistadors were determined to convert the culture to Christianity by any means necessary. This included using the sword to spread the Gospel. Many stories of the conquistadors’ brave conquest had been recreated through song, dance, and story-telling. One such famous story is a romance called the Amadis de Gaula – a love story of a brave soldier looking for his identity and true love. The reality of the entire campaign is that it was a bloody affair and a lot of people were killed. This didn’t stop Hernan Cortes who, to his credit, was a very skilled leader and conqueror. His horsemen and soldiers were also very skilled at their jobs under his leadership; they were able to skilfully use their lances while on horseback and were well protected by their armor. Hernan Cortes was undoubtedly a great leader, however, he needed trustworthy captains to help him in his conquest. Hernan Cortes was aided in his conquest of the Americas by the following captains: The youngest of his captains was Gonzalo de Sandoval. He was considered to be inexperienced because of his youth, but he displayed great leadership. Through him, Cortes won many conquests without resorting to heavy battle. Only in his twenties, de Sandoval displayed the characteristics that made him Cortes’ go-to person for the most challenging expeditions. During these expeditions, he displayed his bravery, intelligence, and loyalty that endeared him to Cortes and made him an indispensable person in Cortes’ court. Another of Cortes’ trusted captains was Cristobal de Olid. He was nothing like de Sandoval, and didn’t display much diplomacy. De Olid was an all-action leader of his troops. He was described as brave, brutish, and not too bright; the right type of person when force was required. But he showed too much ambition and eventually went rogue, breaking ranks with Cortes’ army. He decided to go on his own after Cortes sent him to conquer Honduras, and so Cortes sent another expedition after him. One of Cortes’ most well-known captains was Pedro de Alvarado. De Alvarado proved himself as an able captain. However, he was too impulsive and undertook certain conquests without the approval of Cortes. This is evident during the Temple Massacre, which occurred in Cortes’ absence. De Alvarado was known to have taken part in the conquests of Peru and the southern lands of Maya after the fall of the Aztec’s empire in Tenochtitlan. Cortes had to trust his men, and one of his most trusted captains was Alonso de Avila. It is known that although Cortes didn’t like de Avila because he spoke his mind, de Avila was a principled man and Cortes did respect him. He respected de Avila so much he made him the treasurer since he knew he was good with figures. He was tasked with ensuring the King’s fifth was taken care of. Another of his good qualities was that he was an honest man and this made him respected by Cortes, About Education reported. The expedition to the Americas was a lengthy, bloody conquest. Not only were the Aztecs reduced in number but Cortes’ army suffered significant blows; almost all of his 600 men were killed. Those that survived were badly wounded, and the others either returned to Spain or left for the Caribbean. But Cortes was fortunate, as he received reinforcements just as the outcome seemed bleakest. A good example of this was when he overcame a threat in May of 1520, by Panfilo de Narvaez. Narvaez was sent to bring Cortes under control but was defeated instead; his remaining men joined Cortes, and it seemed that Cortes was always fortunate like this. Another example is when the survivors of Juan Ponce de Leon’s expedition joined Cortes. The disastrous trip to Florida proved fruitful for Cortes, who at the time laid siege at Tenochtitlan, as the survivors were added to Cortes’ ranks. Another factor which worked in Cortes’ favor was when rumors spread of Aztec gold – this created a stir, and many flocked to Cortes’ aid in the search of glory, land, and wealth.	<urn:uuid:05a644e4-7829-4dd3-97d5-e6dc74c48043>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/01/23/cortes-one-of-the-greatest-conquests-of-mesoamerica/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00501.warc.gz	en	0.990978	1,528	3.875	4	[ -0.3849339187145233, 0.570991575717926, 0.1756821870803833, -0.2068924605846405, -0.23133203387260437, -0.5078638792037964, -0.010544221848249435, 0.5070949196815491, -0.29697340726852417, -0.449121356010437, 0.20465052127838135, -0.2585147023200989, 0.012973488308489323, 0.182900279760360...	7	Hernan Cortes, the conquistador captain, established a New World Empire with 600 men against a million Aztecs. His conquest in 1519 set in motion the destruction of one of the greatest ancient societies. The Aztecs were reported to be at the height of their civilization during the sixteenth century. Then, Cortes landed on the shores of Tenochtitlan and ordered his ships dismantled – a sign that with his scant provisions of a few horses, canons, and light artillery, he was prepared to sacrifice his life to conquer the Americas. His army was made up of men from Spain’s poorest towns who were seeking to escape their bleak lives; Spain’s army provided the opportunity for riches and adventure. Most of the 600 men were from the Spanish towns of Castile, Andalusia, and Extremadura. The men, who were in search of a better opportunity to make a name for themselves, saw the Spanish army as a route out of poverty as Spain intended to establish itself as one of the world’s super powers. Conquest of other lands promised them riches too enticing to pass up. During that time, in their hometowns, they had no prospect of building a personal fortune. Regular work such as shoe-making was seen as lower class work. Most men were of lesser rank, and they likely would not inherit much, if anything at all, from their family estates. The army didn’t force anyone to enlist but provided the fast route to quick ascension in the ranks. Serving in the army also came with a nobility that they could not otherwise achieve; this proved too much for some to resist. These young men risked life and limb in ambitious expeditions for riches, the assertion of religious conviction, and adventure. The men among them with some wealth were able to purchase the finest fighting equipment. But as it turned out they didn’t need that much equipment to fight the natives in the jungles of Mexico. The Aztecs were known to be brutal warriors, but their defenses and artillery were no matche compared to the weapons of the conquistadors. They were armed with the preferred Toledo steel swords, which could easily hack down enemies with a single slash. They had come well prepared for war, but it was soon evident that the conquistadors didn’t need much. The most common armor was thick leather clothes called (escuapil) which were very protective. Even though they packed heavy metal chest plates (called morions), they were not needed. Most men wore the heavy padded escape as it was sufficient defense. The other artillery equipment such as the harquebuses, and crossbows, proved too heavy and slow to reload. Although it was effective at taking down one enemy at a time, it was not necessary. The conquistadors were religious men of faith and believed that the Aztecs needed to have their savage ways corrected. The Aztec practices appalled the Spaniards, and the conquistadors were determined to convert the culture to Christianity by any means necessary. This included using the sword to spread the Gospel. Many stories of the conquistadors’ brave conquest had been recreated through song, dance, and story-telling. One such famous story is a romance called the Amadis de Gaula – a love story of a brave soldier looking for his identity and true love. The reality of the entire campaign is that it was a bloody affair and a lot of people were killed. This didn’t stop Hernan Cortes who, to his credit, was a very skilled leader and conqueror. His horsemen and soldiers were also very skilled at their jobs under his leadership; they were able to skilfully use their lances while on horseback and were well protected by their armor. Hernan Cortes was undoubtedly a great leader, however, he needed trustworthy captains to help him in his conquest. Hernan Cortes was aided in his conquest of the Americas by the following captains: The youngest of his captains was Gonzalo de Sandoval. He was considered to be inexperienced because of his youth, but he displayed great leadership. Through him, Cortes won many conquests without resorting to heavy battle. Only in his twenties, de Sandoval displayed the characteristics that made him Cortes’ go-to person for the most challenging expeditions. During these expeditions, he displayed his bravery, intelligence, and loyalty that endeared him to Cortes and made him an indispensable person in Cortes’ court. Another of Cortes’ trusted captains was Cristobal de Olid. He was nothing like de Sandoval, and didn’t display much diplomacy. De Olid was an all-action leader of his troops. He was described as brave, brutish, and not too bright; the right type of person when force was required. But he showed too much ambition and eventually went rogue, breaking ranks with Cortes’ army. He decided to go on his own after Cortes sent him to conquer Honduras, and so Cortes sent another expedition after him. One of Cortes’ most well-known captains was Pedro de Alvarado. De Alvarado proved himself as an able captain. However, he was too impulsive and undertook certain conquests without the approval of Cortes. This is evident during the Temple Massacre, which occurred in Cortes’ absence. De Alvarado was known to have taken part in the conquests of Peru and the southern lands of Maya after the fall of the Aztec’s empire in Tenochtitlan. Cortes had to trust his men, and one of his most trusted captains was Alonso de Avila. It is known that although Cortes didn’t like de Avila because he spoke his mind, de Avila was a principled man and Cortes did respect him. He respected de Avila so much he made him the treasurer since he knew he was good with figures. He was tasked with ensuring the King’s fifth was taken care of. Another of his good qualities was that he was an honest man and this made him respected by Cortes, About Education reported. The expedition to the Americas was a lengthy, bloody conquest. Not only were the Aztecs reduced in number but Cortes’ army suffered significant blows; almost all of his 600 men were killed. Those that survived were badly wounded, and the others either returned to Spain or left for the Caribbean. But Cortes was fortunate, as he received reinforcements just as the outcome seemed bleakest. A good example of this was when he overcame a threat in May of 1520, by Panfilo de Narvaez. Narvaez was sent to bring Cortes under control but was defeated instead; his remaining men joined Cortes, and it seemed that Cortes was always fortunate like this. Another example is when the survivors of Juan Ponce de Leon’s expedition joined Cortes. The disastrous trip to Florida proved fruitful for Cortes, who at the time laid siege at Tenochtitlan, as the survivors were added to Cortes’ ranks. Another factor which worked in Cortes’ favor was when rumors spread of Aztec gold – this created a stir, and many flocked to Cortes’ aid in the search of glory, land, and wealth.	1,489	ENGLISH	1
Lincoln’s Virtuous Legacy Throughout his essay “Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth,” Richard Hofstadter refers to those qualities of Abraham Lincoln’s personality that defined him as a man of remarkable integrity. In addition to his political wit and steadfast antipathy towards slavery, Lincoln’s virtuous character was perhaps one of the most defining aspects of his time as a politician and a president. Hofstadter mentions this virtue in a number of different contexts, but in all of them the reader gets the sense that it was this inner goodness that solidified the “self-made myth” that would sustain Lincoln’s legacy for decades to come. Lincoln was born of humble origins, and this has often been evoked to express how remarkable his political achievements truly were. As Hofstadter says, “It was precisely in his attainments as a common man that Lincoln felt himself to be remarkable, and in this light that he interpreted to the world the significance of his career.” Lincoln’s image of himself “placed him with the poor, the aged, and the forgotten.” He consistently demonstrated humility, modesty, and forgiveness in his dealings with other people, and he was beloved because of it. Furthermore, he was stricken with a severe, noble, and some might say self-defeating sense of guilt over the devastation, both human and material, the war had caused for Southern families. Lincoln never intended for his political decisions to lead to so much violence, and, despite the magnanimous outcome of his devotion to abolitionism for a free American society, Hofstadter maintains that he in fact felt quite defeated after the whole affair was over. Again: This would go far to explain the desperation with which he issued pardons and the charity that he wanted to extend to the conquered South at the war’s close… Lincoln’s utter lack of personal malice during these years, his humane detachment, his tragic sense of life, have no parallel in political history. In the context of the Lincoln myth, it was precisely this self-flagellating, remorseful attitude that secured the president as one of the most revered leaders in history. Lincoln’s Political Sagacity Hofstadter remarks that Lincoln was able to rise from a position of almost complete political obscurity at the age of twenty-four to become the leader of the Whig party in the Illinois House of Representative entirely because of his political precocity. Lincoln admired the political acumen of Whig politicians like Henry Clay, and especially revered Thomas Jefferson, whose love of American democracy inspired Lincoln’s own ideas. The country, according to Lincoln, needed three things: a strong national bank, federally-funded improvements to infrastructure, and a conservative economy, and he would be the figure to bring about these changes. A large part of Lincoln’s strong political presence was his skill as an orator, and Hofstadter argues that Lincoln was born for the platform. For example, in his debates with Democratic party member Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln claimed that Douglas, who had earlier worked with the Supreme Court to hand down the Dred Scott decision, was engaged in a “conspiracy… for the sole purpose of nationalizing slavery.” Such invective devastated Douglas’s credibility as a reliable politician or even an honest man. Lincoln was especially adroit at penetrating the logic of pro-slavery arguments. As Hofstadter remarks, The essence of his position was that the principle of exclusion has no inner check; that arbitrarily barring one minority from the exercise of its rights can be both a precedent and a moral sanction for barring another, and it creates a frame of mind from which no one can expect justice or security. There was no political speaker of his day who could out-debate Lincoln on the issue of slavery. The Illinois representative had read and was intimately familiar with the democratic authors like Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and... (The entire section is 1,055 words.)	<urn:uuid:7e83580e-d2c6-439a-9fc3-acf46dc5db69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/abraham-lincoln-self-made-myth/themes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00457.warc.gz	en	0.982547	835	3.53125	4	[ -0.06075863540172577, 0.6657049655914307, -0.06802994012832642, -0.0872432142496109, -0.2938084602355957, 0.5222650170326233, 0.5962902903556824, -0.03938604146242142, -0.0525553934276104, -0.23129278421401978, -0.05766863375902176, -0.1266097128391266, 0.13067659735679626, 0.4164485335350...	1	Lincoln’s Virtuous Legacy Throughout his essay “Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth,” Richard Hofstadter refers to those qualities of Abraham Lincoln’s personality that defined him as a man of remarkable integrity. In addition to his political wit and steadfast antipathy towards slavery, Lincoln’s virtuous character was perhaps one of the most defining aspects of his time as a politician and a president. Hofstadter mentions this virtue in a number of different contexts, but in all of them the reader gets the sense that it was this inner goodness that solidified the “self-made myth” that would sustain Lincoln’s legacy for decades to come. Lincoln was born of humble origins, and this has often been evoked to express how remarkable his political achievements truly were. As Hofstadter says, “It was precisely in his attainments as a common man that Lincoln felt himself to be remarkable, and in this light that he interpreted to the world the significance of his career.” Lincoln’s image of himself “placed him with the poor, the aged, and the forgotten.” He consistently demonstrated humility, modesty, and forgiveness in his dealings with other people, and he was beloved because of it. Furthermore, he was stricken with a severe, noble, and some might say self-defeating sense of guilt over the devastation, both human and material, the war had caused for Southern families. Lincoln never intended for his political decisions to lead to so much violence, and, despite the magnanimous outcome of his devotion to abolitionism for a free American society, Hofstadter maintains that he in fact felt quite defeated after the whole affair was over. Again: This would go far to explain the desperation with which he issued pardons and the charity that he wanted to extend to the conquered South at the war’s close… Lincoln’s utter lack of personal malice during these years, his humane detachment, his tragic sense of life, have no parallel in political history. In the context of the Lincoln myth, it was precisely this self-flagellating, remorseful attitude that secured the president as one of the most revered leaders in history. Lincoln’s Political Sagacity Hofstadter remarks that Lincoln was able to rise from a position of almost complete political obscurity at the age of twenty-four to become the leader of the Whig party in the Illinois House of Representative entirely because of his political precocity. Lincoln admired the political acumen of Whig politicians like Henry Clay, and especially revered Thomas Jefferson, whose love of American democracy inspired Lincoln’s own ideas. The country, according to Lincoln, needed three things: a strong national bank, federally-funded improvements to infrastructure, and a conservative economy, and he would be the figure to bring about these changes. A large part of Lincoln’s strong political presence was his skill as an orator, and Hofstadter argues that Lincoln was born for the platform. For example, in his debates with Democratic party member Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln claimed that Douglas, who had earlier worked with the Supreme Court to hand down the Dred Scott decision, was engaged in a “conspiracy… for the sole purpose of nationalizing slavery.” Such invective devastated Douglas’s credibility as a reliable politician or even an honest man. Lincoln was especially adroit at penetrating the logic of pro-slavery arguments. As Hofstadter remarks, The essence of his position was that the principle of exclusion has no inner check; that arbitrarily barring one minority from the exercise of its rights can be both a precedent and a moral sanction for barring another, and it creates a frame of mind from which no one can expect justice or security. There was no political speaker of his day who could out-debate Lincoln on the issue of slavery. The Illinois representative had read and was intimately familiar with the democratic authors like Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and... (The entire section is 1,055 words.)	789	ENGLISH	1
William Faulkner, the of a poetic story known as barn burning tends to demonstrate the role of the biblical Abner. The story illustrates a father who possesses the power to rule but in a fearful manner. However, the son depicts to use power as an initiative to help him get ahead and achieve all his desires. Faulkner tends to demonstrate that Marxist, which is political, social and economic principles, plays a significant role in the family of Abner Snopes. According to Faulkner, some people tend to gain their wealth and social influence through immoral and inhumane acts. The author manages to illustrate this negative aspect by demonstrating that Abner Snopes who might originally be one of the Confederate army soldiers once became a thief. Sarty, who is Abner’s youngest son indicates that his father was also a member of Colonel Sartoris‘s Calvary (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 57). Abner could steal horses from both military organizations of which he was a member and sell to whoever was capable of buying in order to gain more wealth. Faulkner also depicts that Abner Snopes could not cope well with people who managed to oppose him. The action of Abner burning down the barn of a weak and frightened heir known as Jody Varner demonstrates his inhumane acts. Abner also teaches his children that the authority is always an enemy to the people. This is significantly demonstrated when Sarty accompanies his father in the courtroom. Sarty is sure that his father is guilty by burning the neighbor’s barn, but he manages to defend him after understanding that his actions are because of poverty (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). Faulkner also demonstrates Major DeSpain as a man who acquired wealth in the wrong way. According to Faulkner, it is possible that deSpains acquired their wealth through the ownership of black slaves. The black slaves helped them in most of the work and they could merely earn anything from the work. This indicates that deSpains had a complete lack of respect for human dignity. In some instances, Major DeSpain as he is referred by Sarty manages to demonstrate his inhumane acts after Abner Snopes damages his rug (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). He orders Mr. Snopes to pay twenty bushels of corn. This amount was extra of what Major DeSpain owed for the land. The punishment seems to be so unjust for a rug. Moreover, the punishment keeps Sarty’s family as slaves for a long period while working on Major Despain’s farm (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). This is a clear illustration of inhumanity as indicated by the author. Fargnoli Nicholas, Golay Michael & Hamblin Robert. Critical Companion to William Faulkner: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. New York: Facts On File, 2008. Print.	<urn:uuid:f79c6b65-41c4-4959-9a27-5b0df5bc5d0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/reading-response-marxist-criticism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00479.warc.gz	en	0.981562	613	3.5625	4	[ -0.006586013361811638, 0.6978476047515869, -0.10162708163261414, 0.0398222878575325, -0.010292773135006428, -0.13529810309410095, 0.437367707490921, -0.2375747561454773, -0.2101147323846817, -0.19932082295417786, 0.03160160034894943, -0.0604395791888237, -0.07670412212610245, 0.33809435367...	1	William Faulkner, the of a poetic story known as barn burning tends to demonstrate the role of the biblical Abner. The story illustrates a father who possesses the power to rule but in a fearful manner. However, the son depicts to use power as an initiative to help him get ahead and achieve all his desires. Faulkner tends to demonstrate that Marxist, which is political, social and economic principles, plays a significant role in the family of Abner Snopes. According to Faulkner, some people tend to gain their wealth and social influence through immoral and inhumane acts. The author manages to illustrate this negative aspect by demonstrating that Abner Snopes who might originally be one of the Confederate army soldiers once became a thief. Sarty, who is Abner’s youngest son indicates that his father was also a member of Colonel Sartoris‘s Calvary (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 57). Abner could steal horses from both military organizations of which he was a member and sell to whoever was capable of buying in order to gain more wealth. Faulkner also depicts that Abner Snopes could not cope well with people who managed to oppose him. The action of Abner burning down the barn of a weak and frightened heir known as Jody Varner demonstrates his inhumane acts. Abner also teaches his children that the authority is always an enemy to the people. This is significantly demonstrated when Sarty accompanies his father in the courtroom. Sarty is sure that his father is guilty by burning the neighbor’s barn, but he manages to defend him after understanding that his actions are because of poverty (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). Faulkner also demonstrates Major DeSpain as a man who acquired wealth in the wrong way. According to Faulkner, it is possible that deSpains acquired their wealth through the ownership of black slaves. The black slaves helped them in most of the work and they could merely earn anything from the work. This indicates that deSpains had a complete lack of respect for human dignity. In some instances, Major DeSpain as he is referred by Sarty manages to demonstrate his inhumane acts after Abner Snopes damages his rug (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). He orders Mr. Snopes to pay twenty bushels of corn. This amount was extra of what Major DeSpain owed for the land. The punishment seems to be so unjust for a rug. Moreover, the punishment keeps Sarty’s family as slaves for a long period while working on Major Despain’s farm (Fargnoli, Golay & Hamblin 58). This is a clear illustration of inhumanity as indicated by the author. Fargnoli Nicholas, Golay Michael & Hamblin Robert. Critical Companion to William Faulkner: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. New York: Facts On File, 2008. Print.	614	ENGLISH	1
« 이전계속 » NAVAL EVENTS OF 1781 IN EUROPE. DARBY'S RELIEF OF GIBRALTAR, AND THE BATTLE OF THE DOGGER BANK IN Europe, during the year 1781, the two leading questions which dominated the action of the belligerents were the protection, or destruction, of commerce, and the attack and defence of Gibraltar. The British Channel Fleet was much inferior to the aggregate sea forces of France and Spain in the waters of Europe; and the Dutch navy also was now hostile. The French government represented to its allies that by concentrating their squadrons near the entrance of the Channel they would control the situation in every point of view; but the Spaniards, intent upon Gibraltar, declined to withdraw their fleet from Cadiz until late in the summer, while the French persisted in keeping their own at Brest. The Channel Fleet was decisively superior to the latter, and inferior to the Spaniards in numbers only. No relief having been given Gibraltar since Rodney had left it in February, 1780, the question of supplying the fortress became pressing. For this purpose, twenty-eight ships of the line, under Vice-Admiral George Darby, sailed from St. Helen's on the 13th of March, 1781, with a large convoy. Off Cork a number of victuallers joined, and the whole body then proceeded for Gibraltar, accompanied by five ships of the line which were destined for the East Indies, as well as by the West India and American "trade." These several attachments parted from time to time on the way, and on the 11th of April the main expedition sighted Cape Spartel, on the African coast. No attempt to intercept it was made by the great Spanish fleet in Cadiz; and on the 12th of April, at noon, the convoy anchored in the Bay of Gibraltar. That night thirteen sail of the transports, under charge of two frigates, slipped out and made their way to Minorca, then a British possession. The British ships of war continued under way, cruising in the Bay and Gut of Gibraltar. As the convoy entered, the besiegers opened a tremendous cannonade, which was ineffectual, however, to stop the landing of the stores. More annoyance was caused by a flotilla of gunboats, specially built for this siege, the peculiar fighting power of which lay in one 26-pounder, whose great length gave a range superior to the batteries of ships of the line. Being moved by oars as well as by sails, these little vessels could choose their distance in light airs and calms, and were used so actively to harass the transports at anchor that Darby was obliged to cover them with three ships of the line. These proved powerless effectually to injure the gunboats; but, while the latter caused great annoyance and petty injury, they did not hinder the unlading nor even greatly delay it. The experience illustrates again the unlikelihood that great results can be obtained by petty means, or that massed force, force concentrated, can be effectually counteracted either by cheap and ingenious expedients, or by the cooperative exertions of many small independent units. "They were only capable of producing trouble and vexation. So far were they from preventing the succours from being thrown into the garrison, or from burning the convoy, that the only damage of any consequence that they did to the shipping was the wounding of the mizzen-mast of the Nonsuch so much that it required to be shifted."1 On the 19th of April — in one week — the revictualling was completed, and the expedi 1 Beatson, "Military and Naval Memoirs," v. 347. tion started back for England. The fleet anchored again at Spithead on the 22d of May. While Darby was returning, La Motte Picquet had gone to sea from Brest with six ships of the line and some frigates to cruise in the approaches to the Channel. There, on the 2d of May, he fell in with the convoy returning from the West Indies with the spoils of St. Eustatius. The ships of war for the most part escaped, but La Motte Picquet carried twenty-two out of thirty merchant ships into Brest before he could be intercepted, although a detachment of eight sail sent by Darby got close upon his heels. After a long refit, Darby put to sea again, about the 1st of August, to cover the approach of the large convoys then expected to arrive. Being greatly delayed by head winds, he had got no further than the Lizard, when news was brought him that the Franco-Spanish grand fleet, of forty-nine ships of the line, was cruising near the Scilly Isles. Having himself but thirty of the line, he put into Tor Bay on the 24th of August, and moored his squadron across the entrance to the Bay. This appearance of the allies was a surprise to the British authorities, who saw thus unexpectedly renewed the invasion of the Channel made in 1779. Spain, mortified justly by her failure even to molest the intrusion of succours into Gibraltar, had thought to retrieve her honour by an attack upon Minorca, for which she asked the cooperation of France. De Guichen was sent in July with nineteen ships of the line; and the combined fleets, under the chief command of the Spanish admiral, Don Luis de Cordova, convoyed the troops into the Mediterranean beyond the reach of Gibraltar cruisers. Returning thence into the Atlantic, de Cordova directed his course for the Channel, keeping far out to sea to conceal his movements. But though thus successful in reaching his ground unheralded, he made no attempt to profit by the advantage gained. The question of attacking Darby at his anchors was discussed in a council of war, at which de Guichen strongly advocated the measure; but a majority of votes decided that Great Britain would be less hurt by ruining her fleet than by intercepting the expected convoys. Even for the latter purpose, however, de Cordova could not wait. On the 5th of September he informed de Guichen that he was at liberty to return to Brest; and he himself went back to Cadiz with thirty-nine ships, nine of which were French. "This cruise of the combined fleet," says Chevalier, "diminished the consideration of France and Spain. These two powers had made a great display of force, without producing the slightest result." It may be mentioned here that Minorca, after a six months' siege, capitulated in February, 1782. While Darby was beating down Channel in the early days of August, 1781, Vice-Admiral Hyde Parker, lately Rodney's second in command in the West Indies, was returning to England convoying a large merchant fleet from the Baltic. On the 5th of August, at daylight, a Dutch squadron, also with a convoy, but outward bound, from the Texel to the Baltic, was discovered in the south-west, near the Doggersbank. Heading as the two enemies then were, their courses must shortly intersect. Parker, therefore, ordered his convoy to steer to the westward for England, while he himself bore down for the enemy. The Dutch Rear-Admiral, Johan Arnold Zoutman, on the contrary, kept the merchant vessels with him, under his lee, but drew out the ships of war from among them, to form his order on the side towards the enemy. Each opponent put seven sail into the line. The British vessels, besides being of different rates, were chiefly very old ships, dragged out from Rotten Row to meet the pressing emergency caused by the greatly superior forces which were in coalition against Great Britain. Owing to the decayed condition of some of them, their batteries had been lightened, to the detriment of their fighting power. Two of them, however, were good and new seventy-fours. It is probable that the Dutch vessels, after a long peace, were not much better than their antagonists. In fact, each squadron was a scratch lot, in the worst sense of the phrase. The conduct of the affair by the two admirals, even to the very intensity of their pugnaciousness, contributes a tinge of the comic to the history of a desperately fought action. The breeze was fresh at north-east, and the sea smooth. The Dutch, being to leeward, awaited attack, forming line on the port tack, heading south-east by east, a point off the wind, under topsails and foresails, a cable's length apart. There is little room to doubt that an adversary who thus holds his ground means to make a stand-up fight, but Parker, although the sun of a midsummer day had scarcely risen, thought advisable to order a general chase. Of course, no ship spared her canvas to this, while the worse sailers had to set their studdingsails to keep up; and the handling of the sails took the men off from the preparations for battle. Parker, who doubtless was still sore over Rodney's censure of the year before, and who moreover had incurred the Admiralty's rebuke, for apparent hesitation to attack the enemy's islands while temporarily in command in the West Indies, was determined now to show the fight that was in him. "It is related that, upon being informed of the force of the Dutch squadron in the morning, he replied (pulling up his breeches), 'It matters little what their force is; we must fight them if they are double the number.'" At 6.10 A.m. the signal was made for line abreast, the ships running down nearly before the wind. This of course introduced more regularity, the leading ships taking in their lighter sails to permit the others to reach their places; but the pace still was rapid. At 6.45 the order was closed to one cable, and at 7.56 the signal for battle was hoisted. It is said that at	<urn:uuid:ebb29325-48e9-4af6-a2ea-68350374463a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=Atp2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA188&vq=position&dq=editions:LCCN13021458&lr=&hl=ko&output=html_text&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00342.warc.gz	en	0.98369	2,081	3.5	4	[ -0.10659370571374893, 0.30392128229141235, 0.06756947934627533, -0.26097917556762695, -0.0792073979973793, -0.5589456558227539, 0.14517074823379517, 0.26241567730903625, -0.05674436688423157, -0.19146095216274261, 0.08611349761486053, -0.6030266880989075, -0.17221105098724365, 0.2750560045...	1	« 이전계속 » NAVAL EVENTS OF 1781 IN EUROPE. DARBY'S RELIEF OF GIBRALTAR, AND THE BATTLE OF THE DOGGER BANK IN Europe, during the year 1781, the two leading questions which dominated the action of the belligerents were the protection, or destruction, of commerce, and the attack and defence of Gibraltar. The British Channel Fleet was much inferior to the aggregate sea forces of France and Spain in the waters of Europe; and the Dutch navy also was now hostile. The French government represented to its allies that by concentrating their squadrons near the entrance of the Channel they would control the situation in every point of view; but the Spaniards, intent upon Gibraltar, declined to withdraw their fleet from Cadiz until late in the summer, while the French persisted in keeping their own at Brest. The Channel Fleet was decisively superior to the latter, and inferior to the Spaniards in numbers only. No relief having been given Gibraltar since Rodney had left it in February, 1780, the question of supplying the fortress became pressing. For this purpose, twenty-eight ships of the line, under Vice-Admiral George Darby, sailed from St. Helen's on the 13th of March, 1781, with a large convoy. Off Cork a number of victuallers joined, and the whole body then proceeded for Gibraltar, accompanied by five ships of the line which were destined for the East Indies, as well as by the West India and American "trade." These several attachments parted from time to time on the way, and on the 11th of April the main expedition sighted Cape Spartel, on the African coast. No attempt to intercept it was made by the great Spanish fleet in Cadiz; and on the 12th of April, at noon, the convoy anchored in the Bay of Gibraltar. That night thirteen sail of the transports, under charge of two frigates, slipped out and made their way to Minorca, then a British possession. The British ships of war continued under way, cruising in the Bay and Gut of Gibraltar. As the convoy entered, the besiegers opened a tremendous cannonade, which was ineffectual, however, to stop the landing of the stores. More annoyance was caused by a flotilla of gunboats, specially built for this siege, the peculiar fighting power of which lay in one 26-pounder, whose great length gave a range superior to the batteries of ships of the line. Being moved by oars as well as by sails, these little vessels could choose their distance in light airs and calms, and were used so actively to harass the transports at anchor that Darby was obliged to cover them with three ships of the line. These proved powerless effectually to injure the gunboats; but, while the latter caused great annoyance and petty injury, they did not hinder the unlading nor even greatly delay it. The experience illustrates again the unlikelihood that great results can be obtained by petty means, or that massed force, force concentrated, can be effectually counteracted either by cheap and ingenious expedients, or by the cooperative exertions of many small independent units. "They were only capable of producing trouble and vexation. So far were they from preventing the succours from being thrown into the garrison, or from burning the convoy, that the only damage of any consequence that they did to the shipping was the wounding of the mizzen-mast of the Nonsuch so much that it required to be shifted."1 On the 19th of April — in one week — the revictualling was completed, and the expedi 1 Beatson, "Military and Naval Memoirs," v. 347. tion started back for England. The fleet anchored again at Spithead on the 22d of May. While Darby was returning, La Motte Picquet had gone to sea from Brest with six ships of the line and some frigates to cruise in the approaches to the Channel. There, on the 2d of May, he fell in with the convoy returning from the West Indies with the spoils of St. Eustatius. The ships of war for the most part escaped, but La Motte Picquet carried twenty-two out of thirty merchant ships into Brest before he could be intercepted, although a detachment of eight sail sent by Darby got close upon his heels. After a long refit, Darby put to sea again, about the 1st of August, to cover the approach of the large convoys then expected to arrive. Being greatly delayed by head winds, he had got no further than the Lizard, when news was brought him that the Franco-Spanish grand fleet, of forty-nine ships of the line, was cruising near the Scilly Isles. Having himself but thirty of the line, he put into Tor Bay on the 24th of August, and moored his squadron across the entrance to the Bay. This appearance of the allies was a surprise to the British authorities, who saw thus unexpectedly renewed the invasion of the Channel made in 1779. Spain, mortified justly by her failure even to molest the intrusion of succours into Gibraltar, had thought to retrieve her honour by an attack upon Minorca, for which she asked the cooperation of France. De Guichen was sent in July with nineteen ships of the line; and the combined fleets, under the chief command of the Spanish admiral, Don Luis de Cordova, convoyed the troops into the Mediterranean beyond the reach of Gibraltar cruisers. Returning thence into the Atlantic, de Cordova directed his course for the Channel, keeping far out to sea to conceal his movements. But though thus successful in reaching his ground unheralded, he made no attempt to profit by the advantage gained. The question of attacking Darby at his anchors was discussed in a council of war, at which de Guichen strongly advocated the measure; but a majority of votes decided that Great Britain would be less hurt by ruining her fleet than by intercepting the expected convoys. Even for the latter purpose, however, de Cordova could not wait. On the 5th of September he informed de Guichen that he was at liberty to return to Brest; and he himself went back to Cadiz with thirty-nine ships, nine of which were French. "This cruise of the combined fleet," says Chevalier, "diminished the consideration of France and Spain. These two powers had made a great display of force, without producing the slightest result." It may be mentioned here that Minorca, after a six months' siege, capitulated in February, 1782. While Darby was beating down Channel in the early days of August, 1781, Vice-Admiral Hyde Parker, lately Rodney's second in command in the West Indies, was returning to England convoying a large merchant fleet from the Baltic. On the 5th of August, at daylight, a Dutch squadron, also with a convoy, but outward bound, from the Texel to the Baltic, was discovered in the south-west, near the Doggersbank. Heading as the two enemies then were, their courses must shortly intersect. Parker, therefore, ordered his convoy to steer to the westward for England, while he himself bore down for the enemy. The Dutch Rear-Admiral, Johan Arnold Zoutman, on the contrary, kept the merchant vessels with him, under his lee, but drew out the ships of war from among them, to form his order on the side towards the enemy. Each opponent put seven sail into the line. The British vessels, besides being of different rates, were chiefly very old ships, dragged out from Rotten Row to meet the pressing emergency caused by the greatly superior forces which were in coalition against Great Britain. Owing to the decayed condition of some of them, their batteries had been lightened, to the detriment of their fighting power. Two of them, however, were good and new seventy-fours. It is probable that the Dutch vessels, after a long peace, were not much better than their antagonists. In fact, each squadron was a scratch lot, in the worst sense of the phrase. The conduct of the affair by the two admirals, even to the very intensity of their pugnaciousness, contributes a tinge of the comic to the history of a desperately fought action. The breeze was fresh at north-east, and the sea smooth. The Dutch, being to leeward, awaited attack, forming line on the port tack, heading south-east by east, a point off the wind, under topsails and foresails, a cable's length apart. There is little room to doubt that an adversary who thus holds his ground means to make a stand-up fight, but Parker, although the sun of a midsummer day had scarcely risen, thought advisable to order a general chase. Of course, no ship spared her canvas to this, while the worse sailers had to set their studdingsails to keep up; and the handling of the sails took the men off from the preparations for battle. Parker, who doubtless was still sore over Rodney's censure of the year before, and who moreover had incurred the Admiralty's rebuke, for apparent hesitation to attack the enemy's islands while temporarily in command in the West Indies, was determined now to show the fight that was in him. "It is related that, upon being informed of the force of the Dutch squadron in the morning, he replied (pulling up his breeches), 'It matters little what their force is; we must fight them if they are double the number.'" At 6.10 A.m. the signal was made for line abreast, the ships running down nearly before the wind. This of course introduced more regularity, the leading ships taking in their lighter sails to permit the others to reach their places; but the pace still was rapid. At 6.45 the order was closed to one cable, and at 7.56 the signal for battle was hoisted. It is said that at	2,104	ENGLISH	1
The Kaiser class was a class of five battleships that were built in Germany prior to World War I and served in the Imperial German Navy during the war. They were the third class of German dreadnoughts and the first to feature turbine engines and superfiring turrets. The five ships were Kaiser, Friedrich der Grosse, Kaiserin, Prinzregent Luitpold, and König Albert. As was usual for German battleships of the period, the Kaiser class mounted main guns that were smaller than those of their British rivals: 30.5 cm (12 in), compared to the 34.3 cm (13.5 in) guns of the British Orion class. All five ships saw action in the North Sea during the war; they served together as VI Division of III Battle Squadron. Four were present during the Battle of Jutland; König Albert was in dock at the time. Of the four ships that took part in the battle, only Kaiser was damaged, being struck by two heavy-caliber shells. The ships also took part in Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea; during the operation, they were reorganized as IV Battle Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Wilhelm Souchon. At the end of the war, all five ships were interned at the British naval base in Scapa Flow. On 21 June 1919, they were scuttled to prevent their seizure by the Royal Navy. The ships were subsequently raised and broken up for scrap between 1929 and 1937. Wiki SMS Kaiser WL print Limited Edition Giclee on archival art paper Paper size 16X24" S/N 400 $135.00 Open Edition on photo paper Paper size 16X20" $50.00 11X14" $35.00 8X10" $20.00	<urn:uuid:ccf42a28-16b5-4e5a-8fdd-8f8b53b2818f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.warmachinetees.com/product-page/sms-kaiser-wl-print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00022.warc.gz	en	0.985796	372	3.453125	3	[ -0.06957550346851349, 0.0022709520999342203, 0.022025439888238907, -0.4968607425689697, 0.17293323576450348, -0.259773850440979, -0.3807695806026459, 0.39094626903533936, -0.3994647264480591, -0.3157390058040619, 0.22371242940425873, -0.26425111293792725, -0.10698512196540833, 0.3725824952...	2	The Kaiser class was a class of five battleships that were built in Germany prior to World War I and served in the Imperial German Navy during the war. They were the third class of German dreadnoughts and the first to feature turbine engines and superfiring turrets. The five ships were Kaiser, Friedrich der Grosse, Kaiserin, Prinzregent Luitpold, and König Albert. As was usual for German battleships of the period, the Kaiser class mounted main guns that were smaller than those of their British rivals: 30.5 cm (12 in), compared to the 34.3 cm (13.5 in) guns of the British Orion class. All five ships saw action in the North Sea during the war; they served together as VI Division of III Battle Squadron. Four were present during the Battle of Jutland; König Albert was in dock at the time. Of the four ships that took part in the battle, only Kaiser was damaged, being struck by two heavy-caliber shells. The ships also took part in Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea; during the operation, they were reorganized as IV Battle Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Wilhelm Souchon. At the end of the war, all five ships were interned at the British naval base in Scapa Flow. On 21 June 1919, they were scuttled to prevent their seizure by the Royal Navy. The ships were subsequently raised and broken up for scrap between 1929 and 1937. Wiki SMS Kaiser WL print Limited Edition Giclee on archival art paper Paper size 16X24" S/N 400 $135.00 Open Edition on photo paper Paper size 16X20" $50.00 11X14" $35.00 8X10" $20.00	407	ENGLISH	1
Slave ships were large cargo ships which were well converted to transport slaves. Often the slave ships carried hundreds of slaves, who were chained tightly to plank beds. They were confined to cargo detainment with each slave chained with little room to move softly. Neck ring and chains would have been worn by African captives, as they were transported to the West African coast and onboarding ship. The chains were linked to the African’s hands, or to the other enslaved person to keep them from escaping. The owners of these slave ships did their best to hold as many enslaved people as possible by cramming, putting chain, and grouping slaves to create space and make travel more profitable and comfortable. Slaves on board were not fed well and were treated brutally and harshly causing many to die on the before even arriving at their destination. It took an average of one to two months to complete the journey. The enslaved people were naked and locked together with several different types of chains, stored on the floor beneath an improvised bed with no room to move due to the restricted conditions. Some captains would assign Slave Guardians to watch over and keep the other slaves always in check. For example, Clotilda was the last known United States slave ship to bring captives from Africa to the United States, the ship was a two-master Sailing ship with 26 m long with a beam of 7.0 m. PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH GRADE VALLEY TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT	<urn:uuid:feb95137-ab9c-4b48-b42d-ebfc3a08dbb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.brookwriters.com/slave-ships-use-in-slavery-trade-discussion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00025.warc.gz	en	0.987347	309	4.21875	4	[ -0.19393980503082275, 0.2996343970298767, 0.2748458683490753, -0.4881630539894104, -0.11988557875156403, -0.19842655956745148, 0.1075204387307167, -0.25993067026138306, 0.03646509349346161, -0.169063001871109, 0.5031787753105164, -0.04741846024990082, -0.43479490280151367, 0.22835411131381...	1	Slave ships were large cargo ships which were well converted to transport slaves. Often the slave ships carried hundreds of slaves, who were chained tightly to plank beds. They were confined to cargo detainment with each slave chained with little room to move softly. Neck ring and chains would have been worn by African captives, as they were transported to the West African coast and onboarding ship. The chains were linked to the African’s hands, or to the other enslaved person to keep them from escaping. The owners of these slave ships did their best to hold as many enslaved people as possible by cramming, putting chain, and grouping slaves to create space and make travel more profitable and comfortable. Slaves on board were not fed well and were treated brutally and harshly causing many to die on the before even arriving at their destination. It took an average of one to two months to complete the journey. The enslaved people were naked and locked together with several different types of chains, stored on the floor beneath an improvised bed with no room to move due to the restricted conditions. Some captains would assign Slave Guardians to watch over and keep the other slaves always in check. For example, Clotilda was the last known United States slave ship to bring captives from Africa to the United States, the ship was a two-master Sailing ship with 26 m long with a beam of 7.0 m. PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH GRADE VALLEY TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT	303	ENGLISH	1
To help students focus on this topic I took a host of key concepts and asked students to select from the 30 that were face down. They were then asked to read them and think what they meant. As we walked to the dining room they could trade their most difficult concept. Upon arriving at the dining room I pointed to 3 tables and informed them that one was for any Functionalist concepts…marxism…and feminism. They were not allowed to talk and had to place the concepts on each relevant table. We then visited each table and discussed any concepts that should be moved. We did this and then returned to each table. Here we: - Discussed concepts and meaning. - We then reorganized them into a logical flow. - Then we added evaluation points. - Following this we did a visualisation task to recall each table then we threw the cards away. - After this we then challenged each other to recall which concepts were where in the room. It was good fun.	<urn:uuid:d3d6d1ef-0757-4e59-a17a-85873b5ad35d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teachsociology.wordpress.com/2017/05/22/role-of-the-family-revision/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00050.warc.gz	en	0.98745	207	3.609375	4	[ 0.11273834854364395, 0.1365319937467575, 0.06343907862901688, -0.10695020109415054, -0.2347734570503235, -0.06607242673635483, 0.3299974501132965, 0.5705776810646057, 0.11671313643455505, -0.28497418761253357, -0.16437329351902008, 0.017282268032431602, 0.01225198619067669, 0.1122807636857...	2	To help students focus on this topic I took a host of key concepts and asked students to select from the 30 that were face down. They were then asked to read them and think what they meant. As we walked to the dining room they could trade their most difficult concept. Upon arriving at the dining room I pointed to 3 tables and informed them that one was for any Functionalist concepts…marxism…and feminism. They were not allowed to talk and had to place the concepts on each relevant table. We then visited each table and discussed any concepts that should be moved. We did this and then returned to each table. Here we: - Discussed concepts and meaning. - We then reorganized them into a logical flow. - Then we added evaluation points. - Following this we did a visualisation task to recall each table then we threw the cards away. - After this we then challenged each other to recall which concepts were where in the room. It was good fun.	199	ENGLISH	1
Millions of ancient galaxies thought to be all but extinct today seem to have been hiding in plain sight, concealed by discs of stars stolen from other galaxies. Even our own Milky Way may be hiding one in its centre. In 2005, astronomers found a mysterious excess of compact spherical galaxies in the early, distant universe. These galaxies, which appeared about a third the size of similarly shaped ones in our own backyard with a comparable mass, were abundant about 11 billion years ago but seemed to be scarce today. The local universe is dominated by large "elliptical" galaxies – giant clouds of stars with little structure – and disc galaxies like our own Milky Way. "Pretty much all of the compact massive galaxies were thought to be missing from the nearby universe," says Alister Graham of Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia. "Very few compact massive galaxies had been found locally, just a handful." Much like Earth's dinosaurs were killed by a cosmic collision, computer simulations showed that these dinosaur galaxies of the early universe could have been destroyed through mergers and collisions with each other. Many astronomers thought this explained the discrepancy – but there was one problem: if there were that many mergers, we should see a lot more of those galaxies orbiting one another and heading towards collisions than we actually do. "It was known that there are not enough mergers; this was an unexplained problem," says Graham. Now, Graham and his colleagues think they have an explanation. When they took a closer look at surveys of galaxies in the local universe, they found many had been mischaracterised. More careful analysis of images revealed that 21 galaxies that originally looked like big 3D clouds of stars – "giant elliptical galaxies" – were actually flat 2D disc galaxies with bulges in the middle. Those bulges have "exactly the same physical mass and compact size as the galaxies in the early universe," Graham says. This suggests that the vast majority of compact spheroids that were thought to have disappeared aren't actually missing – they've just grown a disc, possibly by gathering hydrogen gas and stars from smaller galaxies but without major mergers. "The original, compact spheroid of stars remains basically unchanged in their centres," says Graham. "They were hiding in plain sight." Astronomers were misled because unless those disc galaxies are facing edge-on to our line of sight, they can look like 3D clouds of stars. The results suggest that there are 1000 times more of these galaxies in the local universe than previously thought – roughly as many as there were in the early universe. Graham says at least part of our own galaxy's central bulge may once have been one of these compact galaxies. The disc that formed around it would have contributed some stars to the bulge, as could other processes such as mergers. Emanuele Daddi at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission was one of the first researchers to notice the apparent excess of compact spherical galaxies in the early universe. "The idea did not occur to us that they could actually be bulges of local [disc galaxies] that had not yet grown their discs," says Daddi. "Neither did the few hundred papers that subsequently studied the problem consider this idea." Daddi thinks there is a remaining mystery. The bulges in the nearby galaxies seem larger than those in the early universe, which leaves him with some doubt that this explanation will definitively solve the problem.	<urn:uuid:25365572-4c37-48d5-b847-72a7f1c2e7ae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://cubasi.com/nows-exclusive-recommended/item/3761-millions-of-missing-galaxies-found-hiding-in-plain-sight	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00094.warc.gz	en	0.981105	708	3.90625	4	[ 0.03903448209166527, -0.2544872760772705, -0.08039568364620209, -0.11160401254892349, 0.31754618883132935, 0.1280645877122879, -0.5890588760375977, 0.3340136408805847, 0.13235819339752197, 0.06587396562099457, 0.12006690353155136, -0.3790510892868042, 0.04809189587831497, -0.03542493283748...	1	Millions of ancient galaxies thought to be all but extinct today seem to have been hiding in plain sight, concealed by discs of stars stolen from other galaxies. Even our own Milky Way may be hiding one in its centre. In 2005, astronomers found a mysterious excess of compact spherical galaxies in the early, distant universe. These galaxies, which appeared about a third the size of similarly shaped ones in our own backyard with a comparable mass, were abundant about 11 billion years ago but seemed to be scarce today. The local universe is dominated by large "elliptical" galaxies – giant clouds of stars with little structure – and disc galaxies like our own Milky Way. "Pretty much all of the compact massive galaxies were thought to be missing from the nearby universe," says Alister Graham of Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia. "Very few compact massive galaxies had been found locally, just a handful." Much like Earth's dinosaurs were killed by a cosmic collision, computer simulations showed that these dinosaur galaxies of the early universe could have been destroyed through mergers and collisions with each other. Many astronomers thought this explained the discrepancy – but there was one problem: if there were that many mergers, we should see a lot more of those galaxies orbiting one another and heading towards collisions than we actually do. "It was known that there are not enough mergers; this was an unexplained problem," says Graham. Now, Graham and his colleagues think they have an explanation. When they took a closer look at surveys of galaxies in the local universe, they found many had been mischaracterised. More careful analysis of images revealed that 21 galaxies that originally looked like big 3D clouds of stars – "giant elliptical galaxies" – were actually flat 2D disc galaxies with bulges in the middle. Those bulges have "exactly the same physical mass and compact size as the galaxies in the early universe," Graham says. This suggests that the vast majority of compact spheroids that were thought to have disappeared aren't actually missing – they've just grown a disc, possibly by gathering hydrogen gas and stars from smaller galaxies but without major mergers. "The original, compact spheroid of stars remains basically unchanged in their centres," says Graham. "They were hiding in plain sight." Astronomers were misled because unless those disc galaxies are facing edge-on to our line of sight, they can look like 3D clouds of stars. The results suggest that there are 1000 times more of these galaxies in the local universe than previously thought – roughly as many as there were in the early universe. Graham says at least part of our own galaxy's central bulge may once have been one of these compact galaxies. The disc that formed around it would have contributed some stars to the bulge, as could other processes such as mergers. Emanuele Daddi at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission was one of the first researchers to notice the apparent excess of compact spherical galaxies in the early universe. "The idea did not occur to us that they could actually be bulges of local [disc galaxies] that had not yet grown their discs," says Daddi. "Neither did the few hundred papers that subsequently studied the problem consider this idea." Daddi thinks there is a remaining mystery. The bulges in the nearby galaxies seem larger than those in the early universe, which leaves him with some doubt that this explanation will definitively solve the problem.	711	ENGLISH	1
One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman. Throughout history, the role of women in society has repeatedly varied according to political conditions and discourse, for the purpose of serving the interests of those in power. Contemporary Russia is hardly an exception to this general tendency. The Russian President has enjoyed great popularity through the successful marketing of his sex appeal, as well as the more recent image as a caring father of the Russian nation. 1. Introduction: Framing the View: Russian Women in the Long Nineteenth Century Women in Russia - Wikipedia The roles of women changed dramatically over the course of history in Soviet Russia under different leaders and economic and physical conditions. Pre-Revolution Russia was a very backwards country that was far behind in industrialization and politics. Most other European countries were experimenting with constitutions and democracy yet Russia still had serfdom and a strong nobility. The industrial class rose up multiple times finally during World War I they won and Lenin took power and created Soviet communism, this liberated women and gave them opportunities to pursue careers as doctors and engineers along with many other professions. Along with new career opportunities came new laws. In legislature was created to try to weaken marriage and the family to create a unified society focused on the country not the family. Women in Russia Before and After the Revolution To celebrate this important day we are publishing an article on women and the Russian Revolution. It shows how that single event did more for women than any other struggle that had come before it and indeed after as well. The October Russian Revolution was the most important event in the struggle for the emancipation of women in Russian history. To understand this event, makes it easier to understand the evolution of the women's liberation movement up to the present day. The life experiences of women in the Russian Empire before the Revolution were extremely diverse. Despite class differences, society was staunchly patriarchal and women of all backgrounds were not allowed to vote or hold public office until Usage terms Public Domain Towards the end of the 19th century, peasant women began to migrate to the cities in large numbers to work in factories or domestic service. Although their working hours and conditions were long and difficult, this was the first time that many women experienced independence from the patriarchal village traditions and structures.	<urn:uuid:62e9b471-396c-4d02-bf57-449fc5a426e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lowongankerja87.com/teen/russian-history-women-russian-society.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00160.warc.gz	en	0.981152	452	3.46875	3	[ -0.09064089506864548, 0.11656104028224945, 0.16719843447208405, 0.19578303396701813, -0.12778452038764954, 0.3016345500946045, -0.0766562968492508, 0.5020861625671387, 0.049108751118183136, 0.007400295231491327, -0.030423728749155998, 0.28145572543144226, -0.0044023036025464535, 0.09516911...	2	One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman. Throughout history, the role of women in society has repeatedly varied according to political conditions and discourse, for the purpose of serving the interests of those in power. Contemporary Russia is hardly an exception to this general tendency. The Russian President has enjoyed great popularity through the successful marketing of his sex appeal, as well as the more recent image as a caring father of the Russian nation. 1. Introduction: Framing the View: Russian Women in the Long Nineteenth Century Women in Russia - Wikipedia The roles of women changed dramatically over the course of history in Soviet Russia under different leaders and economic and physical conditions. Pre-Revolution Russia was a very backwards country that was far behind in industrialization and politics. Most other European countries were experimenting with constitutions and democracy yet Russia still had serfdom and a strong nobility. The industrial class rose up multiple times finally during World War I they won and Lenin took power and created Soviet communism, this liberated women and gave them opportunities to pursue careers as doctors and engineers along with many other professions. Along with new career opportunities came new laws. In legislature was created to try to weaken marriage and the family to create a unified society focused on the country not the family. Women in Russia Before and After the Revolution To celebrate this important day we are publishing an article on women and the Russian Revolution. It shows how that single event did more for women than any other struggle that had come before it and indeed after as well. The October Russian Revolution was the most important event in the struggle for the emancipation of women in Russian history. To understand this event, makes it easier to understand the evolution of the women's liberation movement up to the present day. The life experiences of women in the Russian Empire before the Revolution were extremely diverse. Despite class differences, society was staunchly patriarchal and women of all backgrounds were not allowed to vote or hold public office until Usage terms Public Domain Towards the end of the 19th century, peasant women began to migrate to the cities in large numbers to work in factories or domestic service. Although their working hours and conditions were long and difficult, this was the first time that many women experienced independence from the patriarchal village traditions and structures.	457	ENGLISH	1
( Collapse ) November 15th, 2011 Dorothea Dix founded the New Jersey Lunatic Asylum on May 15, 1848. It's completion marked the opening of the first mental hospital in the entire state. Though conceived and built with the noble intentions to aid those who could not help themselves, this lunatic asylum (later renamed the Trenton Psychiatric Hospital) is awash in disturbing history. It was a dark time. Not only for the hospital, but for the medical community as a whole, and it all began when a Dr. Henry Cotton became the medical director in 1907. Cotton was a firm believer that the key factor to the onset and persistence of mental illness could be found in the form of infections within one's body. To preserve and restore the troubled minds of the patients under his care, he and his staff took to removing the patient's teeth, as the teeth were thought to house infections. If that remedy failed to have a positive effect, more body parts were systematically removed from the patient. Other organs seen as a threat of infection, and therefore removed included the tonsils and sinus, which were next on the list if pulling of teeth did no good. From there the patient could loose a number of internal organs, including but not limited to; the colon, cervix, ovaries, gall badder, stomach, spleen, and testicles. Based solely upon his own research and experimentation, Cotton publicly reported a wonderful success rate for his patients. The concept of infections was still new science at the time, and due to his alleged link between that and mental illness, Cotton garnered much praise in the medical community both in the United States and Europe. In a sad irony, the surgeries cotton preformed were done in an era before the use of antibiotics, resulting in a high mortality rate... due to postoperative infections. Many of the patients at Trenton Psychiatric were mentally handicapped, some quite severely so. Still, even they were noticing that many of the people who went under Cotton's knife ended up dead some time thereafter. This resulted in patients who became very fearful of surgery, and would literally be dragged into the operating room in a state of panic. Eventually Cotton's methods began to draw the attention of other members of the psychiatric field, who felt that surgical procedures did little to help with one's mental state. Dr. Meyer, head of the psychiatric clinic and training institution at John Hopkin's University was contacted to do an independent overview of the work occurring at Trenton Psyche. Meyer commissioned a member of his staff, Dr. Phyllis Greenacre, to critique Cotton's work at the hospital. She began in the fall of 1924, after Dr. Meyer had returned from a visit to the hospital which left him with concerns about Cotton's methods and the system by which his work was reviewed. Dr. Greenacre's initial feelings upon entering the hospital were unsettling. She was taken aback by how disturbing it was that most of the patients lacked teeth, therefore making speech and the simple act of eating meals very difficult to watch. When delving into the paperwork regarding Cotton's surgical treatments and results, she found the official records to be impossible to draw results from. Not only were they poorly documented, they also held many contradictions. By 1925 interest in the hospital reached the NJ State Senate, which launched their own investigation into the hospital and the practices of it's staff. During this turbulent time Dr. Cotton became quite ill. Some speculate that he suffered from a mental breakdown, but this is not known for sure. Regardless, he diagnosed himself as ailing from several infected teeth. After having them removed Cotton announced himself as cured, and returned to work at the hospital. Soon after Cotton opened a private practice in Trenton NJ, which did very well and made him quite wealthy. Dr. Meyer, who initiated the critique of Dr. Cotton's methods at Trenton Psychiatric instructed Dr. Greenacre to cease her work. Despite her wanting to complete her report, Greenacre was reassigned and her report was left forever unfinished. The lack of critique meant that Dr. Cotton was free to continue his unchecked. Cotton died of a sudden heart-attack in 1933. The New York Times, as well as numerous other professional publications in the United States and abroad heralded his death as the passing of one of society's great men and forward thinkers. Dr. Cotton's wake left hundreds dead and thousands mutilated. *Primarily this set of images was taken in and around the "New Building" constructed in the early 1900's. Trenton Psyche is still partially in use, mostly operating out of the center of the old Kirkbride building. Due to this, parts of the building we were in remained on the power grid... for some reason. It was more than a little eerie to round certain corners and come upon a decaying corridor lit with a few flickering florescent lights... ( Collapse )	<urn:uuid:a625938e-4e9b-477b-9e89-70b1807ce46c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://abandonedplaces.livejournal.com/2011/11/15/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00094.warc.gz	en	0.983852	1,030	3.484375	3	[ -0.283124178647995, 0.20126642286777496, 0.21438243985176086, -0.10027334094047546, -0.06481063365936279, 0.541080892086029, 0.262531042098999, 0.633589506149292, -0.21863490343093872, -0.527931809425354, 0.3374565541744232, 0.25890398025512695, 0.05814336612820625, 0.44609978795051575, ...	1	( Collapse ) November 15th, 2011 Dorothea Dix founded the New Jersey Lunatic Asylum on May 15, 1848. It's completion marked the opening of the first mental hospital in the entire state. Though conceived and built with the noble intentions to aid those who could not help themselves, this lunatic asylum (later renamed the Trenton Psychiatric Hospital) is awash in disturbing history. It was a dark time. Not only for the hospital, but for the medical community as a whole, and it all began when a Dr. Henry Cotton became the medical director in 1907. Cotton was a firm believer that the key factor to the onset and persistence of mental illness could be found in the form of infections within one's body. To preserve and restore the troubled minds of the patients under his care, he and his staff took to removing the patient's teeth, as the teeth were thought to house infections. If that remedy failed to have a positive effect, more body parts were systematically removed from the patient. Other organs seen as a threat of infection, and therefore removed included the tonsils and sinus, which were next on the list if pulling of teeth did no good. From there the patient could loose a number of internal organs, including but not limited to; the colon, cervix, ovaries, gall badder, stomach, spleen, and testicles. Based solely upon his own research and experimentation, Cotton publicly reported a wonderful success rate for his patients. The concept of infections was still new science at the time, and due to his alleged link between that and mental illness, Cotton garnered much praise in the medical community both in the United States and Europe. In a sad irony, the surgeries cotton preformed were done in an era before the use of antibiotics, resulting in a high mortality rate... due to postoperative infections. Many of the patients at Trenton Psychiatric were mentally handicapped, some quite severely so. Still, even they were noticing that many of the people who went under Cotton's knife ended up dead some time thereafter. This resulted in patients who became very fearful of surgery, and would literally be dragged into the operating room in a state of panic. Eventually Cotton's methods began to draw the attention of other members of the psychiatric field, who felt that surgical procedures did little to help with one's mental state. Dr. Meyer, head of the psychiatric clinic and training institution at John Hopkin's University was contacted to do an independent overview of the work occurring at Trenton Psyche. Meyer commissioned a member of his staff, Dr. Phyllis Greenacre, to critique Cotton's work at the hospital. She began in the fall of 1924, after Dr. Meyer had returned from a visit to the hospital which left him with concerns about Cotton's methods and the system by which his work was reviewed. Dr. Greenacre's initial feelings upon entering the hospital were unsettling. She was taken aback by how disturbing it was that most of the patients lacked teeth, therefore making speech and the simple act of eating meals very difficult to watch. When delving into the paperwork regarding Cotton's surgical treatments and results, she found the official records to be impossible to draw results from. Not only were they poorly documented, they also held many contradictions. By 1925 interest in the hospital reached the NJ State Senate, which launched their own investigation into the hospital and the practices of it's staff. During this turbulent time Dr. Cotton became quite ill. Some speculate that he suffered from a mental breakdown, but this is not known for sure. Regardless, he diagnosed himself as ailing from several infected teeth. After having them removed Cotton announced himself as cured, and returned to work at the hospital. Soon after Cotton opened a private practice in Trenton NJ, which did very well and made him quite wealthy. Dr. Meyer, who initiated the critique of Dr. Cotton's methods at Trenton Psychiatric instructed Dr. Greenacre to cease her work. Despite her wanting to complete her report, Greenacre was reassigned and her report was left forever unfinished. The lack of critique meant that Dr. Cotton was free to continue his unchecked. Cotton died of a sudden heart-attack in 1933. The New York Times, as well as numerous other professional publications in the United States and abroad heralded his death as the passing of one of society's great men and forward thinkers. Dr. Cotton's wake left hundreds dead and thousands mutilated. *Primarily this set of images was taken in and around the "New Building" constructed in the early 1900's. Trenton Psyche is still partially in use, mostly operating out of the center of the old Kirkbride building. Due to this, parts of the building we were in remained on the power grid... for some reason. It was more than a little eerie to round certain corners and come upon a decaying corridor lit with a few flickering florescent lights... ( Collapse )	1,042	ENGLISH	1
& Literacy Among Medieval Women PEASANT WOMEN - TOWNSWOMEN - NOBLE WOMEN of the great medieval myths is that women could neither read nor write and were completely dependent upon others to do these for her. Nothing could be further from the truth, although educational opportunities for medieval women, like so many other things, depended on a woman's station at birth. Many women could both read and write to some extent. The frequency which this occurred increased as the medieval period progressed from century to century. Pictured at right is a detail from a 1445 Netherlands prayerbook by the Masters of the Gold Scrolls. At this period, it was not uncommon for women to be able to read and to teach others to do so. Peasant women has far less opportunity for a formal education than her wealthy counterpart. Many received little or no education unless they lived in or near the town. For the most part, the extent of their learning was the alphabet and verbal religion instruction. Peasants were generally employed in outdoor duties and a written record of her household expenses was not necessary. The primary teachers of small girls were their own mothers or grandmothers. Girls assisted their mothers at a very young age. Jobs such as pulling of wool for spinning, weeding in the garden, sewing, cooking and caring for the chickens prepared girls to have the skills they would use in later life as wives and mothers. Girls learned to hand-sew clothing and make repairs, like darning, at a young age so that when a young woman became head of her own household, she would be adequately prepared to clothe her family in durable and well-made clothing making the best of what resources were available to her. and middle-class women Most middle class girls were taught to read and write. A woman's education started at home under the care of her mother or nurse. Some girls had the opportunity to be educated by being sent to a nunnery and learning to read and write there under the supervision of educated women, although this would only be an option for daughters of wealthy businessman. Many families thought it more important for a girl to be better educated with proper manners than intellectual lessons, however those who wished their daughters to marry well, saw the value of a daughter who could read and write well. Such a young woman could make a valuable wife and therefore had better marriage prospects. A woman who could not read or write with proficiency could hardly be expected to run a successful household. Many wealthy townswomen commissioned prayer books which could be read to their daughters for their spiritual education. Women were not expected to make a living from writing, and indeed, it seems that chroniclers of the medieval period are almost entirely men. One example of a women whose literacy skills were of a high standard is that of French writer, Christine de Pisan. Shown at left is a self portrait from 1364-1430 taken from the Works of Christine de Pisan. Her books were written for an exclusive audience of female readers and incorporated themes which were relevant to women. The fact that her books were written for women tells us that there were enough women educated well enough to read them. Christine was married at 15 and a widowed woman by 25 who supported her three children with her writing. The image shown at left is a detail from a prayer book owned by Anne de Bretane, a mother, who commissioned the prayer book herself. It shows a woman learning to read in order to study the scriptures. There are many images of this kind It was not uncommon for daughters of wealthy nobles and upper class families to be educated in a nunnery. Such a girl would also have her spiritual education tended to as well as learning to read and write. Upper class girls would often be sent to other households to learn other aspects of her education which would prepare her for marriage. A noble woman's daughter might also learn literacy from a nurse or someone especially employed for that purpose. In a world where a nobleman's wife was expected to run not only her own household, but that of her husband's estates in his absence, it was imperative that she be literate and have reasonable mathematical skills so that she might run these with efficiency and be able to check whether her household costings seemed reasonable. She was not responsible for all expenditure of the household, but certainly needed to know enough about business management to see that it was being run properly. Queen Anne, wife of Richard II, brought many books and illustrators from her native Bohemia with her to England and enjoyed reading. Wills during Chaucer's period show that many women bequeathed books to other women- showing that women of all generations were literate and read for pleasure. These books were both devotional and works of romance. One example is is the 1390-1391 will of the Countess of Devon, Margaret Courtenay. books included primers, a medical book and stories of Tristram, Merlin and Arthur. These treasures she left to her daughters and a woman friend. Her daughters also were left books from her husband. No books were left to her sons. Young girls were taught to read, write, tell stories, read romances and judge the merits of poetry. They often undertook singing lessons and were instructed in one or more musical instruments. It goes without saying that a noble woman was well-schooled in manners and courtesy. Lack of such refinement did not encourage social advancement. A noble woman might also have read for leisure- romances and poems as well as holy scriptures. There are many instances where a husband might learn to read and write from his better-educated wife. Shown above at left is a detail from the 1427 Merode Altarpiece by Campin showing a noble women reading.	<urn:uuid:33cc1953-42eb-4d49-bbf9-8696e31a482e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://rosaliegilbert.com/education.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00186.warc.gz	en	0.982029	1,279	3.5	4	[ -0.0611225962638855, 0.33206266164779663, -0.04650497063994408, 0.16743987798690796, 0.0641123354434967, -0.027252838015556335, -0.5194388031959534, 0.05687994882464409, -0.2147006094455719, 0.023699257522821426, -0.2695273160934448, -0.0753219798207283, 0.1269410252571106, -0.020026262849...	1	& Literacy Among Medieval Women PEASANT WOMEN - TOWNSWOMEN - NOBLE WOMEN of the great medieval myths is that women could neither read nor write and were completely dependent upon others to do these for her. Nothing could be further from the truth, although educational opportunities for medieval women, like so many other things, depended on a woman's station at birth. Many women could both read and write to some extent. The frequency which this occurred increased as the medieval period progressed from century to century. Pictured at right is a detail from a 1445 Netherlands prayerbook by the Masters of the Gold Scrolls. At this period, it was not uncommon for women to be able to read and to teach others to do so. Peasant women has far less opportunity for a formal education than her wealthy counterpart. Many received little or no education unless they lived in or near the town. For the most part, the extent of their learning was the alphabet and verbal religion instruction. Peasants were generally employed in outdoor duties and a written record of her household expenses was not necessary. The primary teachers of small girls were their own mothers or grandmothers. Girls assisted their mothers at a very young age. Jobs such as pulling of wool for spinning, weeding in the garden, sewing, cooking and caring for the chickens prepared girls to have the skills they would use in later life as wives and mothers. Girls learned to hand-sew clothing and make repairs, like darning, at a young age so that when a young woman became head of her own household, she would be adequately prepared to clothe her family in durable and well-made clothing making the best of what resources were available to her. and middle-class women Most middle class girls were taught to read and write. A woman's education started at home under the care of her mother or nurse. Some girls had the opportunity to be educated by being sent to a nunnery and learning to read and write there under the supervision of educated women, although this would only be an option for daughters of wealthy businessman. Many families thought it more important for a girl to be better educated with proper manners than intellectual lessons, however those who wished their daughters to marry well, saw the value of a daughter who could read and write well. Such a young woman could make a valuable wife and therefore had better marriage prospects. A woman who could not read or write with proficiency could hardly be expected to run a successful household. Many wealthy townswomen commissioned prayer books which could be read to their daughters for their spiritual education. Women were not expected to make a living from writing, and indeed, it seems that chroniclers of the medieval period are almost entirely men. One example of a women whose literacy skills were of a high standard is that of French writer, Christine de Pisan. Shown at left is a self portrait from 1364-1430 taken from the Works of Christine de Pisan. Her books were written for an exclusive audience of female readers and incorporated themes which were relevant to women. The fact that her books were written for women tells us that there were enough women educated well enough to read them. Christine was married at 15 and a widowed woman by 25 who supported her three children with her writing. The image shown at left is a detail from a prayer book owned by Anne de Bretane, a mother, who commissioned the prayer book herself. It shows a woman learning to read in order to study the scriptures. There are many images of this kind It was not uncommon for daughters of wealthy nobles and upper class families to be educated in a nunnery. Such a girl would also have her spiritual education tended to as well as learning to read and write. Upper class girls would often be sent to other households to learn other aspects of her education which would prepare her for marriage. A noble woman's daughter might also learn literacy from a nurse or someone especially employed for that purpose. In a world where a nobleman's wife was expected to run not only her own household, but that of her husband's estates in his absence, it was imperative that she be literate and have reasonable mathematical skills so that she might run these with efficiency and be able to check whether her household costings seemed reasonable. She was not responsible for all expenditure of the household, but certainly needed to know enough about business management to see that it was being run properly. Queen Anne, wife of Richard II, brought many books and illustrators from her native Bohemia with her to England and enjoyed reading. Wills during Chaucer's period show that many women bequeathed books to other women- showing that women of all generations were literate and read for pleasure. These books were both devotional and works of romance. One example is is the 1390-1391 will of the Countess of Devon, Margaret Courtenay. books included primers, a medical book and stories of Tristram, Merlin and Arthur. These treasures she left to her daughters and a woman friend. Her daughters also were left books from her husband. No books were left to her sons. Young girls were taught to read, write, tell stories, read romances and judge the merits of poetry. They often undertook singing lessons and were instructed in one or more musical instruments. It goes without saying that a noble woman was well-schooled in manners and courtesy. Lack of such refinement did not encourage social advancement. A noble woman might also have read for leisure- romances and poems as well as holy scriptures. There are many instances where a husband might learn to read and write from his better-educated wife. Shown above at left is a detail from the 1427 Merode Altarpiece by Campin showing a noble women reading.	1,273	ENGLISH	1
Teach academic writing Academic writing does not come easy. Students all over the world cry out for help with writing high school essays, college research and term papers, graduate application letters and thesis projects. He was a great leader as well, and had conquered most of the known world in only a thirteen year span. During B. Alexander lived a good life, he was able to construct great battle plans so he could win a battle even if he was greatly out numbered. Three of his most memorable battles where at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela. The water was deep and the current was fast because it was spring. When they met on other sides of the river Alexander had his troops in a strategic formation. He had the Agrianian assault troops, the Macedonian and the Paeonian cavalry on the right wing which he personally commanded. On the left wing that was commanded by Parmenion. Their was the Thessalian cavalry and the Greek cavalry. He had placed the phalanx and the shield bearers in the middle of both the other wings. By having his troops positioned this way it made his army have a larger front line than the Persians, which has set up there troops with more of their heavier cavalry which where about two thousand heavy armed men that where separated by the different satrapies that where behind them at the time. Stationed on top of a rocky ledge over looking the river was a mixture of Greek mercenaries and hoplites. Alexander wanted to make a diversion to give his troops more time to cross the river. He had his royal cavalry led be Socrates crossing the river and attacking the Persian army. Meanwhile Alexander made a hidden crossing across the river with the help of the Agrianians and most of the cavalry that he had at the time. His plan worked with great success. The Persian army was too overwhelmed by the attack by the royal cavalry, and also counterattacking on Parmenions side of the field. Alexander then did a surprise attacking the strongest point of the Persian ranks. Although his battle plan did work Alexander nearly died when he was attacked by the satraps as soon as they saw him. Using his lance he unhorsed Mithridates, he was then surrounded by enemy forces. He now had no lance and his helmet had been broken by a sword. Spithridates was going to kill Alexander with his sword, but then his arm was cut off by the leader of the royal squadron, Cleitus. By now the phalanxes had crossed the river in formation and had started to attack what was left of the Persian cavalry. With their entire line broken the remaining cavalry retreated and fled the battle. After the cavalry was no longer a problem Alexander ordered his men to attack the mercenaries that had remained on the rocky ledge. This proved to be very difficult because they had stayed in formation. I give no quarter. He had only lost twenty-five companions of the Macedonian cavalry, some dozen infantry and cavalry from other divisions. The Persians on the other hand had casualties in the thousands. Issus was much like Grancius because the terrain was very similar. They both had rivers that where overflowing, rocky ledges and the Persians had taken up a defense along one side of the river. This time the Persians where far greater in numbers, and was commanded by the king himself. When Alexander arrived at the river from the south, he quickly told his men to stop so that he would have more time to study the Persians position. In the middle of his army Darius put his Greek Mercenaries and Cardace infantry. He had positioned most of his cavalry on the right side near the water. Other troops where placed on the heights intimidating the Greeks right wing. Alexander then seeing that the Persian advance guards appeared on the battle field arranged his troops so that he has an immense front line that ran from the seacoast to the hills. He then gave Parmenion who was commanding the right wing to stop the progress of the Persian cavalry that had started to attack. Alexander on the other hand, with the help of the cavalry and the Agrianians, attacked the right wing of the Persian army. This drove the troops from their positions on the hills and fighting in the way of the Persian formation. The cavalry was fighting in the middle of the river. The infantry then went along into fighting in the middle. The phalanx had a great risk of being surrounded by the Greek mercenaries after they had gone all the way through the Cardace infantry. Once both belongings sides had meet and the fighting rages on, both Alexander and Darius confronted each other on the battle field.Alexander the Great Not soo Great? Essay by agentnerdo, High School, 11th grade, April download word file, 4 pages, 2 reviews. Downloaded 62 times. Keywords Freedom, accomplish, Speech, Army, Moon. 0 Like 0 Tweet. All right, the movie was not that bad, it had its moments in which Alexander showed his 3/5. Alexander the Great essaysThe Conquests of Alexander the Great One of the greatest and most successful generals in all of history was Alexander the Great. He was a brilliant, patient and often devious man that never struck without careful planning. Alexander make decisions with great . Free sample essay on Alexander the Great: With all of his accomplishments came the knowledge and influence of the different people in Alexander’s life. Alexander III was the son of Philip II and the Epirote princess Olympias. Get Your FixGrammarly scans your text for common and complex grammatical mistakes, Write anywhere · Detect plagiarism · Easily improve any text · Eliminate grammar errors. Alexander the Great essaysThe Conquests of Alexander the Great One of the greatest and most successful generals in all of history was Alexander the Great. He was a brilliant, patient and often devious man that never struck without careful planning. Alexander make decisions with great speed and to. Alexander The Great Essay Possible Outline. Alexander the Great died in BC, but he's still likely to appear in any list of history's greatest generals. Famous as the man who wept when he realized there were other worlds he could never conquer, he was never defeated in battle.	<urn:uuid:c3b5fb84-9662-4665-a1c8-4797be6d4a0a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tugahigakykyr.srmvision.com/alexander-the-greatnot-soo-great-essay-19797yb.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00141.warc.gz	en	0.985878	1,291	3.609375	4	[ -0.3177189826965332, 0.4518176317214966, 0.1004592627286911, 0.22320568561553955, -0.5299797654151917, -0.5199050903320312, -0.10351403802633286, 0.603745698928833, -0.26204532384872437, -0.2276991605758667, -0.1804022192955017, 0.07454516738653183, 0.04495934396982193, 0.12146115303039551...	1	Teach academic writing Academic writing does not come easy. Students all over the world cry out for help with writing high school essays, college research and term papers, graduate application letters and thesis projects. He was a great leader as well, and had conquered most of the known world in only a thirteen year span. During B. Alexander lived a good life, he was able to construct great battle plans so he could win a battle even if he was greatly out numbered. Three of his most memorable battles where at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela. The water was deep and the current was fast because it was spring. When they met on other sides of the river Alexander had his troops in a strategic formation. He had the Agrianian assault troops, the Macedonian and the Paeonian cavalry on the right wing which he personally commanded. On the left wing that was commanded by Parmenion. Their was the Thessalian cavalry and the Greek cavalry. He had placed the phalanx and the shield bearers in the middle of both the other wings. By having his troops positioned this way it made his army have a larger front line than the Persians, which has set up there troops with more of their heavier cavalry which where about two thousand heavy armed men that where separated by the different satrapies that where behind them at the time. Stationed on top of a rocky ledge over looking the river was a mixture of Greek mercenaries and hoplites. Alexander wanted to make a diversion to give his troops more time to cross the river. He had his royal cavalry led be Socrates crossing the river and attacking the Persian army. Meanwhile Alexander made a hidden crossing across the river with the help of the Agrianians and most of the cavalry that he had at the time. His plan worked with great success. The Persian army was too overwhelmed by the attack by the royal cavalry, and also counterattacking on Parmenions side of the field. Alexander then did a surprise attacking the strongest point of the Persian ranks. Although his battle plan did work Alexander nearly died when he was attacked by the satraps as soon as they saw him. Using his lance he unhorsed Mithridates, he was then surrounded by enemy forces. He now had no lance and his helmet had been broken by a sword. Spithridates was going to kill Alexander with his sword, but then his arm was cut off by the leader of the royal squadron, Cleitus. By now the phalanxes had crossed the river in formation and had started to attack what was left of the Persian cavalry. With their entire line broken the remaining cavalry retreated and fled the battle. After the cavalry was no longer a problem Alexander ordered his men to attack the mercenaries that had remained on the rocky ledge. This proved to be very difficult because they had stayed in formation. I give no quarter. He had only lost twenty-five companions of the Macedonian cavalry, some dozen infantry and cavalry from other divisions. The Persians on the other hand had casualties in the thousands. Issus was much like Grancius because the terrain was very similar. They both had rivers that where overflowing, rocky ledges and the Persians had taken up a defense along one side of the river. This time the Persians where far greater in numbers, and was commanded by the king himself. When Alexander arrived at the river from the south, he quickly told his men to stop so that he would have more time to study the Persians position. In the middle of his army Darius put his Greek Mercenaries and Cardace infantry. He had positioned most of his cavalry on the right side near the water. Other troops where placed on the heights intimidating the Greeks right wing. Alexander then seeing that the Persian advance guards appeared on the battle field arranged his troops so that he has an immense front line that ran from the seacoast to the hills. He then gave Parmenion who was commanding the right wing to stop the progress of the Persian cavalry that had started to attack. Alexander on the other hand, with the help of the cavalry and the Agrianians, attacked the right wing of the Persian army. This drove the troops from their positions on the hills and fighting in the way of the Persian formation. The cavalry was fighting in the middle of the river. The infantry then went along into fighting in the middle. The phalanx had a great risk of being surrounded by the Greek mercenaries after they had gone all the way through the Cardace infantry. Once both belongings sides had meet and the fighting rages on, both Alexander and Darius confronted each other on the battle field.Alexander the Great Not soo Great? Essay by agentnerdo, High School, 11th grade, April download word file, 4 pages, 2 reviews. Downloaded 62 times. Keywords Freedom, accomplish, Speech, Army, Moon. 0 Like 0 Tweet. All right, the movie was not that bad, it had its moments in which Alexander showed his 3/5. Alexander the Great essaysThe Conquests of Alexander the Great One of the greatest and most successful generals in all of history was Alexander the Great. He was a brilliant, patient and often devious man that never struck without careful planning. Alexander make decisions with great . Free sample essay on Alexander the Great: With all of his accomplishments came the knowledge and influence of the different people in Alexander’s life. Alexander III was the son of Philip II and the Epirote princess Olympias. Get Your FixGrammarly scans your text for common and complex grammatical mistakes, Write anywhere · Detect plagiarism · Easily improve any text · Eliminate grammar errors. Alexander the Great essaysThe Conquests of Alexander the Great One of the greatest and most successful generals in all of history was Alexander the Great. He was a brilliant, patient and often devious man that never struck without careful planning. Alexander make decisions with great speed and to. Alexander The Great Essay Possible Outline. Alexander the Great died in BC, but he's still likely to appear in any list of history's greatest generals. Famous as the man who wept when he realized there were other worlds he could never conquer, he was never defeated in battle.	1,264	ENGLISH	1
Ulysses Simpson Grant was born April 26, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. Against his father’s wishes, Grant entered the US Military Academy and finished in the middle of the class. Like most military school graduates at the time, Grant was sent to Mexico and served under General Zachary Taylor during the Mexican War. In other endeavors before the Civil War, Grant was unsuccessful. "Unconditional Surrender" Grant At the outbreak of the Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant was working at this father’s leather shop in Illinois. He was appointed by the Illinois governor as the commander of a local militia but soon rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Civil War. Grant’s aggressive and bold tactics were a major reason why the Union Army was able to defeat the Confederates. His campaigns in the Mississippi River Valley were legendary and crucial to Union victory. In 1862, Grant led his forces to victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee. At Fort Donelson, Grant earned the nickname “Unconditional Surrender Grant.” Though less successful at Shiloh, Grant’s leadership opened the way for Union occupation of the Mississippi River. Grant went on to take the key port city of Vicksburg and then broke Confederate ranks at Chattanooga. Grant's Overland Campaign and Lee's Surrender In 1864, President Lincoln named him general in chief of the Union army. Grant’s “Overland Campaign” at such battles as Wilderness, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg took a heavy toll on Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, despite the heavy casualties inflicted upon his forces. Lee’s weakened forces held the Confederate strongholds of Petersburg and Richmond for ten months before being overwhelmed by Grant’s forces. On April 9, 1865, Ulysses S. Grant received Lee’s surrender and the Civil War was over. Grant Receiving Lee's Surrender In 1869, Grant was elected president of the United States. Unlike his military campaigns, his presidency was less than successful and plagued by corruption. Although he presided over Reconstruction in the South, Grant was seen associating with prospectors who tried to corner the market in gold. When he realized their plan, he authorized the Treasury to sell enough gold to ruin the plan, but the damage had already been done to business. After the presidency, Grant joined a financial firm that ultimately went bankrupt. In 1885, he died of throat cancer shortly after writing his personal memoirs. His works ultimately made $450,000 for his family. Grant is currently honored on the fifty-dollar bill of the United States.	<urn:uuid:99e97615-a02d-444b-9d74-5bb6ccc212d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/ulysses-s-grant-biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00242.warc.gz	en	0.981775	546	3.921875	4	[ -0.3003700077533722, 0.2770858705043793, 0.2980685234069824, 0.2099878191947937, 0.05031347647309303, -0.17773187160491943, -0.10417551547288895, 0.2022557109594345, -0.33296456933021545, 0.09599800407886505, 0.39218878746032715, -0.35329508781433105, 0.24380746483802795, 0.321301311254501...	1	Ulysses Simpson Grant was born April 26, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. Against his father’s wishes, Grant entered the US Military Academy and finished in the middle of the class. Like most military school graduates at the time, Grant was sent to Mexico and served under General Zachary Taylor during the Mexican War. In other endeavors before the Civil War, Grant was unsuccessful. "Unconditional Surrender" Grant At the outbreak of the Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant was working at this father’s leather shop in Illinois. He was appointed by the Illinois governor as the commander of a local militia but soon rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Civil War. Grant’s aggressive and bold tactics were a major reason why the Union Army was able to defeat the Confederates. His campaigns in the Mississippi River Valley were legendary and crucial to Union victory. In 1862, Grant led his forces to victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee. At Fort Donelson, Grant earned the nickname “Unconditional Surrender Grant.” Though less successful at Shiloh, Grant’s leadership opened the way for Union occupation of the Mississippi River. Grant went on to take the key port city of Vicksburg and then broke Confederate ranks at Chattanooga. Grant's Overland Campaign and Lee's Surrender In 1864, President Lincoln named him general in chief of the Union army. Grant’s “Overland Campaign” at such battles as Wilderness, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg took a heavy toll on Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, despite the heavy casualties inflicted upon his forces. Lee’s weakened forces held the Confederate strongholds of Petersburg and Richmond for ten months before being overwhelmed by Grant’s forces. On April 9, 1865, Ulysses S. Grant received Lee’s surrender and the Civil War was over. Grant Receiving Lee's Surrender In 1869, Grant was elected president of the United States. Unlike his military campaigns, his presidency was less than successful and plagued by corruption. Although he presided over Reconstruction in the South, Grant was seen associating with prospectors who tried to corner the market in gold. When he realized their plan, he authorized the Treasury to sell enough gold to ruin the plan, but the damage had already been done to business. After the presidency, Grant joined a financial firm that ultimately went bankrupt. In 1885, he died of throat cancer shortly after writing his personal memoirs. His works ultimately made $450,000 for his family. Grant is currently honored on the fifty-dollar bill of the United States.	548	ENGLISH	1
Leonardo da Vinci - Biography and Legacy Italian Painter, Designer, Sculptor, Inventor, Scientist, Architect, and Engineer Clos Lucé, Amboise (now France) Biography of Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, described as one of the most gifted and inventive men in history, was born in 1452 in a village near the town of Vinci, Tuscany. An illegitimate son of Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine notary, and Caterina, a peasant girl, he was brought up on the family estate in Anchiano by his paternal grandfather. His father married a sixteen-year old girl, Albiera, with whom Leonardo was close, but who died young. Leonardo was the oldest of 12 siblings and his family never treated his illegitimacy as a stigma. Early Training and Work (1452-1481) At the age of 14 Leonardo moved to Florence to begin an apprenticeship with Andrea del Verrocchio, an artist who had been a student of Early Renaissance master Donatello. Verrocchio was an important artist in the court of Medici, a powerful family equally noted for its political involvement and generous patronage of the arts, of which the success of the Renaissance is often attributed. Florence was an important artistic center in Renaissance Italy, which attracted many talented budding artists including Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Lorenzo di Credi. It is indicative of his father's influence in the city that Leonardo was able to begin his apprenticeship in such a prestigious art studio. Artists of this period were deeply immersed in the study of the humanities as a way to fully understand man's place in the world. Under Verocchio's mentorship, Leonardo's early genius was extensively nurtured. In addition to drawing, painting, and sculpture, he developed an interest in anatomy, architecture, chemistry, mathematics, and engineering. This education helped hone a profound imagination, which later led to his planning of marvelous inventions, evidenced by his many drawings of military weapons and mechanical contraptions which contribute to his reputation as a genius today. Customary to the time, the output of Verrocchio's studio would have been a collaborative effort between master and apprentices. Two pictures accredited to Verrocchio in particular, The Baptism of Christ, 1475, and The Annunciation, 1472-1475, are seen by art historians, including Giorgio Vasari, to have evidence of Leonardo's lighter brush strokes compared to Verrocchio's heavier hand. In 1472, after six years of apprenticeship, Leonardo became a member of the Guild of St Luke, a Florentine group of artists and medical doctors. Although his father set him up with a studio of his own, Leonardo continued to work in Verrocchio's studio as an assistant for the next four years. In 1476, Leonardo was accused of sodomy with three other men, but was acquitted for lack of corroborative evidence, which is often attributed to the fact that his friends came from powerful families. Homosexuality was, at the time, illegal, and punishable not only by imprisonment, public humiliation, but also death. Perhaps because of the chastisement following such a traumatic event, he kept a low profile over the next few years, of which not much is known. One of his earliest independent commissions was received in 1481 from the monks of San Donato a Scopeto to paint the Adoration of the Magi. Leonardo would interrupt work on the commission to move to Milan after receiving an offer from the Duke of Milan to work in his court. There is a lot of speculation why the move to Milan was so necessary at this time, some harking back to the sodomy charge a few years earlier. But it seems more likely that Leonardo was seduced by the invitation from the flamboyant Milanese Court, and the opportunity for progressing his reputation and career. Mature Period (1482-1513) Leonardo worked in the Court of Milan from 1482 until 1499. A noted perfectionist, he spent a great deal of time exploring human anatomy, particularly in the way in which human bodies moved, were built and proportioned, and how they interacted in social engagement and communication, as well as their means of gesture and expression. An exhaustive endeavor for certain, and this may be part of the reason why there are so few finished works yet an extraordinarily large library of drawings executed in intricate detail, as well as cartoons which acted as full scale preparatory drawings for paintings. These drawings show not only his unparalleled mastery of observation, but also his ability as an artist to understand and convey human emotion. It was during this period that he experimented with radically new and different painting techniques. One of the techniques Leonardo is famous for is his ability to create a smoky effect, which was coined sfumato. Through his deep knowledge of glazes and brushstrokes, he developed the technique, which allowed for edges of color and outline to flow into each other to emphasize the soft modulation of flesh and fabric, as well as the remarkable translucence of hard surfaces such as crystal or the tactility of hair. The intimate authenticity that resulted in his figures and subjects seemed to mirror reality in ways that had not been seen prior. A good example of this is his depiction of an orb in the painting, Salvatore Mundi (1490-1500). Yet, as with many revolutionary inventions, some of his experimentations would only reveal problems later. The most notable of which was seen in his great fresco masterpiece of the period, The Last Supper (1495-98). It was painted on the refectory wall of the convent of Santa Maria del Grazie through the use of oil-based paint on wet plaster to encourage the sfumato effect, which eventually caused the paint to flake off from the wall. In 1485, he went on a diplomatic mission to Hungary on behalf of the Duke to meet the influential King of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus, and, while therewas called on to use his meticulous design skills to prepare court festivals, as well as engineering and architectural projects, including plans for the dome of the cathedral in Milan. For his last unfinished project before leaving Milan, Leonardo was commissioned to cast a five-meter high equestrian bronze sculpture called Gran Cavallo commemorating the founder of the Sforza dynasty. In 1503, a clay model of the intended sculpture was displayed during the wedding of Emperor Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza, emphasizing the importance of the anticipated work. Unfortunately, the project was never finished and the conquering French Army who had taken Milan in 1499, ended up using the model for target practice. It has been said that the bronze slated for use in the sculpture was repurposed for cannon casting in what inevitably proved to be the unsuccessful defense of Milan from Charles VIII in the war with France. Following the French invasion of 1499, and the overthrow of the Duke of Milan, Leonardo left for Venice accompanied by Salai, his long time friend and assistant, who had been living with Leonardo since the age of ten and who remained with him until the artist's death. In Venice, Leonardo was employed as a military engineer where his main commission was to design naval defense systems for the city under threat of Turkish military advances in Europe. Once done, he decided to return to Florence in 1500, where he lived with his companion as a guest of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata. In 1502, Leonardo secured service in the Court of Cesare Borgia, an important member of an influential family, as well as son of Pope Alexander VI, and commander of the papal army. He was employed as a military engineer and accompanied Borgia on his travels throughout Italy. His duties included making maps to aid with military defense, as well as the construction of a dam to ensure an uninterrupted supply of water to the canals from the River Arno. During the diversion of the river project, he met Niccolò Machiavelli, who, at the time, was a noted scribe and political observer for Florence. It has been said that Leonardo exposed Machiavelli to the concepts of applied science, and that he had a great influence on the man who would go on to be called the Father of Modern Political Science. Leonardo returned for a second time to Florence in 1503, and was welcomed as a celebrity when he again joined the Guild of St Luke. This return spurred one of the most productive periods of painting for the artist including preliminary work on his Virgin and Child with Saint Anne (1503-19), as well as the Mona Lisa (1503-19), and unfinished Battle of Anghiari (1503-05), which was later copied by the artist Peter Paul Rubens. In 1508, Leonardo returned to Milan where he remained for the next five years enjoying the patronage of Charles d'Amboise, the French Governor of Milan, and King Louis XII. This was a period in which Leonardo delved heavily into scientific activities, which included anatomical, mathematic, mechanical, and botanical studies and the creation of his famous flying machine. Notable commissions during this period included work on a Villa for Charles, bridge building, and a project to create a waterway to link Milan with Lake Como. He also devised efficient military weapons such as an early example of the machine gun, and his famous large crossbow. It was also during this time that Leonardo met his pupil Francesco Melzi, who became his companion until his death. It may be surmised that at this point in his life and career, Leonardo was finally able to live discreetly as a gay man, his accomplishments and acclaim providing a safe shelter from the kind of traumatic and punitive stigmatizing he experienced in his younger years. Late period (1513-19) In 1513, after the temporary expulsion of the French from Milan, Leonardo went to Rome where he spent the next three years. He was brought to the attention of the French King François I who offered him a permanent position as "first painter and engineer" of the French Royal Court. He was given a residence at Clos Lucé, close to the king's Château d'Amboise. François I, a pivotal figure in the French Renaissance, not only became the sort of patron Leonardo needed in his old age, demanding little of him, but also is reputed to have been a close friend of the artist. Vasari described the friendship saying, "The King...was accustomed frequently and affectionately to visit him." Leonardo spent most of these late years dedicated to arranging his scientific papers and notes instead of painting, although his last painting, St John the Baptist (1513), was most likely made during this time. This collation of notebooks, representing a lifetime culmination of extraordinary investigative study and ability within such a vast number of disciplines, has proved his most enduring legacy. His opinions on architecture, mathematics, engineering, science, and human anatomy, as well as his philosophy on art, painting, drawing, and Humanism presented intelligence so profound that he became recognized as a true genius. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 at Clos Lucé, naming his companion, Francesco Melzi, as principal beneficiary of his artistic and scientific estates. His vineyards were divided between Salai and his brothers. The reverence with which Leonardo was regarded is epitomized by the apocryphal story of François I's attendance at his death. Vasari described Leonardo as having "breathed [his] last in the arms of the king." Their legendary friendship inspired the 1818 painting by Ingres, François I Receives the Last Breaths of Leonardo da Vinci, in which Leonardo is shown as dying in the arms of the King. Leonardo was originally interred in the chapel of St Florentin at the Chateau d'Amboise in the Loire Valley, but the building was destroyed during the French revolution. Although it is believed that he was reburied in the smaller chapel of St Hubert, Amboise, the exact location remains unconfirmed. The Legacy of Leonardo da Vinci It is hard to concisely describe the legacy of a man as multi-talented as Leonardo da Vinci. He developed artistic techniques that are considered perfection. His use of vanishing point, the soft blurring effect in his sfumato method, his understanding the relationship between light and dark in chiaroscuro, and his enigmatic facial expressions created a mesmerizing and realistic quality to his paintings that had never before been seen. While much of his art focused on religion and portraits, painted in the time of the High Renaissance, which heralded the end of the dark ages in western civilization, it was his techniques together with his masterly composition that contributed the greatest influence on Western art. In fact, to this day, The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa remain some of the world's most recognizable and iconic works of art, reproduced endlessly on posters and prints, and deeply embedded in contemporary popular culture as pieces of everlasting historical significance. But then, what of his inventions, his anatomical research, his topographical drawings, as well as his engineering, mechanical, and architectural achievements? While many of his inventions such as the flying machine, the helicopter, or the parachute remained in mere idea form, and unfeasible in practice, that does not detract from the recognition of Leonardo's inquisitive mind being years ahead of its time. The same is true of the accuracy of his anatomical drawings, investigations into blood circulation, topography, and other mechanical engineering marvels which include the mitred lock, his contribution to accurate time-keeping, or the bobbin winder which had an immediate impact on local industry at the time. His investigation into enhancing military weapons heralded the tanks and machine guns so familiar to us today. He was indeed the first true "Renaissance man." As Sigmund Freud said of him, he was a man, "who awoke too early in the darkness, while the others were all still asleep."	<urn:uuid:2a8a0660-da37-42ca-9ccd-b8305bb5292a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://m.theartstory.org/artist/da-vinci-leonardo/life-and-legacy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00479.warc.gz	en	0.984136	2,936	3.53125	4	[ -0.05480469763278961, 0.4394545555114746, 0.2440415322780609, -0.1784719079732895, -0.8327916860580444, 0.0503782294690609, 0.14837607741355896, 0.09686191380023956, 0.11740245670080185, 0.06619016826152802, 0.040734805166721344, -0.3108370900154114, 0.5165377259254456, 0.39479953050613403...	2	Leonardo da Vinci - Biography and Legacy Italian Painter, Designer, Sculptor, Inventor, Scientist, Architect, and Engineer Clos Lucé, Amboise (now France) Biography of Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, described as one of the most gifted and inventive men in history, was born in 1452 in a village near the town of Vinci, Tuscany. An illegitimate son of Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine notary, and Caterina, a peasant girl, he was brought up on the family estate in Anchiano by his paternal grandfather. His father married a sixteen-year old girl, Albiera, with whom Leonardo was close, but who died young. Leonardo was the oldest of 12 siblings and his family never treated his illegitimacy as a stigma. Early Training and Work (1452-1481) At the age of 14 Leonardo moved to Florence to begin an apprenticeship with Andrea del Verrocchio, an artist who had been a student of Early Renaissance master Donatello. Verrocchio was an important artist in the court of Medici, a powerful family equally noted for its political involvement and generous patronage of the arts, of which the success of the Renaissance is often attributed. Florence was an important artistic center in Renaissance Italy, which attracted many talented budding artists including Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Lorenzo di Credi. It is indicative of his father's influence in the city that Leonardo was able to begin his apprenticeship in such a prestigious art studio. Artists of this period were deeply immersed in the study of the humanities as a way to fully understand man's place in the world. Under Verocchio's mentorship, Leonardo's early genius was extensively nurtured. In addition to drawing, painting, and sculpture, he developed an interest in anatomy, architecture, chemistry, mathematics, and engineering. This education helped hone a profound imagination, which later led to his planning of marvelous inventions, evidenced by his many drawings of military weapons and mechanical contraptions which contribute to his reputation as a genius today. Customary to the time, the output of Verrocchio's studio would have been a collaborative effort between master and apprentices. Two pictures accredited to Verrocchio in particular, The Baptism of Christ, 1475, and The Annunciation, 1472-1475, are seen by art historians, including Giorgio Vasari, to have evidence of Leonardo's lighter brush strokes compared to Verrocchio's heavier hand. In 1472, after six years of apprenticeship, Leonardo became a member of the Guild of St Luke, a Florentine group of artists and medical doctors. Although his father set him up with a studio of his own, Leonardo continued to work in Verrocchio's studio as an assistant for the next four years. In 1476, Leonardo was accused of sodomy with three other men, but was acquitted for lack of corroborative evidence, which is often attributed to the fact that his friends came from powerful families. Homosexuality was, at the time, illegal, and punishable not only by imprisonment, public humiliation, but also death. Perhaps because of the chastisement following such a traumatic event, he kept a low profile over the next few years, of which not much is known. One of his earliest independent commissions was received in 1481 from the monks of San Donato a Scopeto to paint the Adoration of the Magi. Leonardo would interrupt work on the commission to move to Milan after receiving an offer from the Duke of Milan to work in his court. There is a lot of speculation why the move to Milan was so necessary at this time, some harking back to the sodomy charge a few years earlier. But it seems more likely that Leonardo was seduced by the invitation from the flamboyant Milanese Court, and the opportunity for progressing his reputation and career. Mature Period (1482-1513) Leonardo worked in the Court of Milan from 1482 until 1499. A noted perfectionist, he spent a great deal of time exploring human anatomy, particularly in the way in which human bodies moved, were built and proportioned, and how they interacted in social engagement and communication, as well as their means of gesture and expression. An exhaustive endeavor for certain, and this may be part of the reason why there are so few finished works yet an extraordinarily large library of drawings executed in intricate detail, as well as cartoons which acted as full scale preparatory drawings for paintings. These drawings show not only his unparalleled mastery of observation, but also his ability as an artist to understand and convey human emotion. It was during this period that he experimented with radically new and different painting techniques. One of the techniques Leonardo is famous for is his ability to create a smoky effect, which was coined sfumato. Through his deep knowledge of glazes and brushstrokes, he developed the technique, which allowed for edges of color and outline to flow into each other to emphasize the soft modulation of flesh and fabric, as well as the remarkable translucence of hard surfaces such as crystal or the tactility of hair. The intimate authenticity that resulted in his figures and subjects seemed to mirror reality in ways that had not been seen prior. A good example of this is his depiction of an orb in the painting, Salvatore Mundi (1490-1500). Yet, as with many revolutionary inventions, some of his experimentations would only reveal problems later. The most notable of which was seen in his great fresco masterpiece of the period, The Last Supper (1495-98). It was painted on the refectory wall of the convent of Santa Maria del Grazie through the use of oil-based paint on wet plaster to encourage the sfumato effect, which eventually caused the paint to flake off from the wall. In 1485, he went on a diplomatic mission to Hungary on behalf of the Duke to meet the influential King of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus, and, while therewas called on to use his meticulous design skills to prepare court festivals, as well as engineering and architectural projects, including plans for the dome of the cathedral in Milan. For his last unfinished project before leaving Milan, Leonardo was commissioned to cast a five-meter high equestrian bronze sculpture called Gran Cavallo commemorating the founder of the Sforza dynasty. In 1503, a clay model of the intended sculpture was displayed during the wedding of Emperor Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza, emphasizing the importance of the anticipated work. Unfortunately, the project was never finished and the conquering French Army who had taken Milan in 1499, ended up using the model for target practice. It has been said that the bronze slated for use in the sculpture was repurposed for cannon casting in what inevitably proved to be the unsuccessful defense of Milan from Charles VIII in the war with France. Following the French invasion of 1499, and the overthrow of the Duke of Milan, Leonardo left for Venice accompanied by Salai, his long time friend and assistant, who had been living with Leonardo since the age of ten and who remained with him until the artist's death. In Venice, Leonardo was employed as a military engineer where his main commission was to design naval defense systems for the city under threat of Turkish military advances in Europe. Once done, he decided to return to Florence in 1500, where he lived with his companion as a guest of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata. In 1502, Leonardo secured service in the Court of Cesare Borgia, an important member of an influential family, as well as son of Pope Alexander VI, and commander of the papal army. He was employed as a military engineer and accompanied Borgia on his travels throughout Italy. His duties included making maps to aid with military defense, as well as the construction of a dam to ensure an uninterrupted supply of water to the canals from the River Arno. During the diversion of the river project, he met Niccolò Machiavelli, who, at the time, was a noted scribe and political observer for Florence. It has been said that Leonardo exposed Machiavelli to the concepts of applied science, and that he had a great influence on the man who would go on to be called the Father of Modern Political Science. Leonardo returned for a second time to Florence in 1503, and was welcomed as a celebrity when he again joined the Guild of St Luke. This return spurred one of the most productive periods of painting for the artist including preliminary work on his Virgin and Child with Saint Anne (1503-19), as well as the Mona Lisa (1503-19), and unfinished Battle of Anghiari (1503-05), which was later copied by the artist Peter Paul Rubens. In 1508, Leonardo returned to Milan where he remained for the next five years enjoying the patronage of Charles d'Amboise, the French Governor of Milan, and King Louis XII. This was a period in which Leonardo delved heavily into scientific activities, which included anatomical, mathematic, mechanical, and botanical studies and the creation of his famous flying machine. Notable commissions during this period included work on a Villa for Charles, bridge building, and a project to create a waterway to link Milan with Lake Como. He also devised efficient military weapons such as an early example of the machine gun, and his famous large crossbow. It was also during this time that Leonardo met his pupil Francesco Melzi, who became his companion until his death. It may be surmised that at this point in his life and career, Leonardo was finally able to live discreetly as a gay man, his accomplishments and acclaim providing a safe shelter from the kind of traumatic and punitive stigmatizing he experienced in his younger years. Late period (1513-19) In 1513, after the temporary expulsion of the French from Milan, Leonardo went to Rome where he spent the next three years. He was brought to the attention of the French King François I who offered him a permanent position as "first painter and engineer" of the French Royal Court. He was given a residence at Clos Lucé, close to the king's Château d'Amboise. François I, a pivotal figure in the French Renaissance, not only became the sort of patron Leonardo needed in his old age, demanding little of him, but also is reputed to have been a close friend of the artist. Vasari described the friendship saying, "The King...was accustomed frequently and affectionately to visit him." Leonardo spent most of these late years dedicated to arranging his scientific papers and notes instead of painting, although his last painting, St John the Baptist (1513), was most likely made during this time. This collation of notebooks, representing a lifetime culmination of extraordinary investigative study and ability within such a vast number of disciplines, has proved his most enduring legacy. His opinions on architecture, mathematics, engineering, science, and human anatomy, as well as his philosophy on art, painting, drawing, and Humanism presented intelligence so profound that he became recognized as a true genius. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 at Clos Lucé, naming his companion, Francesco Melzi, as principal beneficiary of his artistic and scientific estates. His vineyards were divided between Salai and his brothers. The reverence with which Leonardo was regarded is epitomized by the apocryphal story of François I's attendance at his death. Vasari described Leonardo as having "breathed [his] last in the arms of the king." Their legendary friendship inspired the 1818 painting by Ingres, François I Receives the Last Breaths of Leonardo da Vinci, in which Leonardo is shown as dying in the arms of the King. Leonardo was originally interred in the chapel of St Florentin at the Chateau d'Amboise in the Loire Valley, but the building was destroyed during the French revolution. Although it is believed that he was reburied in the smaller chapel of St Hubert, Amboise, the exact location remains unconfirmed. The Legacy of Leonardo da Vinci It is hard to concisely describe the legacy of a man as multi-talented as Leonardo da Vinci. He developed artistic techniques that are considered perfection. His use of vanishing point, the soft blurring effect in his sfumato method, his understanding the relationship between light and dark in chiaroscuro, and his enigmatic facial expressions created a mesmerizing and realistic quality to his paintings that had never before been seen. While much of his art focused on religion and portraits, painted in the time of the High Renaissance, which heralded the end of the dark ages in western civilization, it was his techniques together with his masterly composition that contributed the greatest influence on Western art. In fact, to this day, The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa remain some of the world's most recognizable and iconic works of art, reproduced endlessly on posters and prints, and deeply embedded in contemporary popular culture as pieces of everlasting historical significance. But then, what of his inventions, his anatomical research, his topographical drawings, as well as his engineering, mechanical, and architectural achievements? While many of his inventions such as the flying machine, the helicopter, or the parachute remained in mere idea form, and unfeasible in practice, that does not detract from the recognition of Leonardo's inquisitive mind being years ahead of its time. The same is true of the accuracy of his anatomical drawings, investigations into blood circulation, topography, and other mechanical engineering marvels which include the mitred lock, his contribution to accurate time-keeping, or the bobbin winder which had an immediate impact on local industry at the time. His investigation into enhancing military weapons heralded the tanks and machine guns so familiar to us today. He was indeed the first true "Renaissance man." As Sigmund Freud said of him, he was a man, "who awoke too early in the darkness, while the others were all still asleep."	2,984	ENGLISH	1
Greek life and culture Who were the Ancient Greeks? Greece is a country in Europe, but people have been living in that area for a very long time. The people who were living there thousands of years ago are called the Ancient Greeks, and a lot of things they did help to make up our society today. They even invented the Olympics! The Greek Empire eventually became part of the Roman Empire, but their society had a huge impact on things we do today. We have learned a lot from Ancient Greek philosophy, language, theatre, medicine, government and more. Top 10 facts - The Ancient Greek Empire once included some of the countries we know today, such as Turkey and Syria. - Some of our alphabet came from the one that the Ancient Greeks used. - Greece was divided into city-states that each had their own laws and way of life, but all spoke the same language. Two of the best-known city states are Athens and Sparta. - In Athens, Greek styles of art, architecture, philosophy and theatre were developed. - Athens had a democratic government – this means that the people who lived there made decisions by voting, like we do in Britain. - In Sparta, life was very different; all that was important was being able to defend Sparta in battle. - The first Olympic games were held in 776 in the city-state Olympia. - The Greeks used different kinds of columns in the stone buildings they made – Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. - Religion was very important in Ancient Greece. The Greeky believed there were different gods and goddesses that were in charge of different parts of their lives, such as a god of the sea and a goddess of wisdom. Temples were built in their honour. - Greece eventually became a part of the Roman Empire. The Romans conquered Athens in 146 BC. Ancient Greece Timeline - 1600-1150 BCThe Mycenaean Age - 1200-1000 BCThe Greek Dark Ages, when there wasn’t really any building, learning, creating, or even governing happening in Greece - 776 BCThe first Olympic games were held in Olympia - 750 BCThe Greek alphabet was invented, and city-states began to be established - 700 BCThe poet Homer wrote the epic poems, The Iliad and The Odyssey - 508 BCDemocracy was invented by the Greeks – it began in Athens - 490 BCThe Battle of Marathon took place, and the Greeks defeated the Persians - 480-323 BCThe Classical Period - 480 BCThe Greeks defeated the Persians again at the Battle of Salamis - 472 BCPeople started going to the theatre in Athens - 432 BCThe Pantheon was completed in Athens - 431-404 BCThe Peloponnesian War took place between Sparta and Athens - 356-323 BCAlexander the Great lived during this time - 323-146 BCThe Hellenistic period - 146 BCRome conquered Athens - 31 BCThe Romans took control of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the Battle of Actuim, which Alexander the Great had set up in 322 BC – the capital was Alexandria in Egypt; it marked the end of what had been a large Greek society, and it also marked the beginning of the Roman Empire - 395 ADThe last Ancient Greek Olympic games were held Did you know? - Our alphabet was developed using some of the alphabet that the Ancient Greeks used. In fact, the first two letters in the Greek alphabet were ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’, which is where we get the word ‘alphabet’ from! - Ancient Greece was made up of city-states – these were cities that had made their own laws. The Greek word for city-state is ‘polis’. We get the word ‘policeman’ from ‘polis’ – it means ‘man of the city’. - The first Olympic games were held in 776 BC, and then every four years after that in honour of the god Zeus. Some of the events are the same as you’ll see in the modern Olympic Games, such as throwing the javelin and wrestling, but some were different – like chariot racing. Winners would get a crown of olive branches instead of a gold medal. - Each city-state held a games event – the one called the Olympics was held in the city-state of Olympia. - The Greeks had many different kinds of pots that they used for different things: - carrying water in from a fountain in town - keeping perfume in - storing make-up - keeping and cooling wine - storing food - The Greeks liked painting pictures on their pots, and sometimes they’d make pictures of what the pot would be used for. For instance, on little pots that children would use, there might be pictures of toys. - Greek homes had many different rooms, all built around a courtyard in the middle. Men and women kept to different parts of the house – men had their own dining room where they’d invite their friends, and women had a room in the back of the house where they’d work on spinning and weaving or meet their own friends. - Many Greeks wore chitons, which were loose tunics that were draped and pinned around shoulders. Sometimes they had belts around them too. Women’s tunics were longer than the ones that men wore. - Some of the words we say in English have parts of Greek words in them, such as television, hygiene, atmosphere and character. - The Ancient Greeks were the first to have theatres, where people would put on plays. They could be funny (comedies) or sad (tragedies). - If you wanted to find out everything that was happening in your city-state in Ancient Greece, the place to go was the agora. This was the marketplace, where people sold things, so everyone went there to buy food or meet friends. Can you find the following in the gallery below? - The Parthenon - An illustration of what the Parthenon might have looked like when it was built - The Acropolis today - A map of city states in Greece - The uniform Greek soldiers would have worn - A Greek chiton, and how to wear it - Jewellery and hair accessories from Ancient Greece - A Greek lyre - Double aulos - Greek hairstyles - The theatre at Delphi - A Greek temple - The theatre at Larissa - An ancient stadium - A greek amphora - Three types of Greek pillars: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian The Ancient Greek Empire was very large, and included the modern European countries of Turkey and Bulgaria. Alexander the Great led many battles that extended the boundaries all the way through Iran, to around the border of India. Some of the most well-known city-states are: - Athens – Athens is the most famous city-state, and it is the capital of Greece today. In ancient times, Athens was the capital of culture – great thinkers, mathematicians, scientists and actors lived there. They were also a democracy, meaning the citizens decided among themselves how to govern the city-state. The final decision would be whatever the majority of people wanted. Athens also started using juries made up of Athenian citizens to try people who were suspected of committing crimes – the juries decided if someone were guilty or not. We also use juries today in Britain. - Sparta – Sparta was governed through an oligarchy, which meant that a small group of people were in charge. These people were in charge of the military, and being physically fit and a good soldier was the most important thing for Spartan men. Women in Sparta were also taught how to fight and keep fit, and they wanted to have sons who would grow to be good soldiers. Boys were taken from their families when they were just seven years old and trained for a life in the military. Because of this, Spartan warriors were the best in Greece, but it was not a city of culture like Athens or Corinth. - Corinth – Corinth was ruled by a king, so their government was a monarchy. It was located by the sea and had a good harbour, so it prospered through trade. They also had very good artists, and all boys were taught maths, science, music and literature. The Greeks used a row of tall columns in their buildings that helped support the structure. There are three main types of columns that were used, each with a distinctive style – Doric (which was pretty plain), Ionic (which had curled ‘flutes’ at the very top) and Corinthian (which was the most decorative, with flowers and leaves at the top) Ancient Greeks believed that everything should have balance, order and harmony – you can see this in Greek art and architecture. Slaves were very common in Greek society, and only very poor families wouldn’t have had slaves. Slaves may have once lived in a region that was conquered by Greece, such as Persia. Sometimes unwanted babies would be left in a public place for someone to take and raise as a slave. Education was important to the Greeks, and children were taught a variety of things. Everyone learned how to play a musical instrument, such as the lyre (a kind of small harp) or the double aulos (a pair of pipes with holes like a recorder). Boys learned how to be good athletes, but in Sparta girls exercised as well – everyone had to be fit and ready to defend Sparta. Names to know: Alexander the Great (356-332 BC) – Alexander the Great was the king of one of the Greek states (Macedon) and led Greek armies to many victories – in fact, he was never beaten! He extended the Greek empire as far east as India. Alexander died when he was only 32 years old. Archimedes (c.287-212 BC) – Archimedes was a famous Greek mathematician and philosopher. He discovered a way of measuring the volume of an object by putting it in water, and seeing how much the water rose – like it does when you get in the bathtub. Archimedes was actually in the bathtub when he figured this out, and then he jumped out and shouted, ‘Eureka!’, which means ‘I found it!’ Aristotle (384-322 BC) – Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who taught Alexander the Great. Plato was Aristotle’s teacher. Euripides (c.480-406 BC) – Euripides wrote many plays, mostly tragedies (sad plays). Herodotus (c.484-425 BC) – Herodotus was a famous Greek historian, and his writings have really helped us understand what happened in ancient times. He was also careful about how he gathered facts – he tried to make sure they were true before writing them down. His books are called The Histories. Hippocrates (c.460-370 BC) – Hippocrates was a famous doctor in ancient Greece, and he is called ‘the father of Western medicine’. People who become doctors today take the Hippocratic oath, promising to be good at their job and to do what’s best for their patients. Pericles (c.495-429 BC) – Pericles led Athens during its Golden Age. Athens prospered in many ways, including winning battles and expanding its culture. Pericles thought education and art were very important. Plato (c.424-347 BC) – Plato was a Greek philosopher who taught Aristotle. Socrates was Plato’s teacher. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, which was like a university where people could learn more than they did in school. Pythagoras (c.569-475 BC) – Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician and philosopher. One of the things he studied was triangles, and he came up with the Pythagorean theorem which has to do with right-angle triangles. Socrates (c.469-399 BC) – Socrates was a Greek philosopher who taught Plato. His ideas helped to develop the scientific method we use today – Socrates would always start off with a hypothesis about something, and tested that to see if it was correct. Just for fun... - Paint your own Greek pot online - Play a game of online knucklebones with Socrates! - Match each festival to the correct god or goddess - Colour in some Ancient Greeks - Travel back in time to the ancient city of Olympia, Greece, with Guardians of History, “The Olympia Obstacles”, an interactive voice-activated audio game from Encyclopaedia Britannica - Craft activities inspired by Ancient Greece - How much do you know about Ancient Greece? Take a quiz to find out! - Speak like an Ancient Greek citizen - Take a quiz about Ancient Greece architecture Children's books about Ancient Greece Find out more about Ancient Greece: - Watch the BBC Bitesize animated introduction to the Ancient Greeks, as well as lots more clips and videos about life in Ancient Greece - A children's introduction to Ancient Greece from DKfindout! - Look through the Children's University of Manchester Ancient Greece resources - Animated maps illustrating the history of Ancient Greece - A guide to all aspects of life in Ancient Greece - Read some historical fiction for kids set in Ancient Greece - Follow a single marble block from a quarry on the slopes of Mount Penteli to the Parthenon construction site in Athens - How were Athens and Sparta different? - Some British schools teach children Ancient Greek or Latin! Does yours? - Download British Museum information packs about competition in Ancient Greece, the Greeks' everyday life, Greek pots and the Parthenon - Read about the Greek city-states, then locate them on a Greek city-states interactive map - The justice system in Athens - Find out about the Olympics in Ancient Greece through numbers - 10 great achievements of Ancient Greek culture - 'visit' the Olympic Games See for yourself - See a collection of Greek artefacts, including vases, at the British Museum in London - Look through the Met Museum's online collection of Ancient Greek art - See an Ancient Greek child's doll - Look at a silver tetradrachm coin from fifth-century BC Athens - Take a virtual tour around Ancient Acropolis in Athens - Look at the columns on stone buildings you pass by during the day. Can you tell what kind of columns they are?	<urn:uuid:1950fcd0-3ce5-4177-8c05-67bd264573f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/greek-life-and-culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00308.warc.gz	en	0.983057	3,060	3.4375	3	[ 0.017057154327630997, 0.19418348371982574, 0.6115116477012634, -0.3054320812225342, -0.6670135855674744, -0.273995965719223, 0.1756083369255066, 0.5745380520820618, -0.024071523919701576, -0.11093098670244217, -0.3773916959762573, -0.3314911723136902, -0.08508718013763428, 0.26571017503738...	1	Greek life and culture Who were the Ancient Greeks? Greece is a country in Europe, but people have been living in that area for a very long time. The people who were living there thousands of years ago are called the Ancient Greeks, and a lot of things they did help to make up our society today. They even invented the Olympics! The Greek Empire eventually became part of the Roman Empire, but their society had a huge impact on things we do today. We have learned a lot from Ancient Greek philosophy, language, theatre, medicine, government and more. Top 10 facts - The Ancient Greek Empire once included some of the countries we know today, such as Turkey and Syria. - Some of our alphabet came from the one that the Ancient Greeks used. - Greece was divided into city-states that each had their own laws and way of life, but all spoke the same language. Two of the best-known city states are Athens and Sparta. - In Athens, Greek styles of art, architecture, philosophy and theatre were developed. - Athens had a democratic government – this means that the people who lived there made decisions by voting, like we do in Britain. - In Sparta, life was very different; all that was important was being able to defend Sparta in battle. - The first Olympic games were held in 776 in the city-state Olympia. - The Greeks used different kinds of columns in the stone buildings they made – Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. - Religion was very important in Ancient Greece. The Greeky believed there were different gods and goddesses that were in charge of different parts of their lives, such as a god of the sea and a goddess of wisdom. Temples were built in their honour. - Greece eventually became a part of the Roman Empire. The Romans conquered Athens in 146 BC. Ancient Greece Timeline - 1600-1150 BCThe Mycenaean Age - 1200-1000 BCThe Greek Dark Ages, when there wasn’t really any building, learning, creating, or even governing happening in Greece - 776 BCThe first Olympic games were held in Olympia - 750 BCThe Greek alphabet was invented, and city-states began to be established - 700 BCThe poet Homer wrote the epic poems, The Iliad and The Odyssey - 508 BCDemocracy was invented by the Greeks – it began in Athens - 490 BCThe Battle of Marathon took place, and the Greeks defeated the Persians - 480-323 BCThe Classical Period - 480 BCThe Greeks defeated the Persians again at the Battle of Salamis - 472 BCPeople started going to the theatre in Athens - 432 BCThe Pantheon was completed in Athens - 431-404 BCThe Peloponnesian War took place between Sparta and Athens - 356-323 BCAlexander the Great lived during this time - 323-146 BCThe Hellenistic period - 146 BCRome conquered Athens - 31 BCThe Romans took control of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the Battle of Actuim, which Alexander the Great had set up in 322 BC – the capital was Alexandria in Egypt; it marked the end of what had been a large Greek society, and it also marked the beginning of the Roman Empire - 395 ADThe last Ancient Greek Olympic games were held Did you know? - Our alphabet was developed using some of the alphabet that the Ancient Greeks used. In fact, the first two letters in the Greek alphabet were ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’, which is where we get the word ‘alphabet’ from! - Ancient Greece was made up of city-states – these were cities that had made their own laws. The Greek word for city-state is ‘polis’. We get the word ‘policeman’ from ‘polis’ – it means ‘man of the city’. - The first Olympic games were held in 776 BC, and then every four years after that in honour of the god Zeus. Some of the events are the same as you’ll see in the modern Olympic Games, such as throwing the javelin and wrestling, but some were different – like chariot racing. Winners would get a crown of olive branches instead of a gold medal. - Each city-state held a games event – the one called the Olympics was held in the city-state of Olympia. - The Greeks had many different kinds of pots that they used for different things: - carrying water in from a fountain in town - keeping perfume in - storing make-up - keeping and cooling wine - storing food - The Greeks liked painting pictures on their pots, and sometimes they’d make pictures of what the pot would be used for. For instance, on little pots that children would use, there might be pictures of toys. - Greek homes had many different rooms, all built around a courtyard in the middle. Men and women kept to different parts of the house – men had their own dining room where they’d invite their friends, and women had a room in the back of the house where they’d work on spinning and weaving or meet their own friends. - Many Greeks wore chitons, which were loose tunics that were draped and pinned around shoulders. Sometimes they had belts around them too. Women’s tunics were longer than the ones that men wore. - Some of the words we say in English have parts of Greek words in them, such as television, hygiene, atmosphere and character. - The Ancient Greeks were the first to have theatres, where people would put on plays. They could be funny (comedies) or sad (tragedies). - If you wanted to find out everything that was happening in your city-state in Ancient Greece, the place to go was the agora. This was the marketplace, where people sold things, so everyone went there to buy food or meet friends. Can you find the following in the gallery below? - The Parthenon - An illustration of what the Parthenon might have looked like when it was built - The Acropolis today - A map of city states in Greece - The uniform Greek soldiers would have worn - A Greek chiton, and how to wear it - Jewellery and hair accessories from Ancient Greece - A Greek lyre - Double aulos - Greek hairstyles - The theatre at Delphi - A Greek temple - The theatre at Larissa - An ancient stadium - A greek amphora - Three types of Greek pillars: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian The Ancient Greek Empire was very large, and included the modern European countries of Turkey and Bulgaria. Alexander the Great led many battles that extended the boundaries all the way through Iran, to around the border of India. Some of the most well-known city-states are: - Athens – Athens is the most famous city-state, and it is the capital of Greece today. In ancient times, Athens was the capital of culture – great thinkers, mathematicians, scientists and actors lived there. They were also a democracy, meaning the citizens decided among themselves how to govern the city-state. The final decision would be whatever the majority of people wanted. Athens also started using juries made up of Athenian citizens to try people who were suspected of committing crimes – the juries decided if someone were guilty or not. We also use juries today in Britain. - Sparta – Sparta was governed through an oligarchy, which meant that a small group of people were in charge. These people were in charge of the military, and being physically fit and a good soldier was the most important thing for Spartan men. Women in Sparta were also taught how to fight and keep fit, and they wanted to have sons who would grow to be good soldiers. Boys were taken from their families when they were just seven years old and trained for a life in the military. Because of this, Spartan warriors were the best in Greece, but it was not a city of culture like Athens or Corinth. - Corinth – Corinth was ruled by a king, so their government was a monarchy. It was located by the sea and had a good harbour, so it prospered through trade. They also had very good artists, and all boys were taught maths, science, music and literature. The Greeks used a row of tall columns in their buildings that helped support the structure. There are three main types of columns that were used, each with a distinctive style – Doric (which was pretty plain), Ionic (which had curled ‘flutes’ at the very top) and Corinthian (which was the most decorative, with flowers and leaves at the top) Ancient Greeks believed that everything should have balance, order and harmony – you can see this in Greek art and architecture. Slaves were very common in Greek society, and only very poor families wouldn’t have had slaves. Slaves may have once lived in a region that was conquered by Greece, such as Persia. Sometimes unwanted babies would be left in a public place for someone to take and raise as a slave. Education was important to the Greeks, and children were taught a variety of things. Everyone learned how to play a musical instrument, such as the lyre (a kind of small harp) or the double aulos (a pair of pipes with holes like a recorder). Boys learned how to be good athletes, but in Sparta girls exercised as well – everyone had to be fit and ready to defend Sparta. Names to know: Alexander the Great (356-332 BC) – Alexander the Great was the king of one of the Greek states (Macedon) and led Greek armies to many victories – in fact, he was never beaten! He extended the Greek empire as far east as India. Alexander died when he was only 32 years old. Archimedes (c.287-212 BC) – Archimedes was a famous Greek mathematician and philosopher. He discovered a way of measuring the volume of an object by putting it in water, and seeing how much the water rose – like it does when you get in the bathtub. Archimedes was actually in the bathtub when he figured this out, and then he jumped out and shouted, ‘Eureka!’, which means ‘I found it!’ Aristotle (384-322 BC) – Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who taught Alexander the Great. Plato was Aristotle’s teacher. Euripides (c.480-406 BC) – Euripides wrote many plays, mostly tragedies (sad plays). Herodotus (c.484-425 BC) – Herodotus was a famous Greek historian, and his writings have really helped us understand what happened in ancient times. He was also careful about how he gathered facts – he tried to make sure they were true before writing them down. His books are called The Histories. Hippocrates (c.460-370 BC) – Hippocrates was a famous doctor in ancient Greece, and he is called ‘the father of Western medicine’. People who become doctors today take the Hippocratic oath, promising to be good at their job and to do what’s best for their patients. Pericles (c.495-429 BC) – Pericles led Athens during its Golden Age. Athens prospered in many ways, including winning battles and expanding its culture. Pericles thought education and art were very important. Plato (c.424-347 BC) – Plato was a Greek philosopher who taught Aristotle. Socrates was Plato’s teacher. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, which was like a university where people could learn more than they did in school. Pythagoras (c.569-475 BC) – Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician and philosopher. One of the things he studied was triangles, and he came up with the Pythagorean theorem which has to do with right-angle triangles. Socrates (c.469-399 BC) – Socrates was a Greek philosopher who taught Plato. His ideas helped to develop the scientific method we use today – Socrates would always start off with a hypothesis about something, and tested that to see if it was correct. Just for fun... - Paint your own Greek pot online - Play a game of online knucklebones with Socrates! - Match each festival to the correct god or goddess - Colour in some Ancient Greeks - Travel back in time to the ancient city of Olympia, Greece, with Guardians of History, “The Olympia Obstacles”, an interactive voice-activated audio game from Encyclopaedia Britannica - Craft activities inspired by Ancient Greece - How much do you know about Ancient Greece? Take a quiz to find out! - Speak like an Ancient Greek citizen - Take a quiz about Ancient Greece architecture Children's books about Ancient Greece Find out more about Ancient Greece: - Watch the BBC Bitesize animated introduction to the Ancient Greeks, as well as lots more clips and videos about life in Ancient Greece - A children's introduction to Ancient Greece from DKfindout! - Look through the Children's University of Manchester Ancient Greece resources - Animated maps illustrating the history of Ancient Greece - A guide to all aspects of life in Ancient Greece - Read some historical fiction for kids set in Ancient Greece - Follow a single marble block from a quarry on the slopes of Mount Penteli to the Parthenon construction site in Athens - How were Athens and Sparta different? - Some British schools teach children Ancient Greek or Latin! Does yours? - Download British Museum information packs about competition in Ancient Greece, the Greeks' everyday life, Greek pots and the Parthenon - Read about the Greek city-states, then locate them on a Greek city-states interactive map - The justice system in Athens - Find out about the Olympics in Ancient Greece through numbers - 10 great achievements of Ancient Greek culture - 'visit' the Olympic Games See for yourself - See a collection of Greek artefacts, including vases, at the British Museum in London - Look through the Met Museum's online collection of Ancient Greek art - See an Ancient Greek child's doll - Look at a silver tetradrachm coin from fifth-century BC Athens - Take a virtual tour around Ancient Acropolis in Athens - Look at the columns on stone buildings you pass by during the day. Can you tell what kind of columns they are?	3,051	ENGLISH	1
For the critical summary assignment, I have chosen the subject of place-based curriculum. Place-Based Education is a type of learning that allows students to soak into different types of heritage, cultures. (“Promise of Place”). Place-Based learning highlights learning new things while actually participating in different types of projects for the school and the community around them. (“Promise of Place”). The main article is called “Place-Based Education: Learning to be where we are” by Gregory A. Smith. To start the article he talked about his experience with nine high school students, and how they were feeling with being outdoors with their classmates, and learning in a different place. Smith states “Though educators are often quick to say that schools are as much the “real world” as any place else” (587). after this statement he argues that this is not true and says “there is truth to the judgement that what happens in classrooms is qualitatively different from what happens elsewhere”. (Smith 587). Personally with my experience from school, I agree with Smith, when he says classrooms are different from the real world, because I did not learn any real world lessons, it was all based on grades, in your maths, sciences, and so on. On page 588, Smith states that cultural studies are usually focused on “phenomena closely related to their lives, and the lives of their families” (Smith, 588). This is something that is a huge issue in schools, a lot of the time schools do not teach events from around the world, but rather just events that relate to the students or families in the classrooms, which is good, but teachers should start teaching events from all over the world as well. My plans moving forward are to find two more articles on Place-Based Learning and compare the similarities and differences from each article, to my main article. Smith, Gregory A. “Place-Based Education: Learning to Be Where We Are - Gregory A. Smith, 2002.” SAGE Journals, journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003172170208300806. A) The ways in which you may have experienced the Tyler rationale in your own schooling. Ways I may have experienced the Tyler rationale in my own schooling is in more so elementary school, than high school. In my elementary school my teachers always had a lesson plan prepared before class that we would follow. We would also have a poster listed day one to day five, with all the subjects we were going to cover that specific day. This shows I was personally exposed to curriculum as a product. That being said there were times where the day we were on, we were supposed to have health, or fully alive, the teacher would sometimes skip right past that, feeling it was not as important as math, science, ELA, etc. B) What are the major limitations of the Tyler rationale/what does it make impossible? Since the Tyler rationale was following the curriculum and having a set schedule or set assignments. I can think of a time in high school where one of my teachers, had done the same assignments throughout their whole teaching career. Some of my friends took the class before me, and we had the exact same lessons and the exact same assignments. When my friends were in the class, one of the assignments a lot of the students failed. In my opinion this teacher should have changed the way they were teaching that specific assignment, because the same thing happened in my own class. But this was the way this particular teacher had always taught this subject, so they did not want to change anything. C) What are some potential benefits/what is made possible. Be sure to refer to the assigned article in your post; you may also include information from lecture if you wish? A way the Tyler rationale could have potential benefits, is it could train students to have a schedule, and teach them organization. If every year, at the beginning of the year, students were given what the outcomes of the grade are, this could potentially show why they are being taught what they are, and the reasoning behind it. Just because each student is handed out some sort of layout at the beginning of the school year, does not mean there cannot be changes made to this layout. How does Kumashiro define ‘commonsense?’ Kumashiro defines common sense as something that limits the, usual, routine and purposes of schooling. Especially in Napali, as Kumashiro was not used to what their common sense was like, so his usual routine, was being limited because teaching was only done straight from the textbook. Kumashiro thinks that common sense tells schools what they should be doing, not what schools could be doing. Like it was said in the reading, people often tell themselves, it’s just common sense that schools teach certain things, and students do certain things. Everyone thinks what is taught in a school, is just common sense, which is not always true. Kumashiro defines common sense as the things that are normal in society today. When Kumashiro was teaching in Nupali, they wanted Kumashiro to teach only what was in the textbook, and nothing else. This was not what Kumashiro was used to because schooling in the United States was completely different. The United States has now adapted to different ways of teaching, and learning. They now realize each student is their own person, so teaching, and learning will be different for each student. For example. students with learning disabilities, are now usually put into a special program, with a smaller group of students, to have more one on one time, to help the student learn. The common sense of teaching in Napali, was very different than what teaching common sense in the United States meant. Why is it so important to pay attention to the ‘commonsense?’ While teaching in Napali, Kumashiro wanted to arrange the desks in the same ways he would when teaching in the United States teaching. Whether this be, in lines, in groups, or pairs, it was always a mix of gender. This was not something that was ‘commonsense’ in this school. The common sense was that girls had to be on one side of the room, and the boys had to be on the other side, it was never mixed. Common sense is important to pay attention to, because you never know where you may end up teaching one day, and some schools may get offended if you do not know the usual common sense that happens around that particular school. We as teachers need to realize that every student will have a different home life, and family life, so what may be common sense to us back home, or at another school, is not common sense everywhere else too. We need to learn to adapt to the normal routines around each school, and classroom that we teach at.	<urn:uuid:4dbf1b5d-e820-41e7-a859-ae53f3aac9b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taylormoldenhaur-e-portfolio.weebly.com/ecs-210-blog-posts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00049.warc.gz	en	0.985668	1,431	3.546875	4	[ 0.11891470104455948, 0.02129269763827324, 0.25135642290115356, 0.06236790120601654, -0.33606094121932983, 0.16227340698242188, 0.13946282863616943, 0.05136765539646149, 0.009897526353597641, -0.244961678981781, 0.31501051783561707, 0.13378950953483582, 0.20018064975738525, 0.52014833688735...	1	For the critical summary assignment, I have chosen the subject of place-based curriculum. Place-Based Education is a type of learning that allows students to soak into different types of heritage, cultures. (“Promise of Place”). Place-Based learning highlights learning new things while actually participating in different types of projects for the school and the community around them. (“Promise of Place”). The main article is called “Place-Based Education: Learning to be where we are” by Gregory A. Smith. To start the article he talked about his experience with nine high school students, and how they were feeling with being outdoors with their classmates, and learning in a different place. Smith states “Though educators are often quick to say that schools are as much the “real world” as any place else” (587). after this statement he argues that this is not true and says “there is truth to the judgement that what happens in classrooms is qualitatively different from what happens elsewhere”. (Smith 587). Personally with my experience from school, I agree with Smith, when he says classrooms are different from the real world, because I did not learn any real world lessons, it was all based on grades, in your maths, sciences, and so on. On page 588, Smith states that cultural studies are usually focused on “phenomena closely related to their lives, and the lives of their families” (Smith, 588). This is something that is a huge issue in schools, a lot of the time schools do not teach events from around the world, but rather just events that relate to the students or families in the classrooms, which is good, but teachers should start teaching events from all over the world as well. My plans moving forward are to find two more articles on Place-Based Learning and compare the similarities and differences from each article, to my main article. Smith, Gregory A. “Place-Based Education: Learning to Be Where We Are - Gregory A. Smith, 2002.” SAGE Journals, journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003172170208300806. A) The ways in which you may have experienced the Tyler rationale in your own schooling. Ways I may have experienced the Tyler rationale in my own schooling is in more so elementary school, than high school. In my elementary school my teachers always had a lesson plan prepared before class that we would follow. We would also have a poster listed day one to day five, with all the subjects we were going to cover that specific day. This shows I was personally exposed to curriculum as a product. That being said there were times where the day we were on, we were supposed to have health, or fully alive, the teacher would sometimes skip right past that, feeling it was not as important as math, science, ELA, etc. B) What are the major limitations of the Tyler rationale/what does it make impossible? Since the Tyler rationale was following the curriculum and having a set schedule or set assignments. I can think of a time in high school where one of my teachers, had done the same assignments throughout their whole teaching career. Some of my friends took the class before me, and we had the exact same lessons and the exact same assignments. When my friends were in the class, one of the assignments a lot of the students failed. In my opinion this teacher should have changed the way they were teaching that specific assignment, because the same thing happened in my own class. But this was the way this particular teacher had always taught this subject, so they did not want to change anything. C) What are some potential benefits/what is made possible. Be sure to refer to the assigned article in your post; you may also include information from lecture if you wish? A way the Tyler rationale could have potential benefits, is it could train students to have a schedule, and teach them organization. If every year, at the beginning of the year, students were given what the outcomes of the grade are, this could potentially show why they are being taught what they are, and the reasoning behind it. Just because each student is handed out some sort of layout at the beginning of the school year, does not mean there cannot be changes made to this layout. How does Kumashiro define ‘commonsense?’ Kumashiro defines common sense as something that limits the, usual, routine and purposes of schooling. Especially in Napali, as Kumashiro was not used to what their common sense was like, so his usual routine, was being limited because teaching was only done straight from the textbook. Kumashiro thinks that common sense tells schools what they should be doing, not what schools could be doing. Like it was said in the reading, people often tell themselves, it’s just common sense that schools teach certain things, and students do certain things. Everyone thinks what is taught in a school, is just common sense, which is not always true. Kumashiro defines common sense as the things that are normal in society today. When Kumashiro was teaching in Nupali, they wanted Kumashiro to teach only what was in the textbook, and nothing else. This was not what Kumashiro was used to because schooling in the United States was completely different. The United States has now adapted to different ways of teaching, and learning. They now realize each student is their own person, so teaching, and learning will be different for each student. For example. students with learning disabilities, are now usually put into a special program, with a smaller group of students, to have more one on one time, to help the student learn. The common sense of teaching in Napali, was very different than what teaching common sense in the United States meant. Why is it so important to pay attention to the ‘commonsense?’ While teaching in Napali, Kumashiro wanted to arrange the desks in the same ways he would when teaching in the United States teaching. Whether this be, in lines, in groups, or pairs, it was always a mix of gender. This was not something that was ‘commonsense’ in this school. The common sense was that girls had to be on one side of the room, and the boys had to be on the other side, it was never mixed. Common sense is important to pay attention to, because you never know where you may end up teaching one day, and some schools may get offended if you do not know the usual common sense that happens around that particular school. We as teachers need to realize that every student will have a different home life, and family life, so what may be common sense to us back home, or at another school, is not common sense everywhere else too. We need to learn to adapt to the normal routines around each school, and classroom that we teach at.	1,406	ENGLISH	1
Beowulf – an Epic Hero The hero of an epic poem normally embodies the ideals of conduct that are most valued by the culture which the epic was composed. In the epic poem “Beowulf” Beowulf was the epic hero. He was an epic hero because of his virtues. Three of his virtues are true to his word, he made his father proud, and he was brave. Beowulf was true to his word by saying “I alone and the help of my men, may purge all evil from this hall. ” (260-261) Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Then later on in the poem he “The infamous killer fought for his freedom, wanting no flesh but retreat, desiring nothing but escape; is claws had been caught, he was trapped. (337-340) In those lines it is saying that Beowulf will go fight the evil, Grendel or “infamous killer,” and then did and killed him, and had Grendel begging for mercy. Beowulf was also brave. He was brave by saying “I alone and the help of my men, may purge all evil from this hall. ” (260-261) He also was brave in a lot of other ways, for example “When my danger is near, the warm words we uttered, and if your enemy should end my life then be,” (451-453) that was when he had to fight Grendel’s mother. When he fought her he was also brave by going to fight her by himself, only with swords and armor, “She carried him, armor and sword and all. ” (479-480) Another time when Beowulf was brave was when he was going to fight a dragon, Beowulf says, “I feel no shame, with shield and sword and armor, against this monster: when he comes to me I mean to stand, not run from his shooting flames, stand till fate decides which one of us wins. ” (635-639) The third virtue Beowulf expressed was that he will make his father proud. He made his father proud by following in his fathers ootsteps. His father was very well known, Beowulf says, “My father was a famous soldier, known far and wide as a leader of men. His name was Edegtho. His life lasted many winters; wise men all over the earth surely remember him still. ” (174-179) He is following in his fathers footsteps by becoming a very good leader, by those virtues mentioned earlier, a good soldier, and a good fighter. Beowulf expresses many virtues. He expresses them in the forms of bravery, true to his word, and he will make his father proud. Thus in the epic poem “Beowulf” Beowulf is the epic hero.	<urn:uuid:4b1e83b8-2e05-4d9e-9e90-ff82c10a79c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/beowulf-an-epic-hero/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00071.warc.gz	en	0.99271	616	3.5	4	[ -0.6278199553489685, 0.45907554030418396, 0.05581469461321831, 0.5193076133728027, -0.7288236021995544, -0.22798743844032288, 0.7566272020339966, 0.21981355547904968, -0.34112754464149475, -0.19224688410758972, -0.2924308180809021, -0.17309929430484772, 0.4435085356235504, 0.24120329320430...	1	Beowulf – an Epic Hero The hero of an epic poem normally embodies the ideals of conduct that are most valued by the culture which the epic was composed. In the epic poem “Beowulf” Beowulf was the epic hero. He was an epic hero because of his virtues. Three of his virtues are true to his word, he made his father proud, and he was brave. Beowulf was true to his word by saying “I alone and the help of my men, may purge all evil from this hall. ” (260-261) Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Then later on in the poem he “The infamous killer fought for his freedom, wanting no flesh but retreat, desiring nothing but escape; is claws had been caught, he was trapped. (337-340) In those lines it is saying that Beowulf will go fight the evil, Grendel or “infamous killer,” and then did and killed him, and had Grendel begging for mercy. Beowulf was also brave. He was brave by saying “I alone and the help of my men, may purge all evil from this hall. ” (260-261) He also was brave in a lot of other ways, for example “When my danger is near, the warm words we uttered, and if your enemy should end my life then be,” (451-453) that was when he had to fight Grendel’s mother. When he fought her he was also brave by going to fight her by himself, only with swords and armor, “She carried him, armor and sword and all. ” (479-480) Another time when Beowulf was brave was when he was going to fight a dragon, Beowulf says, “I feel no shame, with shield and sword and armor, against this monster: when he comes to me I mean to stand, not run from his shooting flames, stand till fate decides which one of us wins. ” (635-639) The third virtue Beowulf expressed was that he will make his father proud. He made his father proud by following in his fathers ootsteps. His father was very well known, Beowulf says, “My father was a famous soldier, known far and wide as a leader of men. His name was Edegtho. His life lasted many winters; wise men all over the earth surely remember him still. ” (174-179) He is following in his fathers footsteps by becoming a very good leader, by those virtues mentioned earlier, a good soldier, and a good fighter. Beowulf expresses many virtues. He expresses them in the forms of bravery, true to his word, and he will make his father proud. Thus in the epic poem “Beowulf” Beowulf is the epic hero.	615	ENGLISH	1
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)(Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Mahabharata, Bhishma (Sanskrit: भीष्म) (also known as Bhishmacharya ) was well known for his pledge of Celibacy. He was the eighth son of Kuru King Shantanu and the river goddess Ganga. Bhishma was blessed with wish-long life and was related to both the Pandava and the Kaurava. He was an unparalleled archer and warrior of his time. He also handed down the Vishnu Sahasranama to Yudhishtira when he was on his death bed (of arrows) after the battle of Kurukshetra. In Sanskrit, the word Bhishma (भीष्म) means 'one who undertakes a terrible vow (bheeshma pratigya) and fulfills it.' His other names are as follows - - Devavrata (देवव्रत) - Gangaputra (गंगापुत्र) - son of Ganga - Shantanava (शान्तनव) - descendant (son) of Shantanu - Pitamaha (पितामह) - paternal grandfather - Mahamahima (महामहिम) - great king or the one who is excessively great - Gauranga (गौरांग) - the one with fair body - Shvetaveera (श्वेतवीर) - a white warrior or the one who is heroic white - Ashta Vasu - elemental gods (in previous life) King Shantanu saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) and asked her to marry him. She agreed but with one condition: that Shantanu would not ask any questions about her actions. Shantanu accepted her condition and made a vow never to ask her the reason for her actions. They married and she later gave birth to a son. But she drowned the child. Shantanu could not ask her the reason, because of his promise, lest she would leave him. One by one, seven sons were born to them and were drowned by Ganga. When Ganga was about to drown the eighth son, Shantanu, devastated, could not restrain himself and confronted her. Finally, Ganga explained to King Shantanu about Brahma's curse given to Mahabhisha and her. Then she told him that their eight children were Eight Vasus who were cursed by Vasishtha to be born on earth as mortal humans however when they pacified him, he limited his curse and told them that they would be freed from this curse within a year of their birth as humans. So she released the seven of them from this life by drowning them all. However the eighth child Bhishma, was cursed to live a long life and to never have a wife or have children. But the sage also gave a boon to him that he would be virtuous, conversant with all the holy scriptures and will be an obedient son to his father.Ganga told Shantanu that she will take him to the heavens to train him properly for the King's throne and status. With these words she disappeared along with the child while Shantanu was struck with grief thinking about spending the rest of his life without her. The history behind Bhishma's birth is as follows — once the eight Vasus ("Ashtavasus") visited Vashishta's ashram accompanied by their wives. One of the wives took a fancy to Kamadhenu, Vashishta's wish-bearing cow and asked her husband Prabhasa to steal it from Vashishta. Prabhasa then stole the cow with the help of the others who were all consequently cursed by Vashishta to be born in the world of humans. Upon the Vasus appealing to Vashishta's mercy, the seven Vasus who had assisted in stealing Kamadhenu had their curse mitigated such that they would be liberated from their human birth as soon as they were born; however, Prabhasa being protagonist of the theft, was cursed to endure a longer life on the earth. The curse, however is softened to the extent that he would be one of the most illustrious men of his time. It was this Prabhasa also called Vasu Dyaus who took the birth as Bhishma. After Devavrata was born, his mother Ganga took him to different realms, where he was brought up and trained by many eminent sages (Mahabharata Shanti Parva, section 38). - Brihaspati: The son of Angiras and the preceptor of the Devas taught Devavrata the duties of kings (Dandaneeti), or political science and other Shastras. - Shukracharya: The son of Bhrigu and the preceptor of the Asuras also taught Devavrata in political science and other branches of knowledge. - Vashishtha, the Brahmarshi and Chyavana, the son of Bhrigu taught the Vedas and the Vedangas to Devavrata. - Sanatkumara: The eldest son of Lord Brahma taught Devavrata the mental and spiritual sciences. - Markandeya: The immortal son of Mrikandu of Bhrigu's race who acquired everlasting youth from Lord Shiva taught Devavrata in the duties of the Yatis. - Parashurama: The son of Jamadagni of Bhrigu's race. Parashurama trained Bhishma in warfare. - Indra: The king of the Devas. He bestowed celestial weapons on Bhishma. Vow of BhishmaEdit Originally named Devavrata, he became known as Bhishma after he took the bhishamna pratignya ('terrible oath') — the vow of lifelong Brahmacharya and of service to whoever sat on the throne of his father. Having joined his father's court, Bhishma was easily confirmed as the heir apparent. Having undergone a successful military campaign, and being the child of a goddess himself, he was easily confirmed as the heir apparent and was loved by all in the city. Shantanu was proud of his son and content that the future was secure. However, Shantanu had slowly been falling in love with a fisherwoman, Satyavati, who operated the boats crossing the Yamuna, one of Hastinapur's rivers. When Shantanu approached for her hand in marriage, Satyavati's father refused to give his daughter's hand to Shantanu unless Shantanu would proclaim her children as his heirs. However, doing so would be against the merit-based hereditary rules of Bharat, and Shantanu had already promised the throne to Bhishma. So, Shantanu sorrowfully had to reject the offer. This made Shantanu despondent, and upon discovering the reason for his father's despondency, Devavrata sought out the girl's father and ceded his claim to the throne. At this, Satyavati's father retorted that even if Devavratha gave up his claim to the throne, Devavrata's children would still claim the throne. Devavrata then took the vow of lifelong celibacy, thus sacrificing his 'crown-prince' title and denying himself the pleasures of conjugal love. His father granted him the boon of Ichcha Mrityu (control over his own death — he could choose the time of his death, making him immortal till his chosen time of death). Criticism of King Shantanu from his subjects as to why he removed Bhishma from the title of the crown prince, as he was so capable, abounded. There was worry about the nobility of Shantanu's unborn children, now promised the throne. Hearing this, Bhishma said it was his decision and his father should not be blamed as Shantanu had never promised anything to Satyavati's father. The prime minister then asked who would be held responsible if the future crown prince isn't capable enough. Bhishma then took another vow that he would always see his father's image in whomever sat on the King's throne, and would thus serve him faithfully. Years later, in the process of finding a bride for his half-brother, the young king Vichitravirya, Bhishma abducted princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika of Kashi from the assemblage of suitors at their swaymvara. Salwa, the ruler of Saubala, and Amba (the eldest princess) were in love; Salwa attempted to stop the abduction but was soundly beaten. Upon reaching Hastinapura, Amba confided in Bhishma that she wished to wed Salwa. Bhishma then sent her back to Salwa, who, bitter from his humiliating defeat at Bhishma's hands, turned her down. She then retired to Bhishma for Vichitravirya who refused to accept citing the rules that what once given cannot be taken back. Amba then sorrowfully, repair to an asylum of ascetics out of city. She then explains everything to them. They made her meet with Parasurama. Hearing the words of the princess, Parasurama asked her motive. As per the words of ascetics, she asked him to slay that Bhishma of great vows, who is the root of her calamity. Amba sought refuge with Parasurama, who ordered Bhishma to marry Amba, telling Bhishma it was his duty. Bhishma politely refused, saying that he was ready to give up his life at the command of his teacher but not the promise that he had made. Both mocks each other and upon the refusal, Parasurama called him for a fight at Kurukshetra. At the battlegrounds, while Bhishma was on a chariot, Parasurama was on foot. Bhishma requested Parasurama to also take a chariot and armor so that Bhishma would not have an unfair advantage. Parasurama blessed Bhishma with the power of divine vision and asked him to look again. When Bhishma looked at his guru with the divine eyesight, he saw the Earth as Parasurama's chariot, the four Vedas as the horses, the Upanishads as the reins, Vayu (wind) as the Charioteer and the Vedic goddesses Gayatri, Savitri, and Saraswati as his armor. Bhishma got down from the chariot and sought the blessings of Parashurama to protect his dharma, along with permission to battle against his teacher. Pleased, Parashurama blessed him and advised him to protect his vow as Parasurama himself had to fight to uphold his word as given to Amba. They fought for 23 days, each knocking out other at a time, used even the celestial weapons, but each was too powerful to defeat the other. Their battle lasted for 23 days. But on 22nd night, he asked the gods to show him a way to vanquish Parasurama, at night. In his dream, his ancestors came and provided him the knowledge of Praswapa weapon, not known to any persons on earth. On 23rd day of battle, when battle didn't concluded, Bhishma attempted to use the Prashwapastra against Parashurama. This weapon was not known to Parasurama and would put the afflicted to sleep in the battlefield. Before Bhishma could release it, however, a voice from the sky warned him that "if he uses this weapon it would be a great insult towards his Guru." Pitrs then appeared and obstructed the chariot of Parashurama, forbidding him from fighting any longer. At the behest of the divine sage Narada and the gods, Parashurama ended the conflict and the battle was declared in the favour of Bhishma by Gods. In another version, Parashurama himself stopped the fight after twenty-three days, worried that the further use of powerful weapons may lead to the destruction of the world. Parashurama narrated the events to Amba and told her to seek Bhishma's protection. However, Amba refused to listen to Parashurama's advice and left angrily declaring that she would achieve her objective by asceticism. Her predicament unchanged, she did severe austerities to please Shiva. She was cursed by Ganga, during her penances, when she didn't listen to her words. Lord Shiva assured her that she would be born as a man named (Shikhandi) in her next birth (and still she would recall her past) and could be instrumental in Bhishma's death, thus satisfying her vow. She then made funeral pyre of woods, on the banks of the Yamuna, setting fire to it herself entered that blazing fire with wrath, uttering-'I do so for Bhishma's destruction!' In The Kurukshetra WarEdit In the great battle at Kurukshetra, Bhishma was the supreme commander of the Kaurava forces for ten days. He fought reluctantly on the side of the Kauravas. Bhishma was one of the most powerful warriors of his time and in history. He acquired his prowess and invincibility from being the son of the sacred Ganga and by being a student of renowned Gurus. Despite being about five generations old, Bhishma was too powerful to be defeated by any warrior alive at that time. Every day, he slew at least 10,000 soldiers and about a 1,000 rathas. At the beginning of the war, Bhishma vowed not to kill any of the Pandavas, as he loved them, being their grand-uncle. Duryodhana often confronted Bhishma alleging that he was not actually fighting for the Kaurava camp as he wouldn't kill any of the Pandavas. He also did not allow any of the Kauravas to be killed in the war, as he loved all his grand-nephews and wanted a peace negotiation. Duryodhana approached Bhishma one night and accused him of not fighting the battle to his full strength because of his affection for the Pandavas. The angry Bhishma took a vow that either he will kill Arjuna or will make Lord Krishna break his promise of not picking up any weapons during the war. On the next day there was an intense battle between Bhishma and Arjuna. Although Arjuna was very powerful, he was no match to the fury of Bhishma. At one point Bhishma was so unstoppable that he was about to kill Arjuna, which forced Sri Krishna to break his vow of not raising a weapon in the war, and lifted a chariot wheel and saved Arjuna from Bhishma. The war was thus locked in a stalemate. As the Pandavas mulled over this situation, Krishna advised them to visit Bhishma himself and request him to suggest a way out of this stalemate. Bhishma loved the Pandavas and knew that he stood as an obstacle in their path to victory and so when they visited Bhishma, he gave them a hint as to how they could defeat him. He told them that if faced by one who had once been of the opposite gender, he would lay down his arms and fight no longer. Later Krishna told Arjuna how he could bring down Bhishma, through the help of Shikhandi. The Pandavas were not agreeable to such a ploy, as by using such tactics they would not be following the path of Dharma, but Krishna suggested a clever alternative. And thus, on the next day, the tenth day of battle Shikhandi accompanied Arjuna on the latter's chariot and they faced Bhishma who did not fire arrows at Shikhandi. He was then felled in battle by Arjuna, pierced by innumerable arrows. With Sikhandhi in front Bhishma did not even look at that direction, Arjuna shot arrows at Bhishma, piercing his entire body. Thus, as was preordained (Mahadeva's boon to Amba that she would be the cause of Bhishma's death) Shikhandi, that is, Amba reincarnated was the cause of Bhishma's fall. As Bhishma fell, his whole body was held above the ground by the shafts of Arjuna's arrows which protruded from his back, and through his arms and legs. Seeing Bhishma lying on such a bed of arrows humbled even the gods who watched from the heavens in reverence. They silently blessed the mighty warrior. When the young princes of both armies gathered around him, inquiring if there was anything they could do, he told them that while his body lay on the bed of arrows above the ground, his head hung unsupported. Hearing this, many of the princes, both Kaurava and the Pandava alike brought him pillows of silk and velvet, but he refused them. He asked Arjuna to give him a pillow fit for a warrior. Arjuna then removed three arrows from his quiver and placed them underneath Bhishma's head, the pointed arrow tips facing upwards. To quench the war veteran's thirst, Arjuna shot an arrow into the earth, and a jet stream of water rose up and into Bhishma's mouth. It is said that Ganga herself rose to quench her son's thirst. After the war, while on his deathbed (arrow bed) he gave deep and meaningful instructions to Yudhishthira on statesmanship and the duties of a king. Bhishma always gave priority to Dharma. He always walked in path of Dharma, even though his circumstances because of his promise, he was supposed to forcefully follow the orders of his king Dhritharashtra, which were mostly Adharma, he was totally upset. He was sure he must let dharma win and Pandavas win, but the way he led the war and stayed silent were his sins in a way and he paid for it with the bed of arrows. Finally Bhishma gave up the fight, focusing his life force and breath, sealing the wounds, and waiting for the auspicious moment to give up his body on the arrow bed. He did wait for about 58 nights for the winter solstice or first day of Uttarayana to give up his body on the arrow bed. Mahabharata states that he attained salvation after his death. He was granted the Maatru Lok (which is considered even above Swarga, the heaven). Magha (month) Shukla Ashtami marks the death anniversary of Bhishma Pitamah(Father), the day being known as Bhishma Ashtami. Hindus observe Ekodishta Śrāddha for him on this day, since many generations, and can only be performed by those whose fathers are not alive. Bhishma Panchaka vrata(fast) is observed in all Vishnu temples, starting from Bhishma Ashtami, for five days till Bhishma Dwadasi. People believe that they will be blessed with a son, having the steadfast qualities of Bhishma if they observe these holy rituals on the river banks. In popular cultureEdit Films & TelevisionEdit His life has been made into many films in different Indian languages. The first silent film was made in 1922. During the talkie period, the first film was made in Hindi (1937). It was followed by a Bengali film in 1942 directed by Jyotish Bannerjee. Jahar Ganguli played the title role. In Telugu cinema, two films were made. The first film on Bhishma was made in 1944 directed by Chitrapu Narayana Rao. Jandhyala Gourinatha Sastry played the role of Bhishma. B. A. Subba Rao made a film in 1962 titled Bhishma. The title role was played by N. T. Rama Rao. Bhishma's character was played by Mukesh Khanna in the B.R. Chopra's Mahabharat, one of the most successful Hindi television series. Aarav Chowdhary also played the role of Bhishma in Star Plus' Mahabharat. He is portrayed by Naved Aslam in Sony TV's Suryaputra Karn. Ronit Roy also portrayed it in Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki. - Modern References Honour in Modern Times - B. R. Rajam Aiyar; B. R. Rajam Lyer. Rambles in Vedanta. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 113. Retrieved 30 September 1996. Check date values in: - Manish Verma (2000). Fasts and Festivals of India. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. pp. 73–. ISBN 978-81-7182-076-4. Retrieved 13 June 2012. - "Bhishma". Encyclopedia for Epics of Ancient India. Retrieved 17 April 2012. - Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 77–78. - Bhanu, Sharada (1997). Myths and Legends from India - Great Women. Chennai: Macmillan India Limited. pp. 30–8. ISBN 0-333-93076-2. - Vyasa, Krishna-Dwaipayana; Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (1883–1896). The Mahabharata. Sacred Texts. - Kisari Mohan Ganguli. "SECTION CLXXXIX". The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva. Sacred-texts.com. - Bhishma Panchaka vrata - "Bhishma Ashtami". Drik Panchang. Retrieved 24 January 2019. - Bhishma Ashtami - Robert Jackson (1 March 2007). Tanks and Armored Fighting Vehicles. Parragon Incorporated. pp. 295–. ISBN 978-1-4054-8664-4. Retrieved 24 June 2012. - S. Muthiah (2008). Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India. Palaniappa Brothers. pp. 288–. ISBN 978-81-8379-468-8. Retrieved 24 June 2012. \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bhishma\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bhishma.\|	<urn:uuid:8047217e-04b9-43f6-be96-8bd1023a0f77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhishma	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00277.warc.gz	en	0.982636	4,886	3.265625	3	[ -0.06400541961193085, 0.3226955533027649, -0.4627031683921814, -0.012579545378684998, -0.336301326751709, -0.14643798768520355, 0.4659895598888397, -0.10012394934892654, -0.00895952619612217, 0.13685540854930878, -0.12175317108631134, -0.7394781112670898, 0.17755761742591858, 0.28003731369...	1	This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)(Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Mahabharata, Bhishma (Sanskrit: भीष्म) (also known as Bhishmacharya ) was well known for his pledge of Celibacy. He was the eighth son of Kuru King Shantanu and the river goddess Ganga. Bhishma was blessed with wish-long life and was related to both the Pandava and the Kaurava. He was an unparalleled archer and warrior of his time. He also handed down the Vishnu Sahasranama to Yudhishtira when he was on his death bed (of arrows) after the battle of Kurukshetra. In Sanskrit, the word Bhishma (भीष्म) means 'one who undertakes a terrible vow (bheeshma pratigya) and fulfills it.' His other names are as follows - - Devavrata (देवव्रत) - Gangaputra (गंगापुत्र) - son of Ganga - Shantanava (शान्तनव) - descendant (son) of Shantanu - Pitamaha (पितामह) - paternal grandfather - Mahamahima (महामहिम) - great king or the one who is excessively great - Gauranga (गौरांग) - the one with fair body - Shvetaveera (श्वेतवीर) - a white warrior or the one who is heroic white - Ashta Vasu - elemental gods (in previous life) King Shantanu saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) and asked her to marry him. She agreed but with one condition: that Shantanu would not ask any questions about her actions. Shantanu accepted her condition and made a vow never to ask her the reason for her actions. They married and she later gave birth to a son. But she drowned the child. Shantanu could not ask her the reason, because of his promise, lest she would leave him. One by one, seven sons were born to them and were drowned by Ganga. When Ganga was about to drown the eighth son, Shantanu, devastated, could not restrain himself and confronted her. Finally, Ganga explained to King Shantanu about Brahma's curse given to Mahabhisha and her. Then she told him that their eight children were Eight Vasus who were cursed by Vasishtha to be born on earth as mortal humans however when they pacified him, he limited his curse and told them that they would be freed from this curse within a year of their birth as humans. So she released the seven of them from this life by drowning them all. However the eighth child Bhishma, was cursed to live a long life and to never have a wife or have children. But the sage also gave a boon to him that he would be virtuous, conversant with all the holy scriptures and will be an obedient son to his father.Ganga told Shantanu that she will take him to the heavens to train him properly for the King's throne and status. With these words she disappeared along with the child while Shantanu was struck with grief thinking about spending the rest of his life without her. The history behind Bhishma's birth is as follows — once the eight Vasus ("Ashtavasus") visited Vashishta's ashram accompanied by their wives. One of the wives took a fancy to Kamadhenu, Vashishta's wish-bearing cow and asked her husband Prabhasa to steal it from Vashishta. Prabhasa then stole the cow with the help of the others who were all consequently cursed by Vashishta to be born in the world of humans. Upon the Vasus appealing to Vashishta's mercy, the seven Vasus who had assisted in stealing Kamadhenu had their curse mitigated such that they would be liberated from their human birth as soon as they were born; however, Prabhasa being protagonist of the theft, was cursed to endure a longer life on the earth. The curse, however is softened to the extent that he would be one of the most illustrious men of his time. It was this Prabhasa also called Vasu Dyaus who took the birth as Bhishma. After Devavrata was born, his mother Ganga took him to different realms, where he was brought up and trained by many eminent sages (Mahabharata Shanti Parva, section 38). - Brihaspati: The son of Angiras and the preceptor of the Devas taught Devavrata the duties of kings (Dandaneeti), or political science and other Shastras. - Shukracharya: The son of Bhrigu and the preceptor of the Asuras also taught Devavrata in political science and other branches of knowledge. - Vashishtha, the Brahmarshi and Chyavana, the son of Bhrigu taught the Vedas and the Vedangas to Devavrata. - Sanatkumara: The eldest son of Lord Brahma taught Devavrata the mental and spiritual sciences. - Markandeya: The immortal son of Mrikandu of Bhrigu's race who acquired everlasting youth from Lord Shiva taught Devavrata in the duties of the Yatis. - Parashurama: The son of Jamadagni of Bhrigu's race. Parashurama trained Bhishma in warfare. - Indra: The king of the Devas. He bestowed celestial weapons on Bhishma. Vow of BhishmaEdit Originally named Devavrata, he became known as Bhishma after he took the bhishamna pratignya ('terrible oath') — the vow of lifelong Brahmacharya and of service to whoever sat on the throne of his father. Having joined his father's court, Bhishma was easily confirmed as the heir apparent. Having undergone a successful military campaign, and being the child of a goddess himself, he was easily confirmed as the heir apparent and was loved by all in the city. Shantanu was proud of his son and content that the future was secure. However, Shantanu had slowly been falling in love with a fisherwoman, Satyavati, who operated the boats crossing the Yamuna, one of Hastinapur's rivers. When Shantanu approached for her hand in marriage, Satyavati's father refused to give his daughter's hand to Shantanu unless Shantanu would proclaim her children as his heirs. However, doing so would be against the merit-based hereditary rules of Bharat, and Shantanu had already promised the throne to Bhishma. So, Shantanu sorrowfully had to reject the offer. This made Shantanu despondent, and upon discovering the reason for his father's despondency, Devavrata sought out the girl's father and ceded his claim to the throne. At this, Satyavati's father retorted that even if Devavratha gave up his claim to the throne, Devavrata's children would still claim the throne. Devavrata then took the vow of lifelong celibacy, thus sacrificing his 'crown-prince' title and denying himself the pleasures of conjugal love. His father granted him the boon of Ichcha Mrityu (control over his own death — he could choose the time of his death, making him immortal till his chosen time of death). Criticism of King Shantanu from his subjects as to why he removed Bhishma from the title of the crown prince, as he was so capable, abounded. There was worry about the nobility of Shantanu's unborn children, now promised the throne. Hearing this, Bhishma said it was his decision and his father should not be blamed as Shantanu had never promised anything to Satyavati's father. The prime minister then asked who would be held responsible if the future crown prince isn't capable enough. Bhishma then took another vow that he would always see his father's image in whomever sat on the King's throne, and would thus serve him faithfully. Years later, in the process of finding a bride for his half-brother, the young king Vichitravirya, Bhishma abducted princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika of Kashi from the assemblage of suitors at their swaymvara. Salwa, the ruler of Saubala, and Amba (the eldest princess) were in love; Salwa attempted to stop the abduction but was soundly beaten. Upon reaching Hastinapura, Amba confided in Bhishma that she wished to wed Salwa. Bhishma then sent her back to Salwa, who, bitter from his humiliating defeat at Bhishma's hands, turned her down. She then retired to Bhishma for Vichitravirya who refused to accept citing the rules that what once given cannot be taken back. Amba then sorrowfully, repair to an asylum of ascetics out of city. She then explains everything to them. They made her meet with Parasurama. Hearing the words of the princess, Parasurama asked her motive. As per the words of ascetics, she asked him to slay that Bhishma of great vows, who is the root of her calamity. Amba sought refuge with Parasurama, who ordered Bhishma to marry Amba, telling Bhishma it was his duty. Bhishma politely refused, saying that he was ready to give up his life at the command of his teacher but not the promise that he had made. Both mocks each other and upon the refusal, Parasurama called him for a fight at Kurukshetra. At the battlegrounds, while Bhishma was on a chariot, Parasurama was on foot. Bhishma requested Parasurama to also take a chariot and armor so that Bhishma would not have an unfair advantage. Parasurama blessed Bhishma with the power of divine vision and asked him to look again. When Bhishma looked at his guru with the divine eyesight, he saw the Earth as Parasurama's chariot, the four Vedas as the horses, the Upanishads as the reins, Vayu (wind) as the Charioteer and the Vedic goddesses Gayatri, Savitri, and Saraswati as his armor. Bhishma got down from the chariot and sought the blessings of Parashurama to protect his dharma, along with permission to battle against his teacher. Pleased, Parashurama blessed him and advised him to protect his vow as Parasurama himself had to fight to uphold his word as given to Amba. They fought for 23 days, each knocking out other at a time, used even the celestial weapons, but each was too powerful to defeat the other. Their battle lasted for 23 days. But on 22nd night, he asked the gods to show him a way to vanquish Parasurama, at night. In his dream, his ancestors came and provided him the knowledge of Praswapa weapon, not known to any persons on earth. On 23rd day of battle, when battle didn't concluded, Bhishma attempted to use the Prashwapastra against Parashurama. This weapon was not known to Parasurama and would put the afflicted to sleep in the battlefield. Before Bhishma could release it, however, a voice from the sky warned him that "if he uses this weapon it would be a great insult towards his Guru." Pitrs then appeared and obstructed the chariot of Parashurama, forbidding him from fighting any longer. At the behest of the divine sage Narada and the gods, Parashurama ended the conflict and the battle was declared in the favour of Bhishma by Gods. In another version, Parashurama himself stopped the fight after twenty-three days, worried that the further use of powerful weapons may lead to the destruction of the world. Parashurama narrated the events to Amba and told her to seek Bhishma's protection. However, Amba refused to listen to Parashurama's advice and left angrily declaring that she would achieve her objective by asceticism. Her predicament unchanged, she did severe austerities to please Shiva. She was cursed by Ganga, during her penances, when she didn't listen to her words. Lord Shiva assured her that she would be born as a man named (Shikhandi) in her next birth (and still she would recall her past) and could be instrumental in Bhishma's death, thus satisfying her vow. She then made funeral pyre of woods, on the banks of the Yamuna, setting fire to it herself entered that blazing fire with wrath, uttering-'I do so for Bhishma's destruction!' In The Kurukshetra WarEdit In the great battle at Kurukshetra, Bhishma was the supreme commander of the Kaurava forces for ten days. He fought reluctantly on the side of the Kauravas. Bhishma was one of the most powerful warriors of his time and in history. He acquired his prowess and invincibility from being the son of the sacred Ganga and by being a student of renowned Gurus. Despite being about five generations old, Bhishma was too powerful to be defeated by any warrior alive at that time. Every day, he slew at least 10,000 soldiers and about a 1,000 rathas. At the beginning of the war, Bhishma vowed not to kill any of the Pandavas, as he loved them, being their grand-uncle. Duryodhana often confronted Bhishma alleging that he was not actually fighting for the Kaurava camp as he wouldn't kill any of the Pandavas. He also did not allow any of the Kauravas to be killed in the war, as he loved all his grand-nephews and wanted a peace negotiation. Duryodhana approached Bhishma one night and accused him of not fighting the battle to his full strength because of his affection for the Pandavas. The angry Bhishma took a vow that either he will kill Arjuna or will make Lord Krishna break his promise of not picking up any weapons during the war. On the next day there was an intense battle between Bhishma and Arjuna. Although Arjuna was very powerful, he was no match to the fury of Bhishma. At one point Bhishma was so unstoppable that he was about to kill Arjuna, which forced Sri Krishna to break his vow of not raising a weapon in the war, and lifted a chariot wheel and saved Arjuna from Bhishma. The war was thus locked in a stalemate. As the Pandavas mulled over this situation, Krishna advised them to visit Bhishma himself and request him to suggest a way out of this stalemate. Bhishma loved the Pandavas and knew that he stood as an obstacle in their path to victory and so when they visited Bhishma, he gave them a hint as to how they could defeat him. He told them that if faced by one who had once been of the opposite gender, he would lay down his arms and fight no longer. Later Krishna told Arjuna how he could bring down Bhishma, through the help of Shikhandi. The Pandavas were not agreeable to such a ploy, as by using such tactics they would not be following the path of Dharma, but Krishna suggested a clever alternative. And thus, on the next day, the tenth day of battle Shikhandi accompanied Arjuna on the latter's chariot and they faced Bhishma who did not fire arrows at Shikhandi. He was then felled in battle by Arjuna, pierced by innumerable arrows. With Sikhandhi in front Bhishma did not even look at that direction, Arjuna shot arrows at Bhishma, piercing his entire body. Thus, as was preordained (Mahadeva's boon to Amba that she would be the cause of Bhishma's death) Shikhandi, that is, Amba reincarnated was the cause of Bhishma's fall. As Bhishma fell, his whole body was held above the ground by the shafts of Arjuna's arrows which protruded from his back, and through his arms and legs. Seeing Bhishma lying on such a bed of arrows humbled even the gods who watched from the heavens in reverence. They silently blessed the mighty warrior. When the young princes of both armies gathered around him, inquiring if there was anything they could do, he told them that while his body lay on the bed of arrows above the ground, his head hung unsupported. Hearing this, many of the princes, both Kaurava and the Pandava alike brought him pillows of silk and velvet, but he refused them. He asked Arjuna to give him a pillow fit for a warrior. Arjuna then removed three arrows from his quiver and placed them underneath Bhishma's head, the pointed arrow tips facing upwards. To quench the war veteran's thirst, Arjuna shot an arrow into the earth, and a jet stream of water rose up and into Bhishma's mouth. It is said that Ganga herself rose to quench her son's thirst. After the war, while on his deathbed (arrow bed) he gave deep and meaningful instructions to Yudhishthira on statesmanship and the duties of a king. Bhishma always gave priority to Dharma. He always walked in path of Dharma, even though his circumstances because of his promise, he was supposed to forcefully follow the orders of his king Dhritharashtra, which were mostly Adharma, he was totally upset. He was sure he must let dharma win and Pandavas win, but the way he led the war and stayed silent were his sins in a way and he paid for it with the bed of arrows. Finally Bhishma gave up the fight, focusing his life force and breath, sealing the wounds, and waiting for the auspicious moment to give up his body on the arrow bed. He did wait for about 58 nights for the winter solstice or first day of Uttarayana to give up his body on the arrow bed. Mahabharata states that he attained salvation after his death. He was granted the Maatru Lok (which is considered even above Swarga, the heaven). Magha (month) Shukla Ashtami marks the death anniversary of Bhishma Pitamah(Father), the day being known as Bhishma Ashtami. Hindus observe Ekodishta Śrāddha for him on this day, since many generations, and can only be performed by those whose fathers are not alive. Bhishma Panchaka vrata(fast) is observed in all Vishnu temples, starting from Bhishma Ashtami, for five days till Bhishma Dwadasi. People believe that they will be blessed with a son, having the steadfast qualities of Bhishma if they observe these holy rituals on the river banks. In popular cultureEdit Films & TelevisionEdit His life has been made into many films in different Indian languages. The first silent film was made in 1922. During the talkie period, the first film was made in Hindi (1937). It was followed by a Bengali film in 1942 directed by Jyotish Bannerjee. Jahar Ganguli played the title role. In Telugu cinema, two films were made. The first film on Bhishma was made in 1944 directed by Chitrapu Narayana Rao. Jandhyala Gourinatha Sastry played the role of Bhishma. B. A. Subba Rao made a film in 1962 titled Bhishma. The title role was played by N. T. Rama Rao. Bhishma's character was played by Mukesh Khanna in the B.R. Chopra's Mahabharat, one of the most successful Hindi television series. Aarav Chowdhary also played the role of Bhishma in Star Plus' Mahabharat. He is portrayed by Naved Aslam in Sony TV's Suryaputra Karn. Ronit Roy also portrayed it in Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki. - Modern References Honour in Modern Times - B. R. Rajam Aiyar; B. R. Rajam Lyer. Rambles in Vedanta. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 113. Retrieved 30 September 1996. Check date values in: - Manish Verma (2000). Fasts and Festivals of India. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. pp. 73–. ISBN 978-81-7182-076-4. Retrieved 13 June 2012. - "Bhishma". Encyclopedia for Epics of Ancient India. Retrieved 17 April 2012. - Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 77–78. - Bhanu, Sharada (1997). Myths and Legends from India - Great Women. Chennai: Macmillan India Limited. pp. 30–8. ISBN 0-333-93076-2. - Vyasa, Krishna-Dwaipayana; Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (1883–1896). The Mahabharata. Sacred Texts. - Kisari Mohan Ganguli. "SECTION CLXXXIX". The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva. Sacred-texts.com. - Bhishma Panchaka vrata - "Bhishma Ashtami". Drik Panchang. Retrieved 24 January 2019. - Bhishma Ashtami - Robert Jackson (1 March 2007). Tanks and Armored Fighting Vehicles. Parragon Incorporated. pp. 295–. ISBN 978-1-4054-8664-4. Retrieved 24 June 2012. - S. Muthiah (2008). Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India. Palaniappa Brothers. pp. 288–. ISBN 978-81-8379-468-8. Retrieved 24 June 2012. \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bhishma\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bhishma.\|	4,918	ENGLISH	1
Modern depiction of Pope Stephen III \|Papacy began\|\|7 August 768\| \|Papacy ended\|\|1 February 772\| \|Born\|\|Theme of Sicily, Byzantine Empire\| \|Died\|\|1 February 772\| Rome, Papal States \|Other popes named Stephen\| Pope Stephen III (Latin : Stephanus III; died 1 February 772) was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 7 August 768 to his death in 772. Stephen was a Benedictine monk who worked in the Lateran Palace during the tenure of Pope Zachary. In the midst of a tumultuous contest by rival factions to name a successor to Pope Paul I, Stephen was elected with the support of the Roman officials. He summoned the Lateran Council of 769, which sought to limit the influence of the nobles in papal elections. The Council also opposed iconoclasm. A Greekborn in Sicily, Stephen III was the son of a man named Olivus. Coming to Rome during the pontificate of Pope Gregory III, he was placed in the monastery of St. Chrysogonus, where he became a Benedictine monk. During the pontificate of Pope Zachary, he was ordained a priest, after which the pope decided to keep him to work at the Lateran Palace. Stephen gradually rose to high office in the service of successive popes, and was at the bedside of the dying Pope Paul I as powerful factions began manoeuvring to ensure the election of their own candidate in late June 767. The next year was consumed by the rival claims of antipopes Constantine II (a layman puppet forcibly installed by a faction of Tuscan nobles) and Philip (the candidate of the Lombards), who were forced out of office by the efforts of Christophorus, the Primicerius of the notaries, and his son Sergius, the Treasurer of the Roman church. With the capture of Constantine II, Christophorus set about organising a canonical election, and on 1 August he summoned not only the Roman clergy and army, but also the people to assemble before the Church of St. Adrian in the area of the old Comitium. Here the combined assembly elected Stephen as pope. They then proceeded to the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, where they acclaimed Stephen as pope-elect, and escorted him to the Lateran Palace. At this point, supporters of the pope-elect Stephen began brutally to attack key members of Constantine’s regime, including Constantine himself, who was hounded through the streets of Rome, with heavy weights attached to his feet.Bishop Theodore, Constantine’s Vice-dominus, was blinded and had his tongue cut out, while Constantine’s brother, Passivus, was also blinded. After Constantine was officially dethroned on 6 August, Stephen was consecrated pope on the following day, 7 August 768. Retributions continued even after the consecration of Stephen; the town of Alatri revolted in support of Constantine, and after its capture, the key members of the revolt were blinded and had their tongues ripped out. Then on the orders of the papal Chartularius, Gratiosus, Constantine was removed from his monastic cell, blinded, and left on the streets of Rome with specific instructions that no-one should aid him. Finally, on a charge of conspiring to kill Christophorus and many other nobles, with the intent of handing over the city to the Lombards, the priest Waldipert, who was the prime mover in the elevation of the Antipope Philip, was arrested, blinded, and soon died of his wounds. The role of Stephen III in these events is somewhat obscure. According to the historian Horace Mann, Stephen was an impotent observer, and that the responsible agent was in reality the Chartularius, Gratiosus.However, according to Louis Marie DeCormenin, Stephen was the key person responsible for issuing the orders, and took great delight in destroying his rival and his supporters. A middle position was taken by the historian Ferdinand Gregorovius, who observed that Stephen, while he may not have instigated or ordered the atrocities, did not seek to prevent them either, either through self-interest or the weakness of his position. What is clear, however, is that the recent creation of the Papal States had seen the traditional rivalries of the ruling families of Rome transformed into a murderous desire to control this new temporal power in Italy, dragging the papacy with it. With Constantine’s supporters largely dealt with, Stephen wrote to the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, notifying him of his election, and asking for a number of bishops to participate in a council he was seeking to hold to discuss the recent confusion. As Pepin had died, it was Charlemagne and Carloman I who agreed to send twelve bishops to participate in the Lateran Council of 769.The council saw the final condemnation of Constantine II, who was beaten and had his tongue removed before being returned to his monastic cell. All clerical appointments made by Constantine were declared null and void. It also set about establishing strict rules for papal elections, thereby restricting the involvement of the nobility in subsequent elections. Finally, the rulings of the Council of Hieria were rejected, and the practice of devotion to icons was confirmed (see iconoclasm). In 770, Stephen was asked to confirm the election of Michael, a layperson, as Archbishop of Ravenna. In fact, Michael, in league with the Lombard king Desiderius, and the Duke of Rimini had imprisoned Leo, who had been elected first.Stephen refused to confirm Michael’s election; citing the conventions of the Lateran council, he sent letters and envoys to Michael, demanding that he stand down. Michael refused, and the stand-off continued for over a year, until the arrival of the Frankish ambassador in Ravenna along with the Papal legates encouraged Michael’s opponents to overthrow him, and send him to Rome in chains. Leo followed soon after, when Stephen consecrated him as Archbishop of Ravenna. Throughout his pontificate, Stephen was apprehensive about the expansionist plans of the Lombards.Placing his hope in the Franks, he attempted to mediate in the quarrels between Charlemagne and Carloman, which were only helping the Lombards' cause in Italy. In 769, he helped them reconcile, and pressured them to support the still infant Papal States, by reminding them of the support that their father had given the Papacy in the past. He also begged them to intercede on his behalf by entering into discussions with the Lombards. Consequently, an embassy was sent to the Lombard king, Desiderius, in 770, which included Charlemagne’s mother, Bertrada of Laon. Their intervention achieved a result favourable to the Papacy by restoring to the pope the parts of Benevento that the popes claimed.To Stephen’s consternation, however, Desiderius and Bertrada entered into discussions about a possible marriage between Desiderius’ daughter, Desiderata, and one of Bertrada’s sons. It is also possible that discussions took place around the marriage of Charlemagne’s sister, Gisela to Desiderius’ son, Adalgis. Stephen therefore wrote to both Charlemagne and Carloman, protesting about the proposed alliance.Apart from noting that both men were already married, he reminded them of their promises to previous popes, that they would consider the pope’s enemies as their enemies, and that they had promised to Saint Peter to resist the Lombards and restore the rights of the Church. He wrote: ”You who are already, by the will of God and the commands of your father, lawfully married to noble wives of your own nation, whom you are bound to cherish. And certainly it is not lawful for you to put away the wives you have and marry others, or ally yourselves in marriage with a foreign people, a thing never done by any of your ancestors.... It is wicked of you even to entertain the thought of marrying again when you are already married. You ought not to act thus, who profess to follow the law of God, and punish others to prevent men acting in this unlawful manner. Such things do the heathen. But they ought not to be done by you who are Christians, a holy people and a kingly priesthood.” His pleas fell on deaf ears, and Charlemagne married Desiderata in 770, temporarily cementing a familial alliance with the Lombards. Throughout 769 and 770, Stephen continued to rely on the support and advice of Christophorus and Sergius who had placed him on the papal throne. Their antipathy towards the Lombards and general pro-Frankish stance caused King Desiderius to engineer their downfall.He bribed the Papal Chamberlain, Paulus Afiarta, and other members of the papal court to spread rumors about them to the pope. When Desiderius attempted to enter Rome in 771 with an army, claiming to be on a pilgrimage to pray at the shrine of St. Peter, Christophorus and Sergius shut the gates of the city against them. Arriving at the gates and seeing armed troops manning the walls, the Lombard king asked to speak to the Pope, who came out to him. During Stephen’s absence, Afiarta and his supporters sought to stir up a mob to overthrow Christophorus and Sergius. But the Primicerius and his son gained the upper hand, and forced Afiarta and his colleagues to flee to the Lateran Palace. By this stage, Stephen had returned to the Lateran, and he was confronted in the Basilica of St. Theodore by the fleeing Afiarta and his co-conspirators being chased by Christophorus and his supporters.Apparently at this point, a suspicious Christophorus, believing that Stephen had entered into some agreement with Desiderius, forced Stephen into taking an oath that he would not turn Christophorus or his son over to the Lombards. After this, a furious Stephen berated Christophorus, demanded he stop harassing Afiarta, and ordered him and his followers to withdraw, to which Christophorus complied. The next day, Stephen fled to St. Peter’s Basilica to seek the protection of Desiderius. The Lombard king, shutting Stephen up in his suites in the Basilica, made it clear to the Pope that the price for his help was to be the handing over of Christophorus and Sergius. The Pope sent two bishops to negotiate with Christophorus and Sergius, telling them that they must either retire to a monastery or come out to him at St. Peter’s. At the same time, a message was sent from Desiderius to the people of the city, declaring that: ”Pope Stephen bids you not to fight against your brethren, but to expel Christophorus from the city, and save it, yourselves, and your children.” This message from the Lombard king had the desired effect; Christophorus and Sergius began to suspect their associates, who in turn rapidly abandoned them. Both were reluctant to leave the city, but eventually both made their way to the Pope during the night.The next day Stephen was allowed to return to the city, while Christophorus and Sergius were left in Lombard hands. Negotiations to secure their release were unsuccessful, and before the day was out, Afiarta arrived with his partisans. After discussing the situation with Desiderius, they had both men blinded. Christophorus died after three days, while Sergius was kept in a cell in the Lateran. In an attempt to forestall the potential intervention of Charlemagne, Desiderius had Stephen write a letter to the Frankish kingwherein he declared that Christophorus and Sergius had been involved in a plot with an envoy of Charlemagne’s brother, Carloman, to kill the Pope. Further, that Stephen had fled to Desiderius for protection, and that eventually Christophorus and Sergius were brought out against their will. While Stephen managed to save their lives, later a group of men had them blinded, but not on Stephen’s orders. He then concludes that if it wasn’t for “his most excellent son Desiderius”, he would have been in fatal danger, and that Desiderius had reached an agreement with him to restore to the Church all the lands that she had claims on that were still in Lombard hands. That such a letter was a fiction was demonstrated very soon after; when Stephen asked Desiderius to fulfil the promises he had made over the body of Saint Peter, the Lombard king responded: ”Be content that I removed Christophorus and Sergius, who were ruling you, out of your way, and ask not for rights. Besides, if I do not continue to help you, great trouble will befall you. For Carloman, king of the Franks, is the friend of Christophorus and Sergius, and will be wishful to come to Rome and seize you.” Desiderius continued to stir trouble in Italy; in 771, he managed to convince the bishops of Istria to reject the authority of the Patriarch of Grado, and to have them place themselves under the Patriarch of Aquileia, which was directly under Lombard control.Stephen wrote to the rebellious bishops, suspending them and ordering them to place themselves once again under the authority of Grado, or face excommunication. After Christophorus’ fall, Paulus Afiarta continued to serve the papal court in a high capacity. During early 772, as Stephen fell ill and was soon clear that he was dying, Afiarta took advantage of this to exile a number of influential clergy and nobles from Rome, while others he put into prison.Then on 24 January, eight days before Stephen’s death, Afiarta dragged the blinded Sergius from his cell in the Lateran and had him strangled. Stephen died on 24 Januaryor 1 February 772. He was succeeded by Adrian I. During the Middle Ages, Stephen III was considered a saint in his home island of Sicily. Various calendars, martyrologies, etc., such as the ancient calendar of the saints of Sicily, number Stephen among the saints, and assign his feast to 1 February. The citizens of Syracuse at one point attempted to convince the Holy See to officially endorse the sainthood of the pope, but this was not successful. Pope Adrian I was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 1 February 772 to his death in 795. He was the son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman. Pope Agapetus II was Pope from 10 May 946 to his death in 955. A nominee of the Princeps of Rome, Alberic II, his pontificate occurred during the period known as the Saeculum obscurum. Pope Gregory II was Bishop of Rome from 19 May 715 to his death in 731. His defiance of the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian as a result of the iconoclastic controversy in the Eastern Empire prepared the way for a long series of revolts, schisms and civil wars that eventually led to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. Pope Gregory IV was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from October 827 to his death in 844. His pontificate was notable for the papacy’s attempts to intervene in the quarrels between the emperor Louis the Pious and his sons. It also saw the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in 843. Pope Stephen IV was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from June 816 to his death in 817. Pope Stephen VIII was Pope from 14 July 939 to his death in 942. Pope Sergius III was Pope from 29 January 904 to his death in 911. He was pope during a period of feudal violence and disorder in central Italy, when warring aristocratic factions sought to use the material and military resources of the Papacy. Because Sergius III had reputedly ordered the murder of his two immediate predecessors, Leo V and Christopher, and allegedly fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope, his pontificate has been variously described as "dismal and disgraceful", and "efficient and ruthless". Pope Valentine was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States for two months in 827. The Roman nobility were responsible for his placement in the papacy, a deprecated custom that would increase in the following centuries. He was not yet a priest when he was made pope, Carloman I, also Karlmann was king of the Franks from 768 until his death in 771. He was the second surviving son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon and was a younger brother of Charlemagne. His death allowed Charlemagne to take all of Francia and begin his expansion into other kingdoms. Pope John XIII was Pope from 1 October 965 to his death in 972. His pontificate was caught up in the continuing conflict between the Emperor, Otto I, and the Roman nobility. Desiderius was a king of the Lombard Kingdom of northern Italy, ruling from 756 to 774. He is chiefly known for his connection to Charlemagne, who married his daughter and conquered his realm. Pope John X was Pope from March 914 to his death in 928. A candidate of the Counts of Tusculum, he attempted to unify Italy under the leadership of Berengar of Friuli, and was instrumental in the defeat of the Saracens at the Battle of Garigliano. He eventually fell out with Marozia, who had him deposed, imprisoned, and finally murdered. John’s pontificate occurred during the period known as the Saeculum obscurum. Antipope Constantine II was an antipope for over a year, from 28 June 767 to 6 August 768. He was overthrown through the intervention of the Lombards and tortured before he was condemned and expelled from the Church during the Lateran Council of 769. Antipope Philip was an antipope who held office for just one day, on July 31, 768. The Patrimony of Saint Peter originally designated the landed possessions and revenues of various kinds that belonged to the apostolic Holy See i.e. the "Church of Saint Peter" in Rome, by virtue of the apostolic see status as founded by Saint Peter, according to Catholic tradition. Until the middle of the 8th century this consisted wholly of private property, but the term was later applied to the States of the Church, and more particularly to the Duchy of Rome. Gerberga was the wife of Carloman I, King of the Franks, and sister-in-law of Charlemagne. Her flight to the Lombard kingdom of Desiderius following Carloman's death precipitated the last Franco-Lombard war, and the end of the independent kingdom of the Lombards in 774. Toto was the self-styled duke of Nepi, the leading magnate of Etruria, who staged a coup d'état in Rome in 767. He became Duke of Rome for a year until his death. The principal sources documenting his takeover are the vita of Pope Stephen III in the Liber Pontificalis and a surviving deposition of the primicerius Christopher from 769, preserved in a ninth-century manuscript of Verona, the Depositio Christophori. From 756 to 857, the papacy shifted from the orbit of the Byzantine Empire to that of the kings of the Franks. Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Louis the Pious had considerable influence in the selection and administration of popes. The "Donation of Pepin" (756) ratified a new period of papal rule in central Italy, which became known as the Papal States. The Lateran Council of 769 was a synod held in the Basilica of St. John Lateran to rectify perceived abuses in the papal electoral process which had led to the elevation of the Antipopes Constantine II and Philip. It also condemned the rulings of the Council of Hieria. It is perhaps the most important Roman council held during the 8th century. Leo I was an archbishop of Ravenna from A.D. 770, following a disputed election, until his death in A.D. 777. Archbishop Leo played an important role in the arrest of Paul Afiarta and was the subject of letters from Pope Hadrian I to Charlemagne collected in the Codex Carolinus and dated from late 774. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stephanus III .\| \|Catholic Church titles\| \| Pope \|	<urn:uuid:6302bece-d3bd-47de-996f-5f8d29eadcde>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Pope_Stephen_III	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00343.warc.gz	en	0.982456	4,386	3.671875	4	[ -0.3040798306465149, 0.4747994542121887, 0.2349207103252411, -0.013476508669555187, -0.29655876755714417, 0.29760903120040894, -0.08885842561721802, -0.0017624588217586279, 0.09778006374835968, 0.041070789098739624, -0.14873676002025604, -0.16919267177581787, -0.0438510999083519, 0.3211576...	1	Modern depiction of Pope Stephen III \|Papacy began\|\|7 August 768\| \|Papacy ended\|\|1 February 772\| \|Born\|\|Theme of Sicily, Byzantine Empire\| \|Died\|\|1 February 772\| Rome, Papal States \|Other popes named Stephen\| Pope Stephen III (Latin : Stephanus III; died 1 February 772) was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 7 August 768 to his death in 772. Stephen was a Benedictine monk who worked in the Lateran Palace during the tenure of Pope Zachary. In the midst of a tumultuous contest by rival factions to name a successor to Pope Paul I, Stephen was elected with the support of the Roman officials. He summoned the Lateran Council of 769, which sought to limit the influence of the nobles in papal elections. The Council also opposed iconoclasm. A Greekborn in Sicily, Stephen III was the son of a man named Olivus. Coming to Rome during the pontificate of Pope Gregory III, he was placed in the monastery of St. Chrysogonus, where he became a Benedictine monk. During the pontificate of Pope Zachary, he was ordained a priest, after which the pope decided to keep him to work at the Lateran Palace. Stephen gradually rose to high office in the service of successive popes, and was at the bedside of the dying Pope Paul I as powerful factions began manoeuvring to ensure the election of their own candidate in late June 767. The next year was consumed by the rival claims of antipopes Constantine II (a layman puppet forcibly installed by a faction of Tuscan nobles) and Philip (the candidate of the Lombards), who were forced out of office by the efforts of Christophorus, the Primicerius of the notaries, and his son Sergius, the Treasurer of the Roman church. With the capture of Constantine II, Christophorus set about organising a canonical election, and on 1 August he summoned not only the Roman clergy and army, but also the people to assemble before the Church of St. Adrian in the area of the old Comitium. Here the combined assembly elected Stephen as pope. They then proceeded to the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, where they acclaimed Stephen as pope-elect, and escorted him to the Lateran Palace. At this point, supporters of the pope-elect Stephen began brutally to attack key members of Constantine’s regime, including Constantine himself, who was hounded through the streets of Rome, with heavy weights attached to his feet.Bishop Theodore, Constantine’s Vice-dominus, was blinded and had his tongue cut out, while Constantine’s brother, Passivus, was also blinded. After Constantine was officially dethroned on 6 August, Stephen was consecrated pope on the following day, 7 August 768. Retributions continued even after the consecration of Stephen; the town of Alatri revolted in support of Constantine, and after its capture, the key members of the revolt were blinded and had their tongues ripped out. Then on the orders of the papal Chartularius, Gratiosus, Constantine was removed from his monastic cell, blinded, and left on the streets of Rome with specific instructions that no-one should aid him. Finally, on a charge of conspiring to kill Christophorus and many other nobles, with the intent of handing over the city to the Lombards, the priest Waldipert, who was the prime mover in the elevation of the Antipope Philip, was arrested, blinded, and soon died of his wounds. The role of Stephen III in these events is somewhat obscure. According to the historian Horace Mann, Stephen was an impotent observer, and that the responsible agent was in reality the Chartularius, Gratiosus.However, according to Louis Marie DeCormenin, Stephen was the key person responsible for issuing the orders, and took great delight in destroying his rival and his supporters. A middle position was taken by the historian Ferdinand Gregorovius, who observed that Stephen, while he may not have instigated or ordered the atrocities, did not seek to prevent them either, either through self-interest or the weakness of his position. What is clear, however, is that the recent creation of the Papal States had seen the traditional rivalries of the ruling families of Rome transformed into a murderous desire to control this new temporal power in Italy, dragging the papacy with it. With Constantine’s supporters largely dealt with, Stephen wrote to the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, notifying him of his election, and asking for a number of bishops to participate in a council he was seeking to hold to discuss the recent confusion. As Pepin had died, it was Charlemagne and Carloman I who agreed to send twelve bishops to participate in the Lateran Council of 769.The council saw the final condemnation of Constantine II, who was beaten and had his tongue removed before being returned to his monastic cell. All clerical appointments made by Constantine were declared null and void. It also set about establishing strict rules for papal elections, thereby restricting the involvement of the nobility in subsequent elections. Finally, the rulings of the Council of Hieria were rejected, and the practice of devotion to icons was confirmed (see iconoclasm). In 770, Stephen was asked to confirm the election of Michael, a layperson, as Archbishop of Ravenna. In fact, Michael, in league with the Lombard king Desiderius, and the Duke of Rimini had imprisoned Leo, who had been elected first.Stephen refused to confirm Michael’s election; citing the conventions of the Lateran council, he sent letters and envoys to Michael, demanding that he stand down. Michael refused, and the stand-off continued for over a year, until the arrival of the Frankish ambassador in Ravenna along with the Papal legates encouraged Michael’s opponents to overthrow him, and send him to Rome in chains. Leo followed soon after, when Stephen consecrated him as Archbishop of Ravenna. Throughout his pontificate, Stephen was apprehensive about the expansionist plans of the Lombards.Placing his hope in the Franks, he attempted to mediate in the quarrels between Charlemagne and Carloman, which were only helping the Lombards' cause in Italy. In 769, he helped them reconcile, and pressured them to support the still infant Papal States, by reminding them of the support that their father had given the Papacy in the past. He also begged them to intercede on his behalf by entering into discussions with the Lombards. Consequently, an embassy was sent to the Lombard king, Desiderius, in 770, which included Charlemagne’s mother, Bertrada of Laon. Their intervention achieved a result favourable to the Papacy by restoring to the pope the parts of Benevento that the popes claimed.To Stephen’s consternation, however, Desiderius and Bertrada entered into discussions about a possible marriage between Desiderius’ daughter, Desiderata, and one of Bertrada’s sons. It is also possible that discussions took place around the marriage of Charlemagne’s sister, Gisela to Desiderius’ son, Adalgis. Stephen therefore wrote to both Charlemagne and Carloman, protesting about the proposed alliance.Apart from noting that both men were already married, he reminded them of their promises to previous popes, that they would consider the pope’s enemies as their enemies, and that they had promised to Saint Peter to resist the Lombards and restore the rights of the Church. He wrote: ”You who are already, by the will of God and the commands of your father, lawfully married to noble wives of your own nation, whom you are bound to cherish. And certainly it is not lawful for you to put away the wives you have and marry others, or ally yourselves in marriage with a foreign people, a thing never done by any of your ancestors.... It is wicked of you even to entertain the thought of marrying again when you are already married. You ought not to act thus, who profess to follow the law of God, and punish others to prevent men acting in this unlawful manner. Such things do the heathen. But they ought not to be done by you who are Christians, a holy people and a kingly priesthood.” His pleas fell on deaf ears, and Charlemagne married Desiderata in 770, temporarily cementing a familial alliance with the Lombards. Throughout 769 and 770, Stephen continued to rely on the support and advice of Christophorus and Sergius who had placed him on the papal throne. Their antipathy towards the Lombards and general pro-Frankish stance caused King Desiderius to engineer their downfall.He bribed the Papal Chamberlain, Paulus Afiarta, and other members of the papal court to spread rumors about them to the pope. When Desiderius attempted to enter Rome in 771 with an army, claiming to be on a pilgrimage to pray at the shrine of St. Peter, Christophorus and Sergius shut the gates of the city against them. Arriving at the gates and seeing armed troops manning the walls, the Lombard king asked to speak to the Pope, who came out to him. During Stephen’s absence, Afiarta and his supporters sought to stir up a mob to overthrow Christophorus and Sergius. But the Primicerius and his son gained the upper hand, and forced Afiarta and his colleagues to flee to the Lateran Palace. By this stage, Stephen had returned to the Lateran, and he was confronted in the Basilica of St. Theodore by the fleeing Afiarta and his co-conspirators being chased by Christophorus and his supporters.Apparently at this point, a suspicious Christophorus, believing that Stephen had entered into some agreement with Desiderius, forced Stephen into taking an oath that he would not turn Christophorus or his son over to the Lombards. After this, a furious Stephen berated Christophorus, demanded he stop harassing Afiarta, and ordered him and his followers to withdraw, to which Christophorus complied. The next day, Stephen fled to St. Peter’s Basilica to seek the protection of Desiderius. The Lombard king, shutting Stephen up in his suites in the Basilica, made it clear to the Pope that the price for his help was to be the handing over of Christophorus and Sergius. The Pope sent two bishops to negotiate with Christophorus and Sergius, telling them that they must either retire to a monastery or come out to him at St. Peter’s. At the same time, a message was sent from Desiderius to the people of the city, declaring that: ”Pope Stephen bids you not to fight against your brethren, but to expel Christophorus from the city, and save it, yourselves, and your children.” This message from the Lombard king had the desired effect; Christophorus and Sergius began to suspect their associates, who in turn rapidly abandoned them. Both were reluctant to leave the city, but eventually both made their way to the Pope during the night.The next day Stephen was allowed to return to the city, while Christophorus and Sergius were left in Lombard hands. Negotiations to secure their release were unsuccessful, and before the day was out, Afiarta arrived with his partisans. After discussing the situation with Desiderius, they had both men blinded. Christophorus died after three days, while Sergius was kept in a cell in the Lateran. In an attempt to forestall the potential intervention of Charlemagne, Desiderius had Stephen write a letter to the Frankish kingwherein he declared that Christophorus and Sergius had been involved in a plot with an envoy of Charlemagne’s brother, Carloman, to kill the Pope. Further, that Stephen had fled to Desiderius for protection, and that eventually Christophorus and Sergius were brought out against their will. While Stephen managed to save their lives, later a group of men had them blinded, but not on Stephen’s orders. He then concludes that if it wasn’t for “his most excellent son Desiderius”, he would have been in fatal danger, and that Desiderius had reached an agreement with him to restore to the Church all the lands that she had claims on that were still in Lombard hands. That such a letter was a fiction was demonstrated very soon after; when Stephen asked Desiderius to fulfil the promises he had made over the body of Saint Peter, the Lombard king responded: ”Be content that I removed Christophorus and Sergius, who were ruling you, out of your way, and ask not for rights. Besides, if I do not continue to help you, great trouble will befall you. For Carloman, king of the Franks, is the friend of Christophorus and Sergius, and will be wishful to come to Rome and seize you.” Desiderius continued to stir trouble in Italy; in 771, he managed to convince the bishops of Istria to reject the authority of the Patriarch of Grado, and to have them place themselves under the Patriarch of Aquileia, which was directly under Lombard control.Stephen wrote to the rebellious bishops, suspending them and ordering them to place themselves once again under the authority of Grado, or face excommunication. After Christophorus’ fall, Paulus Afiarta continued to serve the papal court in a high capacity. During early 772, as Stephen fell ill and was soon clear that he was dying, Afiarta took advantage of this to exile a number of influential clergy and nobles from Rome, while others he put into prison.Then on 24 January, eight days before Stephen’s death, Afiarta dragged the blinded Sergius from his cell in the Lateran and had him strangled. Stephen died on 24 Januaryor 1 February 772. He was succeeded by Adrian I. During the Middle Ages, Stephen III was considered a saint in his home island of Sicily. Various calendars, martyrologies, etc., such as the ancient calendar of the saints of Sicily, number Stephen among the saints, and assign his feast to 1 February. The citizens of Syracuse at one point attempted to convince the Holy See to officially endorse the sainthood of the pope, but this was not successful. Pope Adrian I was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 1 February 772 to his death in 795. He was the son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman. Pope Agapetus II was Pope from 10 May 946 to his death in 955. A nominee of the Princeps of Rome, Alberic II, his pontificate occurred during the period known as the Saeculum obscurum. Pope Gregory II was Bishop of Rome from 19 May 715 to his death in 731. His defiance of the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian as a result of the iconoclastic controversy in the Eastern Empire prepared the way for a long series of revolts, schisms and civil wars that eventually led to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. Pope Gregory IV was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from October 827 to his death in 844. His pontificate was notable for the papacy’s attempts to intervene in the quarrels between the emperor Louis the Pious and his sons. It also saw the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in 843. Pope Stephen IV was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from June 816 to his death in 817. Pope Stephen VIII was Pope from 14 July 939 to his death in 942. Pope Sergius III was Pope from 29 January 904 to his death in 911. He was pope during a period of feudal violence and disorder in central Italy, when warring aristocratic factions sought to use the material and military resources of the Papacy. Because Sergius III had reputedly ordered the murder of his two immediate predecessors, Leo V and Christopher, and allegedly fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope, his pontificate has been variously described as "dismal and disgraceful", and "efficient and ruthless". Pope Valentine was Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States for two months in 827. The Roman nobility were responsible for his placement in the papacy, a deprecated custom that would increase in the following centuries. He was not yet a priest when he was made pope, Carloman I, also Karlmann was king of the Franks from 768 until his death in 771. He was the second surviving son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon and was a younger brother of Charlemagne. His death allowed Charlemagne to take all of Francia and begin his expansion into other kingdoms. Pope John XIII was Pope from 1 October 965 to his death in 972. His pontificate was caught up in the continuing conflict between the Emperor, Otto I, and the Roman nobility. Desiderius was a king of the Lombard Kingdom of northern Italy, ruling from 756 to 774. He is chiefly known for his connection to Charlemagne, who married his daughter and conquered his realm. Pope John X was Pope from March 914 to his death in 928. A candidate of the Counts of Tusculum, he attempted to unify Italy under the leadership of Berengar of Friuli, and was instrumental in the defeat of the Saracens at the Battle of Garigliano. He eventually fell out with Marozia, who had him deposed, imprisoned, and finally murdered. John’s pontificate occurred during the period known as the Saeculum obscurum. Antipope Constantine II was an antipope for over a year, from 28 June 767 to 6 August 768. He was overthrown through the intervention of the Lombards and tortured before he was condemned and expelled from the Church during the Lateran Council of 769. Antipope Philip was an antipope who held office for just one day, on July 31, 768. The Patrimony of Saint Peter originally designated the landed possessions and revenues of various kinds that belonged to the apostolic Holy See i.e. the "Church of Saint Peter" in Rome, by virtue of the apostolic see status as founded by Saint Peter, according to Catholic tradition. Until the middle of the 8th century this consisted wholly of private property, but the term was later applied to the States of the Church, and more particularly to the Duchy of Rome. Gerberga was the wife of Carloman I, King of the Franks, and sister-in-law of Charlemagne. Her flight to the Lombard kingdom of Desiderius following Carloman's death precipitated the last Franco-Lombard war, and the end of the independent kingdom of the Lombards in 774. Toto was the self-styled duke of Nepi, the leading magnate of Etruria, who staged a coup d'état in Rome in 767. He became Duke of Rome for a year until his death. The principal sources documenting his takeover are the vita of Pope Stephen III in the Liber Pontificalis and a surviving deposition of the primicerius Christopher from 769, preserved in a ninth-century manuscript of Verona, the Depositio Christophori. From 756 to 857, the papacy shifted from the orbit of the Byzantine Empire to that of the kings of the Franks. Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Louis the Pious had considerable influence in the selection and administration of popes. The "Donation of Pepin" (756) ratified a new period of papal rule in central Italy, which became known as the Papal States. The Lateran Council of 769 was a synod held in the Basilica of St. John Lateran to rectify perceived abuses in the papal electoral process which had led to the elevation of the Antipopes Constantine II and Philip. It also condemned the rulings of the Council of Hieria. It is perhaps the most important Roman council held during the 8th century. Leo I was an archbishop of Ravenna from A.D. 770, following a disputed election, until his death in A.D. 777. Archbishop Leo played an important role in the arrest of Paul Afiarta and was the subject of letters from Pope Hadrian I to Charlemagne collected in the Codex Carolinus and dated from late 774. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stephanus III .\| \|Catholic Church titles\| \| Pope \|	4,429	ENGLISH	1
To teach students about financial budgeting, have them create a bookmark business! Students learn what an entrepreneur is, how to figure out the total cost of their resources, how to calculate the total revenue they make and how to make a profit. In my classroom second and third grade students were divided up into groups of four. Each group chose one person to be the entrepreneur of their bookmark company. The entrepreneur had the final say on decisions if there were any arguments within the group. Their challenge was to create one bookmark, try to sell it to their peers and make a profit. Below is the recording sheet for this project. Click here to download: Bookmark Business Recording Sheet First, groups paid rent for the space they used (the table they sat at) and figured out the cost for labor (each group member got paid except for the entrepreneur). Then, they looked at the resources available to them so they could decide on a theme for their business. Students examined stickers and came up with a theme for their bookmark company. Each table had one basket of stickers. One person from the group could go around to the other groups and ask if they had any stickers they wanted to trade. For example, if they decided on an animal theme, they traded stickers to obtain all animal themed stickers. Once they decided on a theme, they came up with a name for their business and a slogan. Then they figured out how many of each of the resources (listed on the resource list) they would need to create their bookmark. After they figured out the production cost (the total cost of all of their resources), they sketched out the design of their bookmark. Their bookmark dimensions had to be the standard size: 6″ long by 2″ wide. Once they had their design figured out, students were ready for the production process. They were given their resources and created their bookmark. After their bookmarks were created, all of the students were given three dollars (play money). Each group went up to the front of the room and presented their company name, slogan and bookmark. They tried to persuade their peers to purchase their bookmark. Students could only buy one bookmark because the cost of a bookmark was three dollars. They had to really think about which bookmark they preferred. They could not purchase their own group’s bookmark! When company presentations were over and bookmarks were bought, teams figured out the total revenue (quantity of the product sold x the price of the bookmark – $3.00) and total cost (total cost of resources x the number of bookmarks sold) for their business. Then they figured out whether or not their business made a profit. They subtracted the total cost from the total revenue. (Note: All of this is written out on the recording sheet so it is easy for students to calculate). Students compared their total revenue to their total cost. If their revenue was greater they made a profit! If not, their company lost money by making an expensive product that only sold for three bucks! This project introduced students to financial budgeting, preparing them for their own kid business which we will start after we finish the bookThe Lemonade War. Students realized that they must think about the cost of their resources, the labor that goes into the production process and their target market when determining a price for the product they make. Erin Bittman is a second-/third-grade student teacher in a multi-grade classroom at a German Magnet School. She attends the University of Cincinnati. Check out her blog, E is for Explore!	<urn:uuid:304d405f-7a8a-4abd-ba12-0c0a597f931f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.weareteachers.com/real-world-learning-kid-bookmark-business/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00336.warc.gz	en	0.983658	723	3.484375	3	[ 0.05289154499769211, -0.2864122986793518, 0.05247993767261505, -0.3438681364059448, -0.29258137941360474, -0.030506480485200882, -0.26132458448410034, 0.09781444072723389, 0.19921115040779114, 0.10637835413217545, 0.21980483829975128, -0.005609025713056326, 0.03938613831996918, -0.08726397...	2	To teach students about financial budgeting, have them create a bookmark business! Students learn what an entrepreneur is, how to figure out the total cost of their resources, how to calculate the total revenue they make and how to make a profit. In my classroom second and third grade students were divided up into groups of four. Each group chose one person to be the entrepreneur of their bookmark company. The entrepreneur had the final say on decisions if there were any arguments within the group. Their challenge was to create one bookmark, try to sell it to their peers and make a profit. Below is the recording sheet for this project. Click here to download: Bookmark Business Recording Sheet First, groups paid rent for the space they used (the table they sat at) and figured out the cost for labor (each group member got paid except for the entrepreneur). Then, they looked at the resources available to them so they could decide on a theme for their business. Students examined stickers and came up with a theme for their bookmark company. Each table had one basket of stickers. One person from the group could go around to the other groups and ask if they had any stickers they wanted to trade. For example, if they decided on an animal theme, they traded stickers to obtain all animal themed stickers. Once they decided on a theme, they came up with a name for their business and a slogan. Then they figured out how many of each of the resources (listed on the resource list) they would need to create their bookmark. After they figured out the production cost (the total cost of all of their resources), they sketched out the design of their bookmark. Their bookmark dimensions had to be the standard size: 6″ long by 2″ wide. Once they had their design figured out, students were ready for the production process. They were given their resources and created their bookmark. After their bookmarks were created, all of the students were given three dollars (play money). Each group went up to the front of the room and presented their company name, slogan and bookmark. They tried to persuade their peers to purchase their bookmark. Students could only buy one bookmark because the cost of a bookmark was three dollars. They had to really think about which bookmark they preferred. They could not purchase their own group’s bookmark! When company presentations were over and bookmarks were bought, teams figured out the total revenue (quantity of the product sold x the price of the bookmark – $3.00) and total cost (total cost of resources x the number of bookmarks sold) for their business. Then they figured out whether or not their business made a profit. They subtracted the total cost from the total revenue. (Note: All of this is written out on the recording sheet so it is easy for students to calculate). Students compared their total revenue to their total cost. If their revenue was greater they made a profit! If not, their company lost money by making an expensive product that only sold for three bucks! This project introduced students to financial budgeting, preparing them for their own kid business which we will start after we finish the bookThe Lemonade War. Students realized that they must think about the cost of their resources, the labor that goes into the production process and their target market when determining a price for the product they make. Erin Bittman is a second-/third-grade student teacher in a multi-grade classroom at a German Magnet School. She attends the University of Cincinnati. Check out her blog, E is for Explore!	707	ENGLISH	1
In the history of Europe, the medieval era also known as the middle ages lasted from the 5th to 15th century. It commenced with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and finally ended with the beginning of the Renaissance period. The medieval ages were considered to be one of the most transformative and unstable periods in history. During this period, there was a lack of cultural and scientific development and feudalism was the presiding political system. In medieval times, the soldiers were of three main types: foot soldiers, archers, and knights. The knights were typically heavily armored and rode on horseback. Being a knight was not an easy job and only the affluent nobles could afford the weapons, expensive armor, and a war horse. In the feudal system, knights were observed to be very important and were highly regarded in medieval society. Knights fought in the wars and earned glory, prestige, court positions and wealth. Following are 10 of the most famous medieval knights. The legendary king of Camelot, Arthur is believed to be an authentic historic figure of medieval ages. He is also regarded as the classic example of the knight in shining armour. In fact, the knightly ideals of chivalry and bravery are believed to have been descended directly from him. Arthur’s actual life is surrounded in legends and myths. Some historians say that in the 5th and 6th century, Arthur fought the Saxon invaders and was thought to be a unifying force. He was an emblem of chivalry, order and justice. Richard the Lionheart Also known as Richard I of England, Richard the Lion-heart was one of the famous knights of Middle Ages. He had spent most of the time of his reign abroad. As his name depicts, he was a brave knight and was also a reputed military commander. He famously fought against Saladin in the Crusades. When returning from the Crusades, Richard was taken hostage by the Roman emperor but was later released. His valiant nature did not allow him to stay in England for long. He participated in the English wars against France. While attacking the Challis-Chabrol castle in France, Richard died of a poisoned arrow wound in 1199. Joan of arc Also known as the ‘maid of Orleans’, Joan of arc was one of the few eminent female knights of medieval Europe. Born in 1412, she played a key role in the final phase of the Siege of Orleans in 1429. Her bravery boosted the morale of the French army and led it to victory. Due to her bravery she was hailed as a national heroine of France. However, she received little support or recognition from the French monarch. A dissident French faction later captured Joan of Arc and handed her over to the English. She was sentenced by the English and burned at stake in 1431. Later, Joan of Arc was elevated to the status of a saint and martyr. Born in 1220, Alexander Nevsky was the most honorable knight in Russian medieval history. He was the Prince of Novgorod and the Grand Prince of Vladimir. In 1240, he successfully defeated the Swedes on Neva River and repelled the threat of an intrusion from the north. Another event that enhanced his heroic image was defeating the Teutonic Knights in the ‘Battle of Ice’. Alexander was not only a great military leader and knight but also a significant political leader. He successfully negotiated with the Mongols who invaded Russia from the east. He died in 1263 and retains legendary status in Russian history. William Wallace was an important figure in the Scottish Independence Wars. At the age of 27, Wallace started his efforts for freedom and performed a major role in leading the Scottish against Edward I. He famously won the Battle of Stirling Bridge against an English army. In the wake of his victory, he was named the Guardian of Scotland. However, he was later defeated in the Battle of Falkirk. Subsequently, he was captured and brutally executed for treason in 1305. Wallace remains an icon of Scottish history and nationalism. Edward of Woodstock Born in 1330, Edward was also known as the ‘Black Prince’. He never became a king as he died before his father, yet he had a major impact on the 100-year war against France. This renowned and brave knight had achieved various victories at a very young age. He died at a young age in 1376, but his valiant image and heroism are still remembered and he is still very famous. Sir William Marshall William Marshall, regarded as the greatest medieval knight, was born in 1146. Although he worked under five English kings, he remained loyal and was trusted so much that king Henry II appointed him as a guardian of his eldest son. During the revolt of Henry’s son, William remained loyal to the father and helped him in putting down the rebellion. He died in 1219 and is still famous due to his loyal and heroic career as a knight. John Hawkwood was one of the well-known English knights of the 14th century. He fought under Edward III and was a longbowman. John performed a major role in the renowned battles of Poitiers and Crecy. After joining the Great White Company, John crossed into Italy and fought for several armies such as Milan, Florence, and Pope. His career as a knight ended in Florence and he died in 1394. Bertrand du Guesclin Born in 1320, Bertrand is considered to be one of the most famed medieval knights of French history. His bravery and strategic planning enabled him to get an important position at the French court. In 1364, the successful defense of Rennes was one of his famous achievements. Bertrand died in 1380 while on a campaign in Languedoc. The Spanish knight El Cid was born in 1043 and fought against the Arab moors most of his life. His real name was Rodrigo Diaz de vivar and El Cid was the name given to him by Arab moors due to his bravery and military might. In 1094, he conquered the city of Valencia and created a friendly environment for both the Muslims and Christians. El Cid died in 1099 and is still known and regarded as being an outstanding knight of his time.	<urn:uuid:62038c99-f5ff-4fdb-8114-dfef0a862d1b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/top-10-medieval-knights/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00109.warc.gz	en	0.989421	1,286	3.75	4	[ -0.6843278408050537, 0.4646802544593811, 0.3934474289417267, -0.12640239298343658, -0.4670194685459137, -0.1540071964263916, -0.1308809518814087, 0.34167101979255676, 0.09529311954975128, -0.26931190490722656, -0.16445156931877136, -0.3557104766368866, -0.04822414740920067, 0.0714415237307...	5	In the history of Europe, the medieval era also known as the middle ages lasted from the 5th to 15th century. It commenced with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and finally ended with the beginning of the Renaissance period. The medieval ages were considered to be one of the most transformative and unstable periods in history. During this period, there was a lack of cultural and scientific development and feudalism was the presiding political system. In medieval times, the soldiers were of three main types: foot soldiers, archers, and knights. The knights were typically heavily armored and rode on horseback. Being a knight was not an easy job and only the affluent nobles could afford the weapons, expensive armor, and a war horse. In the feudal system, knights were observed to be very important and were highly regarded in medieval society. Knights fought in the wars and earned glory, prestige, court positions and wealth. Following are 10 of the most famous medieval knights. The legendary king of Camelot, Arthur is believed to be an authentic historic figure of medieval ages. He is also regarded as the classic example of the knight in shining armour. In fact, the knightly ideals of chivalry and bravery are believed to have been descended directly from him. Arthur’s actual life is surrounded in legends and myths. Some historians say that in the 5th and 6th century, Arthur fought the Saxon invaders and was thought to be a unifying force. He was an emblem of chivalry, order and justice. Richard the Lionheart Also known as Richard I of England, Richard the Lion-heart was one of the famous knights of Middle Ages. He had spent most of the time of his reign abroad. As his name depicts, he was a brave knight and was also a reputed military commander. He famously fought against Saladin in the Crusades. When returning from the Crusades, Richard was taken hostage by the Roman emperor but was later released. His valiant nature did not allow him to stay in England for long. He participated in the English wars against France. While attacking the Challis-Chabrol castle in France, Richard died of a poisoned arrow wound in 1199. Joan of arc Also known as the ‘maid of Orleans’, Joan of arc was one of the few eminent female knights of medieval Europe. Born in 1412, she played a key role in the final phase of the Siege of Orleans in 1429. Her bravery boosted the morale of the French army and led it to victory. Due to her bravery she was hailed as a national heroine of France. However, she received little support or recognition from the French monarch. A dissident French faction later captured Joan of Arc and handed her over to the English. She was sentenced by the English and burned at stake in 1431. Later, Joan of Arc was elevated to the status of a saint and martyr. Born in 1220, Alexander Nevsky was the most honorable knight in Russian medieval history. He was the Prince of Novgorod and the Grand Prince of Vladimir. In 1240, he successfully defeated the Swedes on Neva River and repelled the threat of an intrusion from the north. Another event that enhanced his heroic image was defeating the Teutonic Knights in the ‘Battle of Ice’. Alexander was not only a great military leader and knight but also a significant political leader. He successfully negotiated with the Mongols who invaded Russia from the east. He died in 1263 and retains legendary status in Russian history. William Wallace was an important figure in the Scottish Independence Wars. At the age of 27, Wallace started his efforts for freedom and performed a major role in leading the Scottish against Edward I. He famously won the Battle of Stirling Bridge against an English army. In the wake of his victory, he was named the Guardian of Scotland. However, he was later defeated in the Battle of Falkirk. Subsequently, he was captured and brutally executed for treason in 1305. Wallace remains an icon of Scottish history and nationalism. Edward of Woodstock Born in 1330, Edward was also known as the ‘Black Prince’. He never became a king as he died before his father, yet he had a major impact on the 100-year war against France. This renowned and brave knight had achieved various victories at a very young age. He died at a young age in 1376, but his valiant image and heroism are still remembered and he is still very famous. Sir William Marshall William Marshall, regarded as the greatest medieval knight, was born in 1146. Although he worked under five English kings, he remained loyal and was trusted so much that king Henry II appointed him as a guardian of his eldest son. During the revolt of Henry’s son, William remained loyal to the father and helped him in putting down the rebellion. He died in 1219 and is still famous due to his loyal and heroic career as a knight. John Hawkwood was one of the well-known English knights of the 14th century. He fought under Edward III and was a longbowman. John performed a major role in the renowned battles of Poitiers and Crecy. After joining the Great White Company, John crossed into Italy and fought for several armies such as Milan, Florence, and Pope. His career as a knight ended in Florence and he died in 1394. Bertrand du Guesclin Born in 1320, Bertrand is considered to be one of the most famed medieval knights of French history. His bravery and strategic planning enabled him to get an important position at the French court. In 1364, the successful defense of Rennes was one of his famous achievements. Bertrand died in 1380 while on a campaign in Languedoc. The Spanish knight El Cid was born in 1043 and fought against the Arab moors most of his life. His real name was Rodrigo Diaz de vivar and El Cid was the name given to him by Arab moors due to his bravery and military might. In 1094, he conquered the city of Valencia and created a friendly environment for both the Muslims and Christians. El Cid died in 1099 and is still known and regarded as being an outstanding knight of his time.	1,326	ENGLISH	1
\|Click Image to view detail.\| Goldfish were introduced to Europe from East Asia in the 17th century. From around 1912, goldfish became a recurring subject in the work of Henri Matisse. They appear in no less than nine of his paintings, as well as in his drawings and prints. The Goldfish, 1912 belongs to a series that Matisse produced between spring and early summer 1912. However, unlike the others, the focus here centers on the fish The Goldfish immediately attract our attention due to their color. The bright orange strongly contrasts with the more subtle pinks and greens that surround the fish bowl and the blue-green background. Blue and orange, as well as green and red, are complementary colors and, when placed next to one another, appear even brighter. This technique was used extensively by the Fauves, and is particularly striking in Matisse's earlier canvas Le Bonheur de vivre. Although he subsequently softened his palette, the bold orange is reminiscent of Matisse's fauvist years, which continued to influence his use of color throughout his career. But why was Henri Matisse so interested in goldfish? One clue may be found in his visit to Tangier, Morocco, where he stayed from the end of January until April 1912. He noted how the local population would day-dream for hours, gazing into goldfish bowls. \|Photo of The Goldfish by Henri Matisse\| In a view consistent with other Europeans who visited North Africa, Matisse admired the Moroccans' lifestyle, which appeared to him to be relaxed and contemplative. For Matisse, the goldfish came to symbolize this tranquil state of mind and, at the same time, became evocative of a paradise lost, a subject - unlike goldfish - frequently represented in art. Matisse was referring back to artists such as Gauguin, who painted during his travels to Tahiti.	<urn:uuid:df19069b-3be0-4d22-90da-a3b043e83712>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.henrimatisse.org/goldfish.jsp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00399.warc.gz	en	0.981692	395	3.3125	3	[ 0.17204196751117706, 0.034692924469709396, -0.26146331429481506, 0.10337896645069122, -0.28673461079597473, 0.28072670102119446, 0.055635999888181686, 0.22947700321674347, -0.18875741958618164, -0.26882246136665344, 0.5397777557373047, -0.610480010509491, -0.006691500544548035, 0.309642970...	8	\|Click Image to view detail.\| Goldfish were introduced to Europe from East Asia in the 17th century. From around 1912, goldfish became a recurring subject in the work of Henri Matisse. They appear in no less than nine of his paintings, as well as in his drawings and prints. The Goldfish, 1912 belongs to a series that Matisse produced between spring and early summer 1912. However, unlike the others, the focus here centers on the fish The Goldfish immediately attract our attention due to their color. The bright orange strongly contrasts with the more subtle pinks and greens that surround the fish bowl and the blue-green background. Blue and orange, as well as green and red, are complementary colors and, when placed next to one another, appear even brighter. This technique was used extensively by the Fauves, and is particularly striking in Matisse's earlier canvas Le Bonheur de vivre. Although he subsequently softened his palette, the bold orange is reminiscent of Matisse's fauvist years, which continued to influence his use of color throughout his career. But why was Henri Matisse so interested in goldfish? One clue may be found in his visit to Tangier, Morocco, where he stayed from the end of January until April 1912. He noted how the local population would day-dream for hours, gazing into goldfish bowls. \|Photo of The Goldfish by Henri Matisse\| In a view consistent with other Europeans who visited North Africa, Matisse admired the Moroccans' lifestyle, which appeared to him to be relaxed and contemplative. For Matisse, the goldfish came to symbolize this tranquil state of mind and, at the same time, became evocative of a paradise lost, a subject - unlike goldfish - frequently represented in art. Matisse was referring back to artists such as Gauguin, who painted during his travels to Tahiti.	417	ENGLISH	1
This weekend there will be barbecues, pies, home-made strawberry soda, and other treats that have become common features of Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery in the United States that has its roots in the joyful celebrations of newly-freed slaves in Texas at the end of the Civil War. It is thought to be the oldest continuous celebration of emancipation and, though it has waxed and waned in popularity over the last 150+ years, it has probably never been as strong a tradition as it is today. Because the 19th falls on a Sunday and Father’s Day this year, most large celebrations are planned for Saturday. On the 19th of June, 1865, from the balcony of the Ashton Villa in Galveston, Texas, Union General Gordon Granger read aloud “General Order #3″ that carried the message of the Emancipation Proclamation to Texas, and slaves in that state at last learned that they were free. Although the Proclamation was formally issued on January 1, 1863, the news of it had not reached slaves in most of Texas. Union troops then needed to enforce this order throughout a large state, so that slaves were not all released on the same day in Texas — but the 19th is the day that is commemorated. Spontaneous celebrations broke out as the news spread, and these gave rise to an annual events to mark the day. As some of these freed slaves traveled to nearby states to find relatives, they carried the tradition of celebrating June 19th with them and over time it spread to all fifty states. The American Folklife Center’s collections include recordings of interviews with former slaves who were asked about their memories of becoming free. These are from several collections, anthologized in the presentation Voices from the Days of Slavery. It should be remembered that by the 1930s and early 1940s when most of these were documented, the former slaves were elderly, and most were freed when they were children or teenagers. Here are a few examples. One of the most memorable interviews in which a former slave describes the day he became free is not from Texas, but Skidaway Island, Georgia, where Wallace Quarterman was among those freed in the sea islands shortly after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863. He was interviewed in 1935 and says he was born in 1844, so he would have been about 19 when he was freed. When you listen to the recording, you will hear interviewer Zora Neale Huston ask him, “After they said you can go free, then what did you do?” Quarterman describes the newly freed slaves refusing work for pay on the plantation, preferring to go free. Then beats on a drum and sings the chorus from “Kingdom Coming,” an abolitionist song by Henry Clay Work (1862). He then says, “So we had a big big breaking up right there.” “The break up” or “the big break up” is what the end of slavery was commonly called in the South. (This is in part 3 of a 3 part recording. The other recordings and transcripts are available in links at the bottom of the record. In part 2 he recalls hearing that the Yankees were coming.) As a “big boy” in 1865, Billy McCrea, remembered the Union troops coming into Jasper, Texas. In this interview with John Lomax in 1940, He says he will be about 89 in October, so he would have been about 13. He recalls being impressed by the mules and horses, the cannons, and the blue uniforms of the soldiers, as any boy might be. He also remembers his master telling him and his mother that they were free. (This is part 2 of a 2 part recording.) Harriet Smith tells a story of the chaos and jubilation that ensued as she and other slaves on the plantation in Hays County, Texas learned that they were free from the Union soldiers to interviewer John Henry Faulk in 1941. She says that she was about 13 at the time of the “break up” of slavery. The second part of the recording (at the link) begins with her story of a friend, a girl who was also a slave, who had lost her arm in an accident with sugarcane grinding equipment. She talks about sitting on a fence watching the Union soldiers and their beautiful horses when her friend took off with one of the soldiers and she never saw her again. She talks about her family’s decision to stay on the plantation and continue working there. (Part 2 of a 4 part recording.) Laura Smally tells of learning she was free as a child on a plantation near Bellville, Texas. She describes the difficult conditions for slave children there in this 1941 interview with John Henry Faulk. She was a child when she was freed, she says she was about 10 years old when she and her mother left the plantation. She concludes the first segment of the interview with a mention of the annual celebration that would grow out of the freeing of slaves in Texas. When asked about the Civil War she says she remembers that her master went off to the war, and when he came back he did not tell his slaves that they were free. “He turned them loose on the 19th of June. That’s why, you know, we celebrate that day. Colored folks celebrate that day.” Later Faulk asks what happened the day she was freed (towards the end of part 4 of this 5 part interview), but she says she can not remember much. “But I, I remember, you know, the time you give them a big dinner, you know on the 19th.” Apparently she did not understand what the dinner was for on the day she was freed. “We didn’t know. They just thought, you know, were just feeding us, you know. Just had a long table. And just had, just a little of everything you want to eat, you know, and drink, you know. Now, and they say that was on the 19th — and everything you want to eat and drink. Well, you see, I didn’t know what that was for.” The process of freeing slaves in the United States was long and complicated, as each state came up with its own method of doing so in its own time, from 1777 when Vermont prohibited slavery until the passage of the 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, ratified on December 6th and adopted on December 18, 1865, finally ended legal slavery in the United States. Common in the northeast and mid-Atlantic states were laws that freed the last children born into slavery gradually, with a plan to release them as adults. The Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863 allowed Union forces to free slaves and attempt to recruit them by declaring that they were free. But so long as the war continued, the Confederate states resisted freeing their slaves. The Proclamation only applied to states “in rebellion against the United States,” so states that were still part of the Union where slaves were held could act to free slaves or not depending upon the will of state legislators and voters. It did signal that the end of legal slavery was nearing, but there was great variation on how states responded. It is often said that June 19th, 1865 marked the freeing of the last slaves in the United States. It did not. At that time Kentucky had debated when and how slaves in the state should be freed, but had not enacted a law to free them. Maryland had legislation to gradually free the children of slaves over time, and some slave owners had freed their slaves during the war, but many people were still enslaved. Other states, especially on the border north of the division between what had been the Confederacy and the Union still had some slaves legally owned at the time the 13th Amendment became law in December. Because of this complex history, different states may mark emancipation on different days, based on the release of slaves in that state. Some of us remember studying about the Emancipation Proclamation on or about September 22, as this coincides with President Lincoln’s 1862 statement of his intent to free slaves in 10 states if the rebellion did not end by January 1. This was the release of the preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation. Falling near the beginning of the school year, it is a convenient date for teachers to teach students about that history. The actual date the Proclamation came into effect coincides with New Year’s Day, while the anniversary of the amendment that freed the last slaves falls close to the winter holidays. There is a powerful need for many Americans to mark the day when slavery ended in the United States and share that across the nation. The laws and the documents we use to mark great events do not provide such a day. So it was up to the people to create their own day and their own ways of celebrating. The 19th of June is the day the people have chosen. It is a good day for a barbecue and other outdoor activities in much of the country. And so we have a celebration of the people and by the people that is still developing as people decide for themselves how to celebrate. We at the American Folklife Center would be interested to hear how you celebrate Juneteenth. What special foods are commonly served? Are there activities that you especially look forward to in each year? If you are willing to share, please do so in the comments at the end of this article. If you have photographs of Juneteenth celebrations, consider participating in the My Traditions project. [Project ended 2016] - The presentation from the Manuscripts Division: Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936-1938 contains many more narratives of former slaves written down by interviewers. Among the narratives of people who were formerly slaves in Texas is the story of Emma Taylor, who remembers that “One day mars say we’re all free and we have a big celebration, eating and dancing.” [Item number 420253]	<urn:uuid:2e4c9284-b4c0-4f15-914e-b0ab6fd2ba34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2016/06/juneteenth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00259.warc.gz	en	0.98793	2,090	3.328125	3	[ -0.3677794933319092, 0.3128741979598999, 0.26996278762817383, -0.09783580154180527, 0.20165471732616425, 0.07799306511878967, -0.416753888130188, -0.3527453541755676, -0.5531933307647705, 0.017598390579223633, 0.052830442786216736, 0.5719829797744751, -0.027945203706622124, -0.046919211745...	14	This weekend there will be barbecues, pies, home-made strawberry soda, and other treats that have become common features of Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery in the United States that has its roots in the joyful celebrations of newly-freed slaves in Texas at the end of the Civil War. It is thought to be the oldest continuous celebration of emancipation and, though it has waxed and waned in popularity over the last 150+ years, it has probably never been as strong a tradition as it is today. Because the 19th falls on a Sunday and Father’s Day this year, most large celebrations are planned for Saturday. On the 19th of June, 1865, from the balcony of the Ashton Villa in Galveston, Texas, Union General Gordon Granger read aloud “General Order #3″ that carried the message of the Emancipation Proclamation to Texas, and slaves in that state at last learned that they were free. Although the Proclamation was formally issued on January 1, 1863, the news of it had not reached slaves in most of Texas. Union troops then needed to enforce this order throughout a large state, so that slaves were not all released on the same day in Texas — but the 19th is the day that is commemorated. Spontaneous celebrations broke out as the news spread, and these gave rise to an annual events to mark the day. As some of these freed slaves traveled to nearby states to find relatives, they carried the tradition of celebrating June 19th with them and over time it spread to all fifty states. The American Folklife Center’s collections include recordings of interviews with former slaves who were asked about their memories of becoming free. These are from several collections, anthologized in the presentation Voices from the Days of Slavery. It should be remembered that by the 1930s and early 1940s when most of these were documented, the former slaves were elderly, and most were freed when they were children or teenagers. Here are a few examples. One of the most memorable interviews in which a former slave describes the day he became free is not from Texas, but Skidaway Island, Georgia, where Wallace Quarterman was among those freed in the sea islands shortly after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863. He was interviewed in 1935 and says he was born in 1844, so he would have been about 19 when he was freed. When you listen to the recording, you will hear interviewer Zora Neale Huston ask him, “After they said you can go free, then what did you do?” Quarterman describes the newly freed slaves refusing work for pay on the plantation, preferring to go free. Then beats on a drum and sings the chorus from “Kingdom Coming,” an abolitionist song by Henry Clay Work (1862). He then says, “So we had a big big breaking up right there.” “The break up” or “the big break up” is what the end of slavery was commonly called in the South. (This is in part 3 of a 3 part recording. The other recordings and transcripts are available in links at the bottom of the record. In part 2 he recalls hearing that the Yankees were coming.) As a “big boy” in 1865, Billy McCrea, remembered the Union troops coming into Jasper, Texas. In this interview with John Lomax in 1940, He says he will be about 89 in October, so he would have been about 13. He recalls being impressed by the mules and horses, the cannons, and the blue uniforms of the soldiers, as any boy might be. He also remembers his master telling him and his mother that they were free. (This is part 2 of a 2 part recording.) Harriet Smith tells a story of the chaos and jubilation that ensued as she and other slaves on the plantation in Hays County, Texas learned that they were free from the Union soldiers to interviewer John Henry Faulk in 1941. She says that she was about 13 at the time of the “break up” of slavery. The second part of the recording (at the link) begins with her story of a friend, a girl who was also a slave, who had lost her arm in an accident with sugarcane grinding equipment. She talks about sitting on a fence watching the Union soldiers and their beautiful horses when her friend took off with one of the soldiers and she never saw her again. She talks about her family’s decision to stay on the plantation and continue working there. (Part 2 of a 4 part recording.) Laura Smally tells of learning she was free as a child on a plantation near Bellville, Texas. She describes the difficult conditions for slave children there in this 1941 interview with John Henry Faulk. She was a child when she was freed, she says she was about 10 years old when she and her mother left the plantation. She concludes the first segment of the interview with a mention of the annual celebration that would grow out of the freeing of slaves in Texas. When asked about the Civil War she says she remembers that her master went off to the war, and when he came back he did not tell his slaves that they were free. “He turned them loose on the 19th of June. That’s why, you know, we celebrate that day. Colored folks celebrate that day.” Later Faulk asks what happened the day she was freed (towards the end of part 4 of this 5 part interview), but she says she can not remember much. “But I, I remember, you know, the time you give them a big dinner, you know on the 19th.” Apparently she did not understand what the dinner was for on the day she was freed. “We didn’t know. They just thought, you know, were just feeding us, you know. Just had a long table. And just had, just a little of everything you want to eat, you know, and drink, you know. Now, and they say that was on the 19th — and everything you want to eat and drink. Well, you see, I didn’t know what that was for.” The process of freeing slaves in the United States was long and complicated, as each state came up with its own method of doing so in its own time, from 1777 when Vermont prohibited slavery until the passage of the 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, ratified on December 6th and adopted on December 18, 1865, finally ended legal slavery in the United States. Common in the northeast and mid-Atlantic states were laws that freed the last children born into slavery gradually, with a plan to release them as adults. The Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863 allowed Union forces to free slaves and attempt to recruit them by declaring that they were free. But so long as the war continued, the Confederate states resisted freeing their slaves. The Proclamation only applied to states “in rebellion against the United States,” so states that were still part of the Union where slaves were held could act to free slaves or not depending upon the will of state legislators and voters. It did signal that the end of legal slavery was nearing, but there was great variation on how states responded. It is often said that June 19th, 1865 marked the freeing of the last slaves in the United States. It did not. At that time Kentucky had debated when and how slaves in the state should be freed, but had not enacted a law to free them. Maryland had legislation to gradually free the children of slaves over time, and some slave owners had freed their slaves during the war, but many people were still enslaved. Other states, especially on the border north of the division between what had been the Confederacy and the Union still had some slaves legally owned at the time the 13th Amendment became law in December. Because of this complex history, different states may mark emancipation on different days, based on the release of slaves in that state. Some of us remember studying about the Emancipation Proclamation on or about September 22, as this coincides with President Lincoln’s 1862 statement of his intent to free slaves in 10 states if the rebellion did not end by January 1. This was the release of the preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation. Falling near the beginning of the school year, it is a convenient date for teachers to teach students about that history. The actual date the Proclamation came into effect coincides with New Year’s Day, while the anniversary of the amendment that freed the last slaves falls close to the winter holidays. There is a powerful need for many Americans to mark the day when slavery ended in the United States and share that across the nation. The laws and the documents we use to mark great events do not provide such a day. So it was up to the people to create their own day and their own ways of celebrating. The 19th of June is the day the people have chosen. It is a good day for a barbecue and other outdoor activities in much of the country. And so we have a celebration of the people and by the people that is still developing as people decide for themselves how to celebrate. We at the American Folklife Center would be interested to hear how you celebrate Juneteenth. What special foods are commonly served? Are there activities that you especially look forward to in each year? If you are willing to share, please do so in the comments at the end of this article. If you have photographs of Juneteenth celebrations, consider participating in the My Traditions project. [Project ended 2016] - The presentation from the Manuscripts Division: Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936-1938 contains many more narratives of former slaves written down by interviewers. Among the narratives of people who were formerly slaves in Texas is the story of Emma Taylor, who remembers that “One day mars say we’re all free and we have a big celebration, eating and dancing.” [Item number 420253]	2,161	ENGLISH	1
Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg was a Swedish architect, businessman, diplomat and humanitarian. He is widely celebrated for saving tens of thousands of Jews during the later stages of World War II. While serving as Sweden’s special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944, Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory. He disapeared on 17 January 1945. Due to his courageous actions Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death. He was the second person ever to receive this honor, after Winston Churchill and unlike Churchill, neither of his parents had been born in the United States. Wallenberg is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia and Israel. Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among the Nations. Monuments have been dedicated to him, and streets have been named after him throughout the world. A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to “perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg.” It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals. Postage stamps have been issued in his honour by Australia, Hungary, Sweden, Canada and the United States. On 26 July 2012, he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress “in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust.” Raoul Wallenberg is the essence of Swedish diplomacy and a hero for us all.	<urn:uuid:b9905029-7d56-47f7-ad03-6c081d00ee0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.larskarlsson.com/?p=2214	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00239.warc.gz	en	0.98191	316	3.4375	3	[ 0.14177855849266052, 0.8671994805335999, 0.14523811638355255, 0.09817427396774292, 0.0772281289100647, 0.23320211470127106, 0.07225611060857773, 0.4217213988304138, 0.11788317561149597, 0.019593069329857826, 0.19364745914936066, -0.28075990080833435, 0.24119582772254944, 0.3079176545143127...	4	Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg was a Swedish architect, businessman, diplomat and humanitarian. He is widely celebrated for saving tens of thousands of Jews during the later stages of World War II. While serving as Sweden’s special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944, Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory. He disapeared on 17 January 1945. Due to his courageous actions Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death. He was the second person ever to receive this honor, after Winston Churchill and unlike Churchill, neither of his parents had been born in the United States. Wallenberg is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia and Israel. Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among the Nations. Monuments have been dedicated to him, and streets have been named after him throughout the world. A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to “perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg.” It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals. Postage stamps have been issued in his honour by Australia, Hungary, Sweden, Canada and the United States. On 26 July 2012, he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress “in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust.” Raoul Wallenberg is the essence of Swedish diplomacy and a hero for us all.	322	ENGLISH	1
One of the earliest Scottish Protestant martyrs, Helen Stark (or Stirke) was executed by ‘drowning in sack’ in Perth, Scotland. She was among a number of heretics, known as the ‘Perth Martyrs,’ who were condemned during the visitation of Cardinal David Beaton, Archbishop of St Andrews, in January 1543. Stark was charged with having refused to call upon the Virgin Mary in childbirth and having claimed that the Virgin had no special qualities that made her superior to other women. Along with her husband, she was also accused of disrupting a sermon that claimed there was no salvation without intercession and prayer to the saints. The pair confessed the charge, adding that it was people’s duty to bear testimony to the truth and their right not to suffer false doctrine. The townspeople sought to save the accused but to no avail, since the local priests refused to intercede for any found guilty of such crimes. Helen and her husband left several children, including their new baby, to the care of the townspeople.	<urn:uuid:378c6b40-013e-4d47-9a1f-00b2402ea95b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.saintkentigern.com/about-us/our-heritage/our-houses/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00074.warc.gz	en	0.988699	221	3.3125	3	[ -0.027926696464419365, 0.2146519273519516, -0.00944367703050375, 0.14694355428218842, 0.14762656390666962, 0.10829063504934311, 0.17956963181495667, 0.3093307614326477, 0.31204891204833984, 0.05304533988237381, -0.10792277753353119, -0.3837340474128723, 0.3689807057380676, -0.0221025627106...	12	One of the earliest Scottish Protestant martyrs, Helen Stark (or Stirke) was executed by ‘drowning in sack’ in Perth, Scotland. She was among a number of heretics, known as the ‘Perth Martyrs,’ who were condemned during the visitation of Cardinal David Beaton, Archbishop of St Andrews, in January 1543. Stark was charged with having refused to call upon the Virgin Mary in childbirth and having claimed that the Virgin had no special qualities that made her superior to other women. Along with her husband, she was also accused of disrupting a sermon that claimed there was no salvation without intercession and prayer to the saints. The pair confessed the charge, adding that it was people’s duty to bear testimony to the truth and their right not to suffer false doctrine. The townspeople sought to save the accused but to no avail, since the local priests refused to intercede for any found guilty of such crimes. Helen and her husband left several children, including their new baby, to the care of the townspeople.	213	ENGLISH	1
Johann Strauss II (October 25, 1825 – June 3, 1899; German: Johann Baptist Strauß; also known as Johann Baptist Strauss, Johann Strauss, Jr., or Johann Strauss the Younger) was an Austrian composer of light music, particularly dance music and operettas. He composed over 500 waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, and other types of dance music, as well as several operettas and a ballet. In his lifetime, he was known as "The Waltz King", and was largely responsible for the popularity of the waltz in Vienna during the 19th century. The gilded bronze statue of Johann Strauß II, is one of the best known monuments in Vienna. It was unveiled to the public on 26 June 1921 and is framed by a marble relief; it was made by Edmund Hellmer. The gilding was removed in 1935 and laid on again only in 1991.	<urn:uuid:e9bc9d10-7062-43b6-9a58-e147d3a18ec2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-statue-of-johann-strauss-ii-stadtpark-vienna-austria-25483787.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00370.warc.gz	en	0.988773	192	3.296875	3	[ 0.3496497869491577, 0.23899458348751068, 0.04540934041142464, -0.15705691277980804, -0.2676386833190918, 0.1339053511619568, -0.03262608125805855, 0.02668885700404644, 0.15004439651966095, -0.3257234990596771, -0.021836645901203156, -0.2614925801753998, -0.0013348282082006335, 0.3139846324...	1	Johann Strauss II (October 25, 1825 – June 3, 1899; German: Johann Baptist Strauß; also known as Johann Baptist Strauss, Johann Strauss, Jr., or Johann Strauss the Younger) was an Austrian composer of light music, particularly dance music and operettas. He composed over 500 waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, and other types of dance music, as well as several operettas and a ballet. In his lifetime, he was known as "The Waltz King", and was largely responsible for the popularity of the waltz in Vienna during the 19th century. The gilded bronze statue of Johann Strauß II, is one of the best known monuments in Vienna. It was unveiled to the public on 26 June 1921 and is framed by a marble relief; it was made by Edmund Hellmer. The gilding was removed in 1935 and laid on again only in 1991.	217	ENGLISH	1
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. Late Medieval Christianity, for the purpose of this series, is from the Great Schism in 1054 until the beginning of the Reformation in 1517, when Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the cathedral in Wittenberg. The most notable issue of this period was the move from the height of the Dark Ages in Europe to the Renaissance or Enlightenment. There was a recovery of learning, an increase of prosperity, and a move away from superstitious submission to Roman Catholic dogma. The Crusades played a large part in this, opening up trade routes and creating interaction with Byzantine Christians and Muslims, who had preserved much knowledge from ancient times. In Europe during late medieval Christianity, there were basically four main powers. Charlemagne had united most of southern Europe, but he had maintained submission to the pope. Thus the French king bore the title of "holy Roman emperor" and ruled all France plus some of Spain and Switzerland. The pope maintained governmental authority in Italy, and Germany controlled the lands north of France and Switzerland with varying levels of unity and central power. The fourth major power was England, which would have more power at the end of late medieval Christianity than at the beginning. From a worldly standpoint, the feudal system worked well for the Church and its clergy. Many of the clergy were landowners in late medieval Christianity, and where they were not, the Church could count on the nobles to share their profits from the peasants work. Most needed the approval of the church to maintain their power. Corruption, however, was rampant. Most clergy had bought their positions, the profits and power of which made it an extremely good investment. Often, bishops would purchase more than one position and rule over two or three sees (the area of a bishop's rule). The moral lives of the clergy were also atrocious, and many, if not most, kept a "housekeeper" that took care of more needs than the cleaning. It was normal by now for bishops and priests not to marry, but it was not Roman Catholic dogma. A reform movement begun by Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th century would lead to mandatory celibacy, but it did little to control the passions of the priests. Pope Leo IX, the very pope that began the Great Schism by excommunicating Constantinople in 1054, was the first of a series of popes who sought reform. Gregory VII (1073-1085) was the most active of these; however, when he went so far as to forbid kings to appoint and remove bishops, he was forcibly deposed by the holy Roman Emperor Henry IV. As mentioned, Bernard of Clairvaux began a reform movement in the 12th century. It took root because the monks—who in their monasteries did not have the political power nor the hedonistic lifestyles of the priests and bishops—were supportive of it. The Crusades never really accomplished their purpose, which was to recover the holy land from the infidel Muslims. They did, however, reestablish commerce between the Middle East and Europe, increasing trade and bringing a prosperity to the west that it had not had in centuries. This transformed late medieval Christianity. The increase in prosperity led to an increase in the middle class, an increase in cities, and an increase in learning. The learning was brought about as much by prosperity as it was by the renewed contact with the learning that had never been lost in the east. Both Islam and Byzantine Christianity had held on to the learning of their ancestors. The first crusade was called by Urban II in 1095. There were seven of them, the last three conducted in the 13th century. The only notable accomplishments were a temporary Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187 and a Latin Empire of Constantinople from 1204 to 1261, during which time the patriarch of Constantinople was actually subject to the Pope. One other accomplishment worth mentioning was the right to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem which Richard the Lion-Hearted negotiated with the sultan Saladin in 1187. As noted, the greatest accomplishment of the Crusades during late medieval Christianity was the increase in learning and trade. This was further facilitated by the Christian kingdoms of Europe beginning to push the Muslims from the Iberian peninsula (Spain). This push brought Christians into contact with the philosophy of Aristotle, which had affected Muslim scholarship for centuries. All of these were the "light at the end of the tunnel," which would bring about the end of the Dark Ages. The rise of cities in late medieval Christianity led to the creation of several new monastic orders called mendicant orders for their practice of supporting themselves by begging, which is much more easily done in cities than in the poverty-stricken countryside where peasants farmed. Peter Waldo began the mendicant orders, though he himself was rejected—and later excommunicated—by Rome. He and his followers were forced to flee to the Alps after being excommunicated by Pope Lucius III in 1184, where they became known as Waldensians or Waldenses. They referred to themselves as "the poor." The Waldensians would continue to preach poverty, obedience to Christ, and the priesthood of all believers for centuries. They were in many ways forerunners of the Reformation throughout late medieval Christianity, and they eventually joined the Swiss Reformation in the 16th century. He was followed by Francis of Assissi, who was blessed by Pope Innocent III. Francis was the son of a wealthy merchant, but he rejected both his lifestyle and his wealth to take up the preaching of the Gospel. Francis is probably most famous for his love of nature, referring to the heavenly bodies as "Brother Sun and Sister Moon." After Francis came Dominic of Guzmán. They were different from the Franciscans in their focus on study and the refutation of heresy. Both orders of monks, the Franciscans and the Dominicans, endure to this day. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	<urn:uuid:a96661b8-9c8d-40b5-9060-243efeb51815>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.christian-history.org/medieval-christianity-2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00203.warc.gz	en	0.986797	1,255	3.6875	4	[ -0.009138360619544983, 0.31053435802459717, -0.02114654704928398, -0.3420991897583008, -0.14048731327056885, -0.022162731736898422, -0.6497232913970947, 0.08420056104660034, 0.3224373459815979, 0.22484375536441803, -0.12317563593387604, 0.052386730909347534, 0.0230711679905653, -0.04589257...	1	Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. Late Medieval Christianity, for the purpose of this series, is from the Great Schism in 1054 until the beginning of the Reformation in 1517, when Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the cathedral in Wittenberg. The most notable issue of this period was the move from the height of the Dark Ages in Europe to the Renaissance or Enlightenment. There was a recovery of learning, an increase of prosperity, and a move away from superstitious submission to Roman Catholic dogma. The Crusades played a large part in this, opening up trade routes and creating interaction with Byzantine Christians and Muslims, who had preserved much knowledge from ancient times. In Europe during late medieval Christianity, there were basically four main powers. Charlemagne had united most of southern Europe, but he had maintained submission to the pope. Thus the French king bore the title of "holy Roman emperor" and ruled all France plus some of Spain and Switzerland. The pope maintained governmental authority in Italy, and Germany controlled the lands north of France and Switzerland with varying levels of unity and central power. The fourth major power was England, which would have more power at the end of late medieval Christianity than at the beginning. From a worldly standpoint, the feudal system worked well for the Church and its clergy. Many of the clergy were landowners in late medieval Christianity, and where they were not, the Church could count on the nobles to share their profits from the peasants work. Most needed the approval of the church to maintain their power. Corruption, however, was rampant. Most clergy had bought their positions, the profits and power of which made it an extremely good investment. Often, bishops would purchase more than one position and rule over two or three sees (the area of a bishop's rule). The moral lives of the clergy were also atrocious, and many, if not most, kept a "housekeeper" that took care of more needs than the cleaning. It was normal by now for bishops and priests not to marry, but it was not Roman Catholic dogma. A reform movement begun by Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th century would lead to mandatory celibacy, but it did little to control the passions of the priests. Pope Leo IX, the very pope that began the Great Schism by excommunicating Constantinople in 1054, was the first of a series of popes who sought reform. Gregory VII (1073-1085) was the most active of these; however, when he went so far as to forbid kings to appoint and remove bishops, he was forcibly deposed by the holy Roman Emperor Henry IV. As mentioned, Bernard of Clairvaux began a reform movement in the 12th century. It took root because the monks—who in their monasteries did not have the political power nor the hedonistic lifestyles of the priests and bishops—were supportive of it. The Crusades never really accomplished their purpose, which was to recover the holy land from the infidel Muslims. They did, however, reestablish commerce between the Middle East and Europe, increasing trade and bringing a prosperity to the west that it had not had in centuries. This transformed late medieval Christianity. The increase in prosperity led to an increase in the middle class, an increase in cities, and an increase in learning. The learning was brought about as much by prosperity as it was by the renewed contact with the learning that had never been lost in the east. Both Islam and Byzantine Christianity had held on to the learning of their ancestors. The first crusade was called by Urban II in 1095. There were seven of them, the last three conducted in the 13th century. The only notable accomplishments were a temporary Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187 and a Latin Empire of Constantinople from 1204 to 1261, during which time the patriarch of Constantinople was actually subject to the Pope. One other accomplishment worth mentioning was the right to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem which Richard the Lion-Hearted negotiated with the sultan Saladin in 1187. As noted, the greatest accomplishment of the Crusades during late medieval Christianity was the increase in learning and trade. This was further facilitated by the Christian kingdoms of Europe beginning to push the Muslims from the Iberian peninsula (Spain). This push brought Christians into contact with the philosophy of Aristotle, which had affected Muslim scholarship for centuries. All of these were the "light at the end of the tunnel," which would bring about the end of the Dark Ages. The rise of cities in late medieval Christianity led to the creation of several new monastic orders called mendicant orders for their practice of supporting themselves by begging, which is much more easily done in cities than in the poverty-stricken countryside where peasants farmed. Peter Waldo began the mendicant orders, though he himself was rejected—and later excommunicated—by Rome. He and his followers were forced to flee to the Alps after being excommunicated by Pope Lucius III in 1184, where they became known as Waldensians or Waldenses. They referred to themselves as "the poor." The Waldensians would continue to preach poverty, obedience to Christ, and the priesthood of all believers for centuries. They were in many ways forerunners of the Reformation throughout late medieval Christianity, and they eventually joined the Swiss Reformation in the 16th century. He was followed by Francis of Assissi, who was blessed by Pope Innocent III. Francis was the son of a wealthy merchant, but he rejected both his lifestyle and his wealth to take up the preaching of the Gospel. Francis is probably most famous for his love of nature, referring to the heavenly bodies as "Brother Sun and Sister Moon." After Francis came Dominic of Guzmán. They were different from the Franciscans in their focus on study and the refutation of heresy. Both orders of monks, the Franciscans and the Dominicans, endure to this day. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	1,287	ENGLISH	1
William Wells Brown William Wells Brown (ca. 1814-1884) was born in Lexington, Kentucky, the son of Elizabeth, a slave woman, and a white relative of his owner. After twenty years in slavery, Brown escaped to freedom in January 1834. He spent the next two years working on a Lake Erie steamboat and running fugitive slaves into Canada. In the summer 1834, he met and married Elizabeth Spooner, a free black woman; they had three daughters, one of whom died shortly after birth. Two years after his marriage, Brown moved to Buffalo, where he began his career in the abolitionist movement by regularly attending meetings of the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society, by boarding antislavery lecturers at his home, speaking at local abolitionist gatherings, and by travelling to Cuba and Haiti to investigate emigration possibilities. Brown’s abolitionist career was marked by a turning point in the summer of 1843 when Buffalo hosted a national antislavery convention and the National Convention of Colored Citizens. Brown attended both meetings, sat on several committees, and became friends with a number of black abolitionists, including Frederick Douglass and Charles Lenox Remond. Brown joined these two in their appeal to the power of moral suasion, their rejection of black antislavery violence (particularly the course espoused by Henry Highland Garnet in his “Address to the Slaves”), and their boycott of political abolitionism. Brown’s expanded service to the antislavery movement, his increasing sophistication as a speaker, and his growing reputation in the antislavery community brought an invitation to lecture before the American Anti-Slavery Society at its 1844 annual meeting in New York City; in May 1847, he was hired as a Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society lecture agent. Brown moved to Boston and by the end of the year, he had published the successful Narrative of his life. In 1849, he began a lecture tour of Britain and remained abroad until 1854. The length of his stay was conditioned by personal and political motives. He was exhilarated by the tour, had time to write, and enjoyed the benefits of reform circle society. He was also trying to recover from the dissolution of his marriage. Quite as important, once the Fugitive Slave Law was passed in 1850, it was dangerous for the escaped slave to return to America. Concern for Brown’s safety prompted British abolitionists to “purchase” his freedom in 1854. When Brown did return, he had written Clotel, the first novel published by an Afro-American, and was finishing St. Domingo, a work that suggests Brown’s growing antislavery militancy. The publication of those works as well as a travelogue, a play, and a compilation of antislavery songs established his reputation as the most prolific black literary figure of the mid-nineteenth century. During the remainder of his life, Brown lived in the Boston area and produced three major volumes of black history. During the last ten years of his life, he continued to travel, lecture, and write. He completed his last book, My Southern Home: Or, the South and Its People, in 1880.	<urn:uuid:5ddfcdbe-d821-4b64-9a0c-73e816c1fab4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://undergroundrailroad.org.uk/people-william-wells-brown/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00040.warc.gz	en	0.985215	666	3.421875	3	[ -0.34357836842536926, -0.3343358337879181, 0.11390285193920135, 0.7054736614227295, -0.23414301872253418, -0.18772274255752563, -0.12927815318107605, -0.3685961961746216, -0.49695825576782227, 0.1779438555240631, 0.18977239727973938, 0.011054085567593575, -0.40941858291625977, -0.278470873...	4	William Wells Brown William Wells Brown (ca. 1814-1884) was born in Lexington, Kentucky, the son of Elizabeth, a slave woman, and a white relative of his owner. After twenty years in slavery, Brown escaped to freedom in January 1834. He spent the next two years working on a Lake Erie steamboat and running fugitive slaves into Canada. In the summer 1834, he met and married Elizabeth Spooner, a free black woman; they had three daughters, one of whom died shortly after birth. Two years after his marriage, Brown moved to Buffalo, where he began his career in the abolitionist movement by regularly attending meetings of the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society, by boarding antislavery lecturers at his home, speaking at local abolitionist gatherings, and by travelling to Cuba and Haiti to investigate emigration possibilities. Brown’s abolitionist career was marked by a turning point in the summer of 1843 when Buffalo hosted a national antislavery convention and the National Convention of Colored Citizens. Brown attended both meetings, sat on several committees, and became friends with a number of black abolitionists, including Frederick Douglass and Charles Lenox Remond. Brown joined these two in their appeal to the power of moral suasion, their rejection of black antislavery violence (particularly the course espoused by Henry Highland Garnet in his “Address to the Slaves”), and their boycott of political abolitionism. Brown’s expanded service to the antislavery movement, his increasing sophistication as a speaker, and his growing reputation in the antislavery community brought an invitation to lecture before the American Anti-Slavery Society at its 1844 annual meeting in New York City; in May 1847, he was hired as a Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society lecture agent. Brown moved to Boston and by the end of the year, he had published the successful Narrative of his life. In 1849, he began a lecture tour of Britain and remained abroad until 1854. The length of his stay was conditioned by personal and political motives. He was exhilarated by the tour, had time to write, and enjoyed the benefits of reform circle society. He was also trying to recover from the dissolution of his marriage. Quite as important, once the Fugitive Slave Law was passed in 1850, it was dangerous for the escaped slave to return to America. Concern for Brown’s safety prompted British abolitionists to “purchase” his freedom in 1854. When Brown did return, he had written Clotel, the first novel published by an Afro-American, and was finishing St. Domingo, a work that suggests Brown’s growing antislavery militancy. The publication of those works as well as a travelogue, a play, and a compilation of antislavery songs established his reputation as the most prolific black literary figure of the mid-nineteenth century. During the remainder of his life, Brown lived in the Boston area and produced three major volumes of black history. During the last ten years of his life, he continued to travel, lecture, and write. He completed his last book, My Southern Home: Or, the South and Its People, in 1880.	681	ENGLISH	1
In the early summer of 1943 the decision was made to establish a separate cemetery for foreigners. The Reichswerke “Hermann-Göring” made the area that went by the old location name Jammertal available for this purpose. The area consisted of a small hill in an otherwise flat landscape, since the earth that was not needed for the development works had been deposited there. The terrain of the cemetery is organized according to a coordinate system—into fields, grave rows, and grave numbers. The dead were usually buried in single graves. The location of a grave was documented on index cards so that it is still possible today to locate the graves. In total, more than 4,000 victims from more than 15 nations were interred there. All ‘foreigners’ still had to be interred on the Cemetery Jammertal until 1951. Transfers to other Graves Only a few years after the end of the war, victims of various nationalities were disinterred from the Cemetery Jammertal and transferred to other cemeteries to their home countries or to honorary fields on other cemeteries and interred again. At the same time, all non-Germans who had died in the war were transferred from other cemeteries in the Salzgitter area to the central Honorary Cemetery Jammertal. The Memorial Place In the course of 1946, a structured laying-out of the cemetery was initiated. Walks were created and in September, the Allies built a monument in the center of the grave field. Additional obelisks for Soviet, Polish and Jewish victims as well as a wooden cross to commemorate the French concentration camp prisoners were put up. In the 70s, the cemetery was redesigned in a consistent way. The few, very diverse grave stones were removed. Metal plates with personal information were set into the ground at the places of 1235 graves, yet many graves are still not marked today. Five commemorative stones were the first monument that was contributed by the Germans. In November 2011 eight bookrests were set up at the entrance to the cemetery: apart from information about the history of the place one can find five metal books there which for the first time list all the known names of the victims. Following the coordinate system and the plan of the cemetery, visitors can find the graves.Formularbeginn	<urn:uuid:adaeff9f-d1c5-4b88-97dc-69a6d3482085>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gedenkstaette-salzgitter.de/english/cemetery-jammertal/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00308.warc.gz	en	0.983313	485	3.53125	4	[ -0.26105499267578125, 0.2671682834625244, 0.2691718339920044, 0.22672966122627258, -0.12501408159732819, 0.11398935317993164, -0.013861953280866146, 0.006064584944397211, -0.18944841623306274, -0.12720195949077606, 0.4650559723377228, -0.026634331792593002, -0.09570716321468353, 0.63500487...	14	In the early summer of 1943 the decision was made to establish a separate cemetery for foreigners. The Reichswerke “Hermann-Göring” made the area that went by the old location name Jammertal available for this purpose. The area consisted of a small hill in an otherwise flat landscape, since the earth that was not needed for the development works had been deposited there. The terrain of the cemetery is organized according to a coordinate system—into fields, grave rows, and grave numbers. The dead were usually buried in single graves. The location of a grave was documented on index cards so that it is still possible today to locate the graves. In total, more than 4,000 victims from more than 15 nations were interred there. All ‘foreigners’ still had to be interred on the Cemetery Jammertal until 1951. Transfers to other Graves Only a few years after the end of the war, victims of various nationalities were disinterred from the Cemetery Jammertal and transferred to other cemeteries to their home countries or to honorary fields on other cemeteries and interred again. At the same time, all non-Germans who had died in the war were transferred from other cemeteries in the Salzgitter area to the central Honorary Cemetery Jammertal. The Memorial Place In the course of 1946, a structured laying-out of the cemetery was initiated. Walks were created and in September, the Allies built a monument in the center of the grave field. Additional obelisks for Soviet, Polish and Jewish victims as well as a wooden cross to commemorate the French concentration camp prisoners were put up. In the 70s, the cemetery was redesigned in a consistent way. The few, very diverse grave stones were removed. Metal plates with personal information were set into the ground at the places of 1235 graves, yet many graves are still not marked today. Five commemorative stones were the first monument that was contributed by the Germans. In November 2011 eight bookrests were set up at the entrance to the cemetery: apart from information about the history of the place one can find five metal books there which for the first time list all the known names of the victims. Following the coordinate system and the plan of the cemetery, visitors can find the graves.Formularbeginn	501	ENGLISH	1
Many personalities in the world history have changed the way the society lived or treated some things and phenomena. People remember outstanding artists, famous politicians, and patrons that shaped the community’s view on beauty, values, and peaceful coexistence on the planet. At this point, one cannot forget to mention the world-known scientists, engineers, and inventors that altered the way industries develop and people live now, and created different things that were a sheer fiction in the past. Henry Ford was not the first person to invent the car, but he was the first to make the vehicle a reality for average middle-class citizens. Therefore, he can be regarded as a significant personality in the world history for his contribution to the people’s ability to save time moving over the long distances. Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 in Dearborn, in the family of William and Mary Ford. He became the first son who survived after birth. As a child, Ford demonstrated exactly those traits of character that were needed for a true successful, famous, and powerful leader. Henry managed to organize boys living in his neighborhood to construct some simple steam engines and water wheels. It was Ford’s own achievement that he learned so much about big steam engines as he made friends with people owing them. Being good at solving mechanical problems, Henry found how fix watches. Trying to create something from the details he had, Ford learned the basis of mechanical design by the method of trial and error. Being stubborn and persistent, Henry achieved what he aspired to. Being extremely interested in the engineering, mostly practical one that dealt with different mechanism, Ford went to Detroit, the city situated not far from his native town, in order to work as an apprentice machinist at the Michigan Car Company. Even though after three years of life in the city the man had to return home and help his parents, working with them in the farm, Henry did not forget his passion and continued to work on steam engines and sometimes did occasional stints in some factories in Detroit. At that time, Ford understood that he wanted to work for himself, creating something he was fond of – the mechanisms. In 1888, Ford married Clara Bryant, a girl he knew for many years since she grew in the neighboring farm. Ford used to say that he would not have achieved what he had if his wife did not support him. Clara tried to understand and share his passion, and was always ready to help with whatever she could. Since Ford was working irregular hours as a night engineer at the Edison Electric Illuminating Company and often came back very late, his wife did not make him do something about the house, but encouraged him to work over the project that became his dream – creating the horseless carriage. Feeling the support and belief in his forces, Ford tried even harder than ever to embody his pursuit. The work at Edison Electric Illuminating Company became a learning experience for Henry Ford since the man knew little about electricity. However, his lack of expertize was not an obstacle for him since after two years Ford was promoted to the chief engineer of the company. Despite his success in electricity business, Henry did not care much about promotion since it was not his primary interest. Similarly to some other individual amateurs, Ford became a ‘self-made’ engineer who strived to build the horseless carriage. The inventor experimented much, and with the assistance of his friends, he finally managed to create the first self-propelled vehicle of his own making in 1896. The machinery was called Quadricycle for it had four wheels. It was operated with the help of a tiller, similar to the one found in the boats. As the first model, the Quadricycle did not have the reverse movement ability; however, it was endowed with two forward speeds. Still, it was a great beginning since the engineer without special education and much money to buy expensive equipment and details needed for the vehicle managed to create the horseless carriage that operated on the force produced by an engine. This achievement marked the beginning of a new era in car building because this kind of transport was not the prerogative of rich people only. Ford’s persistence was celebrated after he made his second car in 1898. He managed to convince some influential people that his visions of the vehicle are real and possible to embody. Some businessmen, whom Henry convinced to invest in him, agreed to help him with the creation of the company producing and selling the horseless carriages. The beginning was extremely risky since Ford had no idea about running a business. Moreover, very few cars could be found in the streets; so, people did not trust the machineries produced by Ford’s company. His first trial was unsuccessful, as well as the second one. In order to return at least some amount of money he spent on his failing trials, Ford had to construct and in some cases drive racing cars. Since the vehicles he made drove faster than those created by other inventors, some additional financial backers decided to invest in his business. As a result, in 1903, Ford established the third automotive venture. The business was named in a usual for that time manner – Ford Motor Company. The establishment of the third company proved that Ford had an extremely valuable talent: he managed to convince influential people to support his enterprise even though two previous trials became the failing ventures. Starting his third company, Henry Ford hired young enthusiastic men who trusted Ford’s feeling about success and believed that his inventions would one day change the business into one of the largest car manufacturers in the country. The first car the company produced was called Model A. In the following years, the model was improved many times. In 1907, for example, the vehicle had four cylinders, cost $600, and was called Model N. This version of the horseless carriage became the best-selling vehicle in the whole country despite the fact that Ford started his third enterprise only four years before it was created. At that time, Ford wanted to produce the improved model at a smaller price so that most people could afford buying it. His pursuits led to creation of another version of motorcar in 1908. Model T, manufactured in 1908, differed much from the Quadricycle made in 1896. The steering mechanism was much easier. Moreover, it allowed one to drive the vehicle on rough roads, which was an important aspect at that time. The demand for a new model became extremely high since its benefits and price allowed more people to buy it. The low price of approximately $260 per a two-passenger runabout and easy operation mechanism resulted in the condition that half of all cars driven in 1918 were Model T vehicles. Ford aspired to produce as many vehicles as people could buy; so, in 1910, the company was relocated to the place where bigger manufacturing could be made. The major Ford’s aim became his revolutionary vision – production of the greatest number of cars at a cheaper price by the skilled employees who were decently paid. It is stated that in 1914, Ford paid $5 per day to each employee to make him responsible. At that time, the sum of $5 was equal to $110 in 2011; therefore, one can admit that ordinary mechanics at Ford Motor Company earned pretty much. The reason for rising wages was not only Ford’s desire to ensure that skilled workers continued working for his company. In the end of 1913, Henry’s team managed to develop a moving assembly line for motorcars. Ford and his workers combined the ideas they borrowed from the producers of watches, guns, and bicycles with their own ones, and car manufacturing became a never-ending process. His workers objected to the repetitive tasks they had to perform, working on the assembly line; so, many of them quitted after a few months. The company needed 14,000 workers to make the plant function properly, but in 1913, Ford had to hire 53,000 employees in order to meet the turnover. Therefore, Henry needed to raise wages in order to stop the increasing flow of the workforce. Moreover, he benefited from this decision as well as his workers received enough money and started buying the cars of their own making. In 1919, Ford decided to make the company a family-controlled business. For this reason, he bought the shares that other people possessed, making them millionaires, and appointed his son Edsel to the position of a president of the company. Actually, Ford was the only person who ran the company. However, the decision was unwise since, having absolute power, Ford rejected the suggestions about the creation of new models that could compete with more comfortable and stylish vehicles, such as Chevrolet. Even though his cars cost less, people started to choose those that were more expensive, but looked better and were endowed with more comfort. For this reason, the sales figures started to decline, and Henry Ford needed to do something about that. As the situation became extremely tough, in 1927, Ford stopped the production of the Model T. He designed a new type of vehicle, more stylish and comfortable, and named it Model A, like the first car he had made. The reason for that was the extreme distinction between those two models. In order to produce a new automobile, Ford decided to build a bigger plant in Dearborn so that the location was beneficial for the manufacturing process as iron and coal were delivered by the railway there. The factory was supposed to become the largest factory in the world since it did not focus on car production only, but also manufactured the components of the cars, such as glass, tires, and others. The new model could compete with other vehicles on the market for four years only before Ford replaced it with a new improved version. The company owner introduced an inexpensive V8 engine, which was comparatively light and could be broadly used. Still, the innovation was not enough to restore the former success of the business since General Motors and Chrysler Corporation moved Ford Motor Company to the third place. During the World War II, Ford was not eager to support the country’s decision to participate in it. However, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the USA participation was inevitable, and Henry’s plant became one of the largest suppliers of airplanes, tanks, engines, and jeeps. In 1943, Ford’s son died, and two years later, Henry officially placed his business under control of Edsel’s son Henry. On April 7, 1947, Henry Ford died in Dearborn. Even though Henry Ford was not the first person to invent the car, he made a significant contribution to the way the society lived and to people’s access to the results of the technological advancements. He created the vehicle that served to bring more comfort to human existence. Since the price of the Model A and then Model T was very low in comparison to that of cars produced by other companies, not only rich citizens, but also those having an average income could afford having a means of transport that allowed them to travel over the longer distances than those covered in the horse carriages. To conclude, Henry Ford was an outstanding personality in the history of the United States. He did not invent the car, or make some important international decisions as many American presidents did, but he made the technology more accessible to the average middle-class people. Starting from the hand-made Quadricycle and acquiring knowledge by the method of trial and error, Henry Ford later managed to create the vehicle that was cheap enough for the ordinary people to afford it. Moreover, his company provided workplace for at least 14,000 employees. Ford raised their wages to make sure that the work was done carefully. Even though his business was less successful in the last decades of his life, Henry Ford made a great contribution to the development of automobile production and fostered healthy competition between car manufacturers, making them improve their products.	<urn:uuid:a1f49d33-8676-4984-a1c1-6a74ec492162>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primethesis.com/essays/history/henry-ford.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00470.warc.gz	en	0.989816	2,402	3.3125	3	[ -0.05928201973438263, 0.4360705018043518, 0.6966022849082947, 0.20040377974510193, -0.47052833437919617, 0.20814192295074463, 0.34341827034950256, 0.24765993654727936, -0.2220456302165985, -0.22112858295440674, 0.023783378303050995, 0.14742545783519745, -0.2038985937833786, 0.1877951323986...	7	Many personalities in the world history have changed the way the society lived or treated some things and phenomena. People remember outstanding artists, famous politicians, and patrons that shaped the community’s view on beauty, values, and peaceful coexistence on the planet. At this point, one cannot forget to mention the world-known scientists, engineers, and inventors that altered the way industries develop and people live now, and created different things that were a sheer fiction in the past. Henry Ford was not the first person to invent the car, but he was the first to make the vehicle a reality for average middle-class citizens. Therefore, he can be regarded as a significant personality in the world history for his contribution to the people’s ability to save time moving over the long distances. Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 in Dearborn, in the family of William and Mary Ford. He became the first son who survived after birth. As a child, Ford demonstrated exactly those traits of character that were needed for a true successful, famous, and powerful leader. Henry managed to organize boys living in his neighborhood to construct some simple steam engines and water wheels. It was Ford’s own achievement that he learned so much about big steam engines as he made friends with people owing them. Being good at solving mechanical problems, Henry found how fix watches. Trying to create something from the details he had, Ford learned the basis of mechanical design by the method of trial and error. Being stubborn and persistent, Henry achieved what he aspired to. Being extremely interested in the engineering, mostly practical one that dealt with different mechanism, Ford went to Detroit, the city situated not far from his native town, in order to work as an apprentice machinist at the Michigan Car Company. Even though after three years of life in the city the man had to return home and help his parents, working with them in the farm, Henry did not forget his passion and continued to work on steam engines and sometimes did occasional stints in some factories in Detroit. At that time, Ford understood that he wanted to work for himself, creating something he was fond of – the mechanisms. In 1888, Ford married Clara Bryant, a girl he knew for many years since she grew in the neighboring farm. Ford used to say that he would not have achieved what he had if his wife did not support him. Clara tried to understand and share his passion, and was always ready to help with whatever she could. Since Ford was working irregular hours as a night engineer at the Edison Electric Illuminating Company and often came back very late, his wife did not make him do something about the house, but encouraged him to work over the project that became his dream – creating the horseless carriage. Feeling the support and belief in his forces, Ford tried even harder than ever to embody his pursuit. The work at Edison Electric Illuminating Company became a learning experience for Henry Ford since the man knew little about electricity. However, his lack of expertize was not an obstacle for him since after two years Ford was promoted to the chief engineer of the company. Despite his success in electricity business, Henry did not care much about promotion since it was not his primary interest. Similarly to some other individual amateurs, Ford became a ‘self-made’ engineer who strived to build the horseless carriage. The inventor experimented much, and with the assistance of his friends, he finally managed to create the first self-propelled vehicle of his own making in 1896. The machinery was called Quadricycle for it had four wheels. It was operated with the help of a tiller, similar to the one found in the boats. As the first model, the Quadricycle did not have the reverse movement ability; however, it was endowed with two forward speeds. Still, it was a great beginning since the engineer without special education and much money to buy expensive equipment and details needed for the vehicle managed to create the horseless carriage that operated on the force produced by an engine. This achievement marked the beginning of a new era in car building because this kind of transport was not the prerogative of rich people only. Ford’s persistence was celebrated after he made his second car in 1898. He managed to convince some influential people that his visions of the vehicle are real and possible to embody. Some businessmen, whom Henry convinced to invest in him, agreed to help him with the creation of the company producing and selling the horseless carriages. The beginning was extremely risky since Ford had no idea about running a business. Moreover, very few cars could be found in the streets; so, people did not trust the machineries produced by Ford’s company. His first trial was unsuccessful, as well as the second one. In order to return at least some amount of money he spent on his failing trials, Ford had to construct and in some cases drive racing cars. Since the vehicles he made drove faster than those created by other inventors, some additional financial backers decided to invest in his business. As a result, in 1903, Ford established the third automotive venture. The business was named in a usual for that time manner – Ford Motor Company. The establishment of the third company proved that Ford had an extremely valuable talent: he managed to convince influential people to support his enterprise even though two previous trials became the failing ventures. Starting his third company, Henry Ford hired young enthusiastic men who trusted Ford’s feeling about success and believed that his inventions would one day change the business into one of the largest car manufacturers in the country. The first car the company produced was called Model A. In the following years, the model was improved many times. In 1907, for example, the vehicle had four cylinders, cost $600, and was called Model N. This version of the horseless carriage became the best-selling vehicle in the whole country despite the fact that Ford started his third enterprise only four years before it was created. At that time, Ford wanted to produce the improved model at a smaller price so that most people could afford buying it. His pursuits led to creation of another version of motorcar in 1908. Model T, manufactured in 1908, differed much from the Quadricycle made in 1896. The steering mechanism was much easier. Moreover, it allowed one to drive the vehicle on rough roads, which was an important aspect at that time. The demand for a new model became extremely high since its benefits and price allowed more people to buy it. The low price of approximately $260 per a two-passenger runabout and easy operation mechanism resulted in the condition that half of all cars driven in 1918 were Model T vehicles. Ford aspired to produce as many vehicles as people could buy; so, in 1910, the company was relocated to the place where bigger manufacturing could be made. The major Ford’s aim became his revolutionary vision – production of the greatest number of cars at a cheaper price by the skilled employees who were decently paid. It is stated that in 1914, Ford paid $5 per day to each employee to make him responsible. At that time, the sum of $5 was equal to $110 in 2011; therefore, one can admit that ordinary mechanics at Ford Motor Company earned pretty much. The reason for rising wages was not only Ford’s desire to ensure that skilled workers continued working for his company. In the end of 1913, Henry’s team managed to develop a moving assembly line for motorcars. Ford and his workers combined the ideas they borrowed from the producers of watches, guns, and bicycles with their own ones, and car manufacturing became a never-ending process. His workers objected to the repetitive tasks they had to perform, working on the assembly line; so, many of them quitted after a few months. The company needed 14,000 workers to make the plant function properly, but in 1913, Ford had to hire 53,000 employees in order to meet the turnover. Therefore, Henry needed to raise wages in order to stop the increasing flow of the workforce. Moreover, he benefited from this decision as well as his workers received enough money and started buying the cars of their own making. In 1919, Ford decided to make the company a family-controlled business. For this reason, he bought the shares that other people possessed, making them millionaires, and appointed his son Edsel to the position of a president of the company. Actually, Ford was the only person who ran the company. However, the decision was unwise since, having absolute power, Ford rejected the suggestions about the creation of new models that could compete with more comfortable and stylish vehicles, such as Chevrolet. Even though his cars cost less, people started to choose those that were more expensive, but looked better and were endowed with more comfort. For this reason, the sales figures started to decline, and Henry Ford needed to do something about that. As the situation became extremely tough, in 1927, Ford stopped the production of the Model T. He designed a new type of vehicle, more stylish and comfortable, and named it Model A, like the first car he had made. The reason for that was the extreme distinction between those two models. In order to produce a new automobile, Ford decided to build a bigger plant in Dearborn so that the location was beneficial for the manufacturing process as iron and coal were delivered by the railway there. The factory was supposed to become the largest factory in the world since it did not focus on car production only, but also manufactured the components of the cars, such as glass, tires, and others. The new model could compete with other vehicles on the market for four years only before Ford replaced it with a new improved version. The company owner introduced an inexpensive V8 engine, which was comparatively light and could be broadly used. Still, the innovation was not enough to restore the former success of the business since General Motors and Chrysler Corporation moved Ford Motor Company to the third place. During the World War II, Ford was not eager to support the country’s decision to participate in it. However, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the USA participation was inevitable, and Henry’s plant became one of the largest suppliers of airplanes, tanks, engines, and jeeps. In 1943, Ford’s son died, and two years later, Henry officially placed his business under control of Edsel’s son Henry. On April 7, 1947, Henry Ford died in Dearborn. Even though Henry Ford was not the first person to invent the car, he made a significant contribution to the way the society lived and to people’s access to the results of the technological advancements. He created the vehicle that served to bring more comfort to human existence. Since the price of the Model A and then Model T was very low in comparison to that of cars produced by other companies, not only rich citizens, but also those having an average income could afford having a means of transport that allowed them to travel over the longer distances than those covered in the horse carriages. To conclude, Henry Ford was an outstanding personality in the history of the United States. He did not invent the car, or make some important international decisions as many American presidents did, but he made the technology more accessible to the average middle-class people. Starting from the hand-made Quadricycle and acquiring knowledge by the method of trial and error, Henry Ford later managed to create the vehicle that was cheap enough for the ordinary people to afford it. Moreover, his company provided workplace for at least 14,000 employees. Ford raised their wages to make sure that the work was done carefully. Even though his business was less successful in the last decades of his life, Henry Ford made a great contribution to the development of automobile production and fostered healthy competition between car manufacturers, making them improve their products.	2,448	ENGLISH	1
Though education is as old as humanity is in African societies, imperialists like to insinuate that missionaries found Africans in the tabula rasa state: blank, being nothing, knowing nothing. The opposite, however, is true. Since time immemorial, Africans have possessed massive bodies of knowledge ranging from survival and life skills, food production to conservation. This system of education is called Traditional African Education (TAE). Fafunwa defines TAE as, “the form of learning in Africa traditional societies in which knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the tribe were passed from elders to children by means of oral instruction and practical activities.” This was done so as to produce an individual who is honest, respectable, skilled, cooperative and conforms to the social order of the day. TAE had no formal schools and teachers were mainly volunteers and thus unpaid. It was mainly concerned with helping young ones transition smoothly into adulthood. Children were given essential skills like, “provision of food, shelter, clothing and general mastery of the environment.” (Farrant). Some objectives of TAE are: “to develop the child’s latent physical skills; to develop character; to inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority; to acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour; to understand, appreciate and promote cultural heritage of the community at large.” (Fafunwa). From the objectives above, it is clear that Africans used education to prepare children for life, a belief held closely by John Dewey who said, “Education is a social process; education is growth; education is not preparation for life but life itself.” The success of TAE was hinged on inherent perspectives, experiences, language, and customs, teaching from the known to unknown. TAE teachers used the schema that the child brought from home as the basis for whatever they taught them. What boys were taught was based on what they learnt from their fathers especially in areas of farming. Girls were taught taking over from what their mothers taught them in areas of crafts, cooking, food preservation and child rearing practices, something that has been inculcated into modern day Home Economics. Since TAE was a way of protecting, preserving and developing indigenous knowledge, skills and culture, other scholars refer to it as indigenous education. Philosophical bases of TAE according to Mushia are: preparationism, functionalism, communalism, holisticism and perennialism. Mushi writes that preparationism implies that the role of teaching and learning was to equip boys and girls with skills appropriate to their gender in preparation for their role in the society. Africans gender children from birth, education consequently, follows the same route. Functionalism he says was a base through which knowledge, skills, and attitudes imparted were relevant to the socio-economic activities of an individual. That thus made education a utility of value. This was demonstrated through farming, fishing, building, smelting and even child rearing practices. The communalism base means that, learners acquired a common spirit to work and life. Also, the means of production were owned communally. Compassion and cooperation were taught as communities pulled resources together to help the less fortunate. In Botswana communalism played out through: mafisa, molaletsa, motshelo and majako. Communalism protected the less fortunate from poverty and lack. On this Farrant writes, “it is seen as a collective activity and mutual help that extends from family to community at large.” Raising children was the responsibility of the whole community. The responsibility to correct a child that misbehaves was for all. Holisticism was a philosophy that emphasised multiple skilling. When for instance a learner learnt about farming, they were expected to learn other skills like how to prepare farms, hoeing, cooking and food preservation. The learner was expected to master all the skills learnt. The skills were Children were also taught about the different seasons and their impact on both animals and the environment. As adults, they would then know for instance, the importance of capitalising on the early rains for food production, given they would know what happens when winter catches crops not yet mature and ready for harvest. The young were also taught how to study nature as nature always communicates. Africans didn’t need the weatherman to tell them whether there will be floods or draught, they read nature. Conservation was taught through taboos. It was a taboo to cut certain trees at a particular time and some trees were never cut as they were said not to be good for firewood. In Botswana examples of such trees are monato and mosetlha. Some animals were not hunted. Also, hunting was seasonal, done off the ploughing season. This ensured game multiplies. The idea of totem animals is a conservation strategy, as tribes are banned from eating animals said to be their totem. The religious aspects of TAE were taught by elders and priests. This is because Africans believe that spirituality is a key. It was also believed a person not in sync with their spirituality can’t relate. Also, children were taught the tribe’s oral traditions that in most cases carried deep spiritual lessons. Values like the respect for the sanctity of life were taught under religion. Also taught was the importance of traditional and religious ceremonies, dances and initiation rites. Discipline was emphasised as a way of teaching self-control. Bad behaviour was punished to deter a repeat and good behaviour was rewarded as motivation. Marriage was taught and encouraged as it was treasured as that which is foundational to community life. TAE believed that teaching a child strengthened the community and as such it did not have dropouts, progression was automatic and testing was done practically and a learner repeated until they mastered the skill. The selling point of TAE was its use of mother tongue and total reliance on cultural norms values and practices. A child came as they are and education added to what was already there. Also, TAE was never about competition but uplifting humanity. Learners helped each other grow. Pedagogies were pragmatic and learner centred: games, riddles, folklores and acting were used. Summing this as Nyerere said, “At the dictactic level the teaching process took the form of stories, legends, riddles and songs; while at the practical level individuals enacted what they had learnt dictactically, by imitating what their elders had performed”. Learners for instance, could be asked to build a hut for a less fortunate member of the community as a way of displaying skills gained and giving back to the community. The latter has been infused into modern day Development Studies and in some instances Design and Technology. In a nutshell, TAE if strategically beefed up with parts of Western education can remove Africa from its state of desperate and desolate poverty. Africa’s problems started when colonisers thought they could teach an African the Western way. An example of TAE in Botswana is bojale and bogwera. “Education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another.” (G.K. Chesterton). *Mmaotho Segotso is an educator and former teacher. She is a new contributor to Mmegi and readers can expect more of her insights on education	<urn:uuid:679e1b57-65f2-4c55-b5ec-c772008ba363>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?aid=83899&dir=2019/december/20	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00119.warc.gz	en	0.983227	1,542	3.65625	4	[ 0.12551020085811615, 0.8360421657562256, 0.19686372578144073, 0.2906990647315979, 0.1413501650094986, 0.08214941620826721, 0.24660442769527435, -0.1329086720943451, -0.35652920603752136, 0.10901350528001785, 0.3257564306259155, -0.5300969481468201, 0.044822290539741516, 0.1753741204738617,...	4	Though education is as old as humanity is in African societies, imperialists like to insinuate that missionaries found Africans in the tabula rasa state: blank, being nothing, knowing nothing. The opposite, however, is true. Since time immemorial, Africans have possessed massive bodies of knowledge ranging from survival and life skills, food production to conservation. This system of education is called Traditional African Education (TAE). Fafunwa defines TAE as, “the form of learning in Africa traditional societies in which knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the tribe were passed from elders to children by means of oral instruction and practical activities.” This was done so as to produce an individual who is honest, respectable, skilled, cooperative and conforms to the social order of the day. TAE had no formal schools and teachers were mainly volunteers and thus unpaid. It was mainly concerned with helping young ones transition smoothly into adulthood. Children were given essential skills like, “provision of food, shelter, clothing and general mastery of the environment.” (Farrant). Some objectives of TAE are: “to develop the child’s latent physical skills; to develop character; to inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority; to acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour; to understand, appreciate and promote cultural heritage of the community at large.” (Fafunwa). From the objectives above, it is clear that Africans used education to prepare children for life, a belief held closely by John Dewey who said, “Education is a social process; education is growth; education is not preparation for life but life itself.” The success of TAE was hinged on inherent perspectives, experiences, language, and customs, teaching from the known to unknown. TAE teachers used the schema that the child brought from home as the basis for whatever they taught them. What boys were taught was based on what they learnt from their fathers especially in areas of farming. Girls were taught taking over from what their mothers taught them in areas of crafts, cooking, food preservation and child rearing practices, something that has been inculcated into modern day Home Economics. Since TAE was a way of protecting, preserving and developing indigenous knowledge, skills and culture, other scholars refer to it as indigenous education. Philosophical bases of TAE according to Mushia are: preparationism, functionalism, communalism, holisticism and perennialism. Mushi writes that preparationism implies that the role of teaching and learning was to equip boys and girls with skills appropriate to their gender in preparation for their role in the society. Africans gender children from birth, education consequently, follows the same route. Functionalism he says was a base through which knowledge, skills, and attitudes imparted were relevant to the socio-economic activities of an individual. That thus made education a utility of value. This was demonstrated through farming, fishing, building, smelting and even child rearing practices. The communalism base means that, learners acquired a common spirit to work and life. Also, the means of production were owned communally. Compassion and cooperation were taught as communities pulled resources together to help the less fortunate. In Botswana communalism played out through: mafisa, molaletsa, motshelo and majako. Communalism protected the less fortunate from poverty and lack. On this Farrant writes, “it is seen as a collective activity and mutual help that extends from family to community at large.” Raising children was the responsibility of the whole community. The responsibility to correct a child that misbehaves was for all. Holisticism was a philosophy that emphasised multiple skilling. When for instance a learner learnt about farming, they were expected to learn other skills like how to prepare farms, hoeing, cooking and food preservation. The learner was expected to master all the skills learnt. The skills were Children were also taught about the different seasons and their impact on both animals and the environment. As adults, they would then know for instance, the importance of capitalising on the early rains for food production, given they would know what happens when winter catches crops not yet mature and ready for harvest. The young were also taught how to study nature as nature always communicates. Africans didn’t need the weatherman to tell them whether there will be floods or draught, they read nature. Conservation was taught through taboos. It was a taboo to cut certain trees at a particular time and some trees were never cut as they were said not to be good for firewood. In Botswana examples of such trees are monato and mosetlha. Some animals were not hunted. Also, hunting was seasonal, done off the ploughing season. This ensured game multiplies. The idea of totem animals is a conservation strategy, as tribes are banned from eating animals said to be their totem. The religious aspects of TAE were taught by elders and priests. This is because Africans believe that spirituality is a key. It was also believed a person not in sync with their spirituality can’t relate. Also, children were taught the tribe’s oral traditions that in most cases carried deep spiritual lessons. Values like the respect for the sanctity of life were taught under religion. Also taught was the importance of traditional and religious ceremonies, dances and initiation rites. Discipline was emphasised as a way of teaching self-control. Bad behaviour was punished to deter a repeat and good behaviour was rewarded as motivation. Marriage was taught and encouraged as it was treasured as that which is foundational to community life. TAE believed that teaching a child strengthened the community and as such it did not have dropouts, progression was automatic and testing was done practically and a learner repeated until they mastered the skill. The selling point of TAE was its use of mother tongue and total reliance on cultural norms values and practices. A child came as they are and education added to what was already there. Also, TAE was never about competition but uplifting humanity. Learners helped each other grow. Pedagogies were pragmatic and learner centred: games, riddles, folklores and acting were used. Summing this as Nyerere said, “At the dictactic level the teaching process took the form of stories, legends, riddles and songs; while at the practical level individuals enacted what they had learnt dictactically, by imitating what their elders had performed”. Learners for instance, could be asked to build a hut for a less fortunate member of the community as a way of displaying skills gained and giving back to the community. The latter has been infused into modern day Development Studies and in some instances Design and Technology. In a nutshell, TAE if strategically beefed up with parts of Western education can remove Africa from its state of desperate and desolate poverty. Africa’s problems started when colonisers thought they could teach an African the Western way. An example of TAE in Botswana is bojale and bogwera. “Education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another.” (G.K. Chesterton). *Mmaotho Segotso is an educator and former teacher. She is a new contributor to Mmegi and readers can expect more of her insights on education	1,477	ENGLISH	1
Exactly ninety years ago from this month, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was born. He was a social activist, humanitarian, and Baptist minister from Atlanta, Georgia. King played an important role in the American civil rights movement from the 1950s until his assassination in 1968. Dr. King strived for equal rights for African Americans and all victims of injustice through non-violence. Inspired by his faith and the peaceful teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, King used the power of his words as well as peaceful demonstrations to fight for the equality of all people. He famously used this peaceful approach during the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the 1963 March on Washington. In this day and age, celebrating Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is more important than ever before. Dr. King was born on January 15, 1929 in Georgia to a pastor and a former school teacher. He was the second child of Martin Luther King Sr., and Alberta Williams King. Dr. King was a gifted student growing up. He skipped ninth and twelfth grade and attended Morehouse College at the young age of 15. After graduating, he attended Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania in 1948. There he earned a Bachelor of Divinity degree, won a fellowship, and was elected president of his class. Dr. King then enrolled at Boston University and earned his doctorate in systematic theology two years later. While he was studying in Boston, he met Coretta Scott, a young singer at the time attending the New England Conservatory of Music. They married in 1953, settled down in Montgomery, Alabama, and went on to have four children. Dr. Martin Luther King was the pastor at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in 1954. While he was serving as a pastor, Rosa Parks got arrested for refusing to give up her seat on the bus to a white man. Following this, the Montgomery Bus Boycott formed. Most African Americans refused to ride the public bus system in Montgomery at that time. In February of 1956, Dr. King was arrested on charges of conspiracy. The boycott lasted 382 days, and the Supreme Court ultimately ruled that racial segregation on public transportation was illegal. In 1957 the Southern Christian Leadership Conference was formed. The goal of the organization was to fight for civil rights by peaceful protests that were based on the writings of Thoreau and actions of Gandhi. The protests and demonstrations helped to form the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Dr. King had been arrested countless times for his activism for civil rights. In 1963, there were numerous sit-ins, boycotts, and marches to protest against segregation in restaurants. In one of these protests, Dr. King was arrested again. While in jail, he wrote his famous “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” encouraging people to protest against unjust laws and unequal treatment. On August 28, 1963 Dr. Martin Luther King gave his inspiring “I Have a Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial. There were roughly 250,000 demonstrators in attendance. The speech, which shared his vision for the future, was a call for peace and equality for African Americans. Dr. King referenced the Declaration of Independence saying, “This nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.’” A quote that is more relevant today than ever before. In 1963, King was named Time Magazine’s Man of the Year. The next year in 1964 he received the Noble Peace Prize, making him the youngest person ever to receive the award. On March 7, 1965 a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama was attempted. The first attempt was met with police brutality that ended up on the televisions of millions of Americans. The images that were seen on television led to people not previously involved, beginning to speak up for change. The march was attempted again, and the protestors were able to hear Dr. King speak at the Capitol on March 25, 1965. Three years later on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. He was shot while standing on the balcony at a motel in Memphis, Tennessee. King died at the age of 39. It was a truly devastating moment in American history. After his death, Michigan Congressman John Conyers Jr. proposed to make MLK Jr.’s birthday a national holiday. Making MLK Jr. Day a national holiday was not without controversy. On November 1983 President Ronald Reagan signed a bill to officially celebrate the holiday on every third Monday of January starting in 1986. By 2000, all 50 U.S. states officially recognized MLK Jr. Day as a national holiday. Martin Luther King Jr. made great strides in the quest for equality. His accomplishments during the American Civil Rights movement were vast. King’s advocation for the equal rights of African Americans laid the foundation for equality of other minorities including myself. Being mixed-race and born in Russia, the civil rights movement has benefitted my family and I and I feel grateful that I live in a country that fought for and won equal rights for all people. Today the United States is closer to the dream that King had said in his speech in 1963, all thanks to him. As a nation of people from different cultures and backgrounds we have come a long way, but there is still more to accomplish and that’s why celebrating MLK Jr. Day in this day and age is just as important now as ever before.	<urn:uuid:59f2b67d-0280-4b6b-9898-dbf059d303fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.patriotweek.org/single-post/2019/01/22/Why-Do-We-Celebrate-MLK-Jr-Day	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00499.warc.gz	en	0.984811	1,117	3.703125	4	[ -0.1443525105714798, 0.7533341646194458, 0.5035942792892456, -0.5111920833587646, -0.6607121229171753, 0.2710854113101959, 0.22570699453353882, 0.01788753643631935, -0.28290820121765137, 0.5009949803352356, -0.0991082489490509, 0.3270912766456604, 0.06794199347496033, -0.03153424710035324,...	3	Exactly ninety years ago from this month, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was born. He was a social activist, humanitarian, and Baptist minister from Atlanta, Georgia. King played an important role in the American civil rights movement from the 1950s until his assassination in 1968. Dr. King strived for equal rights for African Americans and all victims of injustice through non-violence. Inspired by his faith and the peaceful teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, King used the power of his words as well as peaceful demonstrations to fight for the equality of all people. He famously used this peaceful approach during the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the 1963 March on Washington. In this day and age, celebrating Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is more important than ever before. Dr. King was born on January 15, 1929 in Georgia to a pastor and a former school teacher. He was the second child of Martin Luther King Sr., and Alberta Williams King. Dr. King was a gifted student growing up. He skipped ninth and twelfth grade and attended Morehouse College at the young age of 15. After graduating, he attended Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania in 1948. There he earned a Bachelor of Divinity degree, won a fellowship, and was elected president of his class. Dr. King then enrolled at Boston University and earned his doctorate in systematic theology two years later. While he was studying in Boston, he met Coretta Scott, a young singer at the time attending the New England Conservatory of Music. They married in 1953, settled down in Montgomery, Alabama, and went on to have four children. Dr. Martin Luther King was the pastor at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in 1954. While he was serving as a pastor, Rosa Parks got arrested for refusing to give up her seat on the bus to a white man. Following this, the Montgomery Bus Boycott formed. Most African Americans refused to ride the public bus system in Montgomery at that time. In February of 1956, Dr. King was arrested on charges of conspiracy. The boycott lasted 382 days, and the Supreme Court ultimately ruled that racial segregation on public transportation was illegal. In 1957 the Southern Christian Leadership Conference was formed. The goal of the organization was to fight for civil rights by peaceful protests that were based on the writings of Thoreau and actions of Gandhi. The protests and demonstrations helped to form the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Dr. King had been arrested countless times for his activism for civil rights. In 1963, there were numerous sit-ins, boycotts, and marches to protest against segregation in restaurants. In one of these protests, Dr. King was arrested again. While in jail, he wrote his famous “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” encouraging people to protest against unjust laws and unequal treatment. On August 28, 1963 Dr. Martin Luther King gave his inspiring “I Have a Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial. There were roughly 250,000 demonstrators in attendance. The speech, which shared his vision for the future, was a call for peace and equality for African Americans. Dr. King referenced the Declaration of Independence saying, “This nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.’” A quote that is more relevant today than ever before. In 1963, King was named Time Magazine’s Man of the Year. The next year in 1964 he received the Noble Peace Prize, making him the youngest person ever to receive the award. On March 7, 1965 a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama was attempted. The first attempt was met with police brutality that ended up on the televisions of millions of Americans. The images that were seen on television led to people not previously involved, beginning to speak up for change. The march was attempted again, and the protestors were able to hear Dr. King speak at the Capitol on March 25, 1965. Three years later on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. He was shot while standing on the balcony at a motel in Memphis, Tennessee. King died at the age of 39. It was a truly devastating moment in American history. After his death, Michigan Congressman John Conyers Jr. proposed to make MLK Jr.’s birthday a national holiday. Making MLK Jr. Day a national holiday was not without controversy. On November 1983 President Ronald Reagan signed a bill to officially celebrate the holiday on every third Monday of January starting in 1986. By 2000, all 50 U.S. states officially recognized MLK Jr. Day as a national holiday. Martin Luther King Jr. made great strides in the quest for equality. His accomplishments during the American Civil Rights movement were vast. King’s advocation for the equal rights of African Americans laid the foundation for equality of other minorities including myself. Being mixed-race and born in Russia, the civil rights movement has benefitted my family and I and I feel grateful that I live in a country that fought for and won equal rights for all people. Today the United States is closer to the dream that King had said in his speech in 1963, all thanks to him. As a nation of people from different cultures and backgrounds we have come a long way, but there is still more to accomplish and that’s why celebrating MLK Jr. Day in this day and age is just as important now as ever before.	1,205	ENGLISH	1
The 'Forty-five is the familiar name given, originally mostly by sympathizers, to the Jacobite rising of 1745-6, starting in the Scottish highlands, in favour of the exiled Stuart dynasty. There were two important Jacobite risings in the 18th century, threatening the possibility of the restoration of the Stuart dynasty, of which the 'forty-five was the last: the first was the 'fifteen, of 1715-6. Those who are not sympathizers call The 'Forty-five the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745-6. It was led by 'Bonny Prince Charlie (the Young Pretender), who led his army as far into England as Derby. They retreated from the superior Hanoverian forces into Scotland, where at the battle of Culloden (near Inverness) they were routed on 16th April 1746. The prince went into hiding, and after many adventures, escaped to France in September. This was the end of any realistic hopes for the restoration of the Stuarts. Forty-Five may be written as '45. If it is written as words, it may be marked with various uses of hyphen (or none) and capital letters. - A Jacobite who had joined Prince Charles' army was said to have been "out in the Forty-five"; his father might have been "out in the Fifteen". OED (1897; revised by 1968)records three other meanings of Forty-Five which may be useful to readers of AWE: - "b. Card-playing. A game in which each trick counts five and the game is forty-five. Also forty-fives. - c. A revolver of ·45 calibre. U.S. - d. A 45 r.p.m. 7-inch microgroove gramophone record; also written 45." (The other usual sizes of mechanical record-players were the 78, and the l.p., which played at 33 1/3) r.p.m.)	<urn:uuid:188f8ae0-169a-44bd-afc7-760bc7cdfde4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://hull-awe.org.uk/index.php/%27Forty-Five	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00199.warc.gz	en	0.98071	424	3.34375	3	[ -0.46590179204940796, 0.14964161813259125, 0.23378534615039825, 0.018817640841007233, -0.021497081965208054, 0.19222211837768555, 0.055175330489873886, 0.1359957754611969, -0.014747356064617634, -0.031582482159137726, 0.004165989346802235, -0.07598266750574112, 0.31808027625083923, -0.0785...	1	The 'Forty-five is the familiar name given, originally mostly by sympathizers, to the Jacobite rising of 1745-6, starting in the Scottish highlands, in favour of the exiled Stuart dynasty. There were two important Jacobite risings in the 18th century, threatening the possibility of the restoration of the Stuart dynasty, of which the 'forty-five was the last: the first was the 'fifteen, of 1715-6. Those who are not sympathizers call The 'Forty-five the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745-6. It was led by 'Bonny Prince Charlie (the Young Pretender), who led his army as far into England as Derby. They retreated from the superior Hanoverian forces into Scotland, where at the battle of Culloden (near Inverness) they were routed on 16th April 1746. The prince went into hiding, and after many adventures, escaped to France in September. This was the end of any realistic hopes for the restoration of the Stuarts. Forty-Five may be written as '45. If it is written as words, it may be marked with various uses of hyphen (or none) and capital letters. - A Jacobite who had joined Prince Charles' army was said to have been "out in the Forty-five"; his father might have been "out in the Fifteen". OED (1897; revised by 1968)records three other meanings of Forty-Five which may be useful to readers of AWE: - "b. Card-playing. A game in which each trick counts five and the game is forty-five. Also forty-fives. - c. A revolver of ·45 calibre. U.S. - d. A 45 r.p.m. 7-inch microgroove gramophone record; also written 45." (The other usual sizes of mechanical record-players were the 78, and the l.p., which played at 33 1/3) r.p.m.)	439	ENGLISH	1
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Mass. Her father, Edward Dickinson, was a lawyer and leading citizen of Amherst. Her mother was Emily Norcross Dickinson. Emily had an older brother, William Austin, and a younger sister, Lavinia. Emily Dickinson had more formal education than most women of her time. As her father was serving in Congress, she got a chance to meet the Reverend Charles Wadsworth. He was the subject of her love poems. After her schooling, which included one year at the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, she became increasingly reclusive and lived out her entire life in the family home. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Her illness compelled her to remain indoors with her eyes heavily bandaged for months at a time. These extended periods of sensory deprivation caused her to seek solace in writing and to convert her poems into replacements for her injured eyes. Many poems discuss her physical pain; many mention such topics as optics, astronomy, light, or the sun; Summing up, her poetry reflects the intensity of the struggles with the religious ideas, and deals essentially with nature, love, and death. In all these poems, she used her personal experience as a tool for discussing philosophical and religious matter and led her, finally, to conceive a system of meta poetics in which she served as a translator or mediator between Gods will and human experience. Upon her death, her sister, Lavinia, discovered more than 1700 poems hidden in various places. Three volumes of poems were published between 1891 and 1896 and the remainder by 1945. Emily Dickinson stands as one of the truly great American Poets of the 19th century. According to me, It seems to me that she was familiar with the poetic theories of Edgar Allan Poe. Both had been using the subjects like love, nature, doubt and faith repeatedly used in their poems. They are called the Sad Poets in American Poetry. For her, Poetry was a part of life. One of the Critics, Editor Thomas Higginson asked her to define poetry, she gave a subjective, emotional response: If I read a book and it makes my whole body so cold that no fire can ever warm me, I know that is poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my heart were taken off, I know that is poetry. This was her love for poetry. According to some critics, Dickinson had no abstract theory of poetry. Some critics have associated her with the New England Tradition as she was been characterized to be shy, withdrawn, to say little, but to convey much. Her poems tends toward epigrammatic, the concentrated, carefully wrought, gemlike lyric, whose mastery of ambiguity, of allusion, of compressed syntax, of the lyric outburst, is a central. Conversely, Some literary men of her time saw Dickinsons poems to be nothing special about and attributed her experiments in rhyme and rhythm to the naivete of an untaught lady poet with a tin ear. Some critics in the present time thinks that she cannot be considered a major poet because she writes tiny poems. In the poem, Because I Could not wait for death, she talks about death. The whole theme of the poem is Death. Indeed, she has the ability to reach into the fact of human death. Here, she pose of having already died before she writes this poem. While in some poems, we can see her as approaching death. In the verse, Because I could not stop for Death, He kindly stopped for me; she used Personification to represent death as a person. After reading the whole poet, it can be seen that she is one of the fearless person (poet). If the fearlessness ran out, she had her courage, and after that her heart-stopping recklessness. This poems seems to be in Iambic beat. This is the Dramatic poetry poetry. In the beginning of the poem, she is pose as dead. As she could not wait for death, death stopped for her. Death, as personified, came to pick her up. In the vehicle, there were only two passenger, poet herself, and Death, the Immortality. No body knows the speed of death. In the journey, she had to abandoned her labor and her leisure for his (deaths) civility. So death is dominating in the journey of the soul to the heaven or hell. But in this poem, it is shown that without any haste, they went to all the places of her rememberance like school where children and may be herself might have spent time, wrestling ground, field of gazing grain, the setting sun.	<urn:uuid:53098f1a-1b04-400b-aeff-3156b8c440b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/emily-elizabeth-dickinson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00360.warc.gz	en	0.985752	972	3.4375	3	[ 0.10950632393360138, -0.17740923166275024, 0.19278404116630554, 0.3203786015510559, 0.20770972967147827, -0.1917666494846344, 0.08728402853012085, 0.33150696754455566, -0.6781541109085083, -0.18407908082008362, 0.05141855776309967, -0.13848358392715454, -0.09594373404979706, -0.21431897580...	1	Emily Elizabeth Dickinson Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Mass. Her father, Edward Dickinson, was a lawyer and leading citizen of Amherst. Her mother was Emily Norcross Dickinson. Emily had an older brother, William Austin, and a younger sister, Lavinia. Emily Dickinson had more formal education than most women of her time. As her father was serving in Congress, she got a chance to meet the Reverend Charles Wadsworth. He was the subject of her love poems. After her schooling, which included one year at the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, she became increasingly reclusive and lived out her entire life in the family home. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Her illness compelled her to remain indoors with her eyes heavily bandaged for months at a time. These extended periods of sensory deprivation caused her to seek solace in writing and to convert her poems into replacements for her injured eyes. Many poems discuss her physical pain; many mention such topics as optics, astronomy, light, or the sun; Summing up, her poetry reflects the intensity of the struggles with the religious ideas, and deals essentially with nature, love, and death. In all these poems, she used her personal experience as a tool for discussing philosophical and religious matter and led her, finally, to conceive a system of meta poetics in which she served as a translator or mediator between Gods will and human experience. Upon her death, her sister, Lavinia, discovered more than 1700 poems hidden in various places. Three volumes of poems were published between 1891 and 1896 and the remainder by 1945. Emily Dickinson stands as one of the truly great American Poets of the 19th century. According to me, It seems to me that she was familiar with the poetic theories of Edgar Allan Poe. Both had been using the subjects like love, nature, doubt and faith repeatedly used in their poems. They are called the Sad Poets in American Poetry. For her, Poetry was a part of life. One of the Critics, Editor Thomas Higginson asked her to define poetry, she gave a subjective, emotional response: If I read a book and it makes my whole body so cold that no fire can ever warm me, I know that is poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my heart were taken off, I know that is poetry. This was her love for poetry. According to some critics, Dickinson had no abstract theory of poetry. Some critics have associated her with the New England Tradition as she was been characterized to be shy, withdrawn, to say little, but to convey much. Her poems tends toward epigrammatic, the concentrated, carefully wrought, gemlike lyric, whose mastery of ambiguity, of allusion, of compressed syntax, of the lyric outburst, is a central. Conversely, Some literary men of her time saw Dickinsons poems to be nothing special about and attributed her experiments in rhyme and rhythm to the naivete of an untaught lady poet with a tin ear. Some critics in the present time thinks that she cannot be considered a major poet because she writes tiny poems. In the poem, Because I Could not wait for death, she talks about death. The whole theme of the poem is Death. Indeed, she has the ability to reach into the fact of human death. Here, she pose of having already died before she writes this poem. While in some poems, we can see her as approaching death. In the verse, Because I could not stop for Death, He kindly stopped for me; she used Personification to represent death as a person. After reading the whole poet, it can be seen that she is one of the fearless person (poet). If the fearlessness ran out, she had her courage, and after that her heart-stopping recklessness. This poems seems to be in Iambic beat. This is the Dramatic poetry poetry. In the beginning of the poem, she is pose as dead. As she could not wait for death, death stopped for her. Death, as personified, came to pick her up. In the vehicle, there were only two passenger, poet herself, and Death, the Immortality. No body knows the speed of death. In the journey, she had to abandoned her labor and her leisure for his (deaths) civility. So death is dominating in the journey of the soul to the heaven or hell. But in this poem, it is shown that without any haste, they went to all the places of her rememberance like school where children and may be herself might have spent time, wrestling ground, field of gazing grain, the setting sun.	987	ENGLISH	1
The story goes like this: Joseph and Mary arrive at the sleepy town of Bethlehem in the middle of the night. Mary is already in labour and sits on a donkey while Joseph desperately tries to find a room in one of the local inns, but he’s unsuccessful. Desperately he begs one reluctant innkeeper for any place at all where Mary could give birth to her baby. The innkeeper finally relents and makes room for them in a stable. We get this story from reading one verse in Luke Chapter 2. She gave birth to her first child, a son. She wrapped him snugly in strips of cloth (swaddling clothes) and laid him in a manger (an animal feeding trough) because there was no room for them in the inn. But this is not at all how the birth of Jesus happened, so let me set the record straight. Firstly, Joseph and Mary arrived in Bethlehem well before Mary was due to give birth. The Bible says, “While they were there, the time came for the baby to be born.” So, they were in Bethlehem already. They didn’t arrive the night before. Secondly, Joseph and Mary were both from the royal line of King David. Joseph was from Bethlehem, and so he would be well known in the town. His extended family would open their homes – especially to a woman about to give birth to a baby. A Humble Start So, what does the Bible mean when it says, “because there was no room for them in the inn”? The word rendered “inn” in Luke 2:7 is elsewhere translated in the New Testament as “guest room” (Gk. Kataluma. Cf. Mark 14:14; Luke 22:11). The guest room was unavailable, probably because someone else was staying there. Typical village homes in first-century Palestine would have a couple of rooms. One was the family room, where the family would live, cook, and eat during the day and sleep at night. Next to it was a guest room (kataluma). At the end of the family room, steps led down to the stable. The mangers (feeding troughs) were positioned at the end of the family room so the animals could feed when they were hungry. There was no solid wall between the family room and the stable. The New International Bible gets the translation right: “And she gave birth to her firstborn, a son. She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no guest room available for them” (Luke 2:7). And so, Mary gave birth to Jesus in the family room of a private house with one of the mangers making the perfect cradle for the newborn king. And then came the visitors. The First Visitors The Shepherds were the first to hear about the Messiah. Shepherds were at the bottom of the social hierarchy in Israel. They were poor, unclean peasants – and they were asked to visit Jesus, but they would have been afraid, “But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid. I bring you good news that will cause great joy for all the people. Today in the town of David, a Savior has been born to you; he is the Messiah, the Lord. This will be a sign to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger” – just like a poor, peasant baby in a regular house, not a mansion!” (Luke 2:10-11). A Saviour for All Jesus came for the poor, the lowly and the rejected – but He also came for the wealthy and wise. The next guests were the wise men from the East. They were probably wealthy gentiles from Arabia – the only place where the trees grew from which frankincense and myrrh were harvested. Gold was also mined in Arabia, and only the very rich would own it. In the 1920s, a British scholar, E.F.F. Bishop, visited a Bedouin tribe in Jordan. The Muslim tribe was called al-Kokabani – meaning, “Those who study or follow the planets.” Bishop asked the tribal elders why they called themselves by that name. They told him it was because their ancestors followed the planets and had traveled west to Palestine to show honour to the great prophet Jesus when he was born. The birth of Jesus the Messiah therefore broke down all the barriers between people: Jew and Gentile, rich and poor, royal and lowly, male and female – and His life continued to do the same. And that’s the Christian message, the Christmas message, today. Peace on earth and goodwill to all. There’s plenty of room for Jesus, now it’s up to each of us to make room for him in our lives.	<urn:uuid:643abe59-674c-4cda-afdd-76dbecae326f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://baysidechurch.com.au/myths-surrounding-the-birth-of-jesus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00490.warc.gz	en	0.986498	1,022	3.359375	3	[ -0.04305111616849899, 0.15756598114967346, -0.04282321035861969, 0.19302073121070862, -0.11368612945079803, 0.09580793976783752, 0.08807030320167542, 0.2690349817276001, 0.20188775658607483, 0.2082636058330536, -0.19931158423423767, 0.13311029970645905, 0.1177036464214325, 0.18412578105926...	2	The story goes like this: Joseph and Mary arrive at the sleepy town of Bethlehem in the middle of the night. Mary is already in labour and sits on a donkey while Joseph desperately tries to find a room in one of the local inns, but he’s unsuccessful. Desperately he begs one reluctant innkeeper for any place at all where Mary could give birth to her baby. The innkeeper finally relents and makes room for them in a stable. We get this story from reading one verse in Luke Chapter 2. She gave birth to her first child, a son. She wrapped him snugly in strips of cloth (swaddling clothes) and laid him in a manger (an animal feeding trough) because there was no room for them in the inn. But this is not at all how the birth of Jesus happened, so let me set the record straight. Firstly, Joseph and Mary arrived in Bethlehem well before Mary was due to give birth. The Bible says, “While they were there, the time came for the baby to be born.” So, they were in Bethlehem already. They didn’t arrive the night before. Secondly, Joseph and Mary were both from the royal line of King David. Joseph was from Bethlehem, and so he would be well known in the town. His extended family would open their homes – especially to a woman about to give birth to a baby. A Humble Start So, what does the Bible mean when it says, “because there was no room for them in the inn”? The word rendered “inn” in Luke 2:7 is elsewhere translated in the New Testament as “guest room” (Gk. Kataluma. Cf. Mark 14:14; Luke 22:11). The guest room was unavailable, probably because someone else was staying there. Typical village homes in first-century Palestine would have a couple of rooms. One was the family room, where the family would live, cook, and eat during the day and sleep at night. Next to it was a guest room (kataluma). At the end of the family room, steps led down to the stable. The mangers (feeding troughs) were positioned at the end of the family room so the animals could feed when they were hungry. There was no solid wall between the family room and the stable. The New International Bible gets the translation right: “And she gave birth to her firstborn, a son. She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no guest room available for them” (Luke 2:7). And so, Mary gave birth to Jesus in the family room of a private house with one of the mangers making the perfect cradle for the newborn king. And then came the visitors. The First Visitors The Shepherds were the first to hear about the Messiah. Shepherds were at the bottom of the social hierarchy in Israel. They were poor, unclean peasants – and they were asked to visit Jesus, but they would have been afraid, “But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid. I bring you good news that will cause great joy for all the people. Today in the town of David, a Savior has been born to you; he is the Messiah, the Lord. This will be a sign to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger” – just like a poor, peasant baby in a regular house, not a mansion!” (Luke 2:10-11). A Saviour for All Jesus came for the poor, the lowly and the rejected – but He also came for the wealthy and wise. The next guests were the wise men from the East. They were probably wealthy gentiles from Arabia – the only place where the trees grew from which frankincense and myrrh were harvested. Gold was also mined in Arabia, and only the very rich would own it. In the 1920s, a British scholar, E.F.F. Bishop, visited a Bedouin tribe in Jordan. The Muslim tribe was called al-Kokabani – meaning, “Those who study or follow the planets.” Bishop asked the tribal elders why they called themselves by that name. They told him it was because their ancestors followed the planets and had traveled west to Palestine to show honour to the great prophet Jesus when he was born. The birth of Jesus the Messiah therefore broke down all the barriers between people: Jew and Gentile, rich and poor, royal and lowly, male and female – and His life continued to do the same. And that’s the Christian message, the Christmas message, today. Peace on earth and goodwill to all. There’s plenty of room for Jesus, now it’s up to each of us to make room for him in our lives.	997	ENGLISH	1
Text: Forging the Republic: Revolution & the New Nation (1754-1820s) [Image of colonial tapestry] Audio: In this lecture, I'm going to cover the major military and political challenges from the late colonial period on through the early years of the republic. Text: French & Indian War (1754-1763) [Map of Prewar Boundaries, 1754, and Postwar Boundaries, 1763, of North American colonies) Audio: During the 17th and 18th Century, there were several wars that began in Europe and naturally spilled over into the colonies of those powers in the western hemisphere. And I'm going to cover the last and most significance of them which was the French and Indian War which turned out to be a subset of the broader Seven Years War was which was actually a global conflict. To some extent you could legitimately call it the first world war. In any case, as shown on the map on the left-hand side here from 1754, the 13 Colonies under British rule had been developing with their western and northern boundaries constrained by the French Colonial Empire. And it was not uncommon for the French to cultivate friendships with nearby Native American tribes to harass these British Colonies. This was always a source of tension and in 1754 a major war was about to breakout and I want to say a little bit about how it started, how it was fought, and ultimately its consequences in building us towards the American Revolution that will break out in the 1770s. Ironically, it was none other than George Washington who would play a central role in the outbreak of the French and Indian War. At the time he was what was called a provincial officer meaning rather than being a regularly commission British officer he wore a British uniform as an officer for the Virginia Colony. And at the time, you see here on the map at the left the area with the diagonal hash marks including the Ohio River Valley, this was territory disputed between Great Britain and France, and George Washington was tasked by the governor of Virginia with leading an expedition into the Ohio River Valley, not to look for trouble, certainly not to start a war, but to signal England's presence, to signal England's interest in that area. Actually, to some extent it was more the interest of the Virginia's governor and investors who were looking to expand into that territory and make a profit. The British Government was actually, really very reluctant to pick a fight with the French. But anyway Washington was tasked with what was essentially a diplomatic mission, to find any French forces that might be in the area and just to tactfully but firmly indicate both Virginia and England's interest in that part of the world. What ended up happening, to make a long story short, was that there was an incident in the spring of 1754 where Washington and his Indian allies ended up engaging a French expedition in a brief skirmish in which Washington took the French force prisoner and Washington's Indian allies ended up slaughtering wounded French prisoners and Washington really lost control of the situation temporarily which did not reflect well on his leadership. The surviving French prisoners were allowed to return to their authorities and as this story got out it ended up being the flashpoint for the French and Indian War which helped then to bring on war in Europe and a global conflict. Now in fairness to George Washington, a major war was about to break out one way or another. Major alliances were being formed in Europe. The whole process was gradually in motion, so if it wasn't this incidence there would have been some other flashpoint that would have cropped up shortly thereafter. But I do bring this up because George Washington, while certainly nobody questioned his bravery but there was some concern among British authorities over how he'd handle this situation out in the Ohio River Valley at a place that was called Jumonville's Glen named after the French officer who was slaughtered by Washington's Indian allies. Today, it sits in Western Pennsylvania. So the French and Indian War gets underway and in its earliest stages, at least in North America, it goes rather well for the French. The British are a bit slow to adapt to a frontier style of fighting. As a matter of fact, to take us back to George Washington for a moment, eventually after Washington's expedition and into the Ohio River Valley, he ended up as a staff officer for a major British force that had been sent over from Europe to try to capture a French Fort in the vicinity of what is today, Pittsburgh. So it was heading back into the same disputed territory in the Ohio River Valley. And this force under the command of a British General Braddock ended up being ambushed by French and Indian forces. And although it was a British defeat, George Washington helped to keep it from being a complete rout. While having several horses shout out from underneath him in the midst of battle, Washington was able to organize British defenses after their commanding officer was killed and basically, make an orderly enough retreat that the entire British force was not slaughtered. But again, this is somewhat akin, if you're a baseball fan, to hitting 300 hundred on a team that finishes in the basement of your division. When you're performing well in a losing effort you're not going to get quite the same level of respect for it. But Washington will continue to serve in the Virginia militia during the war and gradually the war will go better for the British, in large part because the success of the Royal Navy makes it very difficult for the French to continue to bring troops and reinforcements across the Atlantic. So eventually, British forces with their Colonial American allies, fighting in their own units under overall British command, eventually this Anglo American partnership of British regulars and Colonial forces will ultimately win this war. One of the high points was the capture of Quebec shown there along the St. Lawrence River, one of the last major strongholds of the French. But this victory, in the French and Indian war, in many ways is actually going to complicate and ultimately poison relations between England and her 13 Colonies so it is going to be a bittersweet triumph. But just to finish covering the French and Indian war itself, by the time the conflict comes to an end in 1763 and a peace treaty is arranged to cover the entire Seven Years War on a global scale, what ends up happening as shown in the map on your right is that the French are essentially kicked off the mainland of the North American continent. Other than some fishing rights off of eastern Canada, the French have no more colonial possessions on the mainland of North America. So it is of course, at the face of it a huge victory for the British Empire and certainly by extension it would seem to be a real benefit for the 13 colonies because they no longer have that French threat on their western and northern frontiers. But as I am about to cover, it is not quite that simple. And I should also mention in its relevance to this lecture on U.S. history that George Washington emerged from the French and Indian war, at the time he was Colonel Washington, but he emerged from the war rather frustrated because he never got the regular commission in the British Army that he wanted. That would definitely have been a step up from being a provincial or colonial officer. And he was never allowed into that rather aristocratic elite and that's something that would definitely chafe on him. And as a matter of fact, some historians say that as you look at all of the circumstances that gradually moved the colonies towards rebellion against England, if George Washington had gotten that commission that he wanted and had gone on to be a career officer in the British Army, it is certainly possible that he never would have become a patriot when the revolution broke out. In fact he might have been a loyalist and actually fought against the rebellion. Now there are many factors to consider there and I don't want to get off onto a tangent but I just throw that out there for some food for thought. Text: Consequences of French & Indian War No French threat on the frontier to create a common enemy for colonists and British Empire Possibility of enhanced westward expansion for colonist – not welcomed in London Weakened relations between the Crown and the Thirteen Colonies thanks to a “culture clash” from military partnership Audio: So let me turn to the significance of the French and Indian war as a factor moving this land down the road towards a rebellion against British authority. First of all to some extent, having a common enemy had given American colonists and British authorities a common cause, something to bind them together even if there were tensions on other levels. And now this overwhelming defeat of the French had to some extent removed the self-interest for these two groups to continue to cooperate with one another to at least the same degree as they had previously. And one of the issues that very quickly becomes a problem between many colonists and the British government is that with the 13 colonies growing so rapidly there was naturally a tremendous push for westward expansion. And there was a feeling that victory over the French now made that possible. As I'm going to be covering a little bit more in a moment, British politicians, the British crown generally had a different view on this subject. Because England had various trade agreements they were forming with Native American tribes on the frontier. Tribes that of course were not looking to have large numbers of white settlers pouring onto their lands. The British governments feeling that it was better to curb the expansion of the 13 colonies, keep things peaceful on the frontier so that you could continue to have commercial arrangements with Native American tribes and also quite frankly, so that these 13 colonies would not grow so powerful that there would be more of an impulse towards independence. The colonies would be more controllable if they were not allowed to have this breakneck expansion. So this is one issue that's going to represent a real collision between colonial interests and those of the mother country. And for the final consequence of the French and Indian war, I'd like to return to the subject of the military culture of the 18th century and how it affected Anglo American relations during the French and Indian war. In European armies the officer corps was almost entirely composed of aristocrats. And in case that's not a term you deal with regularly, an aristocrat is just someone who holds a formal title bestowed upon him by a monarch. And there are various levels of aristocrats, barons, dukes, counts, etc. and I don't pretend to know the exact hierarchy there. But again, you look at European armies of the 18th century and their officer class is almost entirely made up of aristocrats. And not only were these officers aristocrats but they tended towards the higher levels of the upper class. And promotions in these armies typically had to be purchased which added to the sense of a class barrier in how European army structured themselves. And needless to say this was not a meritocratic arrangement. It often times was not so much about your actual performance that got you ahead but about having connections and having the appropriate funds to buy your next rank. Now the British were not quite as extreme in these practices as other nations but the trend hold in their case. So meanwhile let's go back to a provincial officer such as George Washington. Now someone like Washington represented the upper crust of colonial society to the extent that you could really say it had an upper crust. In colonial America those who were the elites were non as the gentry class. They did not have formal titles by and large because the few British aristocrats who came to the 13 colonies tended not to survive its harsher conditions. But the gentry class of colonial America aspired to emulate their British counterparts. But even your wealthiest colonials such as John Hancock of Massachusetts or George Washington of Virginia were equivalent in resources to only the very lowest level of the British aristocracy. They paled in comparison and frankly they knew it. They often felt as though they were treated as yokels or rubes by British regular officers of the more elite background. So you can add to what you know about Washington here, a certain feeling of inadequacy that the colonial gentry class just did not measure up to its British counterparts. Now meanwhile, if we shift to the other half of the army, if you will, if we shift to the lower ranks, I mean today we call them the enlisted ranks but since European militaries relied heavily on forcing its citizens into the army, I can't really call their lower ranks enlisted. I mean, some did volunteer but in many cases it was a coerced arrangement. So if we look at the lower ranks of the British army and its colonial counterparts, the situation was almost completely reversed. In the case of European militaries it was common to both higher mercenaries and scape of the dregs of your own society to fill your manpower needs. So prisoners and men passed out in taverns and brothels might well find themselves conscripted into their nation's army or navy. In the case of the British, again there were free and respectable commoners who enlisted in the military with a sense of nationalism but I would like you appreciate the significant extent to which the other dynamics were at work. Those coerced individuals from the dregs of society. But conversely when you looked at the lower ranks in colonial units they were staffed by and large by individuals who were law abiding and modestly successful. So these colonials tended to be shocked by the behavior of British regulars and the discipline necessary to keep that group in line. The Red Coats as the British regulars were often called were known for disrespecting the Sabbath and curing at the drop of a hat, gambling incessantly and looking for opportunities to take advantage of colonial civilians. With this sort of element at work it was common for soldiers to be flogged and disciplined in other severe ways. So if British officers looked down upon their colonial counterparts, so too did colonial or provincial soldiers regard the average Red Coat as a heathen. So what I've summarized this as here on your slide is that there was a culture clash operating at both levels of the military chain of command. And that this culture clash even amidst an Anglo American victory in the French and Indian war, this culture class for those who served in these military units, it helped to heighten their sense that they did not have as much in common with each other as they thought. So a colonial veteran of this war may not feel quite the same affinity of the mother country by the time that his military experience was over. Text: Prelude to Revolution [Image of Boston Masacre] Audio: With the next few slides, I'm going to try to summarize the causes of the American Revolution by looking at some key episodes that helped to move colonial Americans along a collision course with the British Empire. What you're looking at here in this slide is one of the more famous illustrations form the pre-revolutionary era. It was a woodcutting actually done by Paul Revere, a Boston silversmith, who also became a member of the Sons of Liberty. This was a patriotic society. It's Boston chapter was the most radical of the various Sons of Liberty chapters, and Paul Revere, of course, would make a famous ride to warn the Massachusetts countryside of the approach of British soldiers. He didn't make the longest or most significant ride in 1775, but he does end up being the most remembered of the individuals who performed that mission. So he occupies this special place, but what is depicted here is what patriots increasingly began to call the Boston Massacre, and today that label has really stuck. In many ways it does not qualify as a massacre, and I do want to talk about this event briefly because it is part of some of the folklore of US History. To set the stage a little bit, by the year 1770--so we're now about 7 years after the end of the French and Indian War--by 1770, the number of British troops in the Massachusetts city of Boston had risen to about 20% of the entire city's population, and this was in large part because Boston was rapidly getting the reputation for being the community where there was the most hostility to British rule, and, in fact, since Redcoats didn't make much money from their army pay, many of them were actually moonlighting by taking jobs to the local economy much to the consternation of native Bostonians, and tensions would come to a head in an incident in March, 1770 that some have called the Boston Massacre. On March 5 of that year while it was still quite frigid in Boston with plenty of snow and ice on the ground the crowd or mob-you call it a mob if you're kind of taking the British point of view on this extent. You call it a crowd if you're taking the patriot view, but a mob or crowd had gathered outside of Customs House guarded by Redcoats, and this crowd or mob was angry and sort of looking for an opportunity to vent its frustration against the British. So there were verbal taunts being issued at the soldiers, and eventually snowballs were thrown, and the sentries called for reinforcements, so a somewhat larger body of troops arrived-not a huge number-but reinforcements arrived, and somebody rang the town fire bell to gather more Bostonians. So now the situation was beginning to escalate, and some of the snowballs that were being thrown at British soldiers contained rocks, which were beginning to injure the Redcoats. Now to this day there is no one universally accepted account of what happened next. Somehow British soldiers started shooting into the crowd. Now nobody really argues that they were completely unprovoked in doing so, but exactly how this crowd behaved, exactly to what extent they go the British into shooting or somehow antagonized them into shooting, we're never going to get a complete agreement on it to this day, but once the smoke had cleared from the British firing into the crowd, five people laid dead or dying with another eight wounded. So now the growing patriot cause of this rather radical movement, which, by the way, in 1770, just to step back for a moment, even many of the most frustrated Colonials looking at British rule are not yet talking about complete independence. You know, you'd really have to go to your most radical hard core to find anybody in 1770 who's already willing to really talk about that. For the most part, it was about trying to renegotiate what the colonies' relationship with England would be, but to remain somehow in the British Empire, just to do it under better terms, but now this patriot cause had martyrs, thanks to the Boston Massacre. Now the British did show some good judgment for once and allowed the British soldiers involved in this incident to be tried in Boston courts as a gesture of faith in the Colonial legal system. In other words, rather than just packing them on a ship, sending them back to England where they would get a friendlier trial, they were put on trial in Boston, and John Adams, one of the most respected attorneys in Massachusetts, agreed to defend the British soldiers. Now this was a tricky thing because obviously it was an unpopular cause in Boston, and John's own cousin, Samuel, was one of the leading members of the Boston Sons of Liberty chapter, and Samuel Adams was one of the leading figures trying to stoke up this incident to get the maximum political mileage out of it, and now his cousin is defending the British soldiers. Now John Adams was not a fan of British policy at this point, but he still at this point considered himself a loyal subject of King George III, and he was also a very firm believer in the rule of law. He felt that everyone deserves a trial and that this thing needed to be settled in the courts rather than in the streets, and so he did defend those British soldiers rather well, and most of them were acquitted, and only two were convicted, and they ended up, they were convicted of manslaughter, but they ended up only being branded on their thumbs rather than being put to death or sentenced to prison. So it was pretty much a victory for John Adams in court and a victory for the rule of law, and actually, even John's cousin, Samuel, felt that even though the Sons of Liberty had in effect lost the trial, Bostonians were so upset that the British soldiers had gotten off easy, that someone like Sam Adams could argue that really in the big picture of things, this actually helped the patriot cause because now Bostonians were even more inflamed. Text: Colonial Grievances Restrictions of westward expansion Taxation without representation Conspiracy theory that gradual enslavement politically was the British goal Inability to trade internationally Connections and social standing mattered more than merit Audio: With this slide, I'm going to give a very brief summary of what was a far more complicated scenario. But I want to give you a sense of what sort of frustrations and grievances that Colonial Americans held during the 1760s and 70s that helped to bring on the war. One of them I had already alluded to in the context of the French and Indian War and that would be the issue of Westward Expansion. During the same year that the French and Indian War came to an end in 1763, the British Crown declared that there was to be no further westward expansion beyond what was then the Frontier line, essentially what is today the Appalachian Mountains. So for many colonists who had been expecting that a victory over the French would open up economic opportunity and prosperity with the ability to move west, the British Government for the reasons that I outlined a little while ago said absolutely not. Now, the British never really enforced its Proclamation of 1763, so plenty of Colonists went west anyway, but they did so without legal sanction and policy definitely was creating more tension in this regard. Secondly, and I'm sure this expression has often been mentioned in high school history classes, since the Colonists had no seats in the British Parliament back in England, British policy especially taxation policy was taking increasing amounts of their income without Colonists having any formal say, any vote in the process. And so the slogan that was often used was taxation without representation. And many historians say that if the British had just given Colonists a token number of seats in Parliament, you know maybe 25-30 seats, that would have gone a long way towards killing this as a source of frustration. But the British sort of stumble along. They allow that situation to fester. There are a variety of taxes. For example, the Stamp Act, the Tea Act, the Townsend Acts. There are a variety of British laws that are designed to raise revenue because the British Government had racked up huge debts in fighting the French and Indian War. And British authorities feel like look, that war ultimately protected the 13 colonies so Colonists need to pony up and you know, pony up their share. And frankly, these taxes never amounted to terribly large sums of money anyway. And the British often didn't have much luck collecting the taxes. But for many Colonists it was more the symbolism of the situation. The fact again they were not represented in Parliament. And also, the British had never previously taxed them directly like this. And it just felt the rules were changing in a very dangerous way. And so taxation without representation helped to feed into the next point on this slide. Which is that gradually Colonists become more and more sensitive to the possibility that there is this insidious conspiracy out there. That what British authorities are gradually trying to do is to enslave the Colonists politically. That it certainly won't happen overnight because that would be too obvious, too controversial. But that with little steps here and there, this is the ultimate fate of the 13 colonies. For example, the land of Ireland as a British colony at this point in history had really been clamped down on quite harshly by the British Government. So for many Colonial Americans who read their newspapers, you know, they looked at what was taking place in Ireland, and they felt like Ireland is just in a more advanced stage of the kind of process that's being forced upon Americans here in this part of the world. So this conspiracy theory did gain a certain amount of traction. And learned Colonists who had studied, you know, the history of Political Philosophy and Government really felt that it was natural anyway. You know some of you have heard the expression absolute power corrupts absolutely. You know many Colonists to the extent that they thought about government, they really felt that government was at best a necessary evil and that political power has a natural ability to corrupt those who hold it. And so this made them particularly sensitive to British behavior. Another point as listed here on the slide is that because the colonies are obviously under British authority, the British can decide whom Americans trade with. And this limits your ability to, you know, to always get the best deal and maximize your profits because your trade has to benefit the mother country. So and to be fair to the British, Colonial Americans loved to be smugglers. I mean back when the French still had a large empire on the North American mainland, many New Englanders, for example, were smuggling with the French. And to some extent, this practice continued even after the French were defeated. But in any case, the inability to trade internationally, to trade freely was another source of frustration. And a final point that's important here is that if we look at the kind of Monarchial Society that Great Britain represented, and especially if you look back at life in the mother country in England, it was still very much a land where connections and social standing mattered more than your intelligence, mattered more than your performance in whatever your line of work might be. Now granted I mean Britain was, as far as major European countries go, Britain was the freest society of any of the major European powers. So ironically, the revolution that we're building towards here -- these Colonists are not going to rebel against the worst tyranny that Europe had to offer. They're actually going to rebel against the most progressive society at least among major European powers. Nevertheless, relatively speaking, the dominant values of British society were ones that made it difficult to achieve upward mobility. Because there was such a focus on, you know, your family name, the social class that you represented. There were all these expectations that those of a relatively higher class with were given a certain amount of respect and difference and they got all kinds of breaks that others did not enjoy. And this is increasingly frustrating to Colonial Americans. And so I think that's another important point that we have to consider.	<urn:uuid:0ce5fd0e-061a-4a92-922f-d026bb45df8e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/forging-the-republic-revolution-and-the-new-nation.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00041.warc.gz	en	0.984881	5,400	3.546875	4	[ -0.19679541885852814, 0.16468951106071472, 0.703353762626648, -0.25356677174568176, -0.029788456857204437, 0.11754931509494781, -0.09649398177862167, 0.31232428550720215, -0.17639684677124023, 0.004038987681269646, 0.1191321462392807, 0.03719860687851906, -0.18921899795532227, 0.6191924214...	1	Text: Forging the Republic: Revolution & the New Nation (1754-1820s) [Image of colonial tapestry] Audio: In this lecture, I'm going to cover the major military and political challenges from the late colonial period on through the early years of the republic. Text: French & Indian War (1754-1763) [Map of Prewar Boundaries, 1754, and Postwar Boundaries, 1763, of North American colonies) Audio: During the 17th and 18th Century, there were several wars that began in Europe and naturally spilled over into the colonies of those powers in the western hemisphere. And I'm going to cover the last and most significance of them which was the French and Indian War which turned out to be a subset of the broader Seven Years War was which was actually a global conflict. To some extent you could legitimately call it the first world war. In any case, as shown on the map on the left-hand side here from 1754, the 13 Colonies under British rule had been developing with their western and northern boundaries constrained by the French Colonial Empire. And it was not uncommon for the French to cultivate friendships with nearby Native American tribes to harass these British Colonies. This was always a source of tension and in 1754 a major war was about to breakout and I want to say a little bit about how it started, how it was fought, and ultimately its consequences in building us towards the American Revolution that will break out in the 1770s. Ironically, it was none other than George Washington who would play a central role in the outbreak of the French and Indian War. At the time he was what was called a provincial officer meaning rather than being a regularly commission British officer he wore a British uniform as an officer for the Virginia Colony. And at the time, you see here on the map at the left the area with the diagonal hash marks including the Ohio River Valley, this was territory disputed between Great Britain and France, and George Washington was tasked by the governor of Virginia with leading an expedition into the Ohio River Valley, not to look for trouble, certainly not to start a war, but to signal England's presence, to signal England's interest in that area. Actually, to some extent it was more the interest of the Virginia's governor and investors who were looking to expand into that territory and make a profit. The British Government was actually, really very reluctant to pick a fight with the French. But anyway Washington was tasked with what was essentially a diplomatic mission, to find any French forces that might be in the area and just to tactfully but firmly indicate both Virginia and England's interest in that part of the world. What ended up happening, to make a long story short, was that there was an incident in the spring of 1754 where Washington and his Indian allies ended up engaging a French expedition in a brief skirmish in which Washington took the French force prisoner and Washington's Indian allies ended up slaughtering wounded French prisoners and Washington really lost control of the situation temporarily which did not reflect well on his leadership. The surviving French prisoners were allowed to return to their authorities and as this story got out it ended up being the flashpoint for the French and Indian War which helped then to bring on war in Europe and a global conflict. Now in fairness to George Washington, a major war was about to break out one way or another. Major alliances were being formed in Europe. The whole process was gradually in motion, so if it wasn't this incidence there would have been some other flashpoint that would have cropped up shortly thereafter. But I do bring this up because George Washington, while certainly nobody questioned his bravery but there was some concern among British authorities over how he'd handle this situation out in the Ohio River Valley at a place that was called Jumonville's Glen named after the French officer who was slaughtered by Washington's Indian allies. Today, it sits in Western Pennsylvania. So the French and Indian War gets underway and in its earliest stages, at least in North America, it goes rather well for the French. The British are a bit slow to adapt to a frontier style of fighting. As a matter of fact, to take us back to George Washington for a moment, eventually after Washington's expedition and into the Ohio River Valley, he ended up as a staff officer for a major British force that had been sent over from Europe to try to capture a French Fort in the vicinity of what is today, Pittsburgh. So it was heading back into the same disputed territory in the Ohio River Valley. And this force under the command of a British General Braddock ended up being ambushed by French and Indian forces. And although it was a British defeat, George Washington helped to keep it from being a complete rout. While having several horses shout out from underneath him in the midst of battle, Washington was able to organize British defenses after their commanding officer was killed and basically, make an orderly enough retreat that the entire British force was not slaughtered. But again, this is somewhat akin, if you're a baseball fan, to hitting 300 hundred on a team that finishes in the basement of your division. When you're performing well in a losing effort you're not going to get quite the same level of respect for it. But Washington will continue to serve in the Virginia militia during the war and gradually the war will go better for the British, in large part because the success of the Royal Navy makes it very difficult for the French to continue to bring troops and reinforcements across the Atlantic. So eventually, British forces with their Colonial American allies, fighting in their own units under overall British command, eventually this Anglo American partnership of British regulars and Colonial forces will ultimately win this war. One of the high points was the capture of Quebec shown there along the St. Lawrence River, one of the last major strongholds of the French. But this victory, in the French and Indian war, in many ways is actually going to complicate and ultimately poison relations between England and her 13 Colonies so it is going to be a bittersweet triumph. But just to finish covering the French and Indian war itself, by the time the conflict comes to an end in 1763 and a peace treaty is arranged to cover the entire Seven Years War on a global scale, what ends up happening as shown in the map on your right is that the French are essentially kicked off the mainland of the North American continent. Other than some fishing rights off of eastern Canada, the French have no more colonial possessions on the mainland of North America. So it is of course, at the face of it a huge victory for the British Empire and certainly by extension it would seem to be a real benefit for the 13 colonies because they no longer have that French threat on their western and northern frontiers. But as I am about to cover, it is not quite that simple. And I should also mention in its relevance to this lecture on U.S. history that George Washington emerged from the French and Indian war, at the time he was Colonel Washington, but he emerged from the war rather frustrated because he never got the regular commission in the British Army that he wanted. That would definitely have been a step up from being a provincial or colonial officer. And he was never allowed into that rather aristocratic elite and that's something that would definitely chafe on him. And as a matter of fact, some historians say that as you look at all of the circumstances that gradually moved the colonies towards rebellion against England, if George Washington had gotten that commission that he wanted and had gone on to be a career officer in the British Army, it is certainly possible that he never would have become a patriot when the revolution broke out. In fact he might have been a loyalist and actually fought against the rebellion. Now there are many factors to consider there and I don't want to get off onto a tangent but I just throw that out there for some food for thought. Text: Consequences of French & Indian War No French threat on the frontier to create a common enemy for colonists and British Empire Possibility of enhanced westward expansion for colonist – not welcomed in London Weakened relations between the Crown and the Thirteen Colonies thanks to a “culture clash” from military partnership Audio: So let me turn to the significance of the French and Indian war as a factor moving this land down the road towards a rebellion against British authority. First of all to some extent, having a common enemy had given American colonists and British authorities a common cause, something to bind them together even if there were tensions on other levels. And now this overwhelming defeat of the French had to some extent removed the self-interest for these two groups to continue to cooperate with one another to at least the same degree as they had previously. And one of the issues that very quickly becomes a problem between many colonists and the British government is that with the 13 colonies growing so rapidly there was naturally a tremendous push for westward expansion. And there was a feeling that victory over the French now made that possible. As I'm going to be covering a little bit more in a moment, British politicians, the British crown generally had a different view on this subject. Because England had various trade agreements they were forming with Native American tribes on the frontier. Tribes that of course were not looking to have large numbers of white settlers pouring onto their lands. The British governments feeling that it was better to curb the expansion of the 13 colonies, keep things peaceful on the frontier so that you could continue to have commercial arrangements with Native American tribes and also quite frankly, so that these 13 colonies would not grow so powerful that there would be more of an impulse towards independence. The colonies would be more controllable if they were not allowed to have this breakneck expansion. So this is one issue that's going to represent a real collision between colonial interests and those of the mother country. And for the final consequence of the French and Indian war, I'd like to return to the subject of the military culture of the 18th century and how it affected Anglo American relations during the French and Indian war. In European armies the officer corps was almost entirely composed of aristocrats. And in case that's not a term you deal with regularly, an aristocrat is just someone who holds a formal title bestowed upon him by a monarch. And there are various levels of aristocrats, barons, dukes, counts, etc. and I don't pretend to know the exact hierarchy there. But again, you look at European armies of the 18th century and their officer class is almost entirely made up of aristocrats. And not only were these officers aristocrats but they tended towards the higher levels of the upper class. And promotions in these armies typically had to be purchased which added to the sense of a class barrier in how European army structured themselves. And needless to say this was not a meritocratic arrangement. It often times was not so much about your actual performance that got you ahead but about having connections and having the appropriate funds to buy your next rank. Now the British were not quite as extreme in these practices as other nations but the trend hold in their case. So meanwhile let's go back to a provincial officer such as George Washington. Now someone like Washington represented the upper crust of colonial society to the extent that you could really say it had an upper crust. In colonial America those who were the elites were non as the gentry class. They did not have formal titles by and large because the few British aristocrats who came to the 13 colonies tended not to survive its harsher conditions. But the gentry class of colonial America aspired to emulate their British counterparts. But even your wealthiest colonials such as John Hancock of Massachusetts or George Washington of Virginia were equivalent in resources to only the very lowest level of the British aristocracy. They paled in comparison and frankly they knew it. They often felt as though they were treated as yokels or rubes by British regular officers of the more elite background. So you can add to what you know about Washington here, a certain feeling of inadequacy that the colonial gentry class just did not measure up to its British counterparts. Now meanwhile, if we shift to the other half of the army, if you will, if we shift to the lower ranks, I mean today we call them the enlisted ranks but since European militaries relied heavily on forcing its citizens into the army, I can't really call their lower ranks enlisted. I mean, some did volunteer but in many cases it was a coerced arrangement. So if we look at the lower ranks of the British army and its colonial counterparts, the situation was almost completely reversed. In the case of European militaries it was common to both higher mercenaries and scape of the dregs of your own society to fill your manpower needs. So prisoners and men passed out in taverns and brothels might well find themselves conscripted into their nation's army or navy. In the case of the British, again there were free and respectable commoners who enlisted in the military with a sense of nationalism but I would like you appreciate the significant extent to which the other dynamics were at work. Those coerced individuals from the dregs of society. But conversely when you looked at the lower ranks in colonial units they were staffed by and large by individuals who were law abiding and modestly successful. So these colonials tended to be shocked by the behavior of British regulars and the discipline necessary to keep that group in line. The Red Coats as the British regulars were often called were known for disrespecting the Sabbath and curing at the drop of a hat, gambling incessantly and looking for opportunities to take advantage of colonial civilians. With this sort of element at work it was common for soldiers to be flogged and disciplined in other severe ways. So if British officers looked down upon their colonial counterparts, so too did colonial or provincial soldiers regard the average Red Coat as a heathen. So what I've summarized this as here on your slide is that there was a culture clash operating at both levels of the military chain of command. And that this culture clash even amidst an Anglo American victory in the French and Indian war, this culture class for those who served in these military units, it helped to heighten their sense that they did not have as much in common with each other as they thought. So a colonial veteran of this war may not feel quite the same affinity of the mother country by the time that his military experience was over. Text: Prelude to Revolution [Image of Boston Masacre] Audio: With the next few slides, I'm going to try to summarize the causes of the American Revolution by looking at some key episodes that helped to move colonial Americans along a collision course with the British Empire. What you're looking at here in this slide is one of the more famous illustrations form the pre-revolutionary era. It was a woodcutting actually done by Paul Revere, a Boston silversmith, who also became a member of the Sons of Liberty. This was a patriotic society. It's Boston chapter was the most radical of the various Sons of Liberty chapters, and Paul Revere, of course, would make a famous ride to warn the Massachusetts countryside of the approach of British soldiers. He didn't make the longest or most significant ride in 1775, but he does end up being the most remembered of the individuals who performed that mission. So he occupies this special place, but what is depicted here is what patriots increasingly began to call the Boston Massacre, and today that label has really stuck. In many ways it does not qualify as a massacre, and I do want to talk about this event briefly because it is part of some of the folklore of US History. To set the stage a little bit, by the year 1770--so we're now about 7 years after the end of the French and Indian War--by 1770, the number of British troops in the Massachusetts city of Boston had risen to about 20% of the entire city's population, and this was in large part because Boston was rapidly getting the reputation for being the community where there was the most hostility to British rule, and, in fact, since Redcoats didn't make much money from their army pay, many of them were actually moonlighting by taking jobs to the local economy much to the consternation of native Bostonians, and tensions would come to a head in an incident in March, 1770 that some have called the Boston Massacre. On March 5 of that year while it was still quite frigid in Boston with plenty of snow and ice on the ground the crowd or mob-you call it a mob if you're kind of taking the British point of view on this extent. You call it a crowd if you're taking the patriot view, but a mob or crowd had gathered outside of Customs House guarded by Redcoats, and this crowd or mob was angry and sort of looking for an opportunity to vent its frustration against the British. So there were verbal taunts being issued at the soldiers, and eventually snowballs were thrown, and the sentries called for reinforcements, so a somewhat larger body of troops arrived-not a huge number-but reinforcements arrived, and somebody rang the town fire bell to gather more Bostonians. So now the situation was beginning to escalate, and some of the snowballs that were being thrown at British soldiers contained rocks, which were beginning to injure the Redcoats. Now to this day there is no one universally accepted account of what happened next. Somehow British soldiers started shooting into the crowd. Now nobody really argues that they were completely unprovoked in doing so, but exactly how this crowd behaved, exactly to what extent they go the British into shooting or somehow antagonized them into shooting, we're never going to get a complete agreement on it to this day, but once the smoke had cleared from the British firing into the crowd, five people laid dead or dying with another eight wounded. So now the growing patriot cause of this rather radical movement, which, by the way, in 1770, just to step back for a moment, even many of the most frustrated Colonials looking at British rule are not yet talking about complete independence. You know, you'd really have to go to your most radical hard core to find anybody in 1770 who's already willing to really talk about that. For the most part, it was about trying to renegotiate what the colonies' relationship with England would be, but to remain somehow in the British Empire, just to do it under better terms, but now this patriot cause had martyrs, thanks to the Boston Massacre. Now the British did show some good judgment for once and allowed the British soldiers involved in this incident to be tried in Boston courts as a gesture of faith in the Colonial legal system. In other words, rather than just packing them on a ship, sending them back to England where they would get a friendlier trial, they were put on trial in Boston, and John Adams, one of the most respected attorneys in Massachusetts, agreed to defend the British soldiers. Now this was a tricky thing because obviously it was an unpopular cause in Boston, and John's own cousin, Samuel, was one of the leading members of the Boston Sons of Liberty chapter, and Samuel Adams was one of the leading figures trying to stoke up this incident to get the maximum political mileage out of it, and now his cousin is defending the British soldiers. Now John Adams was not a fan of British policy at this point, but he still at this point considered himself a loyal subject of King George III, and he was also a very firm believer in the rule of law. He felt that everyone deserves a trial and that this thing needed to be settled in the courts rather than in the streets, and so he did defend those British soldiers rather well, and most of them were acquitted, and only two were convicted, and they ended up, they were convicted of manslaughter, but they ended up only being branded on their thumbs rather than being put to death or sentenced to prison. So it was pretty much a victory for John Adams in court and a victory for the rule of law, and actually, even John's cousin, Samuel, felt that even though the Sons of Liberty had in effect lost the trial, Bostonians were so upset that the British soldiers had gotten off easy, that someone like Sam Adams could argue that really in the big picture of things, this actually helped the patriot cause because now Bostonians were even more inflamed. Text: Colonial Grievances Restrictions of westward expansion Taxation without representation Conspiracy theory that gradual enslavement politically was the British goal Inability to trade internationally Connections and social standing mattered more than merit Audio: With this slide, I'm going to give a very brief summary of what was a far more complicated scenario. But I want to give you a sense of what sort of frustrations and grievances that Colonial Americans held during the 1760s and 70s that helped to bring on the war. One of them I had already alluded to in the context of the French and Indian War and that would be the issue of Westward Expansion. During the same year that the French and Indian War came to an end in 1763, the British Crown declared that there was to be no further westward expansion beyond what was then the Frontier line, essentially what is today the Appalachian Mountains. So for many colonists who had been expecting that a victory over the French would open up economic opportunity and prosperity with the ability to move west, the British Government for the reasons that I outlined a little while ago said absolutely not. Now, the British never really enforced its Proclamation of 1763, so plenty of Colonists went west anyway, but they did so without legal sanction and policy definitely was creating more tension in this regard. Secondly, and I'm sure this expression has often been mentioned in high school history classes, since the Colonists had no seats in the British Parliament back in England, British policy especially taxation policy was taking increasing amounts of their income without Colonists having any formal say, any vote in the process. And so the slogan that was often used was taxation without representation. And many historians say that if the British had just given Colonists a token number of seats in Parliament, you know maybe 25-30 seats, that would have gone a long way towards killing this as a source of frustration. But the British sort of stumble along. They allow that situation to fester. There are a variety of taxes. For example, the Stamp Act, the Tea Act, the Townsend Acts. There are a variety of British laws that are designed to raise revenue because the British Government had racked up huge debts in fighting the French and Indian War. And British authorities feel like look, that war ultimately protected the 13 colonies so Colonists need to pony up and you know, pony up their share. And frankly, these taxes never amounted to terribly large sums of money anyway. And the British often didn't have much luck collecting the taxes. But for many Colonists it was more the symbolism of the situation. The fact again they were not represented in Parliament. And also, the British had never previously taxed them directly like this. And it just felt the rules were changing in a very dangerous way. And so taxation without representation helped to feed into the next point on this slide. Which is that gradually Colonists become more and more sensitive to the possibility that there is this insidious conspiracy out there. That what British authorities are gradually trying to do is to enslave the Colonists politically. That it certainly won't happen overnight because that would be too obvious, too controversial. But that with little steps here and there, this is the ultimate fate of the 13 colonies. For example, the land of Ireland as a British colony at this point in history had really been clamped down on quite harshly by the British Government. So for many Colonial Americans who read their newspapers, you know, they looked at what was taking place in Ireland, and they felt like Ireland is just in a more advanced stage of the kind of process that's being forced upon Americans here in this part of the world. So this conspiracy theory did gain a certain amount of traction. And learned Colonists who had studied, you know, the history of Political Philosophy and Government really felt that it was natural anyway. You know some of you have heard the expression absolute power corrupts absolutely. You know many Colonists to the extent that they thought about government, they really felt that government was at best a necessary evil and that political power has a natural ability to corrupt those who hold it. And so this made them particularly sensitive to British behavior. Another point as listed here on the slide is that because the colonies are obviously under British authority, the British can decide whom Americans trade with. And this limits your ability to, you know, to always get the best deal and maximize your profits because your trade has to benefit the mother country. So and to be fair to the British, Colonial Americans loved to be smugglers. I mean back when the French still had a large empire on the North American mainland, many New Englanders, for example, were smuggling with the French. And to some extent, this practice continued even after the French were defeated. But in any case, the inability to trade internationally, to trade freely was another source of frustration. And a final point that's important here is that if we look at the kind of Monarchial Society that Great Britain represented, and especially if you look back at life in the mother country in England, it was still very much a land where connections and social standing mattered more than your intelligence, mattered more than your performance in whatever your line of work might be. Now granted I mean Britain was, as far as major European countries go, Britain was the freest society of any of the major European powers. So ironically, the revolution that we're building towards here -- these Colonists are not going to rebel against the worst tyranny that Europe had to offer. They're actually going to rebel against the most progressive society at least among major European powers. Nevertheless, relatively speaking, the dominant values of British society were ones that made it difficult to achieve upward mobility. Because there was such a focus on, you know, your family name, the social class that you represented. There were all these expectations that those of a relatively higher class with were given a certain amount of respect and difference and they got all kinds of breaks that others did not enjoy. And this is increasingly frustrating to Colonial Americans. And so I think that's another important point that we have to consider.	5,496	ENGLISH	1
The In our Torah portion for this week, Avram is called by G-d. G-d says to Avram “Leave your birthplace, your home, the home of your father, and come with me to the Land which I will show you.” Why was Abraham in particular, called by G-d? Last week we read the story of Noah. Noah too was called by G-d. Noah was called because, the Torah explains, he was the most righteous man in his generation. The Torah does not tell us that Abraham was a righteous man. It doesn’t tell us anything about why Abraham was chosen by G-d to be the Father of the Jewish people. Which led the rabbis to debate – did Abraham have any outstanding quality that led G-d to choose him, or was Abraham an ordinary person? The rabbis tell stories about Abraham’s childhood that indicate that they thought he was very special. One familiar story claims that Terhach, Abraham’s father, earned his living selling statues of idols. People, would pray to these statues, hoping that their prayers would be answered. One day, Terach left Abraham in charge of his store. A woman came in carrying a bowl of food. “Could you please offer this food to the gods?” asked the woman of Abraham. “My husband is very sick, and I would like the gods to help him get better.” Abraham placed the bowl of food in front of the largest statue. When the woman left, Abraham took a stick and smashed all the other statues. Then he put the stick in the hand of the largest idol. When Terach, Abraham’s father returned to the store, he saw that all the statues except one were broken and lying in pieces on the floor. “Who did this to the gods?” cried Terach to Abraham. “Father,” said Abraham, “A woman came in here with a bowl of food to offer to the gods. But when I offered it to the gods, one god said, “I will eat it first.” Then another god said, “No, I will eat it first.” A fight broke out among all of the statues, and the biggest one here took a stick and smashed all the others!” Terach, Abraham’s father said, “Do you take your own father for a fool? These idols cannot do anything. They are just statues!” Abraham replied, “If they cannot do anything, then why do you worship them!” In telling this story about Abraham, the rabbis are conveying the idea that Abraham was an extraordinary child who could see through the hypocrisy of his father’s belief in idolatry. He was thus marked for greatness from a young age. But this story is not in the Bible. I prefer to believe Abraham was an ordinary person who did something extraordinary. And that each of us, ordinary people, can do extraordinary things. Rosa Parks is an example of on ordinary person who felt called to do something extraordinary. She worked as a seamstress in a Montgomery department store in 1955. Her mother was a teacher and her father a carpenter. When she was growing up in Alabama, there was a great deal of discrimination and bigotry against African Americans. One small example – white children took the bus to school, black children had to walk to school. Public transportation was segregated as well. White people got the best seats on the bus, whereas African Americans had to sit in the back. In December of 1955, Rosa Parks had had enough of being treated like a second-class citizen. On her way home from work she sat in the front of the bus and refused to move to the back when the bus driver asked her. A policeman came onto the bus and arrested her. She was jailed and later fired from her job. Yet her action led to the first mass civil rights protest in an American city and became a cornerstone of the civil rights movement in the United States. I think Abraham was an ordinary man who heard the call of G-d and did something extra-ordinary – he became the first Jewish person, taught the world that there is one G-d, and in doing so changed the course of world history. And clearly, Rosa Parks was an ordinary woman. She too heard a call — a call to fight injustice and to stand up to oppression. In heeding the call, she helped to change the course of American history. Someone once said, “You are not a born winner, you are not a born loser, you are a born chooser.” Both Abraham and Rosa Parks chose to respond to what they understood was the call of G-d. Each of us is born with different strengths and unique talents. Each of us gets to choose how we use them. May we too choose to use our talents in the service of justice and compassion, in the service of G-d.	<urn:uuid:883227fb-255f-4fb6-94f6-16fbbd52a13e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.napershalom.org/sermon/a-born-chooser/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00017.warc.gz	en	0.987262	1,038	3.59375	4	[ -0.10214074701070786, 0.5695658326148987, -0.3617798686027527, -0.28180131316185, -0.039466485381126404, 0.08218374848365784, 0.788108766078949, 0.39019209146499634, -0.1268778145313263, 0.1068614274263382, -0.49225884675979614, -0.10430952906608582, -0.2785264849662781, 0.3479363322257995...	3	The In our Torah portion for this week, Avram is called by G-d. G-d says to Avram “Leave your birthplace, your home, the home of your father, and come with me to the Land which I will show you.” Why was Abraham in particular, called by G-d? Last week we read the story of Noah. Noah too was called by G-d. Noah was called because, the Torah explains, he was the most righteous man in his generation. The Torah does not tell us that Abraham was a righteous man. It doesn’t tell us anything about why Abraham was chosen by G-d to be the Father of the Jewish people. Which led the rabbis to debate – did Abraham have any outstanding quality that led G-d to choose him, or was Abraham an ordinary person? The rabbis tell stories about Abraham’s childhood that indicate that they thought he was very special. One familiar story claims that Terhach, Abraham’s father, earned his living selling statues of idols. People, would pray to these statues, hoping that their prayers would be answered. One day, Terach left Abraham in charge of his store. A woman came in carrying a bowl of food. “Could you please offer this food to the gods?” asked the woman of Abraham. “My husband is very sick, and I would like the gods to help him get better.” Abraham placed the bowl of food in front of the largest statue. When the woman left, Abraham took a stick and smashed all the other statues. Then he put the stick in the hand of the largest idol. When Terach, Abraham’s father returned to the store, he saw that all the statues except one were broken and lying in pieces on the floor. “Who did this to the gods?” cried Terach to Abraham. “Father,” said Abraham, “A woman came in here with a bowl of food to offer to the gods. But when I offered it to the gods, one god said, “I will eat it first.” Then another god said, “No, I will eat it first.” A fight broke out among all of the statues, and the biggest one here took a stick and smashed all the others!” Terach, Abraham’s father said, “Do you take your own father for a fool? These idols cannot do anything. They are just statues!” Abraham replied, “If they cannot do anything, then why do you worship them!” In telling this story about Abraham, the rabbis are conveying the idea that Abraham was an extraordinary child who could see through the hypocrisy of his father’s belief in idolatry. He was thus marked for greatness from a young age. But this story is not in the Bible. I prefer to believe Abraham was an ordinary person who did something extraordinary. And that each of us, ordinary people, can do extraordinary things. Rosa Parks is an example of on ordinary person who felt called to do something extraordinary. She worked as a seamstress in a Montgomery department store in 1955. Her mother was a teacher and her father a carpenter. When she was growing up in Alabama, there was a great deal of discrimination and bigotry against African Americans. One small example – white children took the bus to school, black children had to walk to school. Public transportation was segregated as well. White people got the best seats on the bus, whereas African Americans had to sit in the back. In December of 1955, Rosa Parks had had enough of being treated like a second-class citizen. On her way home from work she sat in the front of the bus and refused to move to the back when the bus driver asked her. A policeman came onto the bus and arrested her. She was jailed and later fired from her job. Yet her action led to the first mass civil rights protest in an American city and became a cornerstone of the civil rights movement in the United States. I think Abraham was an ordinary man who heard the call of G-d and did something extra-ordinary – he became the first Jewish person, taught the world that there is one G-d, and in doing so changed the course of world history. And clearly, Rosa Parks was an ordinary woman. She too heard a call — a call to fight injustice and to stand up to oppression. In heeding the call, she helped to change the course of American history. Someone once said, “You are not a born winner, you are not a born loser, you are a born chooser.” Both Abraham and Rosa Parks chose to respond to what they understood was the call of G-d. Each of us is born with different strengths and unique talents. Each of us gets to choose how we use them. May we too choose to use our talents in the service of justice and compassion, in the service of G-d.	983	ENGLISH	1
William Howard Taft, 27th President of the United States and 10th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was born in Ohio on September 15, 1857. Young William followed in his father’s footsteps and became a lawyer. He graduated from Yale Law School second in his class, and went on to practice law in Cincinnati. In 1887, he was elected to the Superior Court of Ohio, where he served for several years before becoming a judge in the United States Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals. Taft loved the law, and had his eye set on an appointment to the United States Supreme Court. However, his wife, Helen, had political aspirations for him, which he would follow, only to return to law once more later in life. Rise to Power When President McKinley appointed Taft as Chief Civil Administrator in the Philippines in 1900, he accepted and Taft and his wife made the move. He grew to love the people there, and tried to improve their lives by building better infrastructure and giving the people a chance to give their own input on territorial government affairs. In 1904, Taft travelled back to the United States to become Secretary of War at President Roosevelt’s request. Roosevelt decided not to run for re-election in 1908, and instead backed Taft for the Presidency. Taft was very hesitant and disliked the campaigning process, but he ultimately won on a platform to continue Roosevelt’s progressive reforms, defeating Democrat William Jennings Bryant, a populist from Nebraska. Taft did not have a very dynamic presidency, although he did make some important strides in promoting conservative and progressive political agenda items alike. While the rumor that Taft got stuck in a bathtub in the White House is unconfirmed, he did break up the "Bathtub Trust", a group of porcelain makers trying to elevate prices. This was only one of more than 80 trusts he dissolved while in office. His most significant work as President went toward efforts in passing the 16th and 17th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which allowed for a federal income tax and the popular election of senators, respectively. Later, Taft became the only President to later serve as Chief Justice on the Supreme Court as well. There, he lobbied for the Judge’s Act of 1925, which gave the Court more autonomy in selecting the cases it would decide. He wrote more than 250 decisions while on the Court, the most famous being Myers v. United States (1926), which gave the U.S. President more authority to remove Federal officials. Pressured into the Presidency, Taft was caught between two extremes of a polarized Republican Party. He himself was more of a Conservative, but Progressive Republicans expected him to follow in the footsteps of Roosevelt. Taft did pursue some Progressive policies, but he also enacted a number of Conservative laws, including the Payne-Aldrich Act, which kept tariffs high. He also did not appoint any prominent Progressive figures to U.S. Federal Government positions. Roosevelt eventually became so angry at Taft’s divergence from the Progressive plans that he broke from the Republican party altogether, forming his own Progressive Party. In 1912, with the Republican vote split between Taft and Roosevelt, Democrat Woodrow Wilson surged to a landslide victory. Death and Legacy During his years in the Supreme Court, Taft said, “I don’t even remember that I was President.” He always preferred dealing with the law over politics, and Taft thoroughly enjoyed serving as Chief Justice, which he proudly did until his death in 1930. His presidency, although uncomfortable, marked a change in the dynamics of the Republican party. He left the Constitution with two new amendments, and the country with a new income tax that would later support U.S. involvement in World War I. Who Was William Howard Taft? William Howard Taft was the 17th president of the United States and the 10th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:39f5d504-0efd-45bc-acaa-7c239f4c2a18>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/william-howard-taft-us-presidents-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00186.warc.gz	en	0.982576	842	3.828125	4	[ -0.4515179395675659, 0.1786731630563736, -0.009040436707437038, -0.295582115650177, -0.26117557287216187, 0.2892392575740814, 0.40446582436561584, -0.4438251852989197, 0.09494264423847198, 0.2874739170074463, -0.00501383189111948, 0.44330042600631714, 0.3101471960544586, 0.2067959755659103...	3	William Howard Taft, 27th President of the United States and 10th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was born in Ohio on September 15, 1857. Young William followed in his father’s footsteps and became a lawyer. He graduated from Yale Law School second in his class, and went on to practice law in Cincinnati. In 1887, he was elected to the Superior Court of Ohio, where he served for several years before becoming a judge in the United States Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals. Taft loved the law, and had his eye set on an appointment to the United States Supreme Court. However, his wife, Helen, had political aspirations for him, which he would follow, only to return to law once more later in life. Rise to Power When President McKinley appointed Taft as Chief Civil Administrator in the Philippines in 1900, he accepted and Taft and his wife made the move. He grew to love the people there, and tried to improve their lives by building better infrastructure and giving the people a chance to give their own input on territorial government affairs. In 1904, Taft travelled back to the United States to become Secretary of War at President Roosevelt’s request. Roosevelt decided not to run for re-election in 1908, and instead backed Taft for the Presidency. Taft was very hesitant and disliked the campaigning process, but he ultimately won on a platform to continue Roosevelt’s progressive reforms, defeating Democrat William Jennings Bryant, a populist from Nebraska. Taft did not have a very dynamic presidency, although he did make some important strides in promoting conservative and progressive political agenda items alike. While the rumor that Taft got stuck in a bathtub in the White House is unconfirmed, he did break up the "Bathtub Trust", a group of porcelain makers trying to elevate prices. This was only one of more than 80 trusts he dissolved while in office. His most significant work as President went toward efforts in passing the 16th and 17th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which allowed for a federal income tax and the popular election of senators, respectively. Later, Taft became the only President to later serve as Chief Justice on the Supreme Court as well. There, he lobbied for the Judge’s Act of 1925, which gave the Court more autonomy in selecting the cases it would decide. He wrote more than 250 decisions while on the Court, the most famous being Myers v. United States (1926), which gave the U.S. President more authority to remove Federal officials. Pressured into the Presidency, Taft was caught between two extremes of a polarized Republican Party. He himself was more of a Conservative, but Progressive Republicans expected him to follow in the footsteps of Roosevelt. Taft did pursue some Progressive policies, but he also enacted a number of Conservative laws, including the Payne-Aldrich Act, which kept tariffs high. He also did not appoint any prominent Progressive figures to U.S. Federal Government positions. Roosevelt eventually became so angry at Taft’s divergence from the Progressive plans that he broke from the Republican party altogether, forming his own Progressive Party. In 1912, with the Republican vote split between Taft and Roosevelt, Democrat Woodrow Wilson surged to a landslide victory. Death and Legacy During his years in the Supreme Court, Taft said, “I don’t even remember that I was President.” He always preferred dealing with the law over politics, and Taft thoroughly enjoyed serving as Chief Justice, which he proudly did until his death in 1930. His presidency, although uncomfortable, marked a change in the dynamics of the Republican party. He left the Constitution with two new amendments, and the country with a new income tax that would later support U.S. involvement in World War I. Who Was William Howard Taft? William Howard Taft was the 17th president of the United States and the 10th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	862	ENGLISH	1
Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ;}}}} October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was an American statesman, politician, conservationist, naturalist, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He served as the 25th vice president from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. Roosevelt emerged as a leader of the Republican Party and became a driving force for the anti-trust policy while supporting Progressive Era policies in the United States in the early 20th century. His face is depicted on Mount Rushmore alongside George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. He is generally ranked in polls of historians and political scientists as one of the five best presidents. Roosevelt was a sickly child with debilitating asthma, but he overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle, as well as growing out of his asthma naturally in his young adult years. He integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. He was home-schooled, and he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College. His book ''The Naval War of 1812'' (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. His wife and his mother both died in rapid succession, and he escaped to a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President William McKinley, but he resigned from that post to lead the Rough Riders during the Spanish–American War, returning a war hero. He was elected governor of New York in 1898. After Vice President Garret Hobart died in 1899, the New York state party leadership convinced McKinley to accept Roosevelt as his running mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously, and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservation. Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901 and assumed the presidency at age 42 after McKinley was assassinated the following September. He remains the youngest person to become President of the United States. Roosevelt was a leader of the progressive movement, and he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. He made conservation a top priority and established many new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States' naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoided controversial tariff and money issues. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in 1904 and continued to promote progressive policies, many of which were passed in Congress. He groomed his close friend William Howard Taft, and Taft won the 1908 presidential election to succeed him. Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded the so-called "Bull Moose" Party which called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. He ran in the 1912 election and the split allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war with Germany, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. He considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died in 1919. Provided by Wikipedia	<urn:uuid:f156ef75-a301-41bf-92d9-f7d078e2fac8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://juvcat.txwes.edu/vufind/Author/Home?author=Roosevelt%2C+Theodore%2C+1858-1919	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00218.warc.gz	en	0.983416	806	3.296875	3	[ 0.004128255881369114, 0.20085790753364563, 0.41464847326278687, -0.12527872622013092, 0.07173214852809906, -0.009873399510979652, -0.07796040177345276, 0.015150423161685467, -0.17945297062397003, 0.0072159976698458195, 0.35993844270706177, 0.26836034655570984, 0.30360275506973267, 0.703030...	1	Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ;}}}} October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was an American statesman, politician, conservationist, naturalist, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He served as the 25th vice president from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. Roosevelt emerged as a leader of the Republican Party and became a driving force for the anti-trust policy while supporting Progressive Era policies in the United States in the early 20th century. His face is depicted on Mount Rushmore alongside George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. He is generally ranked in polls of historians and political scientists as one of the five best presidents. Roosevelt was a sickly child with debilitating asthma, but he overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle, as well as growing out of his asthma naturally in his young adult years. He integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. He was home-schooled, and he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College. His book ''The Naval War of 1812'' (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. His wife and his mother both died in rapid succession, and he escaped to a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President William McKinley, but he resigned from that post to lead the Rough Riders during the Spanish–American War, returning a war hero. He was elected governor of New York in 1898. After Vice President Garret Hobart died in 1899, the New York state party leadership convinced McKinley to accept Roosevelt as his running mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously, and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservation. Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901 and assumed the presidency at age 42 after McKinley was assassinated the following September. He remains the youngest person to become President of the United States. Roosevelt was a leader of the progressive movement, and he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. He made conservation a top priority and established many new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States' naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoided controversial tariff and money issues. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in 1904 and continued to promote progressive policies, many of which were passed in Congress. He groomed his close friend William Howard Taft, and Taft won the 1908 presidential election to succeed him. Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded the so-called "Bull Moose" Party which called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. He ran in the 1912 election and the split allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war with Germany, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. He considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died in 1919. Provided by Wikipedia	892	ENGLISH	1
The most characteristic feature of the opening years of this brilliant century and a half (475 to 325 B.C.) of Greek intellectual life was the appearance of the great tragedies. Before the age of Pericles the main literature of the Greek peoples had been their epic poetry, of which we have already said something in our account of the earlier nomadic Aryan life. It was made up of songs of free adventure, aristocratic and valiant in spirit. The main Greek epics were reduced to writing, and the text of the chief ones put in its present order in the time of the tyrant Peisistratus (i.e., immediately before the first Persian wars). Chanted originally to the chiefs and leading men in hall, they were now recited at the public festivals. In addition, there were also poems of more homely character, love songs, war lyrics, and the like. A third stream of poetry also ran into the Greek tradition, perhaps not of Aryan origin at all, but preserving the religious ideas of the dark whites whom the Greeks had conquered. There were religious chants and hymns associated with the secret religious practices of the worship of Demeter, the earth goddess, and of Orpheus and Dionysus. They are mixed up with ideas of self-abasement, self-mutilation, and the like, that were altogether foreign to the healthy directness of the hardy barbarians from the north. These ideas were creeping out from their hiding-places, and expressing themselves in Greek in Athens during this period in the Orphic religious poetry. It seems probable that in the Athenian population among all the Greek cities the pre-Aryan strain was unusually strong. This dark strain was subtle, artistic, creative—Cnossos witnesses to that; but it had no great courage of the mind; it was afraid of the stars and of life. Whenever that strain is found in any race, there are to be found also thoughts and legends of sacrificial murders. And perhaps also indigenous to the Greek soil, rooted deeply there in the time of the world-wide ancient heliolithic culture, were religious dances. Such dances we can trace from the Atlantic to Peru. There is a drawing in a Spanish cave at Cogul, near the Ebro, which is supposed to represent a later palæolithic ritual dance. There is little evidence of the primitive Aryans engaging	<urn:uuid:066d42ad-d1ef-43cd-894f-a40d7e0ac4ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/378	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00198.warc.gz	en	0.985513	491	3.484375	3	[ 0.11986105889081955, 0.16917036473751068, 0.39778709411621094, -0.12057912349700928, -0.5686678290367126, -0.06197204068303108, 0.06190640106797218, 0.4719431698322296, -0.1460881233215332, -0.3663817048072815, -0.40220722556114197, 0.18513500690460205, -0.11776101589202881, 0.367869526147...	1	The most characteristic feature of the opening years of this brilliant century and a half (475 to 325 B.C.) of Greek intellectual life was the appearance of the great tragedies. Before the age of Pericles the main literature of the Greek peoples had been their epic poetry, of which we have already said something in our account of the earlier nomadic Aryan life. It was made up of songs of free adventure, aristocratic and valiant in spirit. The main Greek epics were reduced to writing, and the text of the chief ones put in its present order in the time of the tyrant Peisistratus (i.e., immediately before the first Persian wars). Chanted originally to the chiefs and leading men in hall, they were now recited at the public festivals. In addition, there were also poems of more homely character, love songs, war lyrics, and the like. A third stream of poetry also ran into the Greek tradition, perhaps not of Aryan origin at all, but preserving the religious ideas of the dark whites whom the Greeks had conquered. There were religious chants and hymns associated with the secret religious practices of the worship of Demeter, the earth goddess, and of Orpheus and Dionysus. They are mixed up with ideas of self-abasement, self-mutilation, and the like, that were altogether foreign to the healthy directness of the hardy barbarians from the north. These ideas were creeping out from their hiding-places, and expressing themselves in Greek in Athens during this period in the Orphic religious poetry. It seems probable that in the Athenian population among all the Greek cities the pre-Aryan strain was unusually strong. This dark strain was subtle, artistic, creative—Cnossos witnesses to that; but it had no great courage of the mind; it was afraid of the stars and of life. Whenever that strain is found in any race, there are to be found also thoughts and legends of sacrificial murders. And perhaps also indigenous to the Greek soil, rooted deeply there in the time of the world-wide ancient heliolithic culture, were religious dances. Such dances we can trace from the Atlantic to Peru. There is a drawing in a Spanish cave at Cogul, near the Ebro, which is supposed to represent a later palæolithic ritual dance. There is little evidence of the primitive Aryans engaging	489	ENGLISH	1
Children Games in the Elizabethan Era The Elizabethan age, as history has come to call it, was the time during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, from 1558 to 1603 1. It was considered a "golden age" in England's history because the arts and sciences flourished in Elizabeth's time, particularly within the realm of the theatre. William Shakespeare composed many of his plays during this time period. Entertainment was important to people of all social classes, and to their children. Children in the Elizabethan era amused themselves with games when not attending school or working 1. Playing marbles was a common children's game in the Elizabethan era 1. Marbles were made of glass or wood. The game was played much as it is today; a circle was formed using chalk or a piece of string, with the marbles placed in a group inside. Children used the shooter, or a larger marble, to shoot the other marbles out of the string. Prizes for winning often included the loser's marbles. Another popular children's game in Elizabethan times was hopscotch 1. The game has not changed much in 500 years; children drew numbered squares with chalk and threw a pebble onto one of the squares, and attempted to alternate jumping on one leg to that square. Blind Man's Bluff A popular pastime for both children and adults in the Elizabethan era, Blind Man's Bluff involved blindfolding one person and having him stumble about trying to find the other people playing the game 1. This game was played mainly outdoors, in gardens for example, where children were kept out of the way of adults. Ninepins was an early form of modern bowling and was played by children and adults. Ninepins was played on a bowling green. Balls made of leather or sheep and pig bladders were popular toys and served as a source of almost limitless entertainment for children in the Elizabethan age 1.	<urn:uuid:15ce8703-c6b4-44c9-8d11-b82a6dae4d34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://howtoadult.com/children-games-in-the-elizabethan-era-12917869.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00364.warc.gz	en	0.986778	396	3.40625	3	[ -0.1361219733953476, -0.025892477482557297, 0.7621859312057495, -0.13593414425849915, -0.644362211227417, 0.06440295279026031, 0.09693945944309235, -0.037775687873363495, -0.3343085050582886, -0.0155398640781641, -0.19069236516952515, -0.042414434254169464, 0.25809815526008606, 0.203277572...	9	Children Games in the Elizabethan Era The Elizabethan age, as history has come to call it, was the time during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, from 1558 to 1603 1. It was considered a "golden age" in England's history because the arts and sciences flourished in Elizabeth's time, particularly within the realm of the theatre. William Shakespeare composed many of his plays during this time period. Entertainment was important to people of all social classes, and to their children. Children in the Elizabethan era amused themselves with games when not attending school or working 1. Playing marbles was a common children's game in the Elizabethan era 1. Marbles were made of glass or wood. The game was played much as it is today; a circle was formed using chalk or a piece of string, with the marbles placed in a group inside. Children used the shooter, or a larger marble, to shoot the other marbles out of the string. Prizes for winning often included the loser's marbles. Another popular children's game in Elizabethan times was hopscotch 1. The game has not changed much in 500 years; children drew numbered squares with chalk and threw a pebble onto one of the squares, and attempted to alternate jumping on one leg to that square. Blind Man's Bluff A popular pastime for both children and adults in the Elizabethan era, Blind Man's Bluff involved blindfolding one person and having him stumble about trying to find the other people playing the game 1. This game was played mainly outdoors, in gardens for example, where children were kept out of the way of adults. Ninepins was an early form of modern bowling and was played by children and adults. Ninepins was played on a bowling green. Balls made of leather or sheep and pig bladders were popular toys and served as a source of almost limitless entertainment for children in the Elizabethan age 1.	405	ENGLISH	1
Before his presidency Polk served as the Speaker of the House through 1835 – 1839 and after that he served as the governor of Tennessee. Throughout his time running for different offices he thought Andrew Jackson was a great role model and loved what he did as president. When Polk came to be the president he wanted to run it like Andrew Jackson and he sort of did. Mostly Polk was known for his expansions of territories such as Texas, and Oregon but also he can be remembered for starting the Mexican-American war which didn’t make him a great person. Polk will be remembered for numerous things, such as him being an underdog and pretty much the entire world believed he had no chance of winning. Overall Polk did numerous things to jumpstart his legacy in good and bad ways and help sustain how he’s seen today. Before Polk ran for office he had numerous ways of gaining experience with being a governor and with being speaker of the House of Representatives. But people didn’t believe in Polk, which is why he was a dark horse candidate when he ran for president. During the election James K. Polk was the democratic nominee facing up against Henry Clay of the Whigs party. Until Polk told the voters of his intentions that is when everyone believed in him and his campaign. He told the public that he would get all of Texas and Oregon annexed and that is when all of the votes came in to Polk. He stated this because he thought Britain or Mexico didn’t want war and that it would be quite easy to annex both of those counties. So Polk’s story was pretty good for him coming to power, with the Democratic Party not believing in him and with the whole world viewing him as an underdog. Overall Polk came to power with a promise of annexation and with the trust of the public. During Polk’s Presidency the powers of the presidency were expanded in a bad way which was when he pushed war with Mexico. After Polk retired they made sure to keep the president’s power a little under the table so that a future president doesn’t go on to provoke war. Also after Polk signed The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to officially end the war with Mexico he learned that it doesn’t take much to start a war and that the president has a lot of power to get into foreign affairs and to start numerous wars. After the whole Mexican-American war the whole nation new that the president might’ve had too much power to decide when we go to a war. So after congress changed the rules a little bit and gave the president less power and room to work with. If Polk didn’t become president who knows what wars would’ve happened and how much power they would have had, if Polk didn’t test the powers that he had. Overall presidential powers were expanded during Polk’s time with how much power the president had and how easily they could provoke a war. Polk had a couple of successes when working with congress. When Polk was elected he promised to annex Texas as well as Oregon and he worked with congress to have that happen. He couldn’t do it by himself so congress helped him achieve this goal over time. He used congress to achieve success and get a little bit more trust out of his fans and the people that despised him. Another way he achieved success while in office was with cutting tariffs which congress helped him come to a decision with that. Also he helped establish an independent treasury which helped with the economy. Overall Polk was with congress to make many decisions but one of his best was expanding out west. After he worked with congress Polk had many interesting policy’s one of his most known policies would be his interests with foreign policies. His main promise was to expand to the west which was nice but came with some bad intentions. Some of the negatives that people were bringing up were how would slaves work with more land, and how much would the tariffs would be after an expansion that big. With these questions rising a lot of people were in doubt, that is when he passed a new bill to include the specifics of tariffs. This new policy was a liked one which included lowering the prices of imports and dropped percents of the value. A downfall of his policies is when he waged war for land, which the public didn’t prefer or like. It worked in his favor at the end of the war. But throughout the process he lost a lot of support and went down on the public approval rate. After all that, he had better policies than negative ones and people will remember him for his foreign policies as well as his tariff, and slave policies. As stated before is foreign policy was a plus and a downside which is one of his biggest controversial issues. While the Mexican-American war was underway he received a lot of scrutiny from his opponents, which were the Whigs. They were calling him an imperialist and said he was running the nation like it. Historians later said they think the pressure that he received killed him three months later after his presidency. Another big scandal was when we went to war because everyone thought he started the war, which he denied when the public asked specifics. This was a big controversy because he just sent U.S. soldiers into Mexico without even knowing if he could or if he had the power to. So he did that and congress declared war and war started which makes it look like Polk started the war. Overall Polk made some questionable decisions that turned out to be his greatest controversies and flaws. The biggest issue for Polk with national security was “Manifest Destiny” because that phrase made Polk want to expand out west and by doing this it got him into trouble with Mexico and Britain by trying to steal or take their land. When he tried to negotiate terms with them it made them angry and eventually led us to a war with Mexico. His biggest issue was trying to execute something to fast because it got U.S. soldiers killed in a battle over a river and thus the war began.	<urn:uuid:d0690b18-ed19-4a9e-83e4-1ade0ad8cffd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://santosforcongress.com/before-and-after-that-he-served-as-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00429.warc.gz	en	0.994133	1,219	3.328125	3	[ -0.41458266973495483, 0.4870758652687073, 0.6993880271911621, -0.19329217076301575, -0.23310774564743042, 0.03292784094810486, 0.04402542486786842, 0.11592081189155579, 0.1156889796257019, -0.11987151950597763, 0.1759684681892395, 0.3858247995376587, 0.13149265944957733, 0.3348972797393799...	2	Before his presidency Polk served as the Speaker of the House through 1835 – 1839 and after that he served as the governor of Tennessee. Throughout his time running for different offices he thought Andrew Jackson was a great role model and loved what he did as president. When Polk came to be the president he wanted to run it like Andrew Jackson and he sort of did. Mostly Polk was known for his expansions of territories such as Texas, and Oregon but also he can be remembered for starting the Mexican-American war which didn’t make him a great person. Polk will be remembered for numerous things, such as him being an underdog and pretty much the entire world believed he had no chance of winning. Overall Polk did numerous things to jumpstart his legacy in good and bad ways and help sustain how he’s seen today. Before Polk ran for office he had numerous ways of gaining experience with being a governor and with being speaker of the House of Representatives. But people didn’t believe in Polk, which is why he was a dark horse candidate when he ran for president. During the election James K. Polk was the democratic nominee facing up against Henry Clay of the Whigs party. Until Polk told the voters of his intentions that is when everyone believed in him and his campaign. He told the public that he would get all of Texas and Oregon annexed and that is when all of the votes came in to Polk. He stated this because he thought Britain or Mexico didn’t want war and that it would be quite easy to annex both of those counties. So Polk’s story was pretty good for him coming to power, with the Democratic Party not believing in him and with the whole world viewing him as an underdog. Overall Polk came to power with a promise of annexation and with the trust of the public. During Polk’s Presidency the powers of the presidency were expanded in a bad way which was when he pushed war with Mexico. After Polk retired they made sure to keep the president’s power a little under the table so that a future president doesn’t go on to provoke war. Also after Polk signed The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to officially end the war with Mexico he learned that it doesn’t take much to start a war and that the president has a lot of power to get into foreign affairs and to start numerous wars. After the whole Mexican-American war the whole nation new that the president might’ve had too much power to decide when we go to a war. So after congress changed the rules a little bit and gave the president less power and room to work with. If Polk didn’t become president who knows what wars would’ve happened and how much power they would have had, if Polk didn’t test the powers that he had. Overall presidential powers were expanded during Polk’s time with how much power the president had and how easily they could provoke a war. Polk had a couple of successes when working with congress. When Polk was elected he promised to annex Texas as well as Oregon and he worked with congress to have that happen. He couldn’t do it by himself so congress helped him achieve this goal over time. He used congress to achieve success and get a little bit more trust out of his fans and the people that despised him. Another way he achieved success while in office was with cutting tariffs which congress helped him come to a decision with that. Also he helped establish an independent treasury which helped with the economy. Overall Polk was with congress to make many decisions but one of his best was expanding out west. After he worked with congress Polk had many interesting policy’s one of his most known policies would be his interests with foreign policies. His main promise was to expand to the west which was nice but came with some bad intentions. Some of the negatives that people were bringing up were how would slaves work with more land, and how much would the tariffs would be after an expansion that big. With these questions rising a lot of people were in doubt, that is when he passed a new bill to include the specifics of tariffs. This new policy was a liked one which included lowering the prices of imports and dropped percents of the value. A downfall of his policies is when he waged war for land, which the public didn’t prefer or like. It worked in his favor at the end of the war. But throughout the process he lost a lot of support and went down on the public approval rate. After all that, he had better policies than negative ones and people will remember him for his foreign policies as well as his tariff, and slave policies. As stated before is foreign policy was a plus and a downside which is one of his biggest controversial issues. While the Mexican-American war was underway he received a lot of scrutiny from his opponents, which were the Whigs. They were calling him an imperialist and said he was running the nation like it. Historians later said they think the pressure that he received killed him three months later after his presidency. Another big scandal was when we went to war because everyone thought he started the war, which he denied when the public asked specifics. This was a big controversy because he just sent U.S. soldiers into Mexico without even knowing if he could or if he had the power to. So he did that and congress declared war and war started which makes it look like Polk started the war. Overall Polk made some questionable decisions that turned out to be his greatest controversies and flaws. The biggest issue for Polk with national security was “Manifest Destiny” because that phrase made Polk want to expand out west and by doing this it got him into trouble with Mexico and Britain by trying to steal or take their land. When he tried to negotiate terms with them it made them angry and eventually led us to a war with Mexico. His biggest issue was trying to execute something to fast because it got U.S. soldiers killed in a battle over a river and thus the war began.	1,215	ENGLISH	1
Italian astronomer and experimental philosopher was born at Pisa on Feb. 15, 1564. he came of a noble but impoverished Florentine Family; his father Vincenzio Galilei was a competent mathematician and an able musician. Galileo received his early education at the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence. Here he studied Greek, Latin and logic but showed distaste for the science he was taught. He acquired a reputation for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical invention. In 1581 his father sent him to the University of Pisa to study medicine. Galileo was a skillful musician and showed a taste for painting. He was endowed with many natural gifts. In 1581 while watching lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronisms of the pendulum. He applied the new principle to the timing of the human pulse. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, Accident, however happens and a lesson in geometry which he overheard by chance awakened his interest and with his father’s reluctant permission he began to study mathematics and science. In 1585 he withdraw from the university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree, and returned to Florence. He lectured to the Florentine academy and in 1586 he published an essay descriptive of his invention of the hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy. During this he wrote a treatise, in 1588, on the centre of gravity in solids, at the request of his first patron, the Marches Guildubaldo, a man of science. Because of this treatise he obtained post of mathematical lecture at the Pisan University. During the ensuing two years (1589-91) he carried on that remarkable series of experiment by which he established the first principles of dynamics. He showed that path of projectile is a parabola. His sarcasm roused the anger of men holding different views. He became unpopular, resigned his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Galileo seems at an early period of his life, to have adopted the Copernican theory of the solar system, but wad deterred from avowing his opinions by the fear of ridicule. A amour of invention of telescope which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track to produce a telescope of power of 32. He began to make observation with telescope and the Sidera Medicea in 1610. Galileo observed the mountainous configuration of the moon and he showed that the Milky way was a collection of lesser stars. An important discovery was that of Jupiter satellites first seen by Galileo on Jan 7, 1610. This was strong confirmation of Copernican theory. Later he observed what happened to him as the triple or of Saturn the phase of Venus and sun spots. In Sept. 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His researches with telescope had been rewarded by venetain senta with the appointment for life to his professorship at a high salary. He was also appointed as philosopher to grand duke of Tuscany. In 1611 Galileo visited Rome and exhibited the telescopic wonder of heavens to the eminent personage at the pontifical court. In 1612 he published a book which refused Aristotle’s ideas and supported Archimedes’ principle. Galileo’s brilliant researchers enhanced by his formidable dialectic zeal drew the attention of authorities to the discrepancies between the new view of the solar system and certain passage in the Scriptures. He had no desire to raise the theological issue. Not only did Galileo explain adverse texts but he tired to produce scriptural confirmation of the of the Copernican system. The agitation against him increased and in 1615 he received a semi-official warning to avoid theology and limit himself to physical reasoning. In Feb. 1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the proposition that sun is immovable in the centre of the world and that earth has diurnal motion of rotation as heretical. Shortly afterwards Galileo was admonished by the Pop Paul V, not to hold, teach or defend the condemned doctrine. The injunction he promised to obey. Galileo returned to Florence and for seven years he led of a life of to studious retirement at Bellosguardo but at the end he appeared in public with his “Saggiatore” in which he dealt with the nature of comets. It had passages containing a defense of Copernican theory and was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical no less than by scientific authorities. He set himself to complete his book and finished it in June 1630. “Dialogo die due massimi sistemi del mondo” was published in 1932. It was concerned with two chief world systems. It was not astronomical, on attack of an ancient idea of earth. A trumult of applause from every part of Europe followed its publication. Towards the end the sale was prohibition. He pleaded his age and health but no excuse was admitted. On June 21 he was finally examined by inquisition and on following day Galileo was sentenced to incarceration. He was ordered to recite once a weak fore three years the seven penitential psalms. Galileo remain in custody of inquisition from 21st of June. On July 6 he was permitted to leave for Siena. He spent several months with archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini. On his return to Florence his prodigious mental activity continued to last. In 1637 his last discovery that of moon’s diurnal and monthly liberations was made, only a few months before he became blind. He continued his scientific researches and later he was engaged in dictating to his disciple. He was seized with the slow fever which resulted his death in Jan. 8, 1642.	<urn:uuid:67efcdcd-b0bf-4e64-8afe-3349c7f2aea1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bohatala.com/galileo-galilei-biography-and-achievements/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00453.warc.gz	en	0.984988	1,241	3.890625	4	[ -0.040312618017196655, 0.47672387957572937, 0.018695402890443802, -0.08513864874839783, -0.9666752815246582, -0.19034343957901, 0.48362770676612854, 0.48747819662094116, 0.1858040988445282, -0.11781306564807892, -0.054574158042669296, -0.5660195350646973, 0.24974311888217926, 0.46546819806...	2	Italian astronomer and experimental philosopher was born at Pisa on Feb. 15, 1564. he came of a noble but impoverished Florentine Family; his father Vincenzio Galilei was a competent mathematician and an able musician. Galileo received his early education at the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence. Here he studied Greek, Latin and logic but showed distaste for the science he was taught. He acquired a reputation for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical invention. In 1581 his father sent him to the University of Pisa to study medicine. Galileo was a skillful musician and showed a taste for painting. He was endowed with many natural gifts. In 1581 while watching lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronisms of the pendulum. He applied the new principle to the timing of the human pulse. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, Accident, however happens and a lesson in geometry which he overheard by chance awakened his interest and with his father’s reluctant permission he began to study mathematics and science. In 1585 he withdraw from the university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree, and returned to Florence. He lectured to the Florentine academy and in 1586 he published an essay descriptive of his invention of the hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy. During this he wrote a treatise, in 1588, on the centre of gravity in solids, at the request of his first patron, the Marches Guildubaldo, a man of science. Because of this treatise he obtained post of mathematical lecture at the Pisan University. During the ensuing two years (1589-91) he carried on that remarkable series of experiment by which he established the first principles of dynamics. He showed that path of projectile is a parabola. His sarcasm roused the anger of men holding different views. He became unpopular, resigned his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Galileo seems at an early period of his life, to have adopted the Copernican theory of the solar system, but wad deterred from avowing his opinions by the fear of ridicule. A amour of invention of telescope which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track to produce a telescope of power of 32. He began to make observation with telescope and the Sidera Medicea in 1610. Galileo observed the mountainous configuration of the moon and he showed that the Milky way was a collection of lesser stars. An important discovery was that of Jupiter satellites first seen by Galileo on Jan 7, 1610. This was strong confirmation of Copernican theory. Later he observed what happened to him as the triple or of Saturn the phase of Venus and sun spots. In Sept. 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His researches with telescope had been rewarded by venetain senta with the appointment for life to his professorship at a high salary. He was also appointed as philosopher to grand duke of Tuscany. In 1611 Galileo visited Rome and exhibited the telescopic wonder of heavens to the eminent personage at the pontifical court. In 1612 he published a book which refused Aristotle’s ideas and supported Archimedes’ principle. Galileo’s brilliant researchers enhanced by his formidable dialectic zeal drew the attention of authorities to the discrepancies between the new view of the solar system and certain passage in the Scriptures. He had no desire to raise the theological issue. Not only did Galileo explain adverse texts but he tired to produce scriptural confirmation of the of the Copernican system. The agitation against him increased and in 1615 he received a semi-official warning to avoid theology and limit himself to physical reasoning. In Feb. 1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the proposition that sun is immovable in the centre of the world and that earth has diurnal motion of rotation as heretical. Shortly afterwards Galileo was admonished by the Pop Paul V, not to hold, teach or defend the condemned doctrine. The injunction he promised to obey. Galileo returned to Florence and for seven years he led of a life of to studious retirement at Bellosguardo but at the end he appeared in public with his “Saggiatore” in which he dealt with the nature of comets. It had passages containing a defense of Copernican theory and was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical no less than by scientific authorities. He set himself to complete his book and finished it in June 1630. “Dialogo die due massimi sistemi del mondo” was published in 1932. It was concerned with two chief world systems. It was not astronomical, on attack of an ancient idea of earth. A trumult of applause from every part of Europe followed its publication. Towards the end the sale was prohibition. He pleaded his age and health but no excuse was admitted. On June 21 he was finally examined by inquisition and on following day Galileo was sentenced to incarceration. He was ordered to recite once a weak fore three years the seven penitential psalms. Galileo remain in custody of inquisition from 21st of June. On July 6 he was permitted to leave for Siena. He spent several months with archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini. On his return to Florence his prodigious mental activity continued to last. In 1637 his last discovery that of moon’s diurnal and monthly liberations was made, only a few months before he became blind. He continued his scientific researches and later he was engaged in dictating to his disciple. He was seized with the slow fever which resulted his death in Jan. 8, 1642.	1,285	ENGLISH	1
Teaching is a tough job and it becomes much tougher when it is about teaching young children. However, it is very important to direct and teach students effectively. After all, they are the future of the nation. Young children have been aptly described as clay pots; they take the shape in which they are shaped by the teachers.Every year thousands of students pass out from various colleges and join schools as teachers. However they face lots of difficulties while teaching young children. The task seems as difficult as they had never thought it to be. Well, with the intention to help such budding teachers, this article lays some very useful tips that will help you to teach young children effectively. Below are the key tips- First of all seek their interest: Whatever you have to teach, you must know that most of the young students don’t like to study at all. So, the foremost thing you need to do is develop their interest towards what you have to study. Build up a story if that is what drags their interest. Tell them why do they need to pay attention to what you are about to teach and how will it help them. Don’t sound boring while saying so. No matter if you talk hypothetically, just make sure that you drag children’s interest. Make learning fun for them: Even if you have successfully dragged the children’s attention, you will not be able to sustain it for long unless the learning experience is fun filled for them. Bring your creative side out and embed interesting stuffs into your teaching. Use jingles, small educational games, fun activities, etc. in between the class to make learning fun for them. Teach them in different ways: Don’t just stick to any particular form of teaching, rather keep on changing it. Teach children in as many different ways as possible. Impart knowledge practically, theoretically and even digitally. The first two ways of teaching are very well know to everyone but the third form of digital education is not practiced by many. Take children’s education online. Teach children with the help of internet, computer and projector. Children get excited by this as it appears to be something very different to them and hence they study with due attention. Don’t make exam as a competition but an opportunity to: Don’t horrify students with exams, rather present it to them in the form of an opportunity. Announce for a reward to be given to the topper and don’t scold students if they don’t perform well. In fact encourage everyone to do well the next time. Encourage them to do home study: Students’ learning is your responsibility which is not only confined to the classroom. You must also make sure that the students pursue home study as well. Give them regular homework and check the same daily. If some students are reluctant on that, persuade them to do so by keeping small rewards. If you have enjoyed reading the above piece of art or if you have made any good use of it, then do appreciate the author’s efforts by liking the article. You may also share it.	<urn:uuid:71a7a36d-5996-433c-8c9c-b184cd5ad5cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kivalinacity.com/tips-to-teach-young-children.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00479.warc.gz	en	0.98205	639	3.3125	3	[ 0.12396566569805145, -0.3099035620689392, 0.4319734573364258, -0.2996780574321747, -0.3311833143234253, 0.09050853550434113, -0.004057351965457201, 0.004400509409606457, -0.1961556375026703, -0.29395851492881775, 0.04120279476046562, 0.12432502210140228, 0.27160578966140747, 0.448581159114...	8	Teaching is a tough job and it becomes much tougher when it is about teaching young children. However, it is very important to direct and teach students effectively. After all, they are the future of the nation. Young children have been aptly described as clay pots; they take the shape in which they are shaped by the teachers.Every year thousands of students pass out from various colleges and join schools as teachers. However they face lots of difficulties while teaching young children. The task seems as difficult as they had never thought it to be. Well, with the intention to help such budding teachers, this article lays some very useful tips that will help you to teach young children effectively. Below are the key tips- First of all seek their interest: Whatever you have to teach, you must know that most of the young students don’t like to study at all. So, the foremost thing you need to do is develop their interest towards what you have to study. Build up a story if that is what drags their interest. Tell them why do they need to pay attention to what you are about to teach and how will it help them. Don’t sound boring while saying so. No matter if you talk hypothetically, just make sure that you drag children’s interest. Make learning fun for them: Even if you have successfully dragged the children’s attention, you will not be able to sustain it for long unless the learning experience is fun filled for them. Bring your creative side out and embed interesting stuffs into your teaching. Use jingles, small educational games, fun activities, etc. in between the class to make learning fun for them. Teach them in different ways: Don’t just stick to any particular form of teaching, rather keep on changing it. Teach children in as many different ways as possible. Impart knowledge practically, theoretically and even digitally. The first two ways of teaching are very well know to everyone but the third form of digital education is not practiced by many. Take children’s education online. Teach children with the help of internet, computer and projector. Children get excited by this as it appears to be something very different to them and hence they study with due attention. Don’t make exam as a competition but an opportunity to: Don’t horrify students with exams, rather present it to them in the form of an opportunity. Announce for a reward to be given to the topper and don’t scold students if they don’t perform well. In fact encourage everyone to do well the next time. Encourage them to do home study: Students’ learning is your responsibility which is not only confined to the classroom. You must also make sure that the students pursue home study as well. Give them regular homework and check the same daily. If some students are reluctant on that, persuade them to do so by keeping small rewards. If you have enjoyed reading the above piece of art or if you have made any good use of it, then do appreciate the author’s efforts by liking the article. You may also share it.	611	ENGLISH	1
In you believe in equality, it’s important you know some facts about Women’s Suffrage. Every woman who believes she is strong, powerful and able to accomplish anything should appreciate what our amazing forebears went through for us to be able to enjoy the freedoms we have today (even if you believe there is still a long way to go for us to have equal rights!) Here are some interesting facts about Women’s Suffrage to know and be thankful for. 1. All in a Name One of the most interesting facts about women’s suffrage I learned while writing this is that there were two categories of women who were fighting for our rights. The original movements in both the USA and UK began by women known as suffragists. As more militant action was sought and the movements splintered into various parties, the more forceful women became known as suffragettes. 2. Where It All Begins We can date the beginning of the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the USA to 1848. For 2 days, women and men met in Seneca Falls, NY at the first Women’s Right Convention, to discuss and debate the issues and aims. At the end of the convention, 68 women and 32 men put their signature to a set of 12 resolutions, known as the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for the right of women to vote and the equality of treatment for women and men under the law. 3. The Vote Of all the important facts about women’s suffrage, you might be surprised to learn that the 19th Amendment to the American Constitution that granted the right for women to vote was actually only passed by ONE vote. Consensus usually points to Harry Burn as the man who swung things the female way. His mother wrote him "to do the right thing” and when he voted YES, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the Amendment. This was in 1920. 4. More than the Vote We so often associate the suffrage movement with the right to vote but in reality, it was so much more. The cause was really the rights of women in all aspects of life. In the early 19th century, women had few rights (it had been this way throughout history.) It wasn’t until the 1840s that women banded together to fight for legal changes to give them rights over property and even their own children, which up until then had “belonged” to the husband according to most states’ laws. 5. Setting a Precedent While in Britain women were handing in petitions and protesting outside Downing Street and at events where Royals were in attendance, in the US women set a new standard. The Suffragists were the first group in US history to picket the White House. 6. Harsh Treatment I mentioned at the beginning we should remember some of the facts about women’s suffrage and one of the reasons is to remember just how strong these women were and how far they pushed themselves for the cause. Women were jailed throughout the time of the Suffrage Movement for demonstrating for the right to vote and many of them went on hunger strike during their incarceration. The decision the men made to deal with this was to force feed them. And some prominent leaders in the movement were treated even more harshly. For example, Alice Stokes Paul, who was the leader of the National Women’s Party, was subjected to solitary confinement in the mental ward of Occoquan Workhouse Prison (she was released in November 1917). 7. Alice Stokes As I just mentioned her, perhaps we ought to know a little more about this amazing woman. After meeting the Pankhurst sisters (the leaders of the Suffrage Movement in Britain), Stokes stepped up her belief in the cause and became more strenuous and forceful in her protests. At odds with the leaders of the National American Women Suffrage Association, Stokes broke away and formed the National Women’s Party and ramped up the campaign. It was under her leadership that there was picketing at the White House and other notable demonstrations. She continued her struggle until the 19th Amendment was passed but didn’t stop there. The right to vote was just one cause Stokes was passionate about. Her life was dedicated to the betterment of and equal rights for women and in 1923 she penned a proposal for an Equal Rights Amendment. In 1972, both house of Congress passed the ERA and although it has not to this date been ratified, Alice Stokes lived long enough to see many US states adopt the ERA into their constitutions. Stokes died in 1977 and was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame in 1979. Women’s suffrage is a fascinating story full of inspirational characters, some of whom were even prepared to put their lives on the line for the cause of rights for women. Do you find it interesting? Can you imagine life today without the freedoms the suffragists/suffragettes fought for?	<urn:uuid:38d7e774-f1ec-45ca-8eae-45871a88712d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lifestyle.allwomenstalk.com/interesting-facts-about-womens-suffrage-in-the-us/?utm_campaign=related	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00413.warc.gz	en	0.984826	1,030	3.515625	4	[ -0.256979763507843, -0.14489948749542236, 0.15244363248348236, 0.10586737096309662, -0.21335038542747498, 0.567664623260498, 0.35861736536026, 0.2409147173166275, 0.10639319568872452, 0.20041340589523315, -0.23170478641986847, 0.00010257260873913765, -0.23712679743766785, -0.06491149961948...	1	In you believe in equality, it’s important you know some facts about Women’s Suffrage. Every woman who believes she is strong, powerful and able to accomplish anything should appreciate what our amazing forebears went through for us to be able to enjoy the freedoms we have today (even if you believe there is still a long way to go for us to have equal rights!) Here are some interesting facts about Women’s Suffrage to know and be thankful for. 1. All in a Name One of the most interesting facts about women’s suffrage I learned while writing this is that there were two categories of women who were fighting for our rights. The original movements in both the USA and UK began by women known as suffragists. As more militant action was sought and the movements splintered into various parties, the more forceful women became known as suffragettes. 2. Where It All Begins We can date the beginning of the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the USA to 1848. For 2 days, women and men met in Seneca Falls, NY at the first Women’s Right Convention, to discuss and debate the issues and aims. At the end of the convention, 68 women and 32 men put their signature to a set of 12 resolutions, known as the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for the right of women to vote and the equality of treatment for women and men under the law. 3. The Vote Of all the important facts about women’s suffrage, you might be surprised to learn that the 19th Amendment to the American Constitution that granted the right for women to vote was actually only passed by ONE vote. Consensus usually points to Harry Burn as the man who swung things the female way. His mother wrote him "to do the right thing” and when he voted YES, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the Amendment. This was in 1920. 4. More than the Vote We so often associate the suffrage movement with the right to vote but in reality, it was so much more. The cause was really the rights of women in all aspects of life. In the early 19th century, women had few rights (it had been this way throughout history.) It wasn’t until the 1840s that women banded together to fight for legal changes to give them rights over property and even their own children, which up until then had “belonged” to the husband according to most states’ laws. 5. Setting a Precedent While in Britain women were handing in petitions and protesting outside Downing Street and at events where Royals were in attendance, in the US women set a new standard. The Suffragists were the first group in US history to picket the White House. 6. Harsh Treatment I mentioned at the beginning we should remember some of the facts about women’s suffrage and one of the reasons is to remember just how strong these women were and how far they pushed themselves for the cause. Women were jailed throughout the time of the Suffrage Movement for demonstrating for the right to vote and many of them went on hunger strike during their incarceration. The decision the men made to deal with this was to force feed them. And some prominent leaders in the movement were treated even more harshly. For example, Alice Stokes Paul, who was the leader of the National Women’s Party, was subjected to solitary confinement in the mental ward of Occoquan Workhouse Prison (she was released in November 1917). 7. Alice Stokes As I just mentioned her, perhaps we ought to know a little more about this amazing woman. After meeting the Pankhurst sisters (the leaders of the Suffrage Movement in Britain), Stokes stepped up her belief in the cause and became more strenuous and forceful in her protests. At odds with the leaders of the National American Women Suffrage Association, Stokes broke away and formed the National Women’s Party and ramped up the campaign. It was under her leadership that there was picketing at the White House and other notable demonstrations. She continued her struggle until the 19th Amendment was passed but didn’t stop there. The right to vote was just one cause Stokes was passionate about. Her life was dedicated to the betterment of and equal rights for women and in 1923 she penned a proposal for an Equal Rights Amendment. In 1972, both house of Congress passed the ERA and although it has not to this date been ratified, Alice Stokes lived long enough to see many US states adopt the ERA into their constitutions. Stokes died in 1977 and was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame in 1979. Women’s suffrage is a fascinating story full of inspirational characters, some of whom were even prepared to put their lives on the line for the cause of rights for women. Do you find it interesting? Can you imagine life today without the freedoms the suffragists/suffragettes fought for?	1,032	ENGLISH	1
- Published: 27 December 2011 by Gary Hildreth Have you ever wondered what happened to the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence? Five signers were captured by the British as traitors, and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army, another had two sons captured. Nine of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the Revolutionary War. They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. What kind of men were they? Twenty-four were lawyers and jurists. Eleven were merchants, nine were farmers and large plantation owners; men of means, well educated. But they signed the Declaration of Independence knowing full well that the penalty would be death if they were captured. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships swept from the seas by the British Navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts, and died in rags. Thomas McKean was so hounded by the British that he was forced to move his family almost constantly. He served in the Congress without pay, and his family was kept in hiding. His possessions were taken from him, and poverty was his reward. Vandals or soldiers looted the properties of Dillery, Hall, Clymer, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Ruttledge, and Middleton. At the battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis had taken over the Nelson home for his headquarters. He quietly urged General George Washington to open fire. The home was destroyed, and Nelson died bankrupt. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed. The enemy jailed his wife, and she died within a few months. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their 13 children fled for their lives. His fields and his gristmill were laid to waste. For more than a year he lived in forests and caves, returning home to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later he died from exhaustion and a broken heart. Norris and Livingston suffered similar fates. Such were the stories and sacrifices of the American Revolution. These were not wild eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. They were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: "For the support of this declaration, with firm reliance on the protection of the divine providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." They gave you and me a free and independent America. The history books never told you a lot of what happened in the Revolutionary War. We didn't just fight the British. We were British subjects at that time and we fought our own government! Perhaps you can now see why our founding fathers had a hatred for standing armies, and allowed through the Second Amendment for everyone to be armed. Frankly, I can't read this without crying. Some of us take these liberties so much for granted...We shouldn't.	<urn:uuid:97895c87-86fd-4c72-807c-87b57f1f9f53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lexrex.com/index.php/articles-documents-and-archives/liberty-and-limited-government/the-fate-of-the-signatories?tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00265.warc.gz	en	0.99461	652	3.625	4	[ -0.20397579669952393, 0.19959020614624023, 0.13935475051403046, -0.3239264488220215, -0.18353939056396484, -0.18964023888111115, 0.42812004685401917, 0.05448414757847786, -0.10467158257961273, 0.13512858748435974, 0.2908710241317749, 0.15960440039634705, 0.23705637454986572, -0.19210223853...	1	- Published: 27 December 2011 by Gary Hildreth Have you ever wondered what happened to the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence? Five signers were captured by the British as traitors, and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army, another had two sons captured. Nine of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the Revolutionary War. They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. What kind of men were they? Twenty-four were lawyers and jurists. Eleven were merchants, nine were farmers and large plantation owners; men of means, well educated. But they signed the Declaration of Independence knowing full well that the penalty would be death if they were captured. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships swept from the seas by the British Navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts, and died in rags. Thomas McKean was so hounded by the British that he was forced to move his family almost constantly. He served in the Congress without pay, and his family was kept in hiding. His possessions were taken from him, and poverty was his reward. Vandals or soldiers looted the properties of Dillery, Hall, Clymer, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Ruttledge, and Middleton. At the battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis had taken over the Nelson home for his headquarters. He quietly urged General George Washington to open fire. The home was destroyed, and Nelson died bankrupt. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed. The enemy jailed his wife, and she died within a few months. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their 13 children fled for their lives. His fields and his gristmill were laid to waste. For more than a year he lived in forests and caves, returning home to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later he died from exhaustion and a broken heart. Norris and Livingston suffered similar fates. Such were the stories and sacrifices of the American Revolution. These were not wild eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. They were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: "For the support of this declaration, with firm reliance on the protection of the divine providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." They gave you and me a free and independent America. The history books never told you a lot of what happened in the Revolutionary War. We didn't just fight the British. We were British subjects at that time and we fought our own government! Perhaps you can now see why our founding fathers had a hatred for standing armies, and allowed through the Second Amendment for everyone to be armed. Frankly, I can't read this without crying. Some of us take these liberties so much for granted...We shouldn't.	654	ENGLISH	1
President's Day may seem somewhat contrived, an attempt to work a three-day weekend into the month when our two greatest national leaders were born, with the goal of making February a little more tolerable. But somewhere under the annual glut of ads for improbable bargains, there's real meaning to the day, especially in this year of rancor, division and shameless deceit. It is to be found in the lives of the two men who are the focus of the holiday: George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Their examples have endured; when they cease to matter to us, we will be in trouble. George Washington's most important contribution to the new nation may have come from the example he set. He was, in the words of historian David Hackett Fischer, a model of "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others." This did not necessarily make him a popular figure with everyone. Rather, it made him an honored, respected and trusted one — the only president to win every electoral vote in both his elections and the one who set an important precedent by stepping down (with genuine relief) after two terms. Washington had no need to talk of how "strong" he was. His strength was self-evident. Abraham Lincoln was born poor yet proceeded to rise to the top with the kind of sureness and dignity that does honor to a democratic country. He had little formal schooling, but he educated himself into a command of the English language that puts modern speechwriters to shame. He was a practical politician and sometimes did things he found distasteful. But on the vital issues of his day, he was knowledgeable, eloquent and solidly principled. In a time when a large national party had been pushing to exclude the Irish Catholics and Germans pouring into the country, he voiced praise for immigrants. When Southern leaders threatened secession, he stood firm against expansion of slavery. He shared with Washington the virtues of honesty, integrity and respect for his fellow citizens. By the time of his death, Lincoln was worn by work and care, by family tragedy and by the horrors of the life-or-death decisions he faced every day, with little relief. He gave his life for his country. Just over a week before his inauguration, our new president announced that he would leave the running of his business interests to his two eldest sons. Not that he couldn't handle everything himself, he assured us. "I could actually run my business and run government at the same time," he said. In the weeks since, it's possible that he has learned, the hard way, that the presidency is not a part-time job. We hope that Congress has also learned something in the past month: that with truth, openness and integrity becoming scarce commodities in the White House, and with ethnic nationalist and other anti-democratic forces gaining in many countries, an inescapable challenge is looming before the House and the Senate, the same one presented to another Republican Congress 154 years ago by a president who always spoke with honesty and courage: "We cannot escape history," Lincoln said then. "We ... will be remembered in spite of ourselves. No personal significance, or insignificance, can spare one or another of us. The fiery trial through which we pass, will light us down, in honor or dishonor, to the latest generation."	<urn:uuid:82b4cf2c-e3c5-4c22-9903-a6218498b5dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.southcoasttoday.com/opinion/20170221/editorial-roundup-washington-post----what-we-can-learn-from-presidents-day	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00072.warc.gz	en	0.984057	695	3.328125	3	[ -0.23291799426078796, 0.35183125734329224, 0.4223995506763458, -0.05636870488524437, -0.1512378454208374, 0.3178044855594635, 0.0010350907687097788, 0.01731637492775917, -0.2704787850379944, -0.1106400191783905, 0.15571463108062744, 0.5048520565032959, 0.40160948038101196, 0.46836739778518...	2	President's Day may seem somewhat contrived, an attempt to work a three-day weekend into the month when our two greatest national leaders were born, with the goal of making February a little more tolerable. But somewhere under the annual glut of ads for improbable bargains, there's real meaning to the day, especially in this year of rancor, division and shameless deceit. It is to be found in the lives of the two men who are the focus of the holiday: George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Their examples have endured; when they cease to matter to us, we will be in trouble. George Washington's most important contribution to the new nation may have come from the example he set. He was, in the words of historian David Hackett Fischer, a model of "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others." This did not necessarily make him a popular figure with everyone. Rather, it made him an honored, respected and trusted one — the only president to win every electoral vote in both his elections and the one who set an important precedent by stepping down (with genuine relief) after two terms. Washington had no need to talk of how "strong" he was. His strength was self-evident. Abraham Lincoln was born poor yet proceeded to rise to the top with the kind of sureness and dignity that does honor to a democratic country. He had little formal schooling, but he educated himself into a command of the English language that puts modern speechwriters to shame. He was a practical politician and sometimes did things he found distasteful. But on the vital issues of his day, he was knowledgeable, eloquent and solidly principled. In a time when a large national party had been pushing to exclude the Irish Catholics and Germans pouring into the country, he voiced praise for immigrants. When Southern leaders threatened secession, he stood firm against expansion of slavery. He shared with Washington the virtues of honesty, integrity and respect for his fellow citizens. By the time of his death, Lincoln was worn by work and care, by family tragedy and by the horrors of the life-or-death decisions he faced every day, with little relief. He gave his life for his country. Just over a week before his inauguration, our new president announced that he would leave the running of his business interests to his two eldest sons. Not that he couldn't handle everything himself, he assured us. "I could actually run my business and run government at the same time," he said. In the weeks since, it's possible that he has learned, the hard way, that the presidency is not a part-time job. We hope that Congress has also learned something in the past month: that with truth, openness and integrity becoming scarce commodities in the White House, and with ethnic nationalist and other anti-democratic forces gaining in many countries, an inescapable challenge is looming before the House and the Senate, the same one presented to another Republican Congress 154 years ago by a president who always spoke with honesty and courage: "We cannot escape history," Lincoln said then. "We ... will be remembered in spite of ourselves. No personal significance, or insignificance, can spare one or another of us. The fiery trial through which we pass, will light us down, in honor or dishonor, to the latest generation."	693	ENGLISH	1
On Wednesday, June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized in the House of Commons for the harm inflicted by these schools on their students. The gesture is part of a larger compensation project undertaken in 2005 called the Common Experience Payments through which former students may receive $10,000 plus an additional $3,000 Canadian for each school year attended. Currently 86,000 students are eligible for compensation. Harper condemned past governments for failing to protect the aboriginal peoples of Canada and their insistence on the inferiority of native cultures and practices. He further recognized that such policies of induced assimilation have no place in a country that respects the diversities of its people. Beginning in the 19th century, Canada embarked on a mission to “kill the Indian in the child” by forcing aboriginal children to be separated from their families and attend residential schools. Children often began their schooling at the age of five and attended school for ten months out of the year. Canada’s national mission was to teach native children English to enable them to read the Bible, and adopt Christian ideas and morals. The ultimate goal was to prolong this education plan until aboriginals were completely assimilated into a homogenous Canadian society. As all aboriginals were considered “wards of the state,” adults had no say in whether or not their children attended these schools until the 1950s, when they were finally given the option. After the 1950s, many parents continued sending their children to these schools as they perceived this as their only possible decision after years of being taught that these institutions provided the best form of education. However, children who attended residential schools lost touch with their culture, language, family, and heritage. Upon returning to their reserves, most of these children felt they no longer belonged to the community, further distancing them from their authentic identities. Children were forced to correspond with their parents in English, most of whom could not respond because they could not understand the language. Living conditions were extremely poor for the children, whose labor was used to help maintain the schools. According to current government investigation, many of these children fell victim to rampant physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. High levels of alcoholism and suicide among aboriginals is commonly attributed to these abuses. For many, no amount of money or apologies will make up for the years of abuse experienced by the original inhabitants of Canada. However, Harper’s apology is considered to be an essential first step towards assuming greater responsibility for the country’s past mistakes and helping the country’s original population to be part of Canada, in their own way.	<urn:uuid:4f9122a8-1540-4733-97c6-860baaa7dcab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.coha.org/canadian-prime-minister-apologizes-for-%E2%80%9Csad-chapter-in-canadian-history%E2%80%9D/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00403.warc.gz	en	0.983083	527	3.375	3	[ -0.17872482538223267, 0.5618574619293213, 0.5384107828140259, -0.07805679738521576, -0.1663464903831482, -0.04826122522354126, 0.025046618655323982, 0.22280940413475037, 0.12499112635850906, 0.3853396773338318, 0.43088334798812866, -0.20595327019691467, 0.18957865238189697, 0.1776700615882...	2	On Wednesday, June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized in the House of Commons for the harm inflicted by these schools on their students. The gesture is part of a larger compensation project undertaken in 2005 called the Common Experience Payments through which former students may receive $10,000 plus an additional $3,000 Canadian for each school year attended. Currently 86,000 students are eligible for compensation. Harper condemned past governments for failing to protect the aboriginal peoples of Canada and their insistence on the inferiority of native cultures and practices. He further recognized that such policies of induced assimilation have no place in a country that respects the diversities of its people. Beginning in the 19th century, Canada embarked on a mission to “kill the Indian in the child” by forcing aboriginal children to be separated from their families and attend residential schools. Children often began their schooling at the age of five and attended school for ten months out of the year. Canada’s national mission was to teach native children English to enable them to read the Bible, and adopt Christian ideas and morals. The ultimate goal was to prolong this education plan until aboriginals were completely assimilated into a homogenous Canadian society. As all aboriginals were considered “wards of the state,” adults had no say in whether or not their children attended these schools until the 1950s, when they were finally given the option. After the 1950s, many parents continued sending their children to these schools as they perceived this as their only possible decision after years of being taught that these institutions provided the best form of education. However, children who attended residential schools lost touch with their culture, language, family, and heritage. Upon returning to their reserves, most of these children felt they no longer belonged to the community, further distancing them from their authentic identities. Children were forced to correspond with their parents in English, most of whom could not respond because they could not understand the language. Living conditions were extremely poor for the children, whose labor was used to help maintain the schools. According to current government investigation, many of these children fell victim to rampant physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. High levels of alcoholism and suicide among aboriginals is commonly attributed to these abuses. For many, no amount of money or apologies will make up for the years of abuse experienced by the original inhabitants of Canada. However, Harper’s apology is considered to be an essential first step towards assuming greater responsibility for the country’s past mistakes and helping the country’s original population to be part of Canada, in their own way.	542	ENGLISH	1
One of the striking features of Latin American literature is that it mostly depicts the lives of white people who are part of the traditional upper class, even if stories about other groups are narrated. This is because, the biggest names in Latin American literature is predominantly white. Yet, there are exceptions among these writers who do portray authentic experiences of indigenous peoples. José María Arguedas Altamirano was one such writer who literally spoke the language of the indigenous people of Peru. Aeguedas belonged to a Spanish-origin family but became fluent in Quechua. His novels depict Quechuan lifestyle and aspirations intimately, earning him accolades that other writers couldn’t. How could he speak Quechua so fluently? He picked up Quechua when he grew up with his step mother, and interacted closely with the folks in the servant quarters. He later escaped with a Quechuan family to avoid the torture that was caused by his step-brother. In addition to being a novelist, he was also an anthropologist and poet. It shouldn’t come as a surprise that he was so keenly involved with the indegenous poeple of Peru. His debut novel Yawar Fiesta is one of the best-selling novels in Peru, and is known for fusing Spanish and Quechua languages. In fact, this novel is a sort of creole language that came to represent the uniqueness of Peru. Are his books available in English? He is not translated very well in English, and books are hard to find. Yet, many English critics have called José María Arguedas as one of the greatest novelists of 20th Century. You might be able to find a translation on Amazon, or at a second-hand bookshop close to you. However, be warned that his books are often not printed and may be out of stock. Reading José María Arguedas will help you to gain a different perspective about Peru, and will help you to understand the country better when you arrive.	<urn:uuid:1b0b84cf-c5f3-4a43-929f-15ed60392600>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.karikuy.org/blog/2019/11/23/jose-maria-arguedas-wrote-in-spanish-and-quechua/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00274.warc.gz	en	0.982143	417	3.328125	3	[ 0.09754159301519394, -0.10868851095438004, 0.5880597233772278, 0.5466550588607788, -0.04020332545042038, -0.11538883298635483, -0.080499567091465, 0.24861463904380798, 0.17820365726947784, -0.1893652081489563, -0.173575296998024, 0.1854659467935562, -0.14668066799640656, 0.2991157174110412...	2	One of the striking features of Latin American literature is that it mostly depicts the lives of white people who are part of the traditional upper class, even if stories about other groups are narrated. This is because, the biggest names in Latin American literature is predominantly white. Yet, there are exceptions among these writers who do portray authentic experiences of indigenous peoples. José María Arguedas Altamirano was one such writer who literally spoke the language of the indigenous people of Peru. Aeguedas belonged to a Spanish-origin family but became fluent in Quechua. His novels depict Quechuan lifestyle and aspirations intimately, earning him accolades that other writers couldn’t. How could he speak Quechua so fluently? He picked up Quechua when he grew up with his step mother, and interacted closely with the folks in the servant quarters. He later escaped with a Quechuan family to avoid the torture that was caused by his step-brother. In addition to being a novelist, he was also an anthropologist and poet. It shouldn’t come as a surprise that he was so keenly involved with the indegenous poeple of Peru. His debut novel Yawar Fiesta is one of the best-selling novels in Peru, and is known for fusing Spanish and Quechua languages. In fact, this novel is a sort of creole language that came to represent the uniqueness of Peru. Are his books available in English? He is not translated very well in English, and books are hard to find. Yet, many English critics have called José María Arguedas as one of the greatest novelists of 20th Century. You might be able to find a translation on Amazon, or at a second-hand bookshop close to you. However, be warned that his books are often not printed and may be out of stock. Reading José María Arguedas will help you to gain a different perspective about Peru, and will help you to understand the country better when you arrive.	407	ENGLISH	1
War and Peace is a novel by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy, first published in 1869. The work is epic in scale and is regarded as one of the most important works of world literature. About the Author Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy 9 September [O.S. 28 August] 1828 - 20 November [O.S. 7 November] 1910), also known as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, philosopher and playwright who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Tolstoy was a master of realistic fiction and is widely considered one of the greatest novelists of all time. He is best known for two long novels, War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1877). Tolstoy first achieved literary acclaim in his 20s with his semi-autobiographical trilogy of novels, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852-1856) and Sevastopol Sketches (1855), based on his experiences in the Crimean War. His fiction output also includes two additional novels, dozens of short stories, and several famous novellas, including The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness, and Hadji Murad. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker, social reformer, and Georgist. His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and James Bevel.	<urn:uuid:841c24f0-64d5-425a-9367-7749dc5a8be5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.phoenixbooks.biz/book/9781505427899	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00084.warc.gz	en	0.981566	410	3.453125	3	[ -0.026281308382749557, 0.08667127788066864, 0.12700329720973969, 0.08810847997665405, -0.3926754295825958, 0.1869688481092453, -0.09697220474481583, 0.4558536112308502, 0.3341158330440521, 0.12723219394683838, 0.004623900633305311, -0.002462917473167181, 0.1321413218975067, 0.6736209988594...	1	War and Peace is a novel by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy, first published in 1869. The work is epic in scale and is regarded as one of the most important works of world literature. About the Author Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy 9 September [O.S. 28 August] 1828 - 20 November [O.S. 7 November] 1910), also known as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, philosopher and playwright who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Tolstoy was a master of realistic fiction and is widely considered one of the greatest novelists of all time. He is best known for two long novels, War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1877). Tolstoy first achieved literary acclaim in his 20s with his semi-autobiographical trilogy of novels, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852-1856) and Sevastopol Sketches (1855), based on his experiences in the Crimean War. His fiction output also includes two additional novels, dozens of short stories, and several famous novellas, including The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness, and Hadji Murad. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker, social reformer, and Georgist. His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and James Bevel.	438	ENGLISH	1
When two brothers stumbled upon the 500-year-old Inuits in 1972, they thought they'd discovered a recent burial. In 1972, eight Qilakitsoq mummies were discovered in two tombs within a rocky crevasse in Greenland. This was, of course, not the first time researchers came across ancient mummies, but these were some of the best-preserved specimens ever found in Greenland. The skin, fingernails, hair, and even eyebrows of the six adults and two young Inuits are plainly visible. They came to be known as the Qilakitsoq mummies for the abandoned Inuit settlement in which they were discovered, on the Nuussuaq Peninsula in northwestern Greenland. The mummies were likely simple farmers and their mummification accidental. The subzero temperatures on the Greenland peninsula had naturally preserved the corpses, freeze-drying them against time. They were, in fact, so well-preserved that their organs could be examined and even their tattoos were visible. Perhaps most shocking about the discovery was that the youngest corpse, a six-month-old, appeared to have been buried alive. The Initial Discovery Of The Qilakitsoq Mummies Brothers Hans and Jokum Grønvold were hunting grouse when they happened upon the Qilakitsoq mummies under some rocks in 1972. The corpses were stacked vertically with layers of animal hide between them. They still wore the furs that would have kept them warm during life in preparation for the hunt Inuits believed they would experience even in the afterlife. It is believed that the Qilakitsoq mummies remained so well preserved because of the Arctic climate: freezing ground temperatures coupled with extremely dry air effectively freeze-dried the corpses, preserving their skin and innards for centuries. Of the eight bodies, the infant was the best-preserved which archaeologists attribute to his size: he would have frozen must faster than his family members beside him. Along with the bodies, the brothers discovered 78 additional pieces of clothing fashioned from reindeer and sealskin. After they alerted authorities, archaeologists then found a few other graves and the remains of abandoned homes at the Qilakitsoq settlement as well. Archaeologists learned that three of the adult mummies were sisters. Buried with them were their children: an 18-year-old-daughter, a two to four-year-old son, and a six-month baby boy who was alive when buried with his mother. Thule Inuits believed that burying the mother and child together would ensure that they entered the afterlife together. Indeed, a peaceful journey to the land of the dead was of utmost importance for this tribe. Further, it was believed that burying the baby with its mother avoided the infant’s likely inevitable, and more painful, death by starvation. Testing revealed that the older son likely had a variation of Downs Syndrome. Thule custom dictated that this child was also likely buried alive, but sources differ on whether this was the case with this particular mummy. The second grave contained the three women; two of which were related, and one who appeared to be unrelated to anyone else at the gravesite. It’s thought that she may have married into the family of the others buried beside her. It became clear to researchers that the family had received a traditional Inuit burial in local rock formations. Their placement also helped to preserve them as it provided ample drainage, airflow, and sufficient protection from the weather. What Scientists Learned From The Corpses These mummies would prove to be an invaluable tool for understanding the customs of Greenland’s indigenous Thule Inuit population. Though the family was likely buried around 1475 A.D., their forefathers settled in the area about 500 years prior. Scientists are not completely sure how exactly the adult Inuits died, but they speculate that it was perhaps due to natural causes like kidney stones, tumors, constipation, and overall poor health. Archaeologists found large amounts of soot in the lymph nodes of the lungs of all the mummified remains. This can be attributed to using lamps lit by seal oil in the small confines of their homes. The Qilakitsoq mummies also were heavily infested with lice. They were so infested, in fact, that scientists recovered remnants of lice from some of their intestines, which indicated that the lice on their bodies had gotten into their food as they were eating. UV-examination showed that all the women’s foreheads, eyebrows, and chins were adorned with tattoos made by pulling soot-dipped sinew through the skin with a needle. Tattoos like this likely denoted each woman’s tribal and familial relationships and would have been given to them at puberty and marriage. Indeed, the young female mummy did not have tattoos. This may indicate that she was either unmarried or had not yet gone through puberty. Scientists found moss and other plant life in one of the mummy’s intestines, suggesting that they ate plants as a supplement to their otherwise meat-heavy diet. More than 75 percent of the meat they ate consisted of marine mammals and fish, the rest likely came from reindeer and other game. These mummies were instrumental in advancing the field of mummy studies for their impeccable preservation. A Brief History Of The Thule Inuits Before settling in Greenland, the Thule Inuits came from other areas of the polar north. They sailed around the coasts of Greenland in their boats called umiaks which were made from driftwood and seal skin. They constructed their homes from a similar combination of terrestrial oceanic materials, namely whalebone, and stone. They brought with them entire households of goods, including their dogs and sleds which were their main form of winter transportation. Though the Thule were spread throughout the Arctic island, they were a unified people that spoke the same language, though in different dialects, and followed the same traditions. There are accounts of Norse explorers encountering the Thule in Greenland around about 1200 A.D. There are documents regarding their subsequent trade agreements. The Nordic explorers likely traded their iron for Thule ivory made of walrus tusk. But as is typical of history, these trade deals often involved conflict too. The Norse traders observed that: “When they [the Inuits] are struck by weapons, their wounds are white, with no flow of blood…but when they die, the bleeding is almost endless.” Other Notable Mummies From Greenland And Around The World The first major mummy discovery in Greenland came in 1945. Three mummies were initially found near Nuuk, and three additional mummies were found in 1952 in the same location. These corpses ranged in their completeness. Some were intact, others were dismembered and still others had only partial extremities remaining. There is also Rosalia Lombardo, a mummified Sicilian toddler who died in 1918, who still appears so lifelike that some swear she can blink on a regular basis. The study of ancient mummies is a race against time that pits disintegration against scientific development, and so finds like the Qilakitsoq mummies are invaluable. Four of the Inuit mummies are on display at the Greenland National Museum.	<urn:uuid:512781f2-aaac-42c7-89e5-60d59f371604>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allthatsinteresting.com/qilakitsoq-mummies	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00189.warc.gz	en	0.984156	1,524	3.859375	4	[ -0.4109865427017212, 0.8796027302742004, 0.22357261180877686, 0.010849464684724808, -0.04191318154335022, 0.12017153203487396, 0.15189161896705627, -0.2381010353565216, -0.3864181935787201, 0.07543538510799408, 0.1566143035888672, -0.4212940037250519, 0.42714065313339233, 0.376693874597549...	11	When two brothers stumbled upon the 500-year-old Inuits in 1972, they thought they'd discovered a recent burial. In 1972, eight Qilakitsoq mummies were discovered in two tombs within a rocky crevasse in Greenland. This was, of course, not the first time researchers came across ancient mummies, but these were some of the best-preserved specimens ever found in Greenland. The skin, fingernails, hair, and even eyebrows of the six adults and two young Inuits are plainly visible. They came to be known as the Qilakitsoq mummies for the abandoned Inuit settlement in which they were discovered, on the Nuussuaq Peninsula in northwestern Greenland. The mummies were likely simple farmers and their mummification accidental. The subzero temperatures on the Greenland peninsula had naturally preserved the corpses, freeze-drying them against time. They were, in fact, so well-preserved that their organs could be examined and even their tattoos were visible. Perhaps most shocking about the discovery was that the youngest corpse, a six-month-old, appeared to have been buried alive. The Initial Discovery Of The Qilakitsoq Mummies Brothers Hans and Jokum Grønvold were hunting grouse when they happened upon the Qilakitsoq mummies under some rocks in 1972. The corpses were stacked vertically with layers of animal hide between them. They still wore the furs that would have kept them warm during life in preparation for the hunt Inuits believed they would experience even in the afterlife. It is believed that the Qilakitsoq mummies remained so well preserved because of the Arctic climate: freezing ground temperatures coupled with extremely dry air effectively freeze-dried the corpses, preserving their skin and innards for centuries. Of the eight bodies, the infant was the best-preserved which archaeologists attribute to his size: he would have frozen must faster than his family members beside him. Along with the bodies, the brothers discovered 78 additional pieces of clothing fashioned from reindeer and sealskin. After they alerted authorities, archaeologists then found a few other graves and the remains of abandoned homes at the Qilakitsoq settlement as well. Archaeologists learned that three of the adult mummies were sisters. Buried with them were their children: an 18-year-old-daughter, a two to four-year-old son, and a six-month baby boy who was alive when buried with his mother. Thule Inuits believed that burying the mother and child together would ensure that they entered the afterlife together. Indeed, a peaceful journey to the land of the dead was of utmost importance for this tribe. Further, it was believed that burying the baby with its mother avoided the infant’s likely inevitable, and more painful, death by starvation. Testing revealed that the older son likely had a variation of Downs Syndrome. Thule custom dictated that this child was also likely buried alive, but sources differ on whether this was the case with this particular mummy. The second grave contained the three women; two of which were related, and one who appeared to be unrelated to anyone else at the gravesite. It’s thought that she may have married into the family of the others buried beside her. It became clear to researchers that the family had received a traditional Inuit burial in local rock formations. Their placement also helped to preserve them as it provided ample drainage, airflow, and sufficient protection from the weather. What Scientists Learned From The Corpses These mummies would prove to be an invaluable tool for understanding the customs of Greenland’s indigenous Thule Inuit population. Though the family was likely buried around 1475 A.D., their forefathers settled in the area about 500 years prior. Scientists are not completely sure how exactly the adult Inuits died, but they speculate that it was perhaps due to natural causes like kidney stones, tumors, constipation, and overall poor health. Archaeologists found large amounts of soot in the lymph nodes of the lungs of all the mummified remains. This can be attributed to using lamps lit by seal oil in the small confines of their homes. The Qilakitsoq mummies also were heavily infested with lice. They were so infested, in fact, that scientists recovered remnants of lice from some of their intestines, which indicated that the lice on their bodies had gotten into their food as they were eating. UV-examination showed that all the women’s foreheads, eyebrows, and chins were adorned with tattoos made by pulling soot-dipped sinew through the skin with a needle. Tattoos like this likely denoted each woman’s tribal and familial relationships and would have been given to them at puberty and marriage. Indeed, the young female mummy did not have tattoos. This may indicate that she was either unmarried or had not yet gone through puberty. Scientists found moss and other plant life in one of the mummy’s intestines, suggesting that they ate plants as a supplement to their otherwise meat-heavy diet. More than 75 percent of the meat they ate consisted of marine mammals and fish, the rest likely came from reindeer and other game. These mummies were instrumental in advancing the field of mummy studies for their impeccable preservation. A Brief History Of The Thule Inuits Before settling in Greenland, the Thule Inuits came from other areas of the polar north. They sailed around the coasts of Greenland in their boats called umiaks which were made from driftwood and seal skin. They constructed their homes from a similar combination of terrestrial oceanic materials, namely whalebone, and stone. They brought with them entire households of goods, including their dogs and sleds which were their main form of winter transportation. Though the Thule were spread throughout the Arctic island, they were a unified people that spoke the same language, though in different dialects, and followed the same traditions. There are accounts of Norse explorers encountering the Thule in Greenland around about 1200 A.D. There are documents regarding their subsequent trade agreements. The Nordic explorers likely traded their iron for Thule ivory made of walrus tusk. But as is typical of history, these trade deals often involved conflict too. The Norse traders observed that: “When they [the Inuits] are struck by weapons, their wounds are white, with no flow of blood…but when they die, the bleeding is almost endless.” Other Notable Mummies From Greenland And Around The World The first major mummy discovery in Greenland came in 1945. Three mummies were initially found near Nuuk, and three additional mummies were found in 1952 in the same location. These corpses ranged in their completeness. Some were intact, others were dismembered and still others had only partial extremities remaining. There is also Rosalia Lombardo, a mummified Sicilian toddler who died in 1918, who still appears so lifelike that some swear she can blink on a regular basis. The study of ancient mummies is a race against time that pits disintegration against scientific development, and so finds like the Qilakitsoq mummies are invaluable. Four of the Inuit mummies are on display at the Greenland National Museum.	1,504	ENGLISH	1
How Did Roman Crucifixion Kill Jesus? By: John Ankerberg Show Staff James A. Brooks, in Mark, vol. 23, The New American Commentary, writes: Crucifixion seems to have been invented by the Persians, who transmitted it to the Carthaginians, from whom the Romans learned it. It was the ultimate Roman punishment for slaves and provincials, but it was not used for Roman citizens. It was one of the most horrifying forms of execution ever devised. After having been stripped and flogged, the victim was lashed and/or nailed to a pole. John 20:25 certainly implies that Jesus’ hands at least were nailed (cf. Acts 2:23; Col 2:14). Evidently there were different styles of crosses including a single upright pole and two crossed poles in the form of an X, but the most common seems to have been a vertical pole and a horizontal one in the form of a T with the crossbar either at the top or near the top of the vertical piece. The usual practice was for the condemned to carry the crossbar to the place of execution where he was affixed to it and where it was hoisted upon the vertical stake that was permanently fixed. Death usually came slowly as a result of exposure and exhaustion. Inasmuch as no vital organ was damaged, it often took two or three days for the subject to die, although death could be hastened by breaking the legs (cf. John 19:31–33). Norman Geisler writes in the Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics: The nature of the crucifixion assures death. . . . Jesus hung on the cross from 9 in the morning until just before sunset (Mark 15:25, 33). He bled from gashes in his hands and feet and from the thorns that pierced his scalp. These wounds would have drained away much blood over more than six hours. Plus, crucifixion demands that one constantly pull up by the hands and push on the injured feet in order to breathe. This caused excruciating pain from the nails. . . . Beyond these injuries, Jesus’ side was pierced with a spear. From this wound flowed a mixture of blood and water (John 19:34), a proof that physical death had occurred. This detail alone, and its confirmation by modern medical experts, strongly validates the claim that this narrative is an eyewitness account. An article in the Journal of the American Medical Association (21 March 1986) concluded: ‘Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right rib, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death. Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge.’ Jesus said he was dying when he declared on the cross, ‘Father, into your hands I commit my spirit’ (Luke 23:46). And when ‘he had said this, he breathed his last’ (vs. 46). John renders this, ‘he gave up his spirit’ (John 19:30). His death cry was heard by those who stood nearby (Luke 23:47–49). The Roman soldiers, accustomed to crucifixion and death, pronounced Jesus dead. Although it was a common practice to break the legs of the victim to speed death (so that the person could no longer breathe), they did not believe it necessary to break Jesus’ legs (John 19:33). Pilate double-checked to make sure Jesus was dead before he gave the corpse to Joseph to be buried. ‘Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died. When he learned from the centurion that it was so, he gave the body to Joseph’ (Mark 15:44–45). Jesus was wrapped in about 100 pounds of cloth and spices and placed in a sealed tomb for three days (Matt. 27:60; John 19:39–40). If he was not dead by then, the lack of food, water, and medical treatment would have finished him. There is simply no way that Jesus did not die on the cross. But let’s pretend that somehow he was only near death when he was put in the tomb. What would have happened next? Michael Licona, in The Resurrection of Jesus, describes the scene: D. F. Strauss’s critique is every bit as pertinent today as it was on the day he offered it. He asked us to suppose that a man was removed from his cross half dead, buried in a tomb and somehow reenergized after a few days. Having awakened from his stupor and wanting out of the dark tomb, he places his nail-pierced hands on the very heavy stone blocking his entrance and pushes it out of the way. He then walks blocks on pierced and wounded feet in search of his disciples. Finally, he arrives at the place they are staying and knocks on the door, which Peter opens only to see a severely wounded and dehydrated Jesus who is hunched over and looks up at Peter and through his extreme pain grimaces and says, ‘I’m the firstfruits of the general resurrection!’ Such a Jesus would never have convinced his disciples that he was the risen prince of life. Alive? Barely. Resurrected? Never. Allison comments, ‘How a flagellated, half-dead victim of the hideous torture of crucifixion could impress others as triumphant over death is hard to envisage.’ This article was used with the permission of www.toughquestionsanswered.org, and was published by Bill Pratt on April 26, 2017.	<urn:uuid:5e0ab2c3-ae52-47a0-8ae1-c21a4124ec07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jashow.org/articles/how-did-roman-crucifixion-kill-jesus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00507.warc.gz	en	0.982932	1,213	3.703125	4	[ -0.3501430153846741, 0.35435837507247925, 0.3375004231929779, 0.09040794521570206, -0.10087452083826065, 0.06282466650009155, 0.22884948551654816, 0.666763186454773, 0.2613937258720398, -0.059793371707201004, 0.056725550442934036, -0.0928742066025734, 0.14044716954231262, 0.136759713292121...	3	How Did Roman Crucifixion Kill Jesus? By: John Ankerberg Show Staff James A. Brooks, in Mark, vol. 23, The New American Commentary, writes: Crucifixion seems to have been invented by the Persians, who transmitted it to the Carthaginians, from whom the Romans learned it. It was the ultimate Roman punishment for slaves and provincials, but it was not used for Roman citizens. It was one of the most horrifying forms of execution ever devised. After having been stripped and flogged, the victim was lashed and/or nailed to a pole. John 20:25 certainly implies that Jesus’ hands at least were nailed (cf. Acts 2:23; Col 2:14). Evidently there were different styles of crosses including a single upright pole and two crossed poles in the form of an X, but the most common seems to have been a vertical pole and a horizontal one in the form of a T with the crossbar either at the top or near the top of the vertical piece. The usual practice was for the condemned to carry the crossbar to the place of execution where he was affixed to it and where it was hoisted upon the vertical stake that was permanently fixed. Death usually came slowly as a result of exposure and exhaustion. Inasmuch as no vital organ was damaged, it often took two or three days for the subject to die, although death could be hastened by breaking the legs (cf. John 19:31–33). Norman Geisler writes in the Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics: The nature of the crucifixion assures death. . . . Jesus hung on the cross from 9 in the morning until just before sunset (Mark 15:25, 33). He bled from gashes in his hands and feet and from the thorns that pierced his scalp. These wounds would have drained away much blood over more than six hours. Plus, crucifixion demands that one constantly pull up by the hands and push on the injured feet in order to breathe. This caused excruciating pain from the nails. . . . Beyond these injuries, Jesus’ side was pierced with a spear. From this wound flowed a mixture of blood and water (John 19:34), a proof that physical death had occurred. This detail alone, and its confirmation by modern medical experts, strongly validates the claim that this narrative is an eyewitness account. An article in the Journal of the American Medical Association (21 March 1986) concluded: ‘Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right rib, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death. Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge.’ Jesus said he was dying when he declared on the cross, ‘Father, into your hands I commit my spirit’ (Luke 23:46). And when ‘he had said this, he breathed his last’ (vs. 46). John renders this, ‘he gave up his spirit’ (John 19:30). His death cry was heard by those who stood nearby (Luke 23:47–49). The Roman soldiers, accustomed to crucifixion and death, pronounced Jesus dead. Although it was a common practice to break the legs of the victim to speed death (so that the person could no longer breathe), they did not believe it necessary to break Jesus’ legs (John 19:33). Pilate double-checked to make sure Jesus was dead before he gave the corpse to Joseph to be buried. ‘Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died. When he learned from the centurion that it was so, he gave the body to Joseph’ (Mark 15:44–45). Jesus was wrapped in about 100 pounds of cloth and spices and placed in a sealed tomb for three days (Matt. 27:60; John 19:39–40). If he was not dead by then, the lack of food, water, and medical treatment would have finished him. There is simply no way that Jesus did not die on the cross. But let’s pretend that somehow he was only near death when he was put in the tomb. What would have happened next? Michael Licona, in The Resurrection of Jesus, describes the scene: D. F. Strauss’s critique is every bit as pertinent today as it was on the day he offered it. He asked us to suppose that a man was removed from his cross half dead, buried in a tomb and somehow reenergized after a few days. Having awakened from his stupor and wanting out of the dark tomb, he places his nail-pierced hands on the very heavy stone blocking his entrance and pushes it out of the way. He then walks blocks on pierced and wounded feet in search of his disciples. Finally, he arrives at the place they are staying and knocks on the door, which Peter opens only to see a severely wounded and dehydrated Jesus who is hunched over and looks up at Peter and through his extreme pain grimaces and says, ‘I’m the firstfruits of the general resurrection!’ Such a Jesus would never have convinced his disciples that he was the risen prince of life. Alive? Barely. Resurrected? Never. Allison comments, ‘How a flagellated, half-dead victim of the hideous torture of crucifixion could impress others as triumphant over death is hard to envisage.’ This article was used with the permission of www.toughquestionsanswered.org, and was published by Bill Pratt on April 26, 2017.	1,240	ENGLISH	1
Genesis 2:16-17: “And the Lord God commanded man, saying, “Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die.” The curse of man happened after the eating of the fruit from the tree in the garden. It wasn’t so much the fruit that resulted in the curse, but Adam and Eve’s act of disobedience to God’s one command. But, how did the first two humans even know what sin was? At this point in history, there was no evil affecting the world. The creation was still “very good.” Sin had not yet entered the world. God gave commands on what Adam and Eve could do and specifically told them not to eat from the one tree in the garden. By knowing that it would be wrong to eat from the tree, Adam and Eve had the knowledge of what was wrong. They knew it would be wrong to disobey God by breaking this one rule. They chose to break the rule, and sin entered the world afterward. It’s similar to telling a child not to touch a hot stove. Inevitably, the child is going to touch it and get burned. Through the child’s disobedience, he suffered the consequence (injury). Likewise, God forbade the eating of the one tree in the garden because of its consequence (physical death, curse on humans, animals, and the earth). Adam and Eve knew it was wrong, but they still did it. It should also be added that Adam and Eve were created in God’s image, which means they understood right from wrong because God’s standards for right and wrong are part of His character. Laws in this world are in place regardless of them being spoken or written down. For example, gravity will take effect regardless of your knowledge of gravity. If you visit a city and don’t know the speed limit, and then get caught speeding, you are still guilty of breaking the law even though you didn’t know the speed limit. Federal headship is the theological term stating that a husband/father is the head, leader, and representative of his family. Adam was created first and set to rule over Eve, and this concept of the husband being the leader is found in both the Old and New Testaments. As part of Eve’s curse, she would have the desire to rule over her husband and usurp his authority. The mandate for Adam to be the head does not mean that he would be a dictator and Eve would be a subservient slave. That is not the case at all, for we know what God teaches us about marriage, especially in regards to how Adam is to love his wife like Jesus loves the church—unconditionally and with sacrifice. Let’s apply this to Jesus. In the Garden of Eden, it was Eve who sinned first and Adam who sinned afterwards, but it is because of Adam that we are all under the curse of sin and death. Jesus, being the redeemer over the fallen creation, took the leadership role and responsibility to cover our sins by dying on the cross. His unconditional love saved us from our own created problem. Adam and Eve, realizing they were naked, sewed together leaves to cover up their nudity. This was their own work being done in an attempt to cover their sin. God sacrificed an animal and used the dead animal’s skin to provide garments for Adam and Eve. An animal had to die to atone for their sins and provide the covering for their nudity. Blood was shed, and without the shedding of blood there is no remission of sins (Heb. 9:22). Adam’s rebellion was a real event, but it was also prophetic of how about 4,000 years later, Jesus would be sacrificed to cover the sins of the world. Our own works (clothes made of leaves) do not atone for our sin, but the blood of a blameless sacrifice (Jesus) made the full atonement. Jesus chose to redeem his creation from the mess that it created. This is true, unconditional love. Putting our faith in Jesus and confessing our sins to him guarantees us a life in Heaven with him. Children’s books often portray Adam and Eve with light coloredskin. However, using basic genetics, if Adam and Eve were both light colored, then all of their children, including people today, would be light colored. If Adam and Eve were both dark colored, then all people today would be dark colored. Neither of these scenarios is possible because there are people with dark, medium, and light colored skin throughout the world. However, if Adam was dark colored and Eve was light colored, then they would be able to produce a wide variety of children. Or, if they both had medium-colored skin and had the genetics for light and dark skin, that would also allow for the diversity of colors we see today. Eve is the mother of all human beings. God cursed her and her offspring by increasing the pain she would experience during childbirth. Also, God created division between husband and wife, where the wife would want to rule over the husband, but the husband would be the one ruling over her instead. This does not mean, though, that the wife would be a submissive slave. The husband is to love his wife like Christ loves the church (his followers). The husband is to be willing to make sacrifices and love her unconditionally. This curse on Eve is similar to the theological term of Federal Headship. Adam and Eve were banned from the garden because of their act of rebellionand disobedience. Had God not banned them, they would have eventually eaten from the Tree of Life, which was also in the garden (Gen. 2:9), and lived forever. Remember, though, that as a punishment for their sin, their bodies were affected with the curse. If they ate from the Tree of Life then they would live forever in a disease ridden body, resulting in their life being an eternal, miserable existence. God banned Adam and Eve to prevent them from an eternity of suffering. This is another act of divine love. The first two people created on Earth were Adam and Eve. You can follow their lineage in Genesis Chapter 5 to show that Noah was a descendant of Adam and Eve (Gen 5:29). Noah married and had three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japeth. Noah, his wife, his three sons, and their wives (each had one wife) were the only people on board the ark and the sole survivors of the global flood. After they got off the ark, God commanded them to be fruitful and multiply (Gen. 9:7). The three sons had many children with their wives (see Genesis Chapter 10 & 11) and we are all descendants from them (Gen. 9:19). Therefore, we are all descendants from Adam and Eve, and therefore we are all related. Some may disagree, but RTG believes that Adam and Eve did not have children until after they sinned. The reason being is if a child was born before the fall of man, then that child would be sinless just like Adam and Eve. When Adam ate from the fruit, he passed on the sin nature to all humans, including everyone today. Because of Adam’s rebellion, all people will eventually die (Rom. 5:12). If Adam had a child beforehand, then that child would not inherit the curse(unless he also ate some of the fruit) and therefore not have to experience death and suffering. That child would theoretically still be living today. The Bible is not clear on this question and it remains as a debatable issue. The Garden of Eden was a beautiful paradise that could provide everything that Adam, Eve and the animals needed for daily survival. God allowed them to eat from the fruit of all of the trees except for one, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Gen 2:17). When the Fall of Man happened, both Adam and Eve ate some fruit from this tree. We don’t know what the fruit looked like and it is not very important, but what is important are the results of Adam’s rebellion. They disobeyed God through an act of rebellion thus resulting in death and suffering to enter the world, which affected both Adam and Eve and all of their descendants. Also known as “Original Sin,” the Fall of Man was the event of Adam disobeying God. It is not known at what time this occurred, but it had to be after the 7th day of Creation when God declared everything to be “very good” (there was no sin if everything was “very good”). Genesis Chapter 3 records Adam and Eve residing in the Garden where God placed them. God gave them permission to eat from every tree in the garden except one: the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. This was a literal tree that bore fruit. Satan, in the form of a serpent, questioned Eve about what God had commanded her regarding that particular tree. Eve replied that she would die if she ate from it. Satan said that she would not die but instead be like God and her eyes would be opened, allowing her to know good and evil. Deceived, Eve ate some of the fruit and shared it with Adam. Immediately after, they both realized that they were naked and they tried to cover their nakedness with leaves. Both Adam and Eve knew that it was wrong to eat from that particular tree, yet they still did it. They had the option of walking away from the tree and eating something else. Even still today, when we are tempted, God provides us with an escape route so that we can avoid the temptation (1 Cor. 10:13). Their act of rebellion resulted in banishment from the garden, and all people would be born with a sin nature and one day die. We all sufferbecause of Adam’s sin. Thankfully, Jesus has provided a wayto live forever with Him. Restoring the Authority of the Bible, Starting with the very first Book	<urn:uuid:235c9f16-2ccb-417c-bc75-4333ac2a8685>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.rtgmin.org/tag/eve/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00084.warc.gz	en	0.985277	2,103	3.28125	3	[ 0.08201583474874496, 0.43178460001945496, -0.08833539485931396, -0.49361932277679443, -0.11442840099334717, -0.18659402430057526, 0.5300434827804565, -0.25746628642082214, 0.1794993132352829, 0.3274623155593872, 0.006489478051662445, -0.12514153122901917, 0.07125899195671082, 0.00696052052...	1	Genesis 2:16-17: “And the Lord God commanded man, saying, “Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die.” The curse of man happened after the eating of the fruit from the tree in the garden. It wasn’t so much the fruit that resulted in the curse, but Adam and Eve’s act of disobedience to God’s one command. But, how did the first two humans even know what sin was? At this point in history, there was no evil affecting the world. The creation was still “very good.” Sin had not yet entered the world. God gave commands on what Adam and Eve could do and specifically told them not to eat from the one tree in the garden. By knowing that it would be wrong to eat from the tree, Adam and Eve had the knowledge of what was wrong. They knew it would be wrong to disobey God by breaking this one rule. They chose to break the rule, and sin entered the world afterward. It’s similar to telling a child not to touch a hot stove. Inevitably, the child is going to touch it and get burned. Through the child’s disobedience, he suffered the consequence (injury). Likewise, God forbade the eating of the one tree in the garden because of its consequence (physical death, curse on humans, animals, and the earth). Adam and Eve knew it was wrong, but they still did it. It should also be added that Adam and Eve were created in God’s image, which means they understood right from wrong because God’s standards for right and wrong are part of His character. Laws in this world are in place regardless of them being spoken or written down. For example, gravity will take effect regardless of your knowledge of gravity. If you visit a city and don’t know the speed limit, and then get caught speeding, you are still guilty of breaking the law even though you didn’t know the speed limit. Federal headship is the theological term stating that a husband/father is the head, leader, and representative of his family. Adam was created first and set to rule over Eve, and this concept of the husband being the leader is found in both the Old and New Testaments. As part of Eve’s curse, she would have the desire to rule over her husband and usurp his authority. The mandate for Adam to be the head does not mean that he would be a dictator and Eve would be a subservient slave. That is not the case at all, for we know what God teaches us about marriage, especially in regards to how Adam is to love his wife like Jesus loves the church—unconditionally and with sacrifice. Let’s apply this to Jesus. In the Garden of Eden, it was Eve who sinned first and Adam who sinned afterwards, but it is because of Adam that we are all under the curse of sin and death. Jesus, being the redeemer over the fallen creation, took the leadership role and responsibility to cover our sins by dying on the cross. His unconditional love saved us from our own created problem. Adam and Eve, realizing they were naked, sewed together leaves to cover up their nudity. This was their own work being done in an attempt to cover their sin. God sacrificed an animal and used the dead animal’s skin to provide garments for Adam and Eve. An animal had to die to atone for their sins and provide the covering for their nudity. Blood was shed, and without the shedding of blood there is no remission of sins (Heb. 9:22). Adam’s rebellion was a real event, but it was also prophetic of how about 4,000 years later, Jesus would be sacrificed to cover the sins of the world. Our own works (clothes made of leaves) do not atone for our sin, but the blood of a blameless sacrifice (Jesus) made the full atonement. Jesus chose to redeem his creation from the mess that it created. This is true, unconditional love. Putting our faith in Jesus and confessing our sins to him guarantees us a life in Heaven with him. Children’s books often portray Adam and Eve with light coloredskin. However, using basic genetics, if Adam and Eve were both light colored, then all of their children, including people today, would be light colored. If Adam and Eve were both dark colored, then all people today would be dark colored. Neither of these scenarios is possible because there are people with dark, medium, and light colored skin throughout the world. However, if Adam was dark colored and Eve was light colored, then they would be able to produce a wide variety of children. Or, if they both had medium-colored skin and had the genetics for light and dark skin, that would also allow for the diversity of colors we see today. Eve is the mother of all human beings. God cursed her and her offspring by increasing the pain she would experience during childbirth. Also, God created division between husband and wife, where the wife would want to rule over the husband, but the husband would be the one ruling over her instead. This does not mean, though, that the wife would be a submissive slave. The husband is to love his wife like Christ loves the church (his followers). The husband is to be willing to make sacrifices and love her unconditionally. This curse on Eve is similar to the theological term of Federal Headship. Adam and Eve were banned from the garden because of their act of rebellionand disobedience. Had God not banned them, they would have eventually eaten from the Tree of Life, which was also in the garden (Gen. 2:9), and lived forever. Remember, though, that as a punishment for their sin, their bodies were affected with the curse. If they ate from the Tree of Life then they would live forever in a disease ridden body, resulting in their life being an eternal, miserable existence. God banned Adam and Eve to prevent them from an eternity of suffering. This is another act of divine love. The first two people created on Earth were Adam and Eve. You can follow their lineage in Genesis Chapter 5 to show that Noah was a descendant of Adam and Eve (Gen 5:29). Noah married and had three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japeth. Noah, his wife, his three sons, and their wives (each had one wife) were the only people on board the ark and the sole survivors of the global flood. After they got off the ark, God commanded them to be fruitful and multiply (Gen. 9:7). The three sons had many children with their wives (see Genesis Chapter 10 & 11) and we are all descendants from them (Gen. 9:19). Therefore, we are all descendants from Adam and Eve, and therefore we are all related. Some may disagree, but RTG believes that Adam and Eve did not have children until after they sinned. The reason being is if a child was born before the fall of man, then that child would be sinless just like Adam and Eve. When Adam ate from the fruit, he passed on the sin nature to all humans, including everyone today. Because of Adam’s rebellion, all people will eventually die (Rom. 5:12). If Adam had a child beforehand, then that child would not inherit the curse(unless he also ate some of the fruit) and therefore not have to experience death and suffering. That child would theoretically still be living today. The Bible is not clear on this question and it remains as a debatable issue. The Garden of Eden was a beautiful paradise that could provide everything that Adam, Eve and the animals needed for daily survival. God allowed them to eat from the fruit of all of the trees except for one, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Gen 2:17). When the Fall of Man happened, both Adam and Eve ate some fruit from this tree. We don’t know what the fruit looked like and it is not very important, but what is important are the results of Adam’s rebellion. They disobeyed God through an act of rebellion thus resulting in death and suffering to enter the world, which affected both Adam and Eve and all of their descendants. Also known as “Original Sin,” the Fall of Man was the event of Adam disobeying God. It is not known at what time this occurred, but it had to be after the 7th day of Creation when God declared everything to be “very good” (there was no sin if everything was “very good”). Genesis Chapter 3 records Adam and Eve residing in the Garden where God placed them. God gave them permission to eat from every tree in the garden except one: the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. This was a literal tree that bore fruit. Satan, in the form of a serpent, questioned Eve about what God had commanded her regarding that particular tree. Eve replied that she would die if she ate from it. Satan said that she would not die but instead be like God and her eyes would be opened, allowing her to know good and evil. Deceived, Eve ate some of the fruit and shared it with Adam. Immediately after, they both realized that they were naked and they tried to cover their nakedness with leaves. Both Adam and Eve knew that it was wrong to eat from that particular tree, yet they still did it. They had the option of walking away from the tree and eating something else. Even still today, when we are tempted, God provides us with an escape route so that we can avoid the temptation (1 Cor. 10:13). Their act of rebellion resulted in banishment from the garden, and all people would be born with a sin nature and one day die. We all sufferbecause of Adam’s sin. Thankfully, Jesus has provided a wayto live forever with Him. Restoring the Authority of the Bible, Starting with the very first Book	2,064	ENGLISH	1
Pope Sylvester II (c. 940–1003) was the first French prelate in church history. His four-year reign as Bishop of Rome, between 999 and 1003, coincided with the end of the millennium, when many in Western Europe believed the world might end at midnight. Sylvester, born Gerbert of Aurillac, was a religious leader far ahead of his time, a man who introduced new ideas during one of the darker epochs of the medieval era. He was also a skilled political negotiator who worked to unite Christendom's ideological factions. "In his life and work, he heralded the ideals of an emerging European civilization," noted a U.S. News and World Report article about Sylvester and other important historical figures of the year 1000 C.E. "Combining classical and theological learning with practical and scientific aptitude, Gerbert became a new kind of intellectual, a 'universal man' anticipating the humanists and scientists of the Renaissance." Entered Monastic Order The future pope was born into a poor family around 940-950 in the region of Aquitaine, in present-day southwestern France. At the age of 12, he began studying at the Abbey of St. Geraud in Aurillac and entered its monastic order. He was a promising student of Greek and classical philosophies, and traveled to Spain in the service of a Spanish count named Borrell. At the time, large parts of Spain were part of a large Islamic empire, and Sylvester studied geometry, astronomy, and music in both Barcelona and Vich. Mathematics and astronomy were two areas of learning that flourished in Moorish Spain, and he benefited from contact with the esteemed Arabic scholars there at the time. He is believed to have invented the pendulum clock, and later was instrumental in Western Europe's adoption of Arabic numerals. Journeyed to Rome In 970, Sylvester journeyed to Rome with Count Borrell, and met Pope John XIII. Impressed with Sylvester's brilliance, the pope engineered an introduction to the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto I. The ambitious German ruler hoped to consolidate France, Germany, and the northern Italian peninsula under his crown, reviving the Roman Empire under a Christian flag. He hired Sylvester to serve as his court mathematician, and in 972 sent him to the cathedral city of Reims for further study. Sylvester eventually headed the school there, and found another prominent patron in the person of Reims' Archbishop Adalbero. Otto I died in 973 and was succeeded by his son, Otto II, who also favored Sylvester and did much to advance his career. In 982, Otto II gave Sylvester his own abbey in Bobbio, in the present-day Emilia-Romagna area of the northern Italian peninsula. It was a poor abbey, however, and yielded little income, so Sylvester returned to Reims after Otto II's death the following year. He became involved in negotiations involving the heir to the throne, Otto III, an infant kidnapped by a Bavarian usurper to the throne. Sylvester assembled a coalition of emissaries that negotiated the infant's release and gave his mother and grandmother powers of regent. He then served as Otto III's tutor for the next several years. Sylvester was elevated to the archbishopric of Reims under questionable circumstances in the 990s, and adherents of his unlawfully deposed predecessor eventually succeeded in ousting him as well. When Otto III became emperor in 996, Sylvester traveled to the Italian peninsula with his former student for the coronation. In 998, Sylvester was appointed Archbishop of Ravenna by Pope Gregory V, Otto's cousin. When Gregory died in February of 999, Otto succeeded in placing Sylvester on the papal throne. On April 9, 999, he took the name Sylvester II, after the first pope to preside over church during the Roman Empire's Christian era. He was the first French cleric to ever hold the post. Forced to Flee Rome Though sometimes disparaged in his time for being the emperor's close confidant and political ally, Sylvester left an exemplary record during his four years as Bishop of Rome. He proved a sober and responsible leader, and attempted to rein in some of the abuses of the clergy that were rampant at the time, such as concubinage and simony. He established ecclesiastical metropolitans in Poland and Hungary during the early Christian eras of both lands, wrote treatises on mathematics, the natural sciences, and the role of bishops in the church. He encountered opposition, however, because of his ties to the German emperor: when Otto III, who had lived in Rome since 998 in order to establish a firmer foothold there, attempted to build a palace in Rome, angry mobs forced both pope and emperor to flee the city for several months in 1001. Otto III died of smallpox the following year. Sylvester was a learned man, but rumors spread among the more superstitious quarters of the Roman populace that he was actually a sorcerer. He built terrestrial globes and an abacus, and is also credited with the invention of the organ. He died on May 12, 1003. Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV, Appleton, 1912. Kelly, J. N. D., The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, Oxford University Press, 1986. Observer (London, England), January 2, 2000. U.S. News and World Report, August 16, 1999.	<urn:uuid:0b6caed4-bd5d-4abe-8e85-2f20585987b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-religion/roman-catholic-popes-and-antipopes/sylvester-ii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00077.warc.gz	en	0.981361	1,156	3.625	4	[ -0.023470427840948105, 0.4795547425746918, -0.16726502776145935, -0.155112624168396, -0.38210147619247437, -0.2000088095664978, -0.49133360385894775, 0.40428662300109863, 0.5952178239822388, -0.22485092282295227, -0.256080687046051, -0.46552738547325134, -0.023681074380874634, 0.4697192311...	5	Pope Sylvester II (c. 940–1003) was the first French prelate in church history. His four-year reign as Bishop of Rome, between 999 and 1003, coincided with the end of the millennium, when many in Western Europe believed the world might end at midnight. Sylvester, born Gerbert of Aurillac, was a religious leader far ahead of his time, a man who introduced new ideas during one of the darker epochs of the medieval era. He was also a skilled political negotiator who worked to unite Christendom's ideological factions. "In his life and work, he heralded the ideals of an emerging European civilization," noted a U.S. News and World Report article about Sylvester and other important historical figures of the year 1000 C.E. "Combining classical and theological learning with practical and scientific aptitude, Gerbert became a new kind of intellectual, a 'universal man' anticipating the humanists and scientists of the Renaissance." Entered Monastic Order The future pope was born into a poor family around 940-950 in the region of Aquitaine, in present-day southwestern France. At the age of 12, he began studying at the Abbey of St. Geraud in Aurillac and entered its monastic order. He was a promising student of Greek and classical philosophies, and traveled to Spain in the service of a Spanish count named Borrell. At the time, large parts of Spain were part of a large Islamic empire, and Sylvester studied geometry, astronomy, and music in both Barcelona and Vich. Mathematics and astronomy were two areas of learning that flourished in Moorish Spain, and he benefited from contact with the esteemed Arabic scholars there at the time. He is believed to have invented the pendulum clock, and later was instrumental in Western Europe's adoption of Arabic numerals. Journeyed to Rome In 970, Sylvester journeyed to Rome with Count Borrell, and met Pope John XIII. Impressed with Sylvester's brilliance, the pope engineered an introduction to the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto I. The ambitious German ruler hoped to consolidate France, Germany, and the northern Italian peninsula under his crown, reviving the Roman Empire under a Christian flag. He hired Sylvester to serve as his court mathematician, and in 972 sent him to the cathedral city of Reims for further study. Sylvester eventually headed the school there, and found another prominent patron in the person of Reims' Archbishop Adalbero. Otto I died in 973 and was succeeded by his son, Otto II, who also favored Sylvester and did much to advance his career. In 982, Otto II gave Sylvester his own abbey in Bobbio, in the present-day Emilia-Romagna area of the northern Italian peninsula. It was a poor abbey, however, and yielded little income, so Sylvester returned to Reims after Otto II's death the following year. He became involved in negotiations involving the heir to the throne, Otto III, an infant kidnapped by a Bavarian usurper to the throne. Sylvester assembled a coalition of emissaries that negotiated the infant's release and gave his mother and grandmother powers of regent. He then served as Otto III's tutor for the next several years. Sylvester was elevated to the archbishopric of Reims under questionable circumstances in the 990s, and adherents of his unlawfully deposed predecessor eventually succeeded in ousting him as well. When Otto III became emperor in 996, Sylvester traveled to the Italian peninsula with his former student for the coronation. In 998, Sylvester was appointed Archbishop of Ravenna by Pope Gregory V, Otto's cousin. When Gregory died in February of 999, Otto succeeded in placing Sylvester on the papal throne. On April 9, 999, he took the name Sylvester II, after the first pope to preside over church during the Roman Empire's Christian era. He was the first French cleric to ever hold the post. Forced to Flee Rome Though sometimes disparaged in his time for being the emperor's close confidant and political ally, Sylvester left an exemplary record during his four years as Bishop of Rome. He proved a sober and responsible leader, and attempted to rein in some of the abuses of the clergy that were rampant at the time, such as concubinage and simony. He established ecclesiastical metropolitans in Poland and Hungary during the early Christian eras of both lands, wrote treatises on mathematics, the natural sciences, and the role of bishops in the church. He encountered opposition, however, because of his ties to the German emperor: when Otto III, who had lived in Rome since 998 in order to establish a firmer foothold there, attempted to build a palace in Rome, angry mobs forced both pope and emperor to flee the city for several months in 1001. Otto III died of smallpox the following year. Sylvester was a learned man, but rumors spread among the more superstitious quarters of the Roman populace that he was actually a sorcerer. He built terrestrial globes and an abacus, and is also credited with the invention of the organ. He died on May 12, 1003. Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV, Appleton, 1912. Kelly, J. N. D., The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, Oxford University Press, 1986. Observer (London, England), January 2, 2000. U.S. News and World Report, August 16, 1999.	1,203	ENGLISH	1
What an enjoyable afternoon I spent with Carrie Toth. She shared a ton of ideas that I can directly apply to my classroom. I went to her session called Blooming Language: Building Proficiency with Bloom’s Taxonomy. We observed ways in which she has moved WAY beyond the simple “REMEMBER” and “UNDERSTAND” of Bloom’s Taxonomy so that she can have richer discussions with her level 2 students. When you think of a typical house unit, it is unfortunate that many traditional teachers simply have students remember the rooms of a house or create their dream house. Rarely do students actually analyze houses from other cultures, evaluate them or make cultural comparisons in a typical house unit. Carrie explained that she uses the UBD (Understanding By Design) as she plans her units. This allows her to decide what the assessment will be first. Next she can decide which chunks of the unit she needs to add in order to prepare students for the final assessment Carrie referenced her idea of the “chuck it bucket.” It helps you get rid of the junk you do not need in your unit and instead only use the pieces that are going to get your students to the ultimate goal of the assessment. Carrie focuses on three things: - Enduring understandings - Important to know and do - Worth being familiar with The rest of the pieces you have found and do not fit these three categories go in the chuck it bucket. Enduring understandings that are essential to Carrie are those that build sensitivity to other cultures. The enduring skills are those that can help students communicate cultural understandings or that can be used in service learning. Next, Carrie shared her awesome unit called, “Material World”. This is a unit that was based off the idea of world homes from the book “Material World” by Peter Menzel. You can read more about it and see her resources in this blog post. Peter visited homes all around the world. Everyone that lived in the houses captured in his book brought out their possessions and anything else they owned. Carrie chose 10 houses for her students to observe. Through the unit they described these houses and compared them to their own. They discussed which houses they liked and why. They noticed that some houses had beds on the roof, which meant they had no bedrooms. This unit helped make students aware of their own culture. She gave a vocabulary list but she also gave a list for students to put meaningful words for themselves to help them compare their own house to one of the 10 that interested them. I love that even though this unit was for a level 2, Carrie is planting the seed of the AP skill of comparing and contrasting with written and speaking assessments. She is also building the skill of intercultural communicative competence. Carrie mentioned the mad minute, which is part of her assessment writing practice. Before students write she lets them have one minute to write any words from the unit vocabulary list. She made a great suggestion to include words like, “Hay similitudes” and “Hay diferencias” because these are things students often make mistakes with. Carrie used a Pecha Kucha-style assessment where students got a partner and discussed the 10 houses they saw pop up on the screen. Since they had interacted with these images often in a variety of ways throughout the course of the unit, students were very comfortable and confident when speaking about them. To prepare for the Pecha Kucha, she had done a Circle the Wagons (continue reading to learn more) to prepare her students before the actual assessment. The written assessment was to have students compare their house to one of the 10 she had exposed them to. Carrie shared a video hook that she used to spark interest however she was also able to use this same resource as a Movie Talk and then have students watch it with a viewing guide where they answered questions. She did a four corners activity about houses that had an interpersonal twist. After students when to the house they would like to live in, she would ask more questions. An example could be, would you rather live in your house or with their friends. Carrie talked about Nearpod, which is web-based or app-based. It takes any slideshow you make and as a teacher you have control of it. You can give formative assessments such as quizzes or drawings. It is a great way to have comprehension checks that are anonymous. Another super awesome resource that Carrie shared was Gapminder. She said it would blow our minds and it did. You can change the language from English, French, Spanish or Mandarin. It shows you how people really live in their homes. It also shows you their monthly income. This was another way for students to learn more about their own culture in the USA so that students can then make comparisons to other cultures. You can actually see the soap, cups and plates that are used in the house. Carrie explained that as students completed a webquest with this resource they were to anticipate, compile, and hypothesize for Gapminder. Here are some examples of how Carrie’s students went way beyond remembering and understanding in her house unit. She used a gallery walk in which they were deciding and judging. Students had to decide and judge which houses fit into which statements. For example, “this house does not have a bathroom” or “this house has a lot of technology”. Carrie mentioned how she likes to take her students outside of the classroom for gallery walks because it allows for more space to walk around and see everything. I completely agree. The unit hit upon evaluation when students completed the Circle the Wagons activity. They sat in a circle with pictures of the 10 houses in the center. Students were encouraged to pick up a picture and say anything they wanted about it. The 2 rules were that they could say what they want and not repeat what others said Students get a completion grade if they remain interested. This activity is giving students more familiarity with the houses and therefore preparing them for the summative assessment of the Pecha Kucha. These two activities had students restating the information ands supporting it. Finally the unit hit upon the highest level of creation when students had to argue and conclude as they used the pictures to write and compare one of the 10 houses to their own. After sharing this information with my roommate Kara Jacobs, she is super excited to try out this unit and so am I!	<urn:uuid:07f8b2d0-9137-44d2-8cd0-71844d8a0f18>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fluencymatters.com/iflt18-building-proficiency-with-blooms-taxonomy-way-beyond-remembering-and-understanding/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00219.warc.gz	en	0.981603	1,325	3.640625	4	[ 0.07539492845535278, -0.05580496788024902, 0.5444976091384888, -0.2086903303861618, -0.2401101440191269, -0.00029407930560410023, 0.4825454652309418, 0.2988446056842804, -0.14887306094169617, 0.017739754170179367, 0.14680953323841095, -0.13935020565986633, -0.139890655875206, 0.21184265613...	10	What an enjoyable afternoon I spent with Carrie Toth. She shared a ton of ideas that I can directly apply to my classroom. I went to her session called Blooming Language: Building Proficiency with Bloom’s Taxonomy. We observed ways in which she has moved WAY beyond the simple “REMEMBER” and “UNDERSTAND” of Bloom’s Taxonomy so that she can have richer discussions with her level 2 students. When you think of a typical house unit, it is unfortunate that many traditional teachers simply have students remember the rooms of a house or create their dream house. Rarely do students actually analyze houses from other cultures, evaluate them or make cultural comparisons in a typical house unit. Carrie explained that she uses the UBD (Understanding By Design) as she plans her units. This allows her to decide what the assessment will be first. Next she can decide which chunks of the unit she needs to add in order to prepare students for the final assessment Carrie referenced her idea of the “chuck it bucket.” It helps you get rid of the junk you do not need in your unit and instead only use the pieces that are going to get your students to the ultimate goal of the assessment. Carrie focuses on three things: - Enduring understandings - Important to know and do - Worth being familiar with The rest of the pieces you have found and do not fit these three categories go in the chuck it bucket. Enduring understandings that are essential to Carrie are those that build sensitivity to other cultures. The enduring skills are those that can help students communicate cultural understandings or that can be used in service learning. Next, Carrie shared her awesome unit called, “Material World”. This is a unit that was based off the idea of world homes from the book “Material World” by Peter Menzel. You can read more about it and see her resources in this blog post. Peter visited homes all around the world. Everyone that lived in the houses captured in his book brought out their possessions and anything else they owned. Carrie chose 10 houses for her students to observe. Through the unit they described these houses and compared them to their own. They discussed which houses they liked and why. They noticed that some houses had beds on the roof, which meant they had no bedrooms. This unit helped make students aware of their own culture. She gave a vocabulary list but she also gave a list for students to put meaningful words for themselves to help them compare their own house to one of the 10 that interested them. I love that even though this unit was for a level 2, Carrie is planting the seed of the AP skill of comparing and contrasting with written and speaking assessments. She is also building the skill of intercultural communicative competence. Carrie mentioned the mad minute, which is part of her assessment writing practice. Before students write she lets them have one minute to write any words from the unit vocabulary list. She made a great suggestion to include words like, “Hay similitudes” and “Hay diferencias” because these are things students often make mistakes with. Carrie used a Pecha Kucha-style assessment where students got a partner and discussed the 10 houses they saw pop up on the screen. Since they had interacted with these images often in a variety of ways throughout the course of the unit, students were very comfortable and confident when speaking about them. To prepare for the Pecha Kucha, she had done a Circle the Wagons (continue reading to learn more) to prepare her students before the actual assessment. The written assessment was to have students compare their house to one of the 10 she had exposed them to. Carrie shared a video hook that she used to spark interest however she was also able to use this same resource as a Movie Talk and then have students watch it with a viewing guide where they answered questions. She did a four corners activity about houses that had an interpersonal twist. After students when to the house they would like to live in, she would ask more questions. An example could be, would you rather live in your house or with their friends. Carrie talked about Nearpod, which is web-based or app-based. It takes any slideshow you make and as a teacher you have control of it. You can give formative assessments such as quizzes or drawings. It is a great way to have comprehension checks that are anonymous. Another super awesome resource that Carrie shared was Gapminder. She said it would blow our minds and it did. You can change the language from English, French, Spanish or Mandarin. It shows you how people really live in their homes. It also shows you their monthly income. This was another way for students to learn more about their own culture in the USA so that students can then make comparisons to other cultures. You can actually see the soap, cups and plates that are used in the house. Carrie explained that as students completed a webquest with this resource they were to anticipate, compile, and hypothesize for Gapminder. Here are some examples of how Carrie’s students went way beyond remembering and understanding in her house unit. She used a gallery walk in which they were deciding and judging. Students had to decide and judge which houses fit into which statements. For example, “this house does not have a bathroom” or “this house has a lot of technology”. Carrie mentioned how she likes to take her students outside of the classroom for gallery walks because it allows for more space to walk around and see everything. I completely agree. The unit hit upon evaluation when students completed the Circle the Wagons activity. They sat in a circle with pictures of the 10 houses in the center. Students were encouraged to pick up a picture and say anything they wanted about it. The 2 rules were that they could say what they want and not repeat what others said Students get a completion grade if they remain interested. This activity is giving students more familiarity with the houses and therefore preparing them for the summative assessment of the Pecha Kucha. These two activities had students restating the information ands supporting it. Finally the unit hit upon the highest level of creation when students had to argue and conclude as they used the pictures to write and compare one of the 10 houses to their own. After sharing this information with my roommate Kara Jacobs, she is super excited to try out this unit and so am I!	1,296	ENGLISH	1
Dissertation on Pleasure and Bias: Theme From this novel, the title describes the underlying idea to the publication. Pride and prejudice had been both impact on on the characters and their interactions. Darcy alienated himself through the others at first because of his intense pleasure. His bias against the Bennet's because of their lower income was as well something that he would have to get over. For Elizabeth, her bias against Darcy came from his snobbery. This caused her to not find his emotions for her and to believe no matter what Wickman explained. Darcy's fierce pride typically alienated him from others. For example , this individual acted so snobby and superior at the first ball with the Bennet's that they had been all deterred by him. His later love, Elizabeth, was embarrassed at his behavior and formed a prejudice against him. Also after he fell in love with her and proposed to Elizabeth, he completely debased her family members. Darcy realized eventually that he was likely to have to modify. He tried to look at his behavior and analyze how come he served as he performed. In the end, this individual fought his intense pleasure so that this individual and Elizabeth could be cheerful together. Prejudice was as well an issue to get Darcy for the reason that he disliked Elizabeth in the beginning because of her low cultural status, lower income, and socially inept relatives. Darcy was forced to cope with his misjudgment when he fell in love with Elizabeth. This was not easy for him to complete but it was necessary. His snobbery was countered by simply his like for At the. In the end, this individual overcame his pride and gave in his emotions by marrying her in spite of her and her family's shortcomings. Elizabeth had her own issues with prejudice with which to deal. Darcy's cool arrogance and snobbery prejudiced her from him from the beginning and it took At the a lot longer time for you to overcome her prejudices than it would Darcy. It was because Elizabeth was a extremely caring person and did not like the points that Darcy had said about her and her family. When given the possibility, Elizabeth liked to...	<urn:uuid:c3cb7048-5040-4d12-b65a-c599a107d7aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://educacionfarmaceutica.com/dissertation-on-pleasure-and/15523-essay-on-pride-and-prejudice-motif.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00084.warc.gz	en	0.995091	444	3.40625	3	[ -0.17905759811401367, 0.3597588837146759, 0.10466548055410385, 0.014794914983212948, -0.20412112772464752, 0.03952206298708916, 0.18385128676891327, 0.4772285223007202, 0.40970349311828613, 0.19809624552726746, 0.42507633566856384, -0.00890758540481329, 0.5952481627464294, -0.0164552666246...	1	Dissertation on Pleasure and Bias: Theme From this novel, the title describes the underlying idea to the publication. Pride and prejudice had been both impact on on the characters and their interactions. Darcy alienated himself through the others at first because of his intense pleasure. His bias against the Bennet's because of their lower income was as well something that he would have to get over. For Elizabeth, her bias against Darcy came from his snobbery. This caused her to not find his emotions for her and to believe no matter what Wickman explained. Darcy's fierce pride typically alienated him from others. For example , this individual acted so snobby and superior at the first ball with the Bennet's that they had been all deterred by him. His later love, Elizabeth, was embarrassed at his behavior and formed a prejudice against him. Also after he fell in love with her and proposed to Elizabeth, he completely debased her family members. Darcy realized eventually that he was likely to have to modify. He tried to look at his behavior and analyze how come he served as he performed. In the end, this individual fought his intense pleasure so that this individual and Elizabeth could be cheerful together. Prejudice was as well an issue to get Darcy for the reason that he disliked Elizabeth in the beginning because of her low cultural status, lower income, and socially inept relatives. Darcy was forced to cope with his misjudgment when he fell in love with Elizabeth. This was not easy for him to complete but it was necessary. His snobbery was countered by simply his like for At the. In the end, this individual overcame his pride and gave in his emotions by marrying her in spite of her and her family's shortcomings. Elizabeth had her own issues with prejudice with which to deal. Darcy's cool arrogance and snobbery prejudiced her from him from the beginning and it took At the a lot longer time for you to overcome her prejudices than it would Darcy. It was because Elizabeth was a extremely caring person and did not like the points that Darcy had said about her and her family. When given the possibility, Elizabeth liked to...	444	ENGLISH	1
The hymn, “Joy to the World” has an interesting history. It was written by Isaac Watts and the music for the Carol was written by the famous composer George Frederick Handel who wrote “Handel’s Messiah”. Isaac Watts, the author of Joy to the World was born in 1674. Since his late teens, Isaac Watts had complained about the Hymn singing in his Church and so his father who was tired of his complaints challenged Isaac to write something better. The following week after Isaac’s father had challenged him, Isaac composed his first hymn, “Behold the Glories of the Lamb” which received an enthusiastic response and so as an adolescent, his career as a well-known hymn writer had begun. The Carol: “Joy to the World”, which Isaac Watts wrote, in 1719 mentions nothing about a Manger or Mary or Joseph or the Wiseman or the Shepherds that we associate with Christmas. It is believed that Watts based his carol on Psalm 98. Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all the earth: make a loud noise, and rejoice, and sing praise. v5 Sing unto the Lord with the harp; with the harp, and the voice of a psalm. v8 Let the floods clap their hands: let the hills be joyful together. v9 Before the Lord; for he comes to judge the earth: with righteousness shall he judge the world, and the people with equity. (Psalm 98:4) At the Start of the Carol Joy to the World Isaac Watts writes: Joy to the World, The Lord is Come, Let earth receive her King. Let every heart prepare Him room… At the beginning of this Carol Isaac Watts acknowledges the first Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ to this Earth. He also says that the earth should receive Her King and that every heart should prepare Him room. When Jesus came to this earth He was born as a King. You’ll remember that after the birth of Christ in Matthew 2 the Wise men came to Jerusalem looking for a King. Jesus Christ was actually the King of the Jews, but He was overlooked by many in the Jewish Nation. The Bible shows us in Luke 2.7 that Jesus was laid in a manger because there … “was no room for them in the Inn”. There was no room in the Inn and for many in the Jewish Nation there was no room for Jesus either. He was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world knew him not. He came unto his own, and his own received him not. (John 1:10-11) It’s sad today that there are many in our Nation that have no room for God’s King either. When Jesus came to earth the first time He was the REJECTED KING, but when He returns the second time He will come as the REIGNING KING. And, behold, I come quickly; and my reward is with me, to give every man according as his work shall be. (Revelation 22:12)	<urn:uuid:176abdf9-59ab-4897-b7e5-53bd71d5a91b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.heraldofhope.org.au/joy-to-the-world/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00529.warc.gz	en	0.987542	657	3.40625	3	[ -0.1683294177055359, 0.5295816659927368, 0.20300546288490295, 0.19542095065116882, -0.5609972476959229, -0.002927048597484827, -0.09647677093744278, 0.23232325911521912, 0.058418821543455124, 0.16643142700195312, -0.0988723486661911, 0.09120850265026093, 0.059389300644397736, 0.18818266689...	13	The hymn, “Joy to the World” has an interesting history. It was written by Isaac Watts and the music for the Carol was written by the famous composer George Frederick Handel who wrote “Handel’s Messiah”. Isaac Watts, the author of Joy to the World was born in 1674. Since his late teens, Isaac Watts had complained about the Hymn singing in his Church and so his father who was tired of his complaints challenged Isaac to write something better. The following week after Isaac’s father had challenged him, Isaac composed his first hymn, “Behold the Glories of the Lamb” which received an enthusiastic response and so as an adolescent, his career as a well-known hymn writer had begun. The Carol: “Joy to the World”, which Isaac Watts wrote, in 1719 mentions nothing about a Manger or Mary or Joseph or the Wiseman or the Shepherds that we associate with Christmas. It is believed that Watts based his carol on Psalm 98. Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all the earth: make a loud noise, and rejoice, and sing praise. v5 Sing unto the Lord with the harp; with the harp, and the voice of a psalm. v8 Let the floods clap their hands: let the hills be joyful together. v9 Before the Lord; for he comes to judge the earth: with righteousness shall he judge the world, and the people with equity. (Psalm 98:4) At the Start of the Carol Joy to the World Isaac Watts writes: Joy to the World, The Lord is Come, Let earth receive her King. Let every heart prepare Him room… At the beginning of this Carol Isaac Watts acknowledges the first Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ to this Earth. He also says that the earth should receive Her King and that every heart should prepare Him room. When Jesus came to this earth He was born as a King. You’ll remember that after the birth of Christ in Matthew 2 the Wise men came to Jerusalem looking for a King. Jesus Christ was actually the King of the Jews, but He was overlooked by many in the Jewish Nation. The Bible shows us in Luke 2.7 that Jesus was laid in a manger because there … “was no room for them in the Inn”. There was no room in the Inn and for many in the Jewish Nation there was no room for Jesus either. He was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world knew him not. He came unto his own, and his own received him not. (John 1:10-11) It’s sad today that there are many in our Nation that have no room for God’s King either. When Jesus came to earth the first time He was the REJECTED KING, but when He returns the second time He will come as the REIGNING KING. And, behold, I come quickly; and my reward is with me, to give every man according as his work shall be. (Revelation 22:12)	637	ENGLISH	1
Marconi sends 1st transatlantic wireless message The Italian-Irish engineer Guglielmo Marconi, who was to receive the Nobel Prize for Physics for his contribution to the understanding of radio transmission in 1909, was not in fact a great technical innovator. But he was a clever businessman and manager, with the prescience to understand the commercial implications of wireless telegraphy. Marconi, born in Bologna in 1874, came to England in 1896 to seek support for his research into radio waves. He seems to have assimilated and borrowed the work of others researching in that field – particularly Tesla and Hertz - with little respect for the niceties. He acknowledged his inadequacies as an engineer and technician, employing some of the most brilliant minds available to work for his company – for example Sir Ambrose Fleming, who actually designed the equipment used in the first transatlantic wireless message. Marconi developed a system capable at first of sending messages just a few hundred metres, then building up to greater distances. He showed his awareness of the military possibilities of the technology by arranging a demonstration on Salisbury Plain , and of what would now be called the media potential by having two radio sets on boats reporting on an America’s Cup race in 1899. But Marconi’s greatest claim-to-fame was his achievement in arranging the first transatlantic radio transmission. As with his other work, this transmission would be in Morse code – his company did not begin work in voice telegraphy until 1912, long after others had entered that field. Marconi had a transmission centre set up in Poldhu on the Lizard Peninsula in Cornwall to beam a signal across the Atlantic to a reception station on Signal Hill in St John’s, Newfoundland. On December 11 a signal was sent, but the balloon raising the receiving aerial into the sky was torn away by strong winds. The next day a kite was used to lift the 400 foot high aerial, but again the winds intervened and the first kite was blown away. The second, however, was more stable, and the simplest of messages was received, the letter S in Morse code – dot-dot-dot. This came through thirty minutes after midday, and was witnessed by Marconi and his assistant Kemp. The veracity of this claim to success has been doubted by some, given the lack of independent witnesses and the nature of the message, which it is feasible could have been background noise from atmospheric radiation. Marconi himself felt compelled to arrange a more public and perhaps more scientific test the following year, transmitting from the SS Philadelphia as she sailed west across the Atlantic. But most do accept that Marconi, the great practical pioneer of radio transmission, did indeed succeed in crossing the great ocean with a radio message on December 12 1901. When Marconi died in 1937 the world honoured him, radio stations across the globe halting transmission for two minutes in his memory. More famous dates here 9599 views since 12th December 2007	<urn:uuid:3fc3e183-25f1-45ff-b9d4-b6a3e9b7a930>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ads.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=451	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00134.warc.gz	en	0.980105	611	3.515625	4	[ -0.24656376242637634, 0.4231979250907898, 0.07485850900411606, -0.18148064613342285, -0.5566211938858032, -0.38066715002059937, 0.2487611472606659, 0.45016780495643616, 0.14547908306121826, 0.007148798555135727, -0.04223231226205826, -0.17443697154521942, -0.02810123935341835, 0.4619267880...	1	Marconi sends 1st transatlantic wireless message The Italian-Irish engineer Guglielmo Marconi, who was to receive the Nobel Prize for Physics for his contribution to the understanding of radio transmission in 1909, was not in fact a great technical innovator. But he was a clever businessman and manager, with the prescience to understand the commercial implications of wireless telegraphy. Marconi, born in Bologna in 1874, came to England in 1896 to seek support for his research into radio waves. He seems to have assimilated and borrowed the work of others researching in that field – particularly Tesla and Hertz - with little respect for the niceties. He acknowledged his inadequacies as an engineer and technician, employing some of the most brilliant minds available to work for his company – for example Sir Ambrose Fleming, who actually designed the equipment used in the first transatlantic wireless message. Marconi developed a system capable at first of sending messages just a few hundred metres, then building up to greater distances. He showed his awareness of the military possibilities of the technology by arranging a demonstration on Salisbury Plain , and of what would now be called the media potential by having two radio sets on boats reporting on an America’s Cup race in 1899. But Marconi’s greatest claim-to-fame was his achievement in arranging the first transatlantic radio transmission. As with his other work, this transmission would be in Morse code – his company did not begin work in voice telegraphy until 1912, long after others had entered that field. Marconi had a transmission centre set up in Poldhu on the Lizard Peninsula in Cornwall to beam a signal across the Atlantic to a reception station on Signal Hill in St John’s, Newfoundland. On December 11 a signal was sent, but the balloon raising the receiving aerial into the sky was torn away by strong winds. The next day a kite was used to lift the 400 foot high aerial, but again the winds intervened and the first kite was blown away. The second, however, was more stable, and the simplest of messages was received, the letter S in Morse code – dot-dot-dot. This came through thirty minutes after midday, and was witnessed by Marconi and his assistant Kemp. The veracity of this claim to success has been doubted by some, given the lack of independent witnesses and the nature of the message, which it is feasible could have been background noise from atmospheric radiation. Marconi himself felt compelled to arrange a more public and perhaps more scientific test the following year, transmitting from the SS Philadelphia as she sailed west across the Atlantic. But most do accept that Marconi, the great practical pioneer of radio transmission, did indeed succeed in crossing the great ocean with a radio message on December 12 1901. When Marconi died in 1937 the world honoured him, radio stations across the globe halting transmission for two minutes in his memory. More famous dates here 9599 views since 12th December 2007	641	ENGLISH	1
Privy Council of Hanover The Privy Council of the Electorate of Hanover, formally known as Brunswick-Lüneburg, was the administrative branch of the electoral (and later royal) government of Hanover. Its members were known as ministers and often controlled indirectly the other branches of the government, except the military which was always under the direct control of the elector. At least one minister was always with the elector in London between the years 1714 and 1837 as the head of the German Chancery. The Privy Council gained prominence when Georg Ludwig became King of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714, leaving management of Hanover to the states via his reglement. At times, the Privy Council was very powerful, especially after the accession of Georg III, who never personally traveled to Hanover nor left a regent in his stead. After 1813, Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge was installed as Governor of Hanover (later to be promoted to Governor-General in 1816, and then Viceroy in 1831), slowly ending the relative autonomy of the Privy Council. Upon the accession of Ernst August in 1837, thereby ending the dynastic union between Great Britain and Hanover, the Privy Council returned to its pre-1714 function as an advisory council to the king. Premiere Ministers of the Privy CouncilEdit While technically all the ministers of the council were equal in rank, a head was appointed for the purpose of calling, opening, and closing meetings. This individual, although technically equal to the other members, often became the leader of the Privy Council and would direct decisions. The title became synonymous with that of 'Prime Minister during the terms of some of its holders, although others wielded less power. Some of the premiere ministers include:	<urn:uuid:2ae7d53b-bc6d-43c5-aa53-fdb1acb9100f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Hanover	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00491.warc.gz	en	0.981743	368	3.671875	4	[ -0.037855617702007294, 0.26981431245803833, 0.360178679227829, -0.10465695708990097, 0.04356006160378456, 0.11800340563058853, 0.2794082462787628, -0.23454786837100983, -0.07392959296703339, 0.054444819688797, -0.05807564780116081, -0.14305944740772247, 0.19392673671245575, -0.182584360241...	1	Privy Council of Hanover The Privy Council of the Electorate of Hanover, formally known as Brunswick-Lüneburg, was the administrative branch of the electoral (and later royal) government of Hanover. Its members were known as ministers and often controlled indirectly the other branches of the government, except the military which was always under the direct control of the elector. At least one minister was always with the elector in London between the years 1714 and 1837 as the head of the German Chancery. The Privy Council gained prominence when Georg Ludwig became King of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714, leaving management of Hanover to the states via his reglement. At times, the Privy Council was very powerful, especially after the accession of Georg III, who never personally traveled to Hanover nor left a regent in his stead. After 1813, Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge was installed as Governor of Hanover (later to be promoted to Governor-General in 1816, and then Viceroy in 1831), slowly ending the relative autonomy of the Privy Council. Upon the accession of Ernst August in 1837, thereby ending the dynastic union between Great Britain and Hanover, the Privy Council returned to its pre-1714 function as an advisory council to the king. Premiere Ministers of the Privy CouncilEdit While technically all the ministers of the council were equal in rank, a head was appointed for the purpose of calling, opening, and closing meetings. This individual, although technically equal to the other members, often became the leader of the Privy Council and would direct decisions. The title became synonymous with that of 'Prime Minister during the terms of some of its holders, although others wielded less power. Some of the premiere ministers include:	388	ENGLISH	1
Presentation on theme: "Mesopotamia AKA The Fertile Crescent. The Akkadians The Akkadians existed from about 2400 to 2300 bc. They were located in Mesopotamia along the Euphrates."— Presentation transcript: The Akkadians The Akkadians existed from about 2400 to 2300 bc. They were located in Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River The Akkadians The Akkadians most important leader was Sargon the Great. When he defeated the Sumerian city-states, he established an Akkadian empire that stretched to the Mediterranean Sea. His empire is thought to be the 1 st Empire. The capital was Akkad The Babylonians 1800 to 1600 bc They lived in the area of present day Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers where the two rivers join the Persian Gulf. The capital was Babylon Hammurabi Hammurabi was the Babylonians most famous ruler. He created a harsh code of laws based around the idea of “an eye for an eye” Babylonian Achievements The Babylonians were skilled at irrigation in order to farm in the desert. They also traded with other city-states, Egypt and India They believed in sacrificing to the gods for a successful life. More Babylonian Achievements The Babylonians were skilled builders. They used different colors of clay to make bricks. They took great pride in building beautiful temples and public buildings The Hittites 1600 to 1200 bc They were a war-like people from Asia Minor, who invaded Mesopotamia and defeated the Babylonians Hittite Achievements The Hittites were the 1 st known people to smelt iron. They used the iron to make weapons. Their kings were considered to be gods and their laws were not as harsh. Most involved paying fines. 900 to 612 bc The kingdom of Assyria was located on the Tigris River in what is now present day Iran The capital was Ninevah Achievements Because the Assyrians were taken over so much, the became fierce warriors. They used chariots and a cavalry during battle. They also tortured their enemies More Achievements Assyrian kings had absolute power and were the first to effectively govern a large empire. Ninevah had a large library that held clay tablets full of literature The Chaldeans 605 to 562 BC They rebuilt the city of Babylon and made it their capital Their empire covered most of the Fertile Crescent Chaldean Achievements The Chaldeans were good at astronomy. They could predict eclipses and calculated the length of a year by the movement of the stars. MORE CHALDEAN ACHIVENMENTS The Chaldeans were the first to use coined money. This is called a money economy The Chaldean King Nebuchadnezzar was a powerful king who made his empire very wealthy. Under his reign, many canals and buildings were built. Legend has it that he had the “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” built for one of his wives. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon According to legend, Nebuchadnezzar’s wife missed her homeland and its greenery. To make her happy, he planted thousands of trees and plants in the city. Because of the desert, they appeared to hang from the sky The Persians 550 to 331 BC The Persians had the largest Empire in all of Mesopotamia. It stretched from Asia Minor to the Indus River in India and down to Egypt. Persian Rulers Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon Darius organized the empire and built great roads Xerxes attempted to conquer Greece Persian Achievements The Persians were tolerant of the people that they conquered. They allowed them to keep their own laws and religions. The conquered areas had to pay taxes. More Persian Achievements The Persians used secret agents to spy on conquered areas. The Persian kings allowed the local kings to rule over their areas. They were called satrapies. The satraps had to answer to the Persian rulers. Persian Religion Zoroastrianism was based on a prophet named Zoraster. He taught that life was a struggle between good and evil. After death, the good would be rewarded and the evil would be punished. When good triumphs, the Earth would disappear The Phoenicians 1000 to 700 BC Phoenica was located along the Mediterranean Sea in what is now Israel, Lebanon and Syria The Phoenicians Phoenicia was located on very fertile land. Because of their location by the sea, they became great sea traders. They were known to sail as far away as Britain Phoenician Trade They traded lumber, metal objects and gold and silver. They invented glass and traded glass objects. They also created purple dye that they sold at a high price to royalty. Phoenician Culture Because they traveled so much, the Phoenicians. Adopted the cultures of other civilizations. They carried other people’s cultures to where they traveled. This is why they are called the “carriers of civilization” The biggest contribution that the Phoenicians made was the use of an alphabet. The Lydians 700 to 547 BC They lived on the western portion of Asia Minor Lydian Contributions The Lydians invented the Money Economy: using money as a measure of value. Lydian coins were made of silver and gold The Hebrews 1200 to 586 BC The Hebrew Kingdom was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in what is present day Israel. The Hebrew’s Story The Hebrews are descendants of Abraham. Abraham once lived in Sumer and when he left, his 12 sons formed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. More to the Story When the Hebrews wandered into Egypt, they were captured and used as slaves. Moses led them out of Egypt. This is called the Exodus. They wandered through the wilderness. The Hebrew Religion The Hebrews were monotheistic. They believed in one god, Yahweh. The 10 Commandments became their laws. When they agreed to follow the commandments, it was called the Covenant Judaism The first 5 books of the Old Testament are known as the Torah. It includes the Hebrew code of laws. It also told about the Hebrew prophets who were messengers for Yahweh. Judaism Judaism taught that people have a choice between good and evil and that people are responsible for their choices. Yahweh was the only god and he emphasized ethical behavior. This code of conduct is called ethical monotheism. The Jewish code of ethics carried over into Christianity.	<urn:uuid:dd395732-e4ae-45f1-8331-86881a97b1e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://slideplayer.com/slide/6373715/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00518.warc.gz	en	0.984646	1,361	4.0625	4	[ -0.06296898424625397, 0.3366948962211609, 0.023712914437055588, -0.13166086375713348, -0.34888094663619995, -0.18124523758888245, -0.057844310998916626, 0.1524755358695984, -0.12871533632278442, 0.18688541650772095, -0.3672133684158325, -0.6237368583679199, 0.3980447053909302, 0.1998822540...	1	Presentation on theme: "Mesopotamia AKA The Fertile Crescent. The Akkadians The Akkadians existed from about 2400 to 2300 bc. They were located in Mesopotamia along the Euphrates."— Presentation transcript: The Akkadians The Akkadians existed from about 2400 to 2300 bc. They were located in Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River The Akkadians The Akkadians most important leader was Sargon the Great. When he defeated the Sumerian city-states, he established an Akkadian empire that stretched to the Mediterranean Sea. His empire is thought to be the 1 st Empire. The capital was Akkad The Babylonians 1800 to 1600 bc They lived in the area of present day Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers where the two rivers join the Persian Gulf. The capital was Babylon Hammurabi Hammurabi was the Babylonians most famous ruler. He created a harsh code of laws based around the idea of “an eye for an eye” Babylonian Achievements The Babylonians were skilled at irrigation in order to farm in the desert. They also traded with other city-states, Egypt and India They believed in sacrificing to the gods for a successful life. More Babylonian Achievements The Babylonians were skilled builders. They used different colors of clay to make bricks. They took great pride in building beautiful temples and public buildings The Hittites 1600 to 1200 bc They were a war-like people from Asia Minor, who invaded Mesopotamia and defeated the Babylonians Hittite Achievements The Hittites were the 1 st known people to smelt iron. They used the iron to make weapons. Their kings were considered to be gods and their laws were not as harsh. Most involved paying fines. 900 to 612 bc The kingdom of Assyria was located on the Tigris River in what is now present day Iran The capital was Ninevah Achievements Because the Assyrians were taken over so much, the became fierce warriors. They used chariots and a cavalry during battle. They also tortured their enemies More Achievements Assyrian kings had absolute power and were the first to effectively govern a large empire. Ninevah had a large library that held clay tablets full of literature The Chaldeans 605 to 562 BC They rebuilt the city of Babylon and made it their capital Their empire covered most of the Fertile Crescent Chaldean Achievements The Chaldeans were good at astronomy. They could predict eclipses and calculated the length of a year by the movement of the stars. MORE CHALDEAN ACHIVENMENTS The Chaldeans were the first to use coined money. This is called a money economy The Chaldean King Nebuchadnezzar was a powerful king who made his empire very wealthy. Under his reign, many canals and buildings were built. Legend has it that he had the “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” built for one of his wives. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon According to legend, Nebuchadnezzar’s wife missed her homeland and its greenery. To make her happy, he planted thousands of trees and plants in the city. Because of the desert, they appeared to hang from the sky The Persians 550 to 331 BC The Persians had the largest Empire in all of Mesopotamia. It stretched from Asia Minor to the Indus River in India and down to Egypt. Persian Rulers Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon Darius organized the empire and built great roads Xerxes attempted to conquer Greece Persian Achievements The Persians were tolerant of the people that they conquered. They allowed them to keep their own laws and religions. The conquered areas had to pay taxes. More Persian Achievements The Persians used secret agents to spy on conquered areas. The Persian kings allowed the local kings to rule over their areas. They were called satrapies. The satraps had to answer to the Persian rulers. Persian Religion Zoroastrianism was based on a prophet named Zoraster. He taught that life was a struggle between good and evil. After death, the good would be rewarded and the evil would be punished. When good triumphs, the Earth would disappear The Phoenicians 1000 to 700 BC Phoenica was located along the Mediterranean Sea in what is now Israel, Lebanon and Syria The Phoenicians Phoenicia was located on very fertile land. Because of their location by the sea, they became great sea traders. They were known to sail as far away as Britain Phoenician Trade They traded lumber, metal objects and gold and silver. They invented glass and traded glass objects. They also created purple dye that they sold at a high price to royalty. Phoenician Culture Because they traveled so much, the Phoenicians. Adopted the cultures of other civilizations. They carried other people’s cultures to where they traveled. This is why they are called the “carriers of civilization” The biggest contribution that the Phoenicians made was the use of an alphabet. The Lydians 700 to 547 BC They lived on the western portion of Asia Minor Lydian Contributions The Lydians invented the Money Economy: using money as a measure of value. Lydian coins were made of silver and gold The Hebrews 1200 to 586 BC The Hebrew Kingdom was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in what is present day Israel. The Hebrew’s Story The Hebrews are descendants of Abraham. Abraham once lived in Sumer and when he left, his 12 sons formed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. More to the Story When the Hebrews wandered into Egypt, they were captured and used as slaves. Moses led them out of Egypt. This is called the Exodus. They wandered through the wilderness. The Hebrew Religion The Hebrews were monotheistic. They believed in one god, Yahweh. The 10 Commandments became their laws. When they agreed to follow the commandments, it was called the Covenant Judaism The first 5 books of the Old Testament are known as the Torah. It includes the Hebrew code of laws. It also told about the Hebrew prophets who were messengers for Yahweh. Judaism Judaism taught that people have a choice between good and evil and that people are responsible for their choices. Yahweh was the only god and he emphasized ethical behavior. This code of conduct is called ethical monotheism. The Jewish code of ethics carried over into Christianity.	1,416	ENGLISH	1
The collection is on loan to the Library for ten years through the generosity of the Howard G. The Civil Rights leaders protested her arrest and hired lawyers to aid her in her trial. Washington Junior High, a black public school in Montgomery. Nixon was there when Parks was released on bail later that evening. He was a major bigot who treated everyone that was black badly especially black women. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks never thought that by refusing to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, she would start a nation-wide movement for promoting the rights of black people. She lived with her mother and brother in a small house. Ralph Abernathy and Rev. Rosa Parks also continued to be active and involved in the civil rights struggle, giving speeches and attending marches even after all that has happened Rosa parks biography, Nonetheless, 70 percent or more riders on a typical day were black, and on this day Rosa Parks was one of them. Nixon, who was the legal redress chairman of the Montgomery branch of the NAACP, made phone calls to a number of ministers. It was put in the paper and Mr. If a person was poor with no extra money, which most blacks in Alabama were, they could not vote. When she graduated, the family worked hard to save enough money to send her to a private school for black girls. It was a form of everyday humiliation in Montgomery. Martin Luther King Jr. Led by a young Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Rosa told him she was not moving from the seat and he threatened to have her arrested. The three African Americans stood up, while Mrs. She was arrested for taking her stand. They were married in and settled in Montgomery. She had received much recognition, awards, and was honored many times for her outstanding movement. After twelve months of 50, African Americans boycotting, a federal court ordered the desegregation of the cities busses.Rosa Parks' role in civil rights movement was a crucial one as it helped to change the African-Americans life. Rosa Park worked in the NAACP (National Association of the Advancement of Coloured People ) and she was a very significant within the Civil Rights movement. Rosa Parks' role in civil rights movement was a crucial one as it helped to change the African-Americans life. Rosa Park worked in the NAACP (National Association of the Advancement of Coloured People ) and she was a very significant within the Civil Rights movement. More Essay Examples on. One Person & # ; s Belief: The Story of Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Motion & # ; My feets is weary, but my psyche is rested - Story Of Rosa Parks And The Civil Essay introduction. & # ; This quotation mark summarizes how Rosa Parks felt after her triumph for the promotion of African Americans in society. Rosa Parks & # ; simple act of protest. Free Essay: Rosa Parks, also called the “Mother of the Civil Rights Movement,” was given the NAACP's Spingarn Medal and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks: The First Lady of The Civil Rights Movement - Also known as "the first lady of civil rights", Rosa Louise McCauley Parks made a huge difference in the world of Civil Rights. She was born on February 4,and died October 24, Nov 09, · Parks—who had lost her job and experienced harassment all year—became known as “the mother of the civil rights movement.” Rosa Parks.Download	<urn:uuid:d89056c3-7aac-44cc-9830-4e5c1cd81022>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://raroqaq.bistroriviere.com/rosa-parks-essay-civil-rights-93627au.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00310.warc.gz	en	0.981595	726	3.921875	4	[ -0.2864212393760681, 0.28480106592178345, 0.12299589812755585, 0.14086973667144775, 0.20396873354911804, 0.14097633957862854, 0.1309894174337387, -0.24303776025772095, -0.3823123276233673, 0.10700321197509766, 0.057389140129089355, 0.49155914783477783, -0.01816091686487198, 0.0643715038895...	1	The collection is on loan to the Library for ten years through the generosity of the Howard G. The Civil Rights leaders protested her arrest and hired lawyers to aid her in her trial. Washington Junior High, a black public school in Montgomery. Nixon was there when Parks was released on bail later that evening. He was a major bigot who treated everyone that was black badly especially black women. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks never thought that by refusing to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, she would start a nation-wide movement for promoting the rights of black people. She lived with her mother and brother in a small house. Ralph Abernathy and Rev. Rosa Parks also continued to be active and involved in the civil rights struggle, giving speeches and attending marches even after all that has happened Rosa parks biography, Nonetheless, 70 percent or more riders on a typical day were black, and on this day Rosa Parks was one of them. Nixon, who was the legal redress chairman of the Montgomery branch of the NAACP, made phone calls to a number of ministers. It was put in the paper and Mr. If a person was poor with no extra money, which most blacks in Alabama were, they could not vote. When she graduated, the family worked hard to save enough money to send her to a private school for black girls. It was a form of everyday humiliation in Montgomery. Martin Luther King Jr. Led by a young Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Rosa told him she was not moving from the seat and he threatened to have her arrested. The three African Americans stood up, while Mrs. She was arrested for taking her stand. They were married in and settled in Montgomery. She had received much recognition, awards, and was honored many times for her outstanding movement. After twelve months of 50, African Americans boycotting, a federal court ordered the desegregation of the cities busses.Rosa Parks' role in civil rights movement was a crucial one as it helped to change the African-Americans life. Rosa Park worked in the NAACP (National Association of the Advancement of Coloured People ) and she was a very significant within the Civil Rights movement. Rosa Parks' role in civil rights movement was a crucial one as it helped to change the African-Americans life. Rosa Park worked in the NAACP (National Association of the Advancement of Coloured People ) and she was a very significant within the Civil Rights movement. More Essay Examples on. One Person & # ; s Belief: The Story of Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Motion & # ; My feets is weary, but my psyche is rested - Story Of Rosa Parks And The Civil Essay introduction. & # ; This quotation mark summarizes how Rosa Parks felt after her triumph for the promotion of African Americans in society. Rosa Parks & # ; simple act of protest. Free Essay: Rosa Parks, also called the “Mother of the Civil Rights Movement,” was given the NAACP's Spingarn Medal and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks: The First Lady of The Civil Rights Movement - Also known as "the first lady of civil rights", Rosa Louise McCauley Parks made a huge difference in the world of Civil Rights. She was born on February 4,and died October 24, Nov 09, · Parks—who had lost her job and experienced harassment all year—became known as “the mother of the civil rights movement.” Rosa Parks.Download	713	ENGLISH	1
There have been many wars around the world. However, one stands out, the United States Revolutionary War. Although there were many parts to this war, the people were were very important. Some of these people became heroes because of what they did to help the Colonists. Who were the Heroes of the Revolutionary War? Why were they so important and why do people consider them heros?One hero was Nathan Hale. He was born June 6, 1755. Hale had a friend who was a friend of George Washington. He went to school at Yale University. Hale became a schoolteacher. In 1776, he joined the militia and became a captain who also became a spy. He spied on the British and got information for the Colonists. The British finally finally caught him and they tricked him into telling about what he was doing. He was interrogated until the British received information. People say that his final words were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” Hale was hanged. Hale is a hero because he got information for the Colonists and was willing to give his life. Another hero was Mary Hayes. She was also known as “Molly Pitcher” because of her job during the battles. Molly followed the troops into battle and helped them. She carried pitchers of water to thirsty soldiers and also brought water for their cannons. Molly played an important role in the the 1778 Battle of Monmouth. Molly’s husband was fighting in this battle while she was carrying water. Her husband fell because he was either too hot or wounded. When Molly saw this she dropped the water and ran to the cannons. She continued fire the cannon because her husband could not. Some people say that a cannon ball flew between her legs and ripped her skirt. Some people said that she said, “well, that could have been worse.” Molly is a hero because she stepped up to man the cannons. Even though it was a man’s job to fight in the battle, she did the job anyway. After the war she received payment for her job. She showed that girls can do anything that a boy can do. Alexander Hamilton is another Revolutionary War hero. He grew up in the Caribbean but his his family sent him to King’s College in New York City. He was smart and got a Bachelor’s Degree in one year. After school he moved to Boston to show his support for the Colonists. He wrote many pamphlets that showed the people why freedom from Great Britain was good. These pamphlets got the people all riled up and help the Colonists support their cause. Hamilton also met George Washington. Washington was impressed with Hamilton and made him his own secretary. Washington allowed Hamilton to fight in the 1778 Battle of Monmouth. Hamilton led the troops to fight successfully against the British. Hamilton is a hero because he inspired both the people and the Colonists to fight for their freedom. One of the biggest Revolutionary War heroes was George Washington. He was born on February 22, 1732, in Virginia. He studied math and surveying. In 1752, his brother died and he inherited land including Mt. Vernon. At first, Washington was not successful in war. He began to bring troops together in Virginia when the Revolutionary War began. He led troops that did not have shoes or enough food and supplies. June 15, 1775, Washington became the commander of the Continental Army. On Christmas night in 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River. He had a plan. His plan was to take 800-900 British soldiers and capture them. It was successful. This was known as Washington’s Crossing. It helped the Colonists feel confident about the war. George Washington was a hero because he a good leader and because the first president of the United States. He was re elected in 1792 but refused to do a third term. On December 14, 1799, Washington died.The Revolutionary War was a long and violent War, in every battle many people died. What would the United States look like if it had lost the war? But people, yes people were brave enough to risk their lives. These are just a few of the brave people who were the heroes of the U.S Revolutionary War, but there are many more.	<urn:uuid:0bb8b5ca-c401-4b37-b8e7-29bc8e9cbbfd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wallaceandjames.com/there-of-her-job-during-the-battles-molly/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00275.warc.gz	en	0.995848	876	3.640625	4	[ -0.3207259774208069, 0.148164764046669, 0.33088117837905884, -0.10773005336523056, -0.5750150680541992, -0.1457665115594864, 0.6813832521438599, 0.5802167654037476, -0.5194734334945679, 0.005080472677946091, 0.21170298755168915, 0.21351072192192078, 0.2829092741012573, 0.30055326223373413,...	2	There have been many wars around the world. However, one stands out, the United States Revolutionary War. Although there were many parts to this war, the people were were very important. Some of these people became heroes because of what they did to help the Colonists. Who were the Heroes of the Revolutionary War? Why were they so important and why do people consider them heros?One hero was Nathan Hale. He was born June 6, 1755. Hale had a friend who was a friend of George Washington. He went to school at Yale University. Hale became a schoolteacher. In 1776, he joined the militia and became a captain who also became a spy. He spied on the British and got information for the Colonists. The British finally finally caught him and they tricked him into telling about what he was doing. He was interrogated until the British received information. People say that his final words were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” Hale was hanged. Hale is a hero because he got information for the Colonists and was willing to give his life. Another hero was Mary Hayes. She was also known as “Molly Pitcher” because of her job during the battles. Molly followed the troops into battle and helped them. She carried pitchers of water to thirsty soldiers and also brought water for their cannons. Molly played an important role in the the 1778 Battle of Monmouth. Molly’s husband was fighting in this battle while she was carrying water. Her husband fell because he was either too hot or wounded. When Molly saw this she dropped the water and ran to the cannons. She continued fire the cannon because her husband could not. Some people say that a cannon ball flew between her legs and ripped her skirt. Some people said that she said, “well, that could have been worse.” Molly is a hero because she stepped up to man the cannons. Even though it was a man’s job to fight in the battle, she did the job anyway. After the war she received payment for her job. She showed that girls can do anything that a boy can do. Alexander Hamilton is another Revolutionary War hero. He grew up in the Caribbean but his his family sent him to King’s College in New York City. He was smart and got a Bachelor’s Degree in one year. After school he moved to Boston to show his support for the Colonists. He wrote many pamphlets that showed the people why freedom from Great Britain was good. These pamphlets got the people all riled up and help the Colonists support their cause. Hamilton also met George Washington. Washington was impressed with Hamilton and made him his own secretary. Washington allowed Hamilton to fight in the 1778 Battle of Monmouth. Hamilton led the troops to fight successfully against the British. Hamilton is a hero because he inspired both the people and the Colonists to fight for their freedom. One of the biggest Revolutionary War heroes was George Washington. He was born on February 22, 1732, in Virginia. He studied math and surveying. In 1752, his brother died and he inherited land including Mt. Vernon. At first, Washington was not successful in war. He began to bring troops together in Virginia when the Revolutionary War began. He led troops that did not have shoes or enough food and supplies. June 15, 1775, Washington became the commander of the Continental Army. On Christmas night in 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River. He had a plan. His plan was to take 800-900 British soldiers and capture them. It was successful. This was known as Washington’s Crossing. It helped the Colonists feel confident about the war. George Washington was a hero because he a good leader and because the first president of the United States. He was re elected in 1792 but refused to do a third term. On December 14, 1799, Washington died.The Revolutionary War was a long and violent War, in every battle many people died. What would the United States look like if it had lost the war? But people, yes people were brave enough to risk their lives. These are just a few of the brave people who were the heroes of the U.S Revolutionary War, but there are many more.	900	ENGLISH	1
This week we have used drama to inform our writing. We have been writing some diary entries as Samuel Pepys this week. One feature of diary writing is the use of first person, i.e. using “I” – This can be tricky. So… To get into the character of Mr Pepys, we became him through the technique hot seating. This is where someone pretends to be a character and they are asked questions and they respond as that character. Obviously, you can’t be Samuel Pepys without a proper periwig. This really helped us to become Samuel Pepys and helped the writing process. Below are some examples of our diaries, from Elijah, Lily, Caitlyn, Pippa and Isaac Samuel Pepys came to talk to us, and tell us all about life in 1666. We heard about the periwIg he wore, which was made from real hair (!) as well as the music that written and performed in 1666. This was written by composer, Henry Purcell. We also learned about how the Great Fire of London started. We learned about Thomas Farriner’s Bakery, and how the fire spread from Pudding Lane across London. We also learned how Londoners of the day tried to put the fire out, using a waterchain. This was when buckets of water were passed along rows of people from the Thames to the fire. We also learned how the fire was put out. There were two main factors to this, the strong winds died down so the fire was not being blown as quickly across the city and the authorities had started exploding houses strategically around the fire to stop the fire from spreading to others. This afternoon was a really interesting start to our Great Fire of London topic and we’re really looking forward to exploring further. What an exciting first two weeks we’ve had in 1GA. We are starting to get use to new routines and structures. One very exciting new addition to life in year 1 has been our Helicopter Stories, this is an active story session where our classroom is transformed into a stage (through the simple use of masking tape!!). So far we have written stories together, Jack and the Beanstalk and Three Little Pigs. As the year goes on, the children will have the opportunity to write their own ”Helicopter Story’ which will go in our class story book. Once a story has been written, we act it out as a class on our stage, some children are actors and some are story listeners. We have watched little pigs, big bad wolves, giants and even beanstalks. We’re very excited to see what other characters come to life on our classroom stage!	<urn:uuid:82da2bda-f6c4-4cf4-baa4-02dd41b403b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://1ga.aceprimary.uk/tag/drama/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00315.warc.gz	en	0.980493	569	3.515625	4	[ -0.14009979367256165, -0.11642929911613464, 0.14948324859142303, -0.4315577447414398, -0.11486606299877167, 0.05663101375102997, 0.22489580512046814, 0.15475302934646606, -0.08987107872962952, -0.21471044421195984, -0.1762520670890808, -0.12706728279590607, -0.25804656744003296, 0.21654789...	1	This week we have used drama to inform our writing. We have been writing some diary entries as Samuel Pepys this week. One feature of diary writing is the use of first person, i.e. using “I” – This can be tricky. So… To get into the character of Mr Pepys, we became him through the technique hot seating. This is where someone pretends to be a character and they are asked questions and they respond as that character. Obviously, you can’t be Samuel Pepys without a proper periwig. This really helped us to become Samuel Pepys and helped the writing process. Below are some examples of our diaries, from Elijah, Lily, Caitlyn, Pippa and Isaac Samuel Pepys came to talk to us, and tell us all about life in 1666. We heard about the periwIg he wore, which was made from real hair (!) as well as the music that written and performed in 1666. This was written by composer, Henry Purcell. We also learned about how the Great Fire of London started. We learned about Thomas Farriner’s Bakery, and how the fire spread from Pudding Lane across London. We also learned how Londoners of the day tried to put the fire out, using a waterchain. This was when buckets of water were passed along rows of people from the Thames to the fire. We also learned how the fire was put out. There were two main factors to this, the strong winds died down so the fire was not being blown as quickly across the city and the authorities had started exploding houses strategically around the fire to stop the fire from spreading to others. This afternoon was a really interesting start to our Great Fire of London topic and we’re really looking forward to exploring further. What an exciting first two weeks we’ve had in 1GA. We are starting to get use to new routines and structures. One very exciting new addition to life in year 1 has been our Helicopter Stories, this is an active story session where our classroom is transformed into a stage (through the simple use of masking tape!!). So far we have written stories together, Jack and the Beanstalk and Three Little Pigs. As the year goes on, the children will have the opportunity to write their own ”Helicopter Story’ which will go in our class story book. Once a story has been written, we act it out as a class on our stage, some children are actors and some are story listeners. We have watched little pigs, big bad wolves, giants and even beanstalks. We’re very excited to see what other characters come to life on our classroom stage!	546	ENGLISH	1
Good words for a king 1 These are the serious words that King Lemuel's mother taught to him. 31:1Lemuel was not a king of Israel. But his name means ‘he belongs to God’. 2 You are the son that I prayed for. Let me tell you this. 3 Do not spend all your money on women. They have destroyed kings. 4 Listen, Lemuel. Kings should not drink wine. And rulers should not ask for alcohol. 5 When kings drink alcohol, they forget the rules. And they are not fair to poor people. 6 Alcohol is for people who are dying. And wine is for people who are very sad. 7 They should drink alcohol. Then they will forget that they are poor. And they will no longer remember that they are sad. 8 Speak on behalf of people that cannot speak on behalf of themselves. Watch over poor people. And supply what they need. 9 Speak on behalf of them and rule with wisdom. Watch over poor people. And supply what they need. The wife who does all things well 31:10Verses 10-31 are a poem about a perfect wife. 31:10The original language of this poem is called Hebrew. This poem has a special structure because the poem uses the Hebrew alphabet. So, in Hebrew, verse 10 begins with the first letter of the alphabet. Verse 11 begins with the next letter. This structure continues until verse 31. Verse 31 begins with the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 10 How difficult it is to find a wife that does all things well! She is worth much more than valuable stones. 11 Her husband knows that she will help him. He will never be poor. 12 As long as she lives, she does only good things for him. 13 She is always busy. She makes cloth and she enjoys her work. 14 A ship brings food from all parts of the world. In the same way, she brings food from far away places. 15 She gets up while it is still night to prepare food for her family. She tells her servant women what they should do. 16 She thinks about a field and she buys it with her own money. And she plants fruit bushes to make wine. 17 She is strong and she works well. 18 She knows the cost of everything that she makes. And she works late into the night. 19 She makes her own cloth from the beginning to the end. 20 She gives money to poor people. And she helps people that need help. 21 All her family have warm clothes, so snow is not a problem. 22 She makes beautiful cloths to cover all her beds. She wears good clothes made from linen and purple material. 23 Everybody in the city knows her husband. He is one of the rulers of the country. 24 She uses linen to make clothes and she sells them. She makes belts to sell to the traders. 25 She is strong and future times have no problems for her. People think that she is great. 26 She speaks with wise words. And she teaches kind rules to people. 27 She is always busy. And every day she carefully watches everything that happens in her house. 28 Her children love her. They say that she is good. Her husband says that too. 29 He says, ‘Many women are good wives, but you are the best of them all.’ 30 A beautiful woman may not be honest. And she may not be beautiful when she is old. But all men speak well about a woman who is afraid of the Lord. 31 Give her the things that she herself has made. Remember her because of all that she has done. Everyone should speak well about her.	<urn:uuid:c71ecedb-bf1b-4080-b163-dee5c60bbd17>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/proverbs/31/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00185.warc.gz	en	0.986009	777	3.5	4	[ -0.17264924943447113, 0.2719341814517975, -0.17964018881320953, -0.2777431607246399, -0.29862087965011597, -0.2600594162940979, 0.5544453859329224, 0.15126246213912964, 0.05248187854886055, 0.016755877062678337, -0.13532522320747375, -0.12876978516578674, -0.002648009918630123, -0.18408855...	1	Good words for a king 1 These are the serious words that King Lemuel's mother taught to him. 31:1Lemuel was not a king of Israel. But his name means ‘he belongs to God’. 2 You are the son that I prayed for. Let me tell you this. 3 Do not spend all your money on women. They have destroyed kings. 4 Listen, Lemuel. Kings should not drink wine. And rulers should not ask for alcohol. 5 When kings drink alcohol, they forget the rules. And they are not fair to poor people. 6 Alcohol is for people who are dying. And wine is for people who are very sad. 7 They should drink alcohol. Then they will forget that they are poor. And they will no longer remember that they are sad. 8 Speak on behalf of people that cannot speak on behalf of themselves. Watch over poor people. And supply what they need. 9 Speak on behalf of them and rule with wisdom. Watch over poor people. And supply what they need. The wife who does all things well 31:10Verses 10-31 are a poem about a perfect wife. 31:10The original language of this poem is called Hebrew. This poem has a special structure because the poem uses the Hebrew alphabet. So, in Hebrew, verse 10 begins with the first letter of the alphabet. Verse 11 begins with the next letter. This structure continues until verse 31. Verse 31 begins with the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 10 How difficult it is to find a wife that does all things well! She is worth much more than valuable stones. 11 Her husband knows that she will help him. He will never be poor. 12 As long as she lives, she does only good things for him. 13 She is always busy. She makes cloth and she enjoys her work. 14 A ship brings food from all parts of the world. In the same way, she brings food from far away places. 15 She gets up while it is still night to prepare food for her family. She tells her servant women what they should do. 16 She thinks about a field and she buys it with her own money. And she plants fruit bushes to make wine. 17 She is strong and she works well. 18 She knows the cost of everything that she makes. And she works late into the night. 19 She makes her own cloth from the beginning to the end. 20 She gives money to poor people. And she helps people that need help. 21 All her family have warm clothes, so snow is not a problem. 22 She makes beautiful cloths to cover all her beds. She wears good clothes made from linen and purple material. 23 Everybody in the city knows her husband. He is one of the rulers of the country. 24 She uses linen to make clothes and she sells them. She makes belts to sell to the traders. 25 She is strong and future times have no problems for her. People think that she is great. 26 She speaks with wise words. And she teaches kind rules to people. 27 She is always busy. And every day she carefully watches everything that happens in her house. 28 Her children love her. They say that she is good. Her husband says that too. 29 He says, ‘Many women are good wives, but you are the best of them all.’ 30 A beautiful woman may not be honest. And she may not be beautiful when she is old. But all men speak well about a woman who is afraid of the Lord. 31 Give her the things that she herself has made. Remember her because of all that she has done. Everyone should speak well about her.	778	ENGLISH	1
The true color of the famous Giza Pyramid in Egypt has appeared in a new documentary. According to the results of the studies, the pyramids were white when they were first built. When this pyramid was built in 2600 BCE, it turned out to be quite different in appearance. In the documentary The Nile: Egypt’s Greatest River, historian Bettany Hughes discovered that the pyramids were pure white when it was first built. Hughes came to this conclusion from the diary of a man named Merer 4,500 years ago. This diary, which the French archaeologists found in their studies in the Red Sea, was written with papyrus on hieroglyphics. The records in the diary described the working days in the gigantic pyramid. It took 20 years to build the pyramid, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. According to the diary, the stones were white when the pyramid was built. In his diary, Merer explained how the white limestone blocks were moved along the Nile. The Egyptians added a golden tip to the top of the pyramids where they used white limestone to shine. Over time, the limestone eroded and became yellow.	<urn:uuid:c22831db-d847-4123-8db6-3581b68c73cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.techindeep.com/the-true-color-of-the-giza-pyramid-which-we-know-of-yellow-has-emerged-39836	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00082.warc.gz	en	0.986592	233	3.5625	4	[ -0.24410559237003326, 0.6526408195495605, 0.25761836767196655, 0.5041669011116028, -0.39530983567237854, 0.2416476160287857, 0.2873549461364746, -0.19162562489509583, -0.08441247045993805, 0.17960162460803986, -0.008595156483352184, -0.3431193232536316, -0.23264501988887787, 0.337901890277...	8	The true color of the famous Giza Pyramid in Egypt has appeared in a new documentary. According to the results of the studies, the pyramids were white when they were first built. When this pyramid was built in 2600 BCE, it turned out to be quite different in appearance. In the documentary The Nile: Egypt’s Greatest River, historian Bettany Hughes discovered that the pyramids were pure white when it was first built. Hughes came to this conclusion from the diary of a man named Merer 4,500 years ago. This diary, which the French archaeologists found in their studies in the Red Sea, was written with papyrus on hieroglyphics. The records in the diary described the working days in the gigantic pyramid. It took 20 years to build the pyramid, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. According to the diary, the stones were white when the pyramid was built. In his diary, Merer explained how the white limestone blocks were moved along the Nile. The Egyptians added a golden tip to the top of the pyramids where they used white limestone to shine. Over time, the limestone eroded and became yellow.	240	ENGLISH	1
This is what we did in IM classes over the past 2 weeks. (From 02 ndÃ‚Â January to 6thÃ‚Â January, 2017 and 09th Ã‚Â January to 13thÃ‚Â January) - We started with a new unit- Trigonometry which was initiated with what trigonometry is and where this word came from. With this they also learnt the 3 basic trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine and tangent), what they are for and how they help in finding the missing angle/length of given triangles. - Based on the learning, they practiced questions of trigonometry from exercise 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4. - We also discussed the real life applications of the concept- Trigonometry. - They also learnt the concept- Bearing which was included in the questions of exercise 8.4. Therefore they have now well understood how to find the bearing of one point from the given another point. - Then they were taught the rules of Trigonometry- mainly Sine and Cosine rule and how they are used in triangles. These two rules were basically taught through the derivation and then worked examples based on these two rules were discussed in the class. - In between, students appeared in the unit test which was conducted on 11th Ã‚Â January on the previous unit- Properties of Circle. - They also practiced questions from exercise 8.7 and 8.8 in IM slot. - By now, they are well versed with how to solve questions related to using trigonometric ratios and rules on their GDC.	<urn:uuid:b6399d8b-7ee3-49f6-a53c-ba3d8b56935c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.fountainheadschools.org/index.php/2017/01/15/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00475.warc.gz	en	0.982847	345	3.71875	4	[ -0.2521154582500458, 0.12612149119377136, 0.35150590538978577, -0.27668526768684387, -0.2897857129573822, 0.22167178988456726, 0.20915423333644867, -0.06863607466220856, -0.17563888430595398, 0.271902859210968, 0.1425240933895111, -0.5928099751472473, -0.0028733613435178995, 0.212907254695...	7	This is what we did in IM classes over the past 2 weeks. (From 02 ndÃ‚Â January to 6thÃ‚Â January, 2017 and 09th Ã‚Â January to 13thÃ‚Â January) - We started with a new unit- Trigonometry which was initiated with what trigonometry is and where this word came from. With this they also learnt the 3 basic trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine and tangent), what they are for and how they help in finding the missing angle/length of given triangles. - Based on the learning, they practiced questions of trigonometry from exercise 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4. - We also discussed the real life applications of the concept- Trigonometry. - They also learnt the concept- Bearing which was included in the questions of exercise 8.4. Therefore they have now well understood how to find the bearing of one point from the given another point. - Then they were taught the rules of Trigonometry- mainly Sine and Cosine rule and how they are used in triangles. These two rules were basically taught through the derivation and then worked examples based on these two rules were discussed in the class. - In between, students appeared in the unit test which was conducted on 11th Ã‚Â January on the previous unit- Properties of Circle. - They also practiced questions from exercise 8.7 and 8.8 in IM slot. - By now, they are well versed with how to solve questions related to using trigonometric ratios and rules on their GDC.	347	ENGLISH	1
Engaging children in play is a hard, especially for the little ones under 2! Don't worry you're not doing anything wrong, their attention span just isn't very long. Childhood development experts say that a reasonable attention span to expect of a child is two to three minutes per year of their age. For example a child that is two could maintain focus on their task for up to 6 minutes. Some could be longer, some could be shorter but that's just an average. I don't know about you but those statistics seem pretty spot on for my kids! So what is open ended play? Open ended play is play that has no set of fixed way that a toy should be used. There is no set outcome and no 'right' or 'wrong' way for the toy to be used. For example our daughter (2) used a tea pot and a block to shave Dion's face like she had seen a few days prior at the hairdresser. We didn't tell her "that's not a razor" or "why don't you use this instead?" We encouraged her to to continue what she was doing and Dion extended on this by asking her to also give him a haircut by saying "my hair is getting a bit long." She proceeded to put a skirt around his neck (as a cape) and use her fingers as scissors. None of these items were the 'right' ones but they did the job! When children are offered these toys they can use them to follow their imagination and use their creativity so these toys can get a lot of love in a variety of ways and by children of many different ages. For example linked below are a few blog posts which include many different ways we use just a few items/sets. These will give you an idea as to how many ways just one item can be used and then you can apply this thinking to many other toys you own or think about this when thinking about growing your collection. How can you encourage children to engage in open ended play? Children might need some ideas as to how to play with these toys (especially if it's new to them)! When we started our open ended toy collection we started with the Grapat Nins Carla Set paired with Mates, followed with the Grimm's Large Rainbow, Building Boards, Semi Circles and 6 Rainbow Balls. Before we invested in these toys though we did a lot of DIY activities and only had simple things such as balls, pom poms, paddle pop sticks, boxes, tins, sticks etc. and with these I would create many different activities. These items serve the exact same purpose (they just aren't as pretty) as the beautiful toys we stock but it is still considered open ended play! With the Grimm's and Grapat items we used to set them up as invitations to play after our eldest daughter (17 months) went to bed for her to wake up to in the morning. When her little sister came along she was just 20 months old and I also found this a life saver for her to engage in play with something already set up whilst I fed her little sister or prepared breakfast. You will find that an invitation to play catches their attention as it's on the floor (or table) set up in an inviting way and not just on the shelf. We also do toy rotation meaning that we change the toys or the way they are displayed on the shelf every 2 weeks up to a month depending on how the children are playing. This is actually how our instagram @grimms_creations begun and why we decided to open Little Toy Tribe! Dion loved setting up balls runs and my invitations to play weren't quite as fancy but they were still very much enjoyed. Below are some really simple examples on invitations to play: These pictures are all using the first items in our collection (mentioned above) and these are the very beginning of our @grimms_creations Instagram account. I've chosen these images to show you that you don't need much to set up many different invitations to play. I hope this blog post has helped you to feel more confident in engaging your child/children in open ended play if you're only just learning about it. Just remember that you can show your children some ways to play with them (and they will show you some too). Just because they are open ended doesn't mean children will instantly be drawn to them or know how to use them especially if these are very different to toys they have previously owned. They are sure to love some invitations to play to get them started!	<urn:uuid:f4c6a6c1-b026-4de3-a136-f519cd008d55>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://littletoytribe.com.au/blogs/news/engaging-in-open-ended-play	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00281.warc.gz	en	0.981241	946	3.296875	3	[ 0.24527674913406372, -0.49239739775657654, 0.6738305687904358, -0.5488724112510681, -0.38122284412384033, 0.24515298008918762, 0.1738925725221634, -0.013467584736645222, -0.08902790397405624, 0.0083116814494133, 0.5806163549423218, 0.13310804963111877, 0.11308977007865906, 0.45140314102172...	8	Engaging children in play is a hard, especially for the little ones under 2! Don't worry you're not doing anything wrong, their attention span just isn't very long. Childhood development experts say that a reasonable attention span to expect of a child is two to three minutes per year of their age. For example a child that is two could maintain focus on their task for up to 6 minutes. Some could be longer, some could be shorter but that's just an average. I don't know about you but those statistics seem pretty spot on for my kids! So what is open ended play? Open ended play is play that has no set of fixed way that a toy should be used. There is no set outcome and no 'right' or 'wrong' way for the toy to be used. For example our daughter (2) used a tea pot and a block to shave Dion's face like she had seen a few days prior at the hairdresser. We didn't tell her "that's not a razor" or "why don't you use this instead?" We encouraged her to to continue what she was doing and Dion extended on this by asking her to also give him a haircut by saying "my hair is getting a bit long." She proceeded to put a skirt around his neck (as a cape) and use her fingers as scissors. None of these items were the 'right' ones but they did the job! When children are offered these toys they can use them to follow their imagination and use their creativity so these toys can get a lot of love in a variety of ways and by children of many different ages. For example linked below are a few blog posts which include many different ways we use just a few items/sets. These will give you an idea as to how many ways just one item can be used and then you can apply this thinking to many other toys you own or think about this when thinking about growing your collection. How can you encourage children to engage in open ended play? Children might need some ideas as to how to play with these toys (especially if it's new to them)! When we started our open ended toy collection we started with the Grapat Nins Carla Set paired with Mates, followed with the Grimm's Large Rainbow, Building Boards, Semi Circles and 6 Rainbow Balls. Before we invested in these toys though we did a lot of DIY activities and only had simple things such as balls, pom poms, paddle pop sticks, boxes, tins, sticks etc. and with these I would create many different activities. These items serve the exact same purpose (they just aren't as pretty) as the beautiful toys we stock but it is still considered open ended play! With the Grimm's and Grapat items we used to set them up as invitations to play after our eldest daughter (17 months) went to bed for her to wake up to in the morning. When her little sister came along she was just 20 months old and I also found this a life saver for her to engage in play with something already set up whilst I fed her little sister or prepared breakfast. You will find that an invitation to play catches their attention as it's on the floor (or table) set up in an inviting way and not just on the shelf. We also do toy rotation meaning that we change the toys or the way they are displayed on the shelf every 2 weeks up to a month depending on how the children are playing. This is actually how our instagram @grimms_creations begun and why we decided to open Little Toy Tribe! Dion loved setting up balls runs and my invitations to play weren't quite as fancy but they were still very much enjoyed. Below are some really simple examples on invitations to play: These pictures are all using the first items in our collection (mentioned above) and these are the very beginning of our @grimms_creations Instagram account. I've chosen these images to show you that you don't need much to set up many different invitations to play. I hope this blog post has helped you to feel more confident in engaging your child/children in open ended play if you're only just learning about it. Just remember that you can show your children some ways to play with them (and they will show you some too). Just because they are open ended doesn't mean children will instantly be drawn to them or know how to use them especially if these are very different to toys they have previously owned. They are sure to love some invitations to play to get them started!	918	ENGLISH	1
The researchers were initially inspired by the discovery of a bacterium in 2016 in Japan that had naturally evolved to eat plastic found at waste dumps. The team’s plan was to tweak the enzyme to see how it evolved, but it seems that their efforts at trying to better understand the enzyme inadvertently resulted in creating a more effective enzyme. This enzyme is said to be so effective that it only needs a few days to start breaking down plastic, much faster than natural processes that could take centuries. The researchers are optimistic and believe that this can be sped up even further and also eventually become a viable large-scale process. According to John McGeehan, a professor at the University of Portsmouth, UK who led the research, “What we are hoping to do is use this enzyme to turn this plastic back into its original components, so we can literally recycle it back to plastic. It means we won’t need to dig up any more oil and, fundamentally, it should reduce the amount of plastic in the environment.” Of course this discovery does not mean that we can go back to making more plastic, but rather it seems like a way to deal with our current plastics problem. Filed in Science.. Read more about	<urn:uuid:d02098fc-a604-441b-b462-89f7aaf987d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ubergizmo.com/2018/04/scientists-create-enzyme-eat-plastic/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00462.warc.gz	en	0.980562	250	3.921875	4	[ -0.5452719330787659, 0.07219840586185455, 0.37542903423309326, 0.2434321790933609, -0.0023033316247165203, -0.312051385641098, -0.03118935599923134, 0.42156845331192017, -0.14169000089168549, -0.11943818628787994, -0.004149201326072216, -0.35836148262023926, 0.07785395532846451, 0.22555203...	3	The researchers were initially inspired by the discovery of a bacterium in 2016 in Japan that had naturally evolved to eat plastic found at waste dumps. The team’s plan was to tweak the enzyme to see how it evolved, but it seems that their efforts at trying to better understand the enzyme inadvertently resulted in creating a more effective enzyme. This enzyme is said to be so effective that it only needs a few days to start breaking down plastic, much faster than natural processes that could take centuries. The researchers are optimistic and believe that this can be sped up even further and also eventually become a viable large-scale process. According to John McGeehan, a professor at the University of Portsmouth, UK who led the research, “What we are hoping to do is use this enzyme to turn this plastic back into its original components, so we can literally recycle it back to plastic. It means we won’t need to dig up any more oil and, fundamentally, it should reduce the amount of plastic in the environment.” Of course this discovery does not mean that we can go back to making more plastic, but rather it seems like a way to deal with our current plastics problem. Filed in Science.. Read more about	242	ENGLISH	1
Good morning! Have you ever heard someone use the word “extraordinary”? What do you think it means? The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King was considered an extraordinary man by many who knew him because he was able to use his peaceful voice to create change for the better on a global level. Dr. King felt strongly that peace and equality were rights everyone deserved and that standing up for what you believed in could be done using many of our Beauvoir Life Rules. When Dr. King was a young child just like you, his family and friends would say that he was actually quite ordinary, as he was interested in many of the same things that children today are interested in. Called Mike or M.L. as a child, Dr. King was very smart and hardworking, and yet he was mischievous at times too! Did you know… - M.L. sometimes would pop the heads off his sister’s dolls and use them as baseballs. - M.L. struggled with his speech in school but worked hard to improve. He grew up to be one of the greatest speakers in history. - M.L. once tried to frighten his friends by tying a fox tail to a stick, pushing it through a fence, and wiggling it as they walked down the street.	<urn:uuid:5aaade11-06b2-4cd2-88a2-a0fdd6a01e59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.beauvoirschool.org/2020/01/14/morning-message-for-january-14/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00197.warc.gz	en	0.992678	274	3.625	4	[ -0.36716967821121216, 0.20735792815685272, 0.4721294045448303, -0.39009517431259155, -0.36528098583221436, -0.09946101903915405, 0.8926738500595093, 0.30164453387260437, -0.16902504861354828, 0.18022263050079346, 0.09983887523412704, 0.243533656001091, -0.010290428064763546, -0.16484065353...	3	Good morning! Have you ever heard someone use the word “extraordinary”? What do you think it means? The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King was considered an extraordinary man by many who knew him because he was able to use his peaceful voice to create change for the better on a global level. Dr. King felt strongly that peace and equality were rights everyone deserved and that standing up for what you believed in could be done using many of our Beauvoir Life Rules. When Dr. King was a young child just like you, his family and friends would say that he was actually quite ordinary, as he was interested in many of the same things that children today are interested in. Called Mike or M.L. as a child, Dr. King was very smart and hardworking, and yet he was mischievous at times too! Did you know… - M.L. sometimes would pop the heads off his sister’s dolls and use them as baseballs. - M.L. struggled with his speech in school but worked hard to improve. He grew up to be one of the greatest speakers in history. - M.L. once tried to frighten his friends by tying a fox tail to a stick, pushing it through a fence, and wiggling it as they walked down the street.	259	ENGLISH	1
Oenone: Tragic Nymph of Greek Mythology Comments Off on Oenone: Tragic Nymph of Greek Mythology The Trojan war was a landmark event in Greek mythology. Much of what we know about this story is told by Homer in his Iliad. Most of us know the story of Helen of Troy, Achilles, the Trojan Horse, and the fact that that the war pitted Ancient Sparta against Troy. A lesser known figure in the story, however, is a nymph named Oenone. Here’s some information about her: Who Was Oenone? Oenone was a nymph who resided on Mount Ida in the region of Phrygia. She was known as an oread or a mountain nymph. Her name literally translates to “wine woman”. Her father was the river god Cebren, also known as Oenus. The mountain she resided on was associated with the mother goddess Cybele, a mysterious figure who is also referred to as Rhea. Oenone inherited her gift of being able to prophesy events from Rhea. Apollo bestowed upon her the knowledge of herbal healing. He did so while he was serving the Trojan king Laomedon in mortal form, accompanied by Poseidon. This was their punishment for conspiring to put the god Zeus in bonds. Romance of Oenone and Paris? Paris was the grandson of Laomedon, son of Priam, king of Troy. When he was an infant, his father abandoned him as there was a prophecy that he will be the cause of the eventual and complete destruction of Troy. He was rescued by the herdsman Agelaus and spent his childhood and youth herding cattle on the slopes of Mount Ida. This is when he met Oenone and they fell in love. They hunted and herded their flocks together on Mount Ida as their romance blossomed. They married and had a son, Corythus. Get to Know the Trojan War Legend has it that Paris was invited to judge which of the three goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite was most beautiful. He refused bribes of being made a king and of military supremacy by the first two, but chose Aphrodite as the victor after she promised him the most beautiful woman in the world. This led to Paris abandoning Oenone to travel to Greece, where he fell in love with and eventually kidnapped Helen, queen of Sparta, wife of king Menelaus. This event led to he Trojan war, which raged for ten years. Deaths of Oenone and Paris After Paris’s betrayal, Oenone, in a jealous rage, commissioned her son Corythus to guide the Greeks to Troy. An alternate version has her sending Corythus to create a rift between Helen and Paris, who killed his son without recognizing him. After Paris killed Achilles, the finest warrior of the Greek army, goddess Athena helped Epeius build a massive wooden horse and a contingent of Greek soldiers hid inside it. The Greeks pretended to retreat, but lay in wait. When the seemingly abandoned horse was taken into Troy by unsuspecting Trojans, the Greeks emerged from it and opened the gates for their army to enter and lay siege to Troy. In the battle that ensued, Paris was wounded by an arrow. He approached Oenone and implored her to heal him with her medicinal powers but she refused him. He died on the lower slopes of Mount Ida. Filled with remorse, Oenone ended her life. One version says that she hurled herself on Paris’s funeral pyre, another that she hanged herself. Yet another version depicts her jumping off a cliff, and another, off the fortified walls of Troy. Oenone’s tale is a perfect example of a Greek tragedy. Although she played a minor role in the tales told about the Trojan War, her story is still an important one. Categorized in: Greek Mythology This post was written by GreekBoston.com	<urn:uuid:84bace38-27fb-49f1-9ce5-998292f03d53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greekboston.com/culture/mythology/oenone-nymph/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00274.warc.gz	en	0.982445	832	3.34375	3	[ 0.2193228155374527, 0.3051028847694397, 0.2912466526031494, -0.320956289768219, -0.4460017681121826, -0.5009697675704956, 0.2224787026643753, 0.4857267737388611, 0.35159575939178467, -0.016909202560782433, -0.10025336593389511, -0.7901560068130493, 0.0012464611791074276, 0.659127950668335,...	7	Oenone: Tragic Nymph of Greek Mythology Comments Off on Oenone: Tragic Nymph of Greek Mythology The Trojan war was a landmark event in Greek mythology. Much of what we know about this story is told by Homer in his Iliad. Most of us know the story of Helen of Troy, Achilles, the Trojan Horse, and the fact that that the war pitted Ancient Sparta against Troy. A lesser known figure in the story, however, is a nymph named Oenone. Here’s some information about her: Who Was Oenone? Oenone was a nymph who resided on Mount Ida in the region of Phrygia. She was known as an oread or a mountain nymph. Her name literally translates to “wine woman”. Her father was the river god Cebren, also known as Oenus. The mountain she resided on was associated with the mother goddess Cybele, a mysterious figure who is also referred to as Rhea. Oenone inherited her gift of being able to prophesy events from Rhea. Apollo bestowed upon her the knowledge of herbal healing. He did so while he was serving the Trojan king Laomedon in mortal form, accompanied by Poseidon. This was their punishment for conspiring to put the god Zeus in bonds. Romance of Oenone and Paris? Paris was the grandson of Laomedon, son of Priam, king of Troy. When he was an infant, his father abandoned him as there was a prophecy that he will be the cause of the eventual and complete destruction of Troy. He was rescued by the herdsman Agelaus and spent his childhood and youth herding cattle on the slopes of Mount Ida. This is when he met Oenone and they fell in love. They hunted and herded their flocks together on Mount Ida as their romance blossomed. They married and had a son, Corythus. Get to Know the Trojan War Legend has it that Paris was invited to judge which of the three goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite was most beautiful. He refused bribes of being made a king and of military supremacy by the first two, but chose Aphrodite as the victor after she promised him the most beautiful woman in the world. This led to Paris abandoning Oenone to travel to Greece, where he fell in love with and eventually kidnapped Helen, queen of Sparta, wife of king Menelaus. This event led to he Trojan war, which raged for ten years. Deaths of Oenone and Paris After Paris’s betrayal, Oenone, in a jealous rage, commissioned her son Corythus to guide the Greeks to Troy. An alternate version has her sending Corythus to create a rift between Helen and Paris, who killed his son without recognizing him. After Paris killed Achilles, the finest warrior of the Greek army, goddess Athena helped Epeius build a massive wooden horse and a contingent of Greek soldiers hid inside it. The Greeks pretended to retreat, but lay in wait. When the seemingly abandoned horse was taken into Troy by unsuspecting Trojans, the Greeks emerged from it and opened the gates for their army to enter and lay siege to Troy. In the battle that ensued, Paris was wounded by an arrow. He approached Oenone and implored her to heal him with her medicinal powers but she refused him. He died on the lower slopes of Mount Ida. Filled with remorse, Oenone ended her life. One version says that she hurled herself on Paris’s funeral pyre, another that she hanged herself. Yet another version depicts her jumping off a cliff, and another, off the fortified walls of Troy. Oenone’s tale is a perfect example of a Greek tragedy. Although she played a minor role in the tales told about the Trojan War, her story is still an important one. Categorized in: Greek Mythology This post was written by GreekBoston.com	815	ENGLISH	1
The American Revolution and The Coming Of The Loyalists. Topic six discusses how the American Revolution had an impact on England and its former Thirteen Colonies, and also future colonies such as the Maritimes and Upper and Lower Canada. Forty thousand immigrants were given land in Nova Scotia (which later became part of New Brunswick), the Island of St. John (later Prince Edward Island), Cape Breton and the Canadas. Each colony was influenced by economic, political, and social. Directly after the war, Privateers came to New England and caused much hardship with their raids on outport settlements from the southern tip of Nova Scotia to Labrador. In Section A, there are some letters written by Jonathan Scott and by Rebecca Byles. Jonathan Scott, a New England-born fisherman and minister, writes in his diary in November and December of 1775. He writes about how privateers from New England came to Yarmouth, Nova Scotia and held 50 men as prisoners on their vessels. The one thing that was odd to Scott was the fact that the prisoners looked glad to be going on to the vessel. Scott and a few other men got together to write a letter to the Governer containing exactly what the privateers did. Three weeks after the men were held as prisoners, they were let go, and the prisoners went home to their families. Rebecca Byles wrote three letters over a period of three years to her Dear Aunt. These letters contained information on how her Aunt's friends and family were doing where Rebecca was and asking how her friends and family were doing where her Aunt was. Section B consists of letters, reports, memoirs and petitions of immigrants. The first few letters contains Sir John Johnson and General Haldiman writing letters to each other in 1783-84. The first letter dated August 11, 1783 was from Johnson asking Haldiman for land for the Mohawks, of the Islands from the Bay of Kerty downwards including Crown Lands.	<urn:uuid:0ef8e96f-519d-46d6-93cf-0944abc8abc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/19907.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00076.warc.gz	en	0.984424	398	3.984375	4	[ 0.01850474253296852, 0.45417144894599915, 0.29760152101516724, -0.39021235704421997, -0.06526187807321548, 0.16469544172286987, -0.06350924074649811, 0.3394455015659332, -0.22783727943897247, 0.2576223611831665, 0.1353006511926651, 0.27858400344848633, -0.03049265220761299, 0.1085537895560...	3	The American Revolution and The Coming Of The Loyalists. Topic six discusses how the American Revolution had an impact on England and its former Thirteen Colonies, and also future colonies such as the Maritimes and Upper and Lower Canada. Forty thousand immigrants were given land in Nova Scotia (which later became part of New Brunswick), the Island of St. John (later Prince Edward Island), Cape Breton and the Canadas. Each colony was influenced by economic, political, and social. Directly after the war, Privateers came to New England and caused much hardship with their raids on outport settlements from the southern tip of Nova Scotia to Labrador. In Section A, there are some letters written by Jonathan Scott and by Rebecca Byles. Jonathan Scott, a New England-born fisherman and minister, writes in his diary in November and December of 1775. He writes about how privateers from New England came to Yarmouth, Nova Scotia and held 50 men as prisoners on their vessels. The one thing that was odd to Scott was the fact that the prisoners looked glad to be going on to the vessel. Scott and a few other men got together to write a letter to the Governer containing exactly what the privateers did. Three weeks after the men were held as prisoners, they were let go, and the prisoners went home to their families. Rebecca Byles wrote three letters over a period of three years to her Dear Aunt. These letters contained information on how her Aunt's friends and family were doing where Rebecca was and asking how her friends and family were doing where her Aunt was. Section B consists of letters, reports, memoirs and petitions of immigrants. The first few letters contains Sir John Johnson and General Haldiman writing letters to each other in 1783-84. The first letter dated August 11, 1783 was from Johnson asking Haldiman for land for the Mohawks, of the Islands from the Bay of Kerty downwards including Crown Lands.	410	ENGLISH	1
Barbara Charline Jordan (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American lawyer, educator and politician who was a leader of the Civil Rights Movement. A Democrat, she was the first African American elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction and the first Southern African-American woman elected to the United States House of Representatives. She was best known for her eloquent opening statement at the House Judiciary Committee hearings during the impeachment process against Richard Nixon, and as the first African-American as well as the first woman to deliver a keynote address at a Democratic National Convention. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, among numerous other honors. She was a member of the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors from 1978 to 1980. She was the first African-American woman to be buried in the Texas State Cemetery.Jordan’s work as chair of the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, which recommended reducing legal immigration by about one-third, is frequently cited by American immigration restrictionists.	<urn:uuid:8d2c1db1-4177-4a11-a8c4-acdbe54d0995>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/barbara-jordan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00203.warc.gz	en	0.985942	202	3.390625	3	[ -0.46126788854599, 0.09417390078306198, 0.2365562915802002, 0.01841544546186924, -0.4670164883136749, 0.41660159826278687, 0.04913027957081795, -0.06470871716737747, -0.35778898000717163, 0.09983477741479874, 0.3555643558502197, 0.18712875247001648, -0.02780337817966938, 0.2512341439723968...	2	Barbara Charline Jordan (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American lawyer, educator and politician who was a leader of the Civil Rights Movement. A Democrat, she was the first African American elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction and the first Southern African-American woman elected to the United States House of Representatives. She was best known for her eloquent opening statement at the House Judiciary Committee hearings during the impeachment process against Richard Nixon, and as the first African-American as well as the first woman to deliver a keynote address at a Democratic National Convention. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, among numerous other honors. She was a member of the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors from 1978 to 1980. She was the first African-American woman to be buried in the Texas State Cemetery.Jordan’s work as chair of the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, which recommended reducing legal immigration by about one-third, is frequently cited by American immigration restrictionists.	215	ENGLISH	1
This is the essay for the 55th lesson in the Autobiographies course from the Ronpaul curriculum. In this blog post, I will be covering the question of: What was Booker T. Washington’s opinion on the slave system? Booker T. Washington was an influential person who was part of the last generation of people who were born into slavery. He was born in 1856 and in 1865, when Washington was 9 years old, the system of slavery was abolished. He worked very hard to get accepted into the Hampton Institute. When he was there, he worked even harder to stay there. After he finished his curriculum, the Hampton Institute president, Samuel C. Armstrong recommended him to become the first president of the Tuskegee Institute. Washington even made the students of the Institute work hard. Since the institute wasn’t even built, the institute was first based in a local church and later he made the students build the institute from scratch. Washington did many important things in his life, but one stood out more than the rest. This one thing was, Booker T. Washington’s opinion on the slave system. He believed that it hurt the slaves, but also the owners. It hurt the slaves because they were property, not employees. The slaves couldn’t just quit, so they were only given the minimum that they could survive on. The owners were also hurt because the slave system gave them a twisted view of labor. These owners believed that the slaves would do all the manual labor while they would do the intellectual work. In reality, there was no such barrier, so this made it that these owners didn’t try to become good at manual labor. Another problem that plagued both groups, was the lack of economic efficiency. When you’re an employee you want to do a “good job” or you might lose your job. What is considered to be a good job differs between the CEO and the employee. These slaves had no such incentives. They didn’t get paid or have the ability to get another job, so they did the least amount of work possible. In the free-market talent could be used to make a living by being paid the value it brings to other people. But because slaves were locked in their jobs, a lot of talent was lost.	<urn:uuid:26459f6c-667b-4d7c-8a07-39b16f4ad3f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ideasareimmortal.com/index.php/2019/11/13/autobiographies-lesson-55-what-was-booker-t-washingtons-opinion-on-the-slave-system/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00399.warc.gz	en	0.990423	472	3.65625	4	[ -0.5825477838516235, 0.4184132516384125, 0.03470165655016899, -0.20053111016750336, -0.32625141739845276, 0.19688676297664642, 0.20910705626010895, 0.07749760150909424, -0.24493403732776642, 0.29252171516418457, 0.11627183854579926, 0.11405123770236969, -0.0010483728256076574, 0.4031312465...	4	This is the essay for the 55th lesson in the Autobiographies course from the Ronpaul curriculum. In this blog post, I will be covering the question of: What was Booker T. Washington’s opinion on the slave system? Booker T. Washington was an influential person who was part of the last generation of people who were born into slavery. He was born in 1856 and in 1865, when Washington was 9 years old, the system of slavery was abolished. He worked very hard to get accepted into the Hampton Institute. When he was there, he worked even harder to stay there. After he finished his curriculum, the Hampton Institute president, Samuel C. Armstrong recommended him to become the first president of the Tuskegee Institute. Washington even made the students of the Institute work hard. Since the institute wasn’t even built, the institute was first based in a local church and later he made the students build the institute from scratch. Washington did many important things in his life, but one stood out more than the rest. This one thing was, Booker T. Washington’s opinion on the slave system. He believed that it hurt the slaves, but also the owners. It hurt the slaves because they were property, not employees. The slaves couldn’t just quit, so they were only given the minimum that they could survive on. The owners were also hurt because the slave system gave them a twisted view of labor. These owners believed that the slaves would do all the manual labor while they would do the intellectual work. In reality, there was no such barrier, so this made it that these owners didn’t try to become good at manual labor. Another problem that plagued both groups, was the lack of economic efficiency. When you’re an employee you want to do a “good job” or you might lose your job. What is considered to be a good job differs between the CEO and the employee. These slaves had no such incentives. They didn’t get paid or have the ability to get another job, so they did the least amount of work possible. In the free-market talent could be used to make a living by being paid the value it brings to other people. But because slaves were locked in their jobs, a lot of talent was lost.	463	ENGLISH	1
Throughout the year, Jake engaged in self-selected writing using the alphabet flip chart at home. He selected the topics for his writing and wrote in a journal or wrote notes to family and friends. The flip chart displays the letters of the alphabet in groups of 4 or 6 and offers simple editing commands such as, space, new word, and delete. In all of the following writing samples, facilitators always began the writing activity by supporting Jake in selecting a writing topic. Choices were presented to Jake via photographs, signs, and his remnant book. The remnant book was frequently his favorite as it documented the events of his life, big and small. Remnant books are typically used to set a topic for communication (Beukelman & Miranda, 2005), and are developed by collecting items from the activities and events Jake experiences each day. For example, Jake’s remnant book includes ticket stubs from a movie he saw with his brother, a plastic bag with a dead bug he found, a picture cut from the box of a game, and so on. Jake selected a topic from the book by directing the facilitator to “go to the next page” using the switch by his arm and stop on the desired topic using the switch by his leg to say, “that’s the one I want.”	<urn:uuid:79d19af7-b290-446f-9ca4-d685bc00abcd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://coggle.it/diagram/XZC7-xcw7mkNQpon/t/interventions%2C-accommodations-and-cert-09-2019-cohort-3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00321.warc.gz	en	0.982625	271	3.3125	3	[ -0.44691601395606995, 0.2558750808238983, 0.29401999711990356, -0.19483140110969543, -0.06187492236495018, 0.21563395857810974, 0.02441294491291046, 0.4786376953125, 0.027705634012818336, -0.35891762375831604, 0.07561282813549042, 0.3387024700641632, 0.20973438024520874, 0.0311175640672445...	1	Throughout the year, Jake engaged in self-selected writing using the alphabet flip chart at home. He selected the topics for his writing and wrote in a journal or wrote notes to family and friends. The flip chart displays the letters of the alphabet in groups of 4 or 6 and offers simple editing commands such as, space, new word, and delete. In all of the following writing samples, facilitators always began the writing activity by supporting Jake in selecting a writing topic. Choices were presented to Jake via photographs, signs, and his remnant book. The remnant book was frequently his favorite as it documented the events of his life, big and small. Remnant books are typically used to set a topic for communication (Beukelman & Miranda, 2005), and are developed by collecting items from the activities and events Jake experiences each day. For example, Jake’s remnant book includes ticket stubs from a movie he saw with his brother, a plastic bag with a dead bug he found, a picture cut from the box of a game, and so on. Jake selected a topic from the book by directing the facilitator to “go to the next page” using the switch by his arm and stop on the desired topic using the switch by his leg to say, “that’s the one I want.”	267	ENGLISH	1
Help Now > Bartolomé de las Casas FREE Catholic Classes (Originally C ASAUS ) Francisco Casaus, or Casas, the father of Bartolomé, had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage and brought back an Indian boy whom he left to his son as a servant. Bartolomé studied law at Salamanca, took his degree of Licentiate, and enjoyed a fair reputation as a lawyer. He possessed the confidence of the Spanish Governors of the Antilles after the departure of Columbus, and the first of these, Ovando, took him to the Island of Hispañola in 1502. Both Ovando and his successor, Velasquez, relied, in more ways than one, on the advice of Las Casas, who did not, however, remain much longer a layman, for in 1510 we find him a secular priest. The condition of the Indians, especially those of the Greater Antilles, was not a satisfactory one. The earliest Spanish colonists in America were not the choicest examples of their race, neither were they numerous enough to improve the country and its resources as fast as they wished. Hence it was that the Indians were pressed into service; but those of the Antilles were not fitted for labour. With them the women, not the men, formed the labouring class. This the Spaniards did not know and, as Europeans, could not understand. Nor could they comprehend how the Indian was physically unfit for manual labour, owing to the lack of training. Hence the aborigines were overworked, and in many cases harshly treated, while epidemics were imported from the Old World, and a rapid decrease of the indigenous population set in. Las Casas saw all this, and sought to prevent it by every means at his disposal. He received, in the first years of his activity, full support from the clergy in America, and still more in Spain, where Cardinal Cisneros was counted among his most unfailing supporters. In becoming a priest Las Casas gained two important points: almost complete freedom of speech and material independence. As an ecclesiastic he could penetrate nearly everywhere, and express himself as he liked. The rapid disappearance of the Indians in the Antilles caused much concern in Spain. Fears were entertained that it would ruin the colonies. Las Casas proposed a remedy. He suggested and, with characteristic vehemence, insisted that the natives should be placed under the control of the Church, and separated from contact with any portion of the laity. This measure could not replace the many aborigines who had already perished, and it gave but little relief to the remnant. Yet the Crown, always anxious to assist the Indians, and most favourably impressed by the philanthropic endeavours of Las Casas, was willing and eager that he should make a trial. The north-eastern coast of South America (Venezuela) was selected, and Las Casas was sent there in 1519 with ample means for the experiment. It must be stated, however, that when Las Casas was in Spain the second time, in 1517, he had made great efforts to secure farmers as emigrants for the Antilles, but failed. About the same time another measure of relief was proposed: the importation of negroes. Las Casas was one of its advocates. When he went to Venezuela he took with him seven negroes as his own personal slaves, and it is certain that he recommended the distribution of negroes through the Antilles, allowing five or six hundred to each island. The charge often made against Las Casas, that he introduced negro slavery into the New World, is unjust. As early as 1505 negroes were sent to the Antilles to work in mines. After that they were repeatedly imported, but without his co-operation. Besides, slavery was at that time sanctioned by Spanish custom and law. But the fact that he tolerated slavery in the case of negroes, while condemning Indian servitude, appears to us a logical inconsistency. It did not occur to him that the personal liberty of negroes and Indians alike was sacred, and that in point of civilization there was little difference between the two races. At a later period he recognized his error, but the cause of the Indians had so completely absorbed his sympathies that he did nothing for the black race. The first attempt of Las Casas to carry out his plan of educating the Indian apart from the white man resulted in disastrous failure, caused by the Indians themselves. After establishing a post at Cumaná, Las Casas returned to give an account of what he had done. In the meantime the aborigines, seeing a large building of frail material, filled with commodities ultimately destined for distribution among them as time went on, forcibly appropriated the supplies, set fire to the buildings, and, after killing as many of the Europeans as could not escape, withdrew to the interior with their booty. It was a sore blow to the priest, but, instead of drawing the true lesson from it, he laid the blame on his countrymen, accusing them of having instigated the catastrophe out of ill will towards himself and his projects. Thereafter the colonization of the New World became in his eyes a grave offence, even a sin. Embittered in spirit, he joined the Dominican Order and began a fierce crusade for what he considered the rights and interests of the Indians. In his active sympathy for the American aborigines Las Casas had not stood alone. He had on his side, in principle, the sovereigns and the most influential men and women of Spain. He was sincerely admired for his absolute devotion to the cause of humanity, his untiring activity and zeal. He stood out among the men of his day as an exceptionaly noble personality. But the more perspicacious among his admirers saw, also, that he was eminently unpractical, and, while they supported within reason, they could not approve the extremes which he peremptorily demanded. His very popularity spoiled his character. Among the clergy, the Hieronymites, who had been entrusted with the conversion and training of the Antillean natives, were his first active supporters. After his entry into the Order of Preachers, the Dominicans naturally stood by him. The conquest of Mexico brought the Spaniards into intimate contact with the most numerous and most cultured groups of Indians in America. The degree of culture and the civil polity of these groups were overrated, and the character of the people misunderstood, as well as their social organization. They were represented as highly civilized, and the coercion accompanying the conquest, even if indispensable for the changes which alone could set the aborigines upon the path of progress, appeared to many to be wanton cruelty. Las Casas was prompt to raise the cry of condemnation. It was in 1522 that, after the failure of his plan at Cumaná, Las Casas retired to a Dominican convent on the Island of Santo Domingo, where he soon after began to write his voluminous "Historia de las Indias". His picture of the earliest times of Spanish colonization is gruesome. He exaggerated the number of aborigines on the island at the time of discovery, and magnified into a deed of revolting cruelty every act which savoured of injustice. Sober common sense demands the revision and correction of his indictments. The life which Las Casas would have desired to lead could not, in the face of his disappointments, be led by a man of his temperament. At the same time the authorities favoured further investigations into the condition of the Indians, chiefly in the regions last occupied. He therefore went to Nicaragua in 1527. Everywhere he found abuses, and everywhere painted them in the blackest colours, making no allowances for local conditions or for the dark side of the Indian character. That the natives, owing to centuries of isolation, were unable to understand European civilization did not enter his mind. He saw in them only victims of unjustifiable aggression. It is greatly to the credit of the Spanish Government's goodwill to have not only tolerated but encouraged the visionary designs of Las Casas, who became more and more aggressive. Some of his biographers have unjustifiably extended the scope of his travels at that time. He is credited with having made a journey to Peru in the execution of his philanthropic mission; the truth is that Las Casas never touched South America, except on its northern coast. Nevertheless, he addressed to the king a memorial, couched in violent terms, on Peruvian affairs, of which he had not the least personal knowledge. The critical question was that of Indian labour. Slavery had repeatedly been abolished, except in the case of prisoners of war and as a punishment for rebellion. The most rational solution appeared to be to let the Indian pass to enfranchisement through progressive stages of training under the supervision of the whites, such as might have the effect of initiating him little by little in the ways of European civilization. This plan demanded a feudal condition of things, and the Repartimientos and Encomiendas, while abolishing personal servitude, substituted for it agrarian serfdom. While not eliminating the possibility of individual and official abuses, however, it checked them in many ways. Las Casas was not satisfied with the improvement; it was not radical enough for him. He continued to agitate, and, though he does not appear as the framer of the "New Laws" for the Indies ( promulgated in 1542), it is certain that those enactments were due to his influence with the Government, with the clergy, and with persons who, guided more by humanitarian theories than by practical knowledge of the New World, would not have stopped short of complete emancipation, regardless of its consequences to European settlement. The strong support which Las Casas found in Spain discredits the accusations of tyranny brought against the Spaniards by Las Casas himself and by his partisans. His violent denunciations were not only unjust, but extremely ungrateful. Throughout his career he never lacked either the means for support or for carrying out his schemes. But his vehemence and sweeping injustice estranged more and more those who, fully desirous of aiding the Indians, had to acknowledge that gradual reform, and not sudden revolution, was the true policy. The "New Laws", with their amendments of 1543 and 1544, were a surprise and a source of much concern, especially in America. They did not abolish serfdom, but they limited it in such a manner that the original settlers ( Conquistadores ) saw before them utter ruin by the eventual loss of their fiefs. The newly acquired territories belonged to the Crown. Those who had sufferred unspeakable hardships, exposures, and sacrifices to secure this new continent for Spain had a right to expect compensation for themselves and their descendants. That expectation was now suddenly threatened with disappointment. Not only this, but the Indians obtained such favours that, as long as Spanish rule lasted in America, the reproach was justly made to the mother country that a native enjoyed more privileges than a creole. A storm of indignation broke out in America against the new code, and against Las Casas as its promoter. About that time the Emperor Charles V had Las Casas proposed for the episcopal see of Cuzco, in Peru, but he refused it. He had often declared that he would never accept any high office. In the case of Cuzco it ws not so much modesty as prudence, for in Peru his life would have been in imminent danger. Certain it is that he afterwards accepted the Bishopric of Chiapas, in Southern Mexico. Notwithstanding his egregious failure in Venezuela, the Crown was disposed and even anxious to give him further opportunities and means to try once more the practicability of his schemes. He was in Central America, with intermissions, until 1539, disseminating his views and causing trouble everywhere. Received at Guatemala in the most friendly manner by Bishop Marroquin, he turned against his benefactor, because, while the latter was in full harmony with him so far as concerned his efforts in favour of the natives, he differed with him in regard to the mode of procedure. Little by little he alienated the sympathy of the most influential members of his own order, such, for example, as Fray Domingo de Betanzos . Some of the Franciscans, among them the celebrated missionary Fray Toribio de Paredes (Motolinia) , took a decided stand against the methods of relief urged by Las Casas. Officials and private individuals, exasperated by the violence of his language, retorted with equal acrimony, and accusations of inconsistency were made against him. While he refused absolution to those who held fiefs, he did not hesitate to take advantage of personal service without compensation. Even his private character was, though unjustly, assailed. It must be said that Las Casas had set the example by his treatment of Bishop Marroquin. The laws of the Indies were gradually modified so as to afford the necessary protection to the natives without injuring too much the interests of the settlers. But the bitterness of Las Casas grew with age. In 1552 there appeared in print his "Brevísima Relacion de la Destruycion de las Indias", a most injudicious book, glaringly partial, based upon testimony often very impeachable and always highly coloured. That so passionate and one-sided a document should have been published with the permission of the authorities argues a broad tolerance on the part of the Spanish Government, which, moreover, still continued its support to Las Casas. In 1555 an annual pension of 200,000 maravedis was granted to him, and five years later this was increased to 350,000 maravedis . Disappointed at the failure of his extravagant plans, he spent the last ten years of his life in comparative quietness, dying in the convent of Atocha, at Madrid, in the ninety-third year of his age. Las Casas was a man of great purity of life and of noble aspirations, but his conviction that his own views were flawless made him intolerant of those of others. By no means thoroughly acquainted with the character of his Indian wards, he idealized them, but never took time to study them. His knowledge of them was far less correct than that of such men as Motolinia. Neither was he in any exact sense a missionary or a teacher. Between the years 1520 and 1540 he accompanied some of his Dominican brethren on missions–for instance, to Honduras. He occasionally visited certain districts, but the life of constant personal sacrifice among the aborigines was not to his taste. With the exception of what he wrote on the Indians of the Antilles, in the "Historia de las Indias", he has left very little of value to ethnology, for the bulky manuscript entitled "Historia apologética" is so polemical in its tone as to inspire deep mistrust. He did almost nothing to educate the Indians. The name "Apostle of the Indies", which has been given him, was not deserved; whereas there were men opposed to his views who richly merited it, but who had neither the gifts nor the inclination for that noisy propaganda in which Las Casas was so eminently successful. Although for over fifty years an ecclesiastic, he always remained under the spell of his early education as a lawyer. His controversy with Juan Ginés de Sep&úlveda on the Indian question is a polemic between two juris-consults, adorned with, or rather encumbered by, theological phraseology. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Las Casas left no linguistic contributions like those of Marroquin, Betanzos, Molina, and other devoted priests. He was, however, a prolific writer, though not all of his writings have ben published. The "Historia apologética de las Indias", for instance, has been only partly printed in the "Documentos para la Historia de España" (Madrid, 1876). The "Historia de las Indias", the manuscript of which he completed in 1561, appeared in the same collection (1875 and 1876). His best-known work is the "Brevísima Relacion de la Destruycion de las Indias" (Seville, 1552). There are at least five Spanish editions of it. It circulated very quickly outside of Spain and in a number of European languages. Appearing at a time when every seafaring nation of Europe was jealous of Spain's American possessions, and bent upon damaging Spanish reputation for religious, as well as for political and commercial reasons, this violent libel, coming from a source so highly considered as Las Casas, was eagerly welcomed. Latin translations of it issued from Frankfort, 1598, Oppenheim, 1614, Heidelberg, 1664; French translations from Antwerp, 1579, Amsterdam, 1620 and 1698, Rouen, 1630, Lyons, 1642, Paris, 1697 and 1822; Italian from Venice, 1630, 1643, and 1645. A German translation appeared in 1599; Dutch translations at Amsterdam in 1610, 1621, and 1663. There is an English version: "A Relation of the first voyages and discoveries made by the Spaniards in America" (London, 1699). Many of the writings of Las Casas have been included in the work of J. A. Llorente: "Œuvres de Don Bartollomé de las Casas" (Paris, 1822). Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:84900188-3bb1-4a29-9d7d-f4f0d2b0fa21>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=2613	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00030.warc.gz	en	0.98143	3,777	3.984375	4	[ 0.09887820482254028, 0.1763613224029541, 0.26494815945625305, -0.1752491593360901, -0.22795763611793518, -0.5674009323120117, -0.08459463715553284, 0.43903759121894836, 0.19258713722229004, -0.1784529685974121, -0.15138228237628937, -0.12521526217460632, -0.7472701072692871, 0.901532649993...	1	Help Now > Bartolomé de las Casas FREE Catholic Classes (Originally C ASAUS ) Francisco Casaus, or Casas, the father of Bartolomé, had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage and brought back an Indian boy whom he left to his son as a servant. Bartolomé studied law at Salamanca, took his degree of Licentiate, and enjoyed a fair reputation as a lawyer. He possessed the confidence of the Spanish Governors of the Antilles after the departure of Columbus, and the first of these, Ovando, took him to the Island of Hispañola in 1502. Both Ovando and his successor, Velasquez, relied, in more ways than one, on the advice of Las Casas, who did not, however, remain much longer a layman, for in 1510 we find him a secular priest. The condition of the Indians, especially those of the Greater Antilles, was not a satisfactory one. The earliest Spanish colonists in America were not the choicest examples of their race, neither were they numerous enough to improve the country and its resources as fast as they wished. Hence it was that the Indians were pressed into service; but those of the Antilles were not fitted for labour. With them the women, not the men, formed the labouring class. This the Spaniards did not know and, as Europeans, could not understand. Nor could they comprehend how the Indian was physically unfit for manual labour, owing to the lack of training. Hence the aborigines were overworked, and in many cases harshly treated, while epidemics were imported from the Old World, and a rapid decrease of the indigenous population set in. Las Casas saw all this, and sought to prevent it by every means at his disposal. He received, in the first years of his activity, full support from the clergy in America, and still more in Spain, where Cardinal Cisneros was counted among his most unfailing supporters. In becoming a priest Las Casas gained two important points: almost complete freedom of speech and material independence. As an ecclesiastic he could penetrate nearly everywhere, and express himself as he liked. The rapid disappearance of the Indians in the Antilles caused much concern in Spain. Fears were entertained that it would ruin the colonies. Las Casas proposed a remedy. He suggested and, with characteristic vehemence, insisted that the natives should be placed under the control of the Church, and separated from contact with any portion of the laity. This measure could not replace the many aborigines who had already perished, and it gave but little relief to the remnant. Yet the Crown, always anxious to assist the Indians, and most favourably impressed by the philanthropic endeavours of Las Casas, was willing and eager that he should make a trial. The north-eastern coast of South America (Venezuela) was selected, and Las Casas was sent there in 1519 with ample means for the experiment. It must be stated, however, that when Las Casas was in Spain the second time, in 1517, he had made great efforts to secure farmers as emigrants for the Antilles, but failed. About the same time another measure of relief was proposed: the importation of negroes. Las Casas was one of its advocates. When he went to Venezuela he took with him seven negroes as his own personal slaves, and it is certain that he recommended the distribution of negroes through the Antilles, allowing five or six hundred to each island. The charge often made against Las Casas, that he introduced negro slavery into the New World, is unjust. As early as 1505 negroes were sent to the Antilles to work in mines. After that they were repeatedly imported, but without his co-operation. Besides, slavery was at that time sanctioned by Spanish custom and law. But the fact that he tolerated slavery in the case of negroes, while condemning Indian servitude, appears to us a logical inconsistency. It did not occur to him that the personal liberty of negroes and Indians alike was sacred, and that in point of civilization there was little difference between the two races. At a later period he recognized his error, but the cause of the Indians had so completely absorbed his sympathies that he did nothing for the black race. The first attempt of Las Casas to carry out his plan of educating the Indian apart from the white man resulted in disastrous failure, caused by the Indians themselves. After establishing a post at Cumaná, Las Casas returned to give an account of what he had done. In the meantime the aborigines, seeing a large building of frail material, filled with commodities ultimately destined for distribution among them as time went on, forcibly appropriated the supplies, set fire to the buildings, and, after killing as many of the Europeans as could not escape, withdrew to the interior with their booty. It was a sore blow to the priest, but, instead of drawing the true lesson from it, he laid the blame on his countrymen, accusing them of having instigated the catastrophe out of ill will towards himself and his projects. Thereafter the colonization of the New World became in his eyes a grave offence, even a sin. Embittered in spirit, he joined the Dominican Order and began a fierce crusade for what he considered the rights and interests of the Indians. In his active sympathy for the American aborigines Las Casas had not stood alone. He had on his side, in principle, the sovereigns and the most influential men and women of Spain. He was sincerely admired for his absolute devotion to the cause of humanity, his untiring activity and zeal. He stood out among the men of his day as an exceptionaly noble personality. But the more perspicacious among his admirers saw, also, that he was eminently unpractical, and, while they supported within reason, they could not approve the extremes which he peremptorily demanded. His very popularity spoiled his character. Among the clergy, the Hieronymites, who had been entrusted with the conversion and training of the Antillean natives, were his first active supporters. After his entry into the Order of Preachers, the Dominicans naturally stood by him. The conquest of Mexico brought the Spaniards into intimate contact with the most numerous and most cultured groups of Indians in America. The degree of culture and the civil polity of these groups were overrated, and the character of the people misunderstood, as well as their social organization. They were represented as highly civilized, and the coercion accompanying the conquest, even if indispensable for the changes which alone could set the aborigines upon the path of progress, appeared to many to be wanton cruelty. Las Casas was prompt to raise the cry of condemnation. It was in 1522 that, after the failure of his plan at Cumaná, Las Casas retired to a Dominican convent on the Island of Santo Domingo, where he soon after began to write his voluminous "Historia de las Indias". His picture of the earliest times of Spanish colonization is gruesome. He exaggerated the number of aborigines on the island at the time of discovery, and magnified into a deed of revolting cruelty every act which savoured of injustice. Sober common sense demands the revision and correction of his indictments. The life which Las Casas would have desired to lead could not, in the face of his disappointments, be led by a man of his temperament. At the same time the authorities favoured further investigations into the condition of the Indians, chiefly in the regions last occupied. He therefore went to Nicaragua in 1527. Everywhere he found abuses, and everywhere painted them in the blackest colours, making no allowances for local conditions or for the dark side of the Indian character. That the natives, owing to centuries of isolation, were unable to understand European civilization did not enter his mind. He saw in them only victims of unjustifiable aggression. It is greatly to the credit of the Spanish Government's goodwill to have not only tolerated but encouraged the visionary designs of Las Casas, who became more and more aggressive. Some of his biographers have unjustifiably extended the scope of his travels at that time. He is credited with having made a journey to Peru in the execution of his philanthropic mission; the truth is that Las Casas never touched South America, except on its northern coast. Nevertheless, he addressed to the king a memorial, couched in violent terms, on Peruvian affairs, of which he had not the least personal knowledge. The critical question was that of Indian labour. Slavery had repeatedly been abolished, except in the case of prisoners of war and as a punishment for rebellion. The most rational solution appeared to be to let the Indian pass to enfranchisement through progressive stages of training under the supervision of the whites, such as might have the effect of initiating him little by little in the ways of European civilization. This plan demanded a feudal condition of things, and the Repartimientos and Encomiendas, while abolishing personal servitude, substituted for it agrarian serfdom. While not eliminating the possibility of individual and official abuses, however, it checked them in many ways. Las Casas was not satisfied with the improvement; it was not radical enough for him. He continued to agitate, and, though he does not appear as the framer of the "New Laws" for the Indies ( promulgated in 1542), it is certain that those enactments were due to his influence with the Government, with the clergy, and with persons who, guided more by humanitarian theories than by practical knowledge of the New World, would not have stopped short of complete emancipation, regardless of its consequences to European settlement. The strong support which Las Casas found in Spain discredits the accusations of tyranny brought against the Spaniards by Las Casas himself and by his partisans. His violent denunciations were not only unjust, but extremely ungrateful. Throughout his career he never lacked either the means for support or for carrying out his schemes. But his vehemence and sweeping injustice estranged more and more those who, fully desirous of aiding the Indians, had to acknowledge that gradual reform, and not sudden revolution, was the true policy. The "New Laws", with their amendments of 1543 and 1544, were a surprise and a source of much concern, especially in America. They did not abolish serfdom, but they limited it in such a manner that the original settlers ( Conquistadores ) saw before them utter ruin by the eventual loss of their fiefs. The newly acquired territories belonged to the Crown. Those who had sufferred unspeakable hardships, exposures, and sacrifices to secure this new continent for Spain had a right to expect compensation for themselves and their descendants. That expectation was now suddenly threatened with disappointment. Not only this, but the Indians obtained such favours that, as long as Spanish rule lasted in America, the reproach was justly made to the mother country that a native enjoyed more privileges than a creole. A storm of indignation broke out in America against the new code, and against Las Casas as its promoter. About that time the Emperor Charles V had Las Casas proposed for the episcopal see of Cuzco, in Peru, but he refused it. He had often declared that he would never accept any high office. In the case of Cuzco it ws not so much modesty as prudence, for in Peru his life would have been in imminent danger. Certain it is that he afterwards accepted the Bishopric of Chiapas, in Southern Mexico. Notwithstanding his egregious failure in Venezuela, the Crown was disposed and even anxious to give him further opportunities and means to try once more the practicability of his schemes. He was in Central America, with intermissions, until 1539, disseminating his views and causing trouble everywhere. Received at Guatemala in the most friendly manner by Bishop Marroquin, he turned against his benefactor, because, while the latter was in full harmony with him so far as concerned his efforts in favour of the natives, he differed with him in regard to the mode of procedure. Little by little he alienated the sympathy of the most influential members of his own order, such, for example, as Fray Domingo de Betanzos . Some of the Franciscans, among them the celebrated missionary Fray Toribio de Paredes (Motolinia) , took a decided stand against the methods of relief urged by Las Casas. Officials and private individuals, exasperated by the violence of his language, retorted with equal acrimony, and accusations of inconsistency were made against him. While he refused absolution to those who held fiefs, he did not hesitate to take advantage of personal service without compensation. Even his private character was, though unjustly, assailed. It must be said that Las Casas had set the example by his treatment of Bishop Marroquin. The laws of the Indies were gradually modified so as to afford the necessary protection to the natives without injuring too much the interests of the settlers. But the bitterness of Las Casas grew with age. In 1552 there appeared in print his "Brevísima Relacion de la Destruycion de las Indias", a most injudicious book, glaringly partial, based upon testimony often very impeachable and always highly coloured. That so passionate and one-sided a document should have been published with the permission of the authorities argues a broad tolerance on the part of the Spanish Government, which, moreover, still continued its support to Las Casas. In 1555 an annual pension of 200,000 maravedis was granted to him, and five years later this was increased to 350,000 maravedis . Disappointed at the failure of his extravagant plans, he spent the last ten years of his life in comparative quietness, dying in the convent of Atocha, at Madrid, in the ninety-third year of his age. Las Casas was a man of great purity of life and of noble aspirations, but his conviction that his own views were flawless made him intolerant of those of others. By no means thoroughly acquainted with the character of his Indian wards, he idealized them, but never took time to study them. His knowledge of them was far less correct than that of such men as Motolinia. Neither was he in any exact sense a missionary or a teacher. Between the years 1520 and 1540 he accompanied some of his Dominican brethren on missions–for instance, to Honduras. He occasionally visited certain districts, but the life of constant personal sacrifice among the aborigines was not to his taste. With the exception of what he wrote on the Indians of the Antilles, in the "Historia de las Indias", he has left very little of value to ethnology, for the bulky manuscript entitled "Historia apologética" is so polemical in its tone as to inspire deep mistrust. He did almost nothing to educate the Indians. The name "Apostle of the Indies", which has been given him, was not deserved; whereas there were men opposed to his views who richly merited it, but who had neither the gifts nor the inclination for that noisy propaganda in which Las Casas was so eminently successful. Although for over fifty years an ecclesiastic, he always remained under the spell of his early education as a lawyer. His controversy with Juan Ginés de Sep&úlveda on the Indian question is a polemic between two juris-consults, adorned with, or rather encumbered by, theological phraseology. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Las Casas left no linguistic contributions like those of Marroquin, Betanzos, Molina, and other devoted priests. He was, however, a prolific writer, though not all of his writings have ben published. The "Historia apologética de las Indias", for instance, has been only partly printed in the "Documentos para la Historia de España" (Madrid, 1876). The "Historia de las Indias", the manuscript of which he completed in 1561, appeared in the same collection (1875 and 1876). His best-known work is the "Brevísima Relacion de la Destruycion de las Indias" (Seville, 1552). There are at least five Spanish editions of it. It circulated very quickly outside of Spain and in a number of European languages. Appearing at a time when every seafaring nation of Europe was jealous of Spain's American possessions, and bent upon damaging Spanish reputation for religious, as well as for political and commercial reasons, this violent libel, coming from a source so highly considered as Las Casas, was eagerly welcomed. Latin translations of it issued from Frankfort, 1598, Oppenheim, 1614, Heidelberg, 1664; French translations from Antwerp, 1579, Amsterdam, 1620 and 1698, Rouen, 1630, Lyons, 1642, Paris, 1697 and 1822; Italian from Venice, 1630, 1643, and 1645. A German translation appeared in 1599; Dutch translations at Amsterdam in 1610, 1621, and 1663. There is an English version: "A Relation of the first voyages and discoveries made by the Spaniards in America" (London, 1699). Many of the writings of Las Casas have been included in the work of J. A. Llorente: "Œuvres de Don Bartollomé de las Casas" (Paris, 1822). Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	3,894	ENGLISH	1
HORATIO SEYMOUR, the twentieth and twenty-fourth governor to serve New York, was born in Pompey Hill, New York on May 31, 1810. His education was attained at Utica Academy, at Hobart College, and at the Captain Partridge Military Academy in Connecticut. He went on to study law, and in 1832 was admitted to the bar. Seymour first entered politics in 1842, serving as a member of the New York House of Representatives, a position he held again from 1844 to 1846 and from which he served as speaker in 1845. He also served as mayor of Utica in 1843. After running unsuccessfully for the governorship in 1850, Seymour was elected in 1852. He won reelection to a second term in 1862. During his administrations, the penal system was reformed; liquor prohibition was opposed; and the Civil War was supported, however the Union’s military draft and the emancipation proclamation were both denounced by Seymour. After losing his 1864 reelection bid, Seymour retired briefly from politics. In 1868 he chaired the Democratic National Convention, where he won the presidential nomination. However, in the general election he lost to Ulysses S. Grant. Governor Horatio Seymour passed away on February 12, 1886, and was buried in the Forest Hill Cemetery in Deerfield, New York. Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 3, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols.	<urn:uuid:2e181baf-18bd-4e44-a84f-716a2956711f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nga.org/governor/horatio-seymour/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00435.warc.gz	en	0.98408	326	3.28125	3	[ -0.23285134136676788, 0.1688801348209381, 0.5189733505249023, -0.17128042876720428, -0.4131385385990143, -0.12416986376047134, -0.004992395639419556, 0.12982508540153503, -0.4378017485141754, -0.09573636204004288, 0.18965734541416168, 0.058384113013744354, -0.009483754634857178, 0.78928625...	10	HORATIO SEYMOUR, the twentieth and twenty-fourth governor to serve New York, was born in Pompey Hill, New York on May 31, 1810. His education was attained at Utica Academy, at Hobart College, and at the Captain Partridge Military Academy in Connecticut. He went on to study law, and in 1832 was admitted to the bar. Seymour first entered politics in 1842, serving as a member of the New York House of Representatives, a position he held again from 1844 to 1846 and from which he served as speaker in 1845. He also served as mayor of Utica in 1843. After running unsuccessfully for the governorship in 1850, Seymour was elected in 1852. He won reelection to a second term in 1862. During his administrations, the penal system was reformed; liquor prohibition was opposed; and the Civil War was supported, however the Union’s military draft and the emancipation proclamation were both denounced by Seymour. After losing his 1864 reelection bid, Seymour retired briefly from politics. In 1868 he chaired the Democratic National Convention, where he won the presidential nomination. However, in the general election he lost to Ulysses S. Grant. Governor Horatio Seymour passed away on February 12, 1886, and was buried in the Forest Hill Cemetery in Deerfield, New York. Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 3, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols.	380	ENGLISH	1
New evidence has gleaned from the Antarctic seashells which have confirmed that our Earth was already very unstable before the asteroids have impacted that has wiped out the dinosaurs. The study that was led by researchers at Northwestern University is noted as the first ever for measuring the calcium isotopes composition of the fossilized clam and also snail shells, which all have dated back to the mass extinction event of Cretaceous-Paleogene. The researchers have also found that during the run-up of the extinction event -- these shells' chemistry has shifted in response of a surge of carbon in the large oceans. This carbon influx was further likely due for long-term eruptions that came from the Deccan Traps, 200,000-square-mile volcanic provinces that were located in modern India. During these years leading up to the asteroid impacts, the Deccan Traps have spewed massive amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) that went into the atmosphere. The concentration of CO2 has also acidified the oceans that were directly affecting the organisms living there. Benjamin Linzmeier who is the study's first author has said that their data has suggested that the environment was continuously changing before the asteroid impact, he further added that those changes have appeared for correlating with the eruptions of the Deccan Traps. Andrew D. Jacobson, a senior author of the paper has said that the Earth was clearly under some stress before the major event of mass extinction. By: Prerana Sharma	<urn:uuid:2176f460-5918-406d-a912-4204e128182f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fairgaze.com/FGNews/earth-was-in-stress-before-extinction-of-dinosaurs_274839.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00101.warc.gz	en	0.985046	303	3.75	4	[ -0.3185776472091675, 0.037131477147340775, 0.2555204927921295, -0.24781550467014313, 0.18813252449035645, -0.2605297565460205, 0.014388607814908028, 0.016871366649866104, -0.16308051347732544, 0.02217705175280571, 0.39904850721359253, -0.49938657879829407, 0.35277628898620605, 0.5582365393...	3	New evidence has gleaned from the Antarctic seashells which have confirmed that our Earth was already very unstable before the asteroids have impacted that has wiped out the dinosaurs. The study that was led by researchers at Northwestern University is noted as the first ever for measuring the calcium isotopes composition of the fossilized clam and also snail shells, which all have dated back to the mass extinction event of Cretaceous-Paleogene. The researchers have also found that during the run-up of the extinction event -- these shells' chemistry has shifted in response of a surge of carbon in the large oceans. This carbon influx was further likely due for long-term eruptions that came from the Deccan Traps, 200,000-square-mile volcanic provinces that were located in modern India. During these years leading up to the asteroid impacts, the Deccan Traps have spewed massive amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) that went into the atmosphere. The concentration of CO2 has also acidified the oceans that were directly affecting the organisms living there. Benjamin Linzmeier who is the study's first author has said that their data has suggested that the environment was continuously changing before the asteroid impact, he further added that those changes have appeared for correlating with the eruptions of the Deccan Traps. Andrew D. Jacobson, a senior author of the paper has said that the Earth was clearly under some stress before the major event of mass extinction. By: Prerana Sharma	303	ENGLISH	1
Biography of George Moses Horton A marker in North Carolina commemorating the life of George Moses Horton George Moses Horton (1798–1884) was an African-American poet from North Carolina, the first to be published in the Southern United States. His book The Hope of Liberty was published in 1829 while he was still enslaved. He is one of a few African American writers to have their poetry published while still enslaved. He did not gain freedom until 1865, late during the Civil War. Horton was born into slavery on William Horton's plantation in 1798 in Northampton County, North Carolina. He was the sixth of ten children; the names of his parents are lost to history. His owner relocated when Horton was a very young child; in 1800, he and several family members were moved with the master to a tobacco farm in rural Chatham County. In 1814 William Horton gave the youth as property to his relative James Horton. In 1819, the estate was broken up, and George Horton's family was separated. (His poem "Division of an Estate", written years later, reflected on this experience). Horton disliked farm work and in his limited free time, he taught himself to read using spelling books, the Bible, and hymnals. Learning poetry and snippets of literature, Horton composed poems in his mind. As a young adult, Horton delivered produce to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he composed and recited poems for students, some of whom transcribed his pieces. Horton also composed poems, usually love poems, by commission for individual students at 25 or 50 cents each. Considering the difficulty of earning income from poetry, Horton was likely one of the few professional poets in the South at the time. In 1828 a number of newspapers in North Carolina and beyond discussed Horton's work. In 1829, his poems were published in a collection titled The Hope of Liberty, which was intended to raise funds for his release from slavery. The book, funded by the politically liberal journalist Joseph Gales, was published the same year as David Walker's An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World. Horton is believed to be the first Southern black to publish poetry. Though he knew how to read, he published the book before he had learned how to write. As he recalled, "I fell to work in my head, and composed several undigested pieces." By 1832, Horton had learned to write, helped by Caroline Lee Hentz, who was a writer and the wife of a professor. She also helped gain publication of at least two of his poems in a newspaper. Horton had composed a poem on the death of Hentz's first child. As he recalled: "She was extremely pleased with the dirge which I wrote on the death of her much lamented primogenial infant, and for which she gave me much credit and a handsome reward. Not being able to write myself, I dictated while she wrote." She sent another of Horton's poems to her hometown newspaper in Lancaster, Massachusetts, where it was published on April 8, 1828, as "Liberty and Slavery". Horton's first book was republished under the title Poems by a Slave in 1837. It was collected with a biography and poetry by Phillis Wheatley a year later in a book called Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, a Native African and Slave: Also Poems by a Slave. The book was published by Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp. This is believed to be the first complete collection of Wheatley's poems in book form. Newspapers again took note of Horton. In 1845, Horton published another book of poetry, The Poetical Works of George M. Horton, The Colored Bard of North-Carolina, To Which Is Prefixed The Life of the Author, Written by Himself. The moniker, "Colored Bard of North-Carolina", was coined by his new publisher. Newspapers took notice again in December–January 1849–1850, and advertisements for the book were printed in a Hillsborough newspaper from 1852 into 1853. Horton was given direct credit for some poems published in newspapers in 1857 and 1858. A newspaper article in Raleigh in August 1865 on Horton was entitled "Naked Genius", of his last book,. Horton gained the admiration of North Carolina Governor John Owen, influential newspapermen Horace Greeley and William Lloyd Garrison, and numerous Northern abolitionists. Sometime in the 1830s, Horton had married an enslaved woman owned by Franklin Snipes in Chatham County. The couple had two children, Free and Rhody. Little else is known about the family. Horton had written about his interest in the new nation of Liberia. A few of the abolitionist papers suggested raising money to buy his freedom and pay for his passage, so that Horton could migrate to Liberia. He was not emancipated until 1865, however; when he met the Ninth Cavalry from Michigan. A young officer with that group, William H. S. Banks, collaborated with Horton on the collection Naked Genius the same year. At the age of 68, Horton moved to Pennsylvania as a freeman, where he continued to write poetry for local newspapers. His poem, "Forbidden to Ride on the Street Cars", expressed his disappointment in the unjust treatment of blacks after emancipation. Arriving in Philadelphia before the summer of 1866, he wrote Sunday school stories on behalf of friends who lived in the city. His exact death location and date are unknown. At least one researcher suggests Horton moved to Liberia at some point. George Moses Horton's signature After Horton's first poem was published in the Lancaster, Massachusetts Gazette, his works were published in other newspapers, such as the Register in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Freedom's Journal in New York City. Horton's poetic style was typical of contemporary European poetry and was similar to poems written by free white contemporaries, likely a reflection of his reading and his work for commission. He wrote both sonnets and ballads. His earlier works focused on his life in slavery. Such topics, however, were more generalized and not necessarily based on his personal experience. He referred to his life on "vile accursed earth" and the "drudg'ry, pain, and toil" of life, as well as his oppression "because my skin is black". His first collection was focused on the issues of slavery and bondage. He did not gain enough in sales from that book to purchase his freedom; in his second book, he mentions slavery only twice. The change in theme is also likely due to the more restrictive climate in the South in the years leading up to the Civil War. His later works, especially those written after his emancipation, expressed rural and pastoral themes. Like other early black American writers such as Jupiter Hammon and Phillis Wheatley, Horton was deeply influenced by the Bible and African-American religion. The earliest known critical commentary on Horton's writing is from 1909 by UNC professor Collier Cobb. He dismissed Horton's antislavery themes, saying: "George never really cared for more liberty than he had, but was fond of playing to the grandstand.". Building towards his remembrance, biographies began to appear. The first was by Kemp Plummer Battle in May 1888, then President of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. J. Donald Cameron noted Horton among notable North Carolina poets in 1890; a speech that was reported several times in some newspapers. Battle reprised his thoughts on Horton in his history of the University published in 1907. In 1909 UNC professor Collier Cobb wrote a paper on Horton, which he published in 1925 at his own cost. Horton was remembered at UNC on the occasion of the visit of James Weldon Johnson. The centennial of his first book was noted in the New York Age after it was noted in Greensboro. - In 1927 Winston-Salem, North Carolina opened a segregated library for blacks in a YWCA building; it was named for George Moses Horton. - In the 1990s, North Carolina erected a historical marker about Horton near where he had lived. (See photo) - In 1996 Horton was inducted into the North Carolina Literary Hall of Fame. - Also in 1996, the George Moses Horton Society for the Study of African American Poetry was founded. - In 1997, Horton was named as Historic Poet Laureate of Chatham County, North Carolina. - In 2006, UNC Chapel Hill named a dormitory for George Moses Horton; it is believed to be the first university dormitory in the country to be named for a slave. - In 2015 author/illustrator Don Tate published Poet: The Remarkable Story of George Moses Horton, an illustrated biography for children. The Wilson Library at UNC hosted the national launch of the book on September 3, 2015. - The Hope of Liberty (1829) - Poems by a Slave (1837) - The Poetical Works of George M. Horton (1845) - Naked Genius (1865, with William H. S. Banks) Poem of the dayThe Shoe Tying by Robert Herrick Anthea bade me tie her shoe; I did ; and kissed the instep too: And would have kissed unto her knee, Had not her blush rebuked me. Read complete poem	<urn:uuid:38cd679d-8ab7-43ca-af3b-a4509ea8ac2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://internetpoem.com/george-moses-horton/biography/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00043.warc.gz	en	0.987086	1,939	3.28125	3	[ -0.2374192774295807, 0.31765294075012207, 0.28736796975135803, 0.014483977109193802, -0.3465675711631775, -0.0744301825761795, 0.4816703498363495, -0.27572929859161377, -0.44842103123664856, 0.6553988456726074, 0.3130631446838379, 0.36066770553588867, 0.41745075583457947, 0.090679310262203...	1	Biography of George Moses Horton A marker in North Carolina commemorating the life of George Moses Horton George Moses Horton (1798–1884) was an African-American poet from North Carolina, the first to be published in the Southern United States. His book The Hope of Liberty was published in 1829 while he was still enslaved. He is one of a few African American writers to have their poetry published while still enslaved. He did not gain freedom until 1865, late during the Civil War. Horton was born into slavery on William Horton's plantation in 1798 in Northampton County, North Carolina. He was the sixth of ten children; the names of his parents are lost to history. His owner relocated when Horton was a very young child; in 1800, he and several family members were moved with the master to a tobacco farm in rural Chatham County. In 1814 William Horton gave the youth as property to his relative James Horton. In 1819, the estate was broken up, and George Horton's family was separated. (His poem "Division of an Estate", written years later, reflected on this experience). Horton disliked farm work and in his limited free time, he taught himself to read using spelling books, the Bible, and hymnals. Learning poetry and snippets of literature, Horton composed poems in his mind. As a young adult, Horton delivered produce to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he composed and recited poems for students, some of whom transcribed his pieces. Horton also composed poems, usually love poems, by commission for individual students at 25 or 50 cents each. Considering the difficulty of earning income from poetry, Horton was likely one of the few professional poets in the South at the time. In 1828 a number of newspapers in North Carolina and beyond discussed Horton's work. In 1829, his poems were published in a collection titled The Hope of Liberty, which was intended to raise funds for his release from slavery. The book, funded by the politically liberal journalist Joseph Gales, was published the same year as David Walker's An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World. Horton is believed to be the first Southern black to publish poetry. Though he knew how to read, he published the book before he had learned how to write. As he recalled, "I fell to work in my head, and composed several undigested pieces." By 1832, Horton had learned to write, helped by Caroline Lee Hentz, who was a writer and the wife of a professor. She also helped gain publication of at least two of his poems in a newspaper. Horton had composed a poem on the death of Hentz's first child. As he recalled: "She was extremely pleased with the dirge which I wrote on the death of her much lamented primogenial infant, and for which she gave me much credit and a handsome reward. Not being able to write myself, I dictated while she wrote." She sent another of Horton's poems to her hometown newspaper in Lancaster, Massachusetts, where it was published on April 8, 1828, as "Liberty and Slavery". Horton's first book was republished under the title Poems by a Slave in 1837. It was collected with a biography and poetry by Phillis Wheatley a year later in a book called Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, a Native African and Slave: Also Poems by a Slave. The book was published by Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp. This is believed to be the first complete collection of Wheatley's poems in book form. Newspapers again took note of Horton. In 1845, Horton published another book of poetry, The Poetical Works of George M. Horton, The Colored Bard of North-Carolina, To Which Is Prefixed The Life of the Author, Written by Himself. The moniker, "Colored Bard of North-Carolina", was coined by his new publisher. Newspapers took notice again in December–January 1849–1850, and advertisements for the book were printed in a Hillsborough newspaper from 1852 into 1853. Horton was given direct credit for some poems published in newspapers in 1857 and 1858. A newspaper article in Raleigh in August 1865 on Horton was entitled "Naked Genius", of his last book,. Horton gained the admiration of North Carolina Governor John Owen, influential newspapermen Horace Greeley and William Lloyd Garrison, and numerous Northern abolitionists. Sometime in the 1830s, Horton had married an enslaved woman owned by Franklin Snipes in Chatham County. The couple had two children, Free and Rhody. Little else is known about the family. Horton had written about his interest in the new nation of Liberia. A few of the abolitionist papers suggested raising money to buy his freedom and pay for his passage, so that Horton could migrate to Liberia. He was not emancipated until 1865, however; when he met the Ninth Cavalry from Michigan. A young officer with that group, William H. S. Banks, collaborated with Horton on the collection Naked Genius the same year. At the age of 68, Horton moved to Pennsylvania as a freeman, where he continued to write poetry for local newspapers. His poem, "Forbidden to Ride on the Street Cars", expressed his disappointment in the unjust treatment of blacks after emancipation. Arriving in Philadelphia before the summer of 1866, he wrote Sunday school stories on behalf of friends who lived in the city. His exact death location and date are unknown. At least one researcher suggests Horton moved to Liberia at some point. George Moses Horton's signature After Horton's first poem was published in the Lancaster, Massachusetts Gazette, his works were published in other newspapers, such as the Register in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Freedom's Journal in New York City. Horton's poetic style was typical of contemporary European poetry and was similar to poems written by free white contemporaries, likely a reflection of his reading and his work for commission. He wrote both sonnets and ballads. His earlier works focused on his life in slavery. Such topics, however, were more generalized and not necessarily based on his personal experience. He referred to his life on "vile accursed earth" and the "drudg'ry, pain, and toil" of life, as well as his oppression "because my skin is black". His first collection was focused on the issues of slavery and bondage. He did not gain enough in sales from that book to purchase his freedom; in his second book, he mentions slavery only twice. The change in theme is also likely due to the more restrictive climate in the South in the years leading up to the Civil War. His later works, especially those written after his emancipation, expressed rural and pastoral themes. Like other early black American writers such as Jupiter Hammon and Phillis Wheatley, Horton was deeply influenced by the Bible and African-American religion. The earliest known critical commentary on Horton's writing is from 1909 by UNC professor Collier Cobb. He dismissed Horton's antislavery themes, saying: "George never really cared for more liberty than he had, but was fond of playing to the grandstand.". Building towards his remembrance, biographies began to appear. The first was by Kemp Plummer Battle in May 1888, then President of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. J. Donald Cameron noted Horton among notable North Carolina poets in 1890; a speech that was reported several times in some newspapers. Battle reprised his thoughts on Horton in his history of the University published in 1907. In 1909 UNC professor Collier Cobb wrote a paper on Horton, which he published in 1925 at his own cost. Horton was remembered at UNC on the occasion of the visit of James Weldon Johnson. The centennial of his first book was noted in the New York Age after it was noted in Greensboro. - In 1927 Winston-Salem, North Carolina opened a segregated library for blacks in a YWCA building; it was named for George Moses Horton. - In the 1990s, North Carolina erected a historical marker about Horton near where he had lived. (See photo) - In 1996 Horton was inducted into the North Carolina Literary Hall of Fame. - Also in 1996, the George Moses Horton Society for the Study of African American Poetry was founded. - In 1997, Horton was named as Historic Poet Laureate of Chatham County, North Carolina. - In 2006, UNC Chapel Hill named a dormitory for George Moses Horton; it is believed to be the first university dormitory in the country to be named for a slave. - In 2015 author/illustrator Don Tate published Poet: The Remarkable Story of George Moses Horton, an illustrated biography for children. The Wilson Library at UNC hosted the national launch of the book on September 3, 2015. - The Hope of Liberty (1829) - Poems by a Slave (1837) - The Poetical Works of George M. Horton (1845) - Naked Genius (1865, with William H. S. Banks) Poem of the dayThe Shoe Tying by Robert Herrick Anthea bade me tie her shoe; I did ; and kissed the instep too: And would have kissed unto her knee, Had not her blush rebuked me. Read complete poem	2,046	ENGLISH	1
What were common marriage customs in Bible times? Question: "What were common marriage customs in Bible times?" Answer: While there were many different cultures throughout the world in Bible times, the Bible itself mostly follows God’s chosen people, the Israelites, through the coming of the Messiah. Therefore, this article will focus on Jewish marriage customs. Marriages in Bible times were not made for love, per se, but for the mutual benefit of both families involved. Jewish marriages were usually arranged by the fathers of the bride and groom and would begin with a betrothal, or engagement. The bride’s and groom’s feelings on the marriage were not usually taken into consideration, and it was possible that the bride and groom had never met before the betrothal. Betrothals could even be agreed upon when the couple was very young. In these cases, the engagement would stand until the bride and groom were old enough to marry. Contrary to the practice of many other cultures, in which the bride’s father would pay the groom’s family a dowry, in Jewish culture the groom’s father paid a bride price, or mohar, to the bride’s family in order to negotiate the betrothal and, in essence, “purchase” the bride. The groom would also give a gift to the bride called a mattan, which became a part of the property the bride would bring into the marriage. These gifts were not always monetary; they may have been property or even services provided to the bride’s family. A good father was expected to share the mohar with his daughter or give it over to her entirely. A Jewish betrothal was an important part of the marriage process and was as binding as marriage itself. Those initiating the betrothal and witnesses to the event would likely sign a marriage contract called a ketubah. Therefore, if one or both parties wished to end the betrothal, they would be required to get a divorce. We see this in the case of Mary and Joseph, who were pledged to be married; when Mary was found to be with child by the Holy Spirit, Joseph considered divorcing Mary quietly to protect her reputation (Matthew 1:18–19). However, after an angel visited Joseph in the night, Joseph decided to continue their betrothal. As a betrothed couple, Mary and Joseph were essentially husband and wife, and they later married (verse 24), although they did not consummate the marriage until after Jesus was born (verse 25). It was a common custom for the bride to join the groom’s father’s household, rather than the groom and the bride establishing their own household. So, if the bride and groom were of a marriageable age, the groom would return to his father’s house after the betrothal to prepare a bridal chamber. This process traditionally took a year or more (the length of time being dictated by the groom’s father). When the place was complete, the groom would return and fetch his bride. The bride would not know the day or hour of her husband-to-be’s return, so the groom’s arrival was usually announced with a trumpet call and a shout so the bride had some forewarning. Before the ceremony, which was attended by a select few (most likely family), the bride would take part in a ritual cleansing. After the ceremony, the couple would attend a wedding feast in their honor. It was customary for a wedding feast to include a much larger crowd than the ceremony itself, and it was a great celebration provided by the groom’s family. Jesus Himself attended a wedding feast in Cana, where He performed His first miracle of turning water into wine. At this marriage feast, the groom’s family had run out of wine, which could have damaged their reputation. So Jesus’ mother Mary appealed to Him for help on behalf of the family. Jesus responded by turning the water into even better wine than the family had served previously. (For a full account of the wedding at Cana, see John 2:1–12.) In His time on earth, Jesus often used Jewish marriage customs as a beautiful allegory of God’s relationship with the church, His “bride.” Jesus purchased believers with His blood, shed on the cross for the forgiveness of sins (Acts 20:28; 1 Corinthians 6:19–20; 11:25). He is currently preparing a place for us (John 14:3), and at a future time no one knows (Matthew 24:36) He will return for His bride with a trumpet call and a shout (1 Thessalonians 4:16–17). The dead in Christ and those alive in Him will be taken to heaven, where they will be joined forever with the Lord (Revelation 19:7) and take part in the marriage feast of the Lamb (verse 9). Recommended Resource: The New Manners & Customs of Bible Times, Revised and Updated by Ralph Gower More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What does the Bible say about interracial marriage? Making marriage last - what is the key? What is the definition of marriage? What constitutes marriage according to the Bible? Does marriage hinder your relationship with God? Questions about Marriage What were common marriage customs in Bible times?	<urn:uuid:c5b2f814-10f2-44fb-8b60-788fcd90e153>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/marriage-customs.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00553.warc.gz	en	0.982647	1,129	3.40625	3	[ -0.04706258326768875, 0.5536007881164551, -0.2887592613697052, -0.221197247505188, 0.14827316999435425, 0.10027386248111725, 0.3160804808139801, -0.06767559051513672, 0.21433843672275543, 0.026008224114775658, -0.02573465183377266, 0.33532795310020447, 0.36535534262657166, 0.04972851276397...	1	What were common marriage customs in Bible times? Question: "What were common marriage customs in Bible times?" Answer: While there were many different cultures throughout the world in Bible times, the Bible itself mostly follows God’s chosen people, the Israelites, through the coming of the Messiah. Therefore, this article will focus on Jewish marriage customs. Marriages in Bible times were not made for love, per se, but for the mutual benefit of both families involved. Jewish marriages were usually arranged by the fathers of the bride and groom and would begin with a betrothal, or engagement. The bride’s and groom’s feelings on the marriage were not usually taken into consideration, and it was possible that the bride and groom had never met before the betrothal. Betrothals could even be agreed upon when the couple was very young. In these cases, the engagement would stand until the bride and groom were old enough to marry. Contrary to the practice of many other cultures, in which the bride’s father would pay the groom’s family a dowry, in Jewish culture the groom’s father paid a bride price, or mohar, to the bride’s family in order to negotiate the betrothal and, in essence, “purchase” the bride. The groom would also give a gift to the bride called a mattan, which became a part of the property the bride would bring into the marriage. These gifts were not always monetary; they may have been property or even services provided to the bride’s family. A good father was expected to share the mohar with his daughter or give it over to her entirely. A Jewish betrothal was an important part of the marriage process and was as binding as marriage itself. Those initiating the betrothal and witnesses to the event would likely sign a marriage contract called a ketubah. Therefore, if one or both parties wished to end the betrothal, they would be required to get a divorce. We see this in the case of Mary and Joseph, who were pledged to be married; when Mary was found to be with child by the Holy Spirit, Joseph considered divorcing Mary quietly to protect her reputation (Matthew 1:18–19). However, after an angel visited Joseph in the night, Joseph decided to continue their betrothal. As a betrothed couple, Mary and Joseph were essentially husband and wife, and they later married (verse 24), although they did not consummate the marriage until after Jesus was born (verse 25). It was a common custom for the bride to join the groom’s father’s household, rather than the groom and the bride establishing their own household. So, if the bride and groom were of a marriageable age, the groom would return to his father’s house after the betrothal to prepare a bridal chamber. This process traditionally took a year or more (the length of time being dictated by the groom’s father). When the place was complete, the groom would return and fetch his bride. The bride would not know the day or hour of her husband-to-be’s return, so the groom’s arrival was usually announced with a trumpet call and a shout so the bride had some forewarning. Before the ceremony, which was attended by a select few (most likely family), the bride would take part in a ritual cleansing. After the ceremony, the couple would attend a wedding feast in their honor. It was customary for a wedding feast to include a much larger crowd than the ceremony itself, and it was a great celebration provided by the groom’s family. Jesus Himself attended a wedding feast in Cana, where He performed His first miracle of turning water into wine. At this marriage feast, the groom’s family had run out of wine, which could have damaged their reputation. So Jesus’ mother Mary appealed to Him for help on behalf of the family. Jesus responded by turning the water into even better wine than the family had served previously. (For a full account of the wedding at Cana, see John 2:1–12.) In His time on earth, Jesus often used Jewish marriage customs as a beautiful allegory of God’s relationship with the church, His “bride.” Jesus purchased believers with His blood, shed on the cross for the forgiveness of sins (Acts 20:28; 1 Corinthians 6:19–20; 11:25). He is currently preparing a place for us (John 14:3), and at a future time no one knows (Matthew 24:36) He will return for His bride with a trumpet call and a shout (1 Thessalonians 4:16–17). The dead in Christ and those alive in Him will be taken to heaven, where they will be joined forever with the Lord (Revelation 19:7) and take part in the marriage feast of the Lamb (verse 9). Recommended Resource: The New Manners & Customs of Bible Times, Revised and Updated by Ralph Gower More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What does the Bible say about interracial marriage? Making marriage last - what is the key? What is the definition of marriage? What constitutes marriage according to the Bible? Does marriage hinder your relationship with God? Questions about Marriage What were common marriage customs in Bible times?	1,098	ENGLISH	1
Who Was Simply Emily Dickinson? Born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts, Emily Dickinson left school as a teen, eventually living a life that is reclusive the household homestead. There, she secretly created bundles of poetry and wrote a huge selection of letters. Because of a discovery by sister Lavinia, Dickinson’s remarkable work was published after her death—on May 15, 1886, in Amherst—and this woman is now considered one of the towering figures of American literature. Early Life and Education Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was created on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts. Her family had roots that are deep New England. Her paternal grandfather, Samuel Dickinson, was well known as the founder of Amherst College. Her father worked at Amherst and served as a continuing state legislator. He married Emily Norcross in 1828 and the couple had three children: William Austin, Lavinia Norcross and middle child Emily. An student that is excellent Dickinson was educated at Amherst Academy (now Amherst College) for seven years after which attended Mount Holyoke Female Seminary for a year. Though the precise reasons for Dickinson’s final departure through the academy in 1848 are unknown; theories offered say that her fragile state that is emotional have played a role and/or that her father chose to pull her from the school. Dickinson ultimately never joined a particular church or denomination, steadfastly going from the religious norms of the time. Dickinson began writing as a teen. Her influences that are early Leonard Humphrey, principal of Amherst Academy, and a family friend named Benjamin Franklin Newton, who sent Dickinson a book of poetry by Ralph Waldo Emerson. In 1855, Dickinson ventured away from Amherst, in terms of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There, she befriended a minister named Charles Wadsworth, who would also become a correspondent that is cherished. Among her peers, Dickinson’s closest friend and adviser was a lady named Susan Gilbert, who may have been an amorous interest of Dickinson’s as well. In 1856, Gilbert married Dickinson’s brother, William. The Dickinson family lived on a home that is large because the Homestead in Amherst. After their marriage, William and Susan settled in a house close to the Homestead known as https://essaypro.ws the Evergreens. Emily and sister Lavinia served as chief caregivers with regards to their ailing mother until she passed on in 1882. Neither Emily nor her sister ever married and lived together at the Homestead until their respective deaths. Dickinson’s seclusion during her later years has been the object of much speculation. Scholars have believed that she suffered from conditions such as for example agoraphobia, depression and/or anxiety, or may have been sequestered as a result of her responsibilities as guardian of her sick mother. Dickinson has also been treated for a ailment that is painful of eyes. Following the mid-1860s, she rarely left the confines regarding the Homestead. It absolutely was also for this time, through the late 1850s to mid-’60s, that Dickinson was most productive as a poet, creating small bundles of verse known as fascicles with no awareness in the section of her household members. In her free time, Dickinson studied botany and produced a vast herbarium. She also maintained correspondence with a variety of contacts. Certainly one of her friendships, with Judge Otis Phillips Lord, appears to have progressed into a romance before Lord’s death in 1884. Dickinson died of kidney disease in Amherst, Massachusetts, on May 15, 1886, during the chronilogical age of 55. She was laid to rest inside her family plot at West Cemetery. The Homestead, where Dickinson was created, happens to be a museum. Little of Dickinson’s work was published during the time of her death, and the few works that were published were edited and altered to stick to conventional standards of that time. Unfortunately, most of the power of Dickinson’s unusual utilization of syntax and form was lost in the alteration. After her sister’s death, Lavinia Dickinson discovered a huge selection of poems that Emily had crafted over the years. The volume that is first of works was published in 1890. A full compilation, The Poems of Emily Dickinson, wasn’t published until 1955, though previous iterations have been released. Emily Dickinson’s stature as a writer soared through the publication that is first of poems in their intended form. She actually is known for her poignant and compressed verse, which profoundly influenced the direction of 20th-century poetry. The strength of her literary voice, as well as her reclusive and eccentric life, plays a part in the sense of Dickinson as an indelible American character who continues to be discussed today.	<urn:uuid:2f1e7a9c-e98f-4746-9bb3-d6eecc05a941>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.adventuresinwonderland.co.nz/2019/08/31/emily-dickinson-biography-who-was-simply-emily/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00053.warc.gz	en	0.984831	1,009	3.265625	3	[ 0.06803649663925171, 0.045966461300849915, 0.35116085410118103, 0.02999666891992092, 0.03661518543958664, -0.4004361629486084, -0.08180977404117584, 0.35235241055488586, -0.5776262283325195, -0.016486240550875664, 0.10650108754634857, -0.1417461484670639, -0.24167951941490173, -0.099349334...	1	Who Was Simply Emily Dickinson? Born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts, Emily Dickinson left school as a teen, eventually living a life that is reclusive the household homestead. There, she secretly created bundles of poetry and wrote a huge selection of letters. Because of a discovery by sister Lavinia, Dickinson’s remarkable work was published after her death—on May 15, 1886, in Amherst—and this woman is now considered one of the towering figures of American literature. Early Life and Education Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was created on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts. Her family had roots that are deep New England. Her paternal grandfather, Samuel Dickinson, was well known as the founder of Amherst College. Her father worked at Amherst and served as a continuing state legislator. He married Emily Norcross in 1828 and the couple had three children: William Austin, Lavinia Norcross and middle child Emily. An student that is excellent Dickinson was educated at Amherst Academy (now Amherst College) for seven years after which attended Mount Holyoke Female Seminary for a year. Though the precise reasons for Dickinson’s final departure through the academy in 1848 are unknown; theories offered say that her fragile state that is emotional have played a role and/or that her father chose to pull her from the school. Dickinson ultimately never joined a particular church or denomination, steadfastly going from the religious norms of the time. Dickinson began writing as a teen. Her influences that are early Leonard Humphrey, principal of Amherst Academy, and a family friend named Benjamin Franklin Newton, who sent Dickinson a book of poetry by Ralph Waldo Emerson. In 1855, Dickinson ventured away from Amherst, in terms of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There, she befriended a minister named Charles Wadsworth, who would also become a correspondent that is cherished. Among her peers, Dickinson’s closest friend and adviser was a lady named Susan Gilbert, who may have been an amorous interest of Dickinson’s as well. In 1856, Gilbert married Dickinson’s brother, William. The Dickinson family lived on a home that is large because the Homestead in Amherst. After their marriage, William and Susan settled in a house close to the Homestead known as https://essaypro.ws the Evergreens. Emily and sister Lavinia served as chief caregivers with regards to their ailing mother until she passed on in 1882. Neither Emily nor her sister ever married and lived together at the Homestead until their respective deaths. Dickinson’s seclusion during her later years has been the object of much speculation. Scholars have believed that she suffered from conditions such as for example agoraphobia, depression and/or anxiety, or may have been sequestered as a result of her responsibilities as guardian of her sick mother. Dickinson has also been treated for a ailment that is painful of eyes. Following the mid-1860s, she rarely left the confines regarding the Homestead. It absolutely was also for this time, through the late 1850s to mid-’60s, that Dickinson was most productive as a poet, creating small bundles of verse known as fascicles with no awareness in the section of her household members. In her free time, Dickinson studied botany and produced a vast herbarium. She also maintained correspondence with a variety of contacts. Certainly one of her friendships, with Judge Otis Phillips Lord, appears to have progressed into a romance before Lord’s death in 1884. Dickinson died of kidney disease in Amherst, Massachusetts, on May 15, 1886, during the chronilogical age of 55. She was laid to rest inside her family plot at West Cemetery. The Homestead, where Dickinson was created, happens to be a museum. Little of Dickinson’s work was published during the time of her death, and the few works that were published were edited and altered to stick to conventional standards of that time. Unfortunately, most of the power of Dickinson’s unusual utilization of syntax and form was lost in the alteration. After her sister’s death, Lavinia Dickinson discovered a huge selection of poems that Emily had crafted over the years. The volume that is first of works was published in 1890. A full compilation, The Poems of Emily Dickinson, wasn’t published until 1955, though previous iterations have been released. Emily Dickinson’s stature as a writer soared through the publication that is first of poems in their intended form. She actually is known for her poignant and compressed verse, which profoundly influenced the direction of 20th-century poetry. The strength of her literary voice, as well as her reclusive and eccentric life, plays a part in the sense of Dickinson as an indelible American character who continues to be discussed today.	1,032	ENGLISH	1
How art developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Read the underlying article to know about it in detail. Art is subject to traditions and to changes in such traditions, for instance 20th century art breaking the artistic traditions that can be traced back to the Renaissance. As will be evaluated here the 19th century witnessed artistic trends away from traditional ways of producing art, which later bore fruit in the earlier decades of the 20th century. One group of 19th century artists that moved away from traditional art were the Impressionists. As the name of the group suggests these artists painted their impressions of the subjects they were painting. Traditional artists would draw or paint objects and subjects to be as realistic as they could make them. In reality, the more traditionally leaning artists were producing art pretty much using the techniques and styles dominant since the Renaissance. Some of the most important Impressionists included Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and to a lesser extent Paul Cezanne. This group was strongest in France yet was not exclusively French in membership. Among their most famous pieces of art were ballet dancers, Rouen Cathedral, and Poplar trees. The Impressionists were hoping to challenge traditional art, and they arguably succeeded in doing so. The change did not happen overnight with some critics and patrons preferring the work of traditional artists. They did not always understand the work of the more modern artists, and often disliked liked what they saw. A 20th century group of artists that were influenced by the Impressionists was the Cubists. To a large extent Paul Cezanne provided the link between the two groups, his work coming a little after the Impressionists, and a fraction before the Cubists. Cezanne had liked to paint card players as well as women in swimming suits bathing. These two themes were notable settings for his works. Pablo Picasso was not only the most well-known purveyor of Cubism he was the most famous painter of the 20th century. Picasso liked to paint a series of paintings with related themes running through them such as his blue and rose pieces of art. Ironically despite being famed for his different periods of work, his best known work is Guernica. It conveys the horrors of bombing and air raids. This well known work depicts the German bombing of that unfortunate town during 1937 in the course of the Spanish Civil War. Are you searching for a beautiful city to travel in Africa? Here's an offer to a glittering and shinning golden metropolis that stands in the global south. . Traveling to a historical site such as a medieval fortress represents a great opportunity for me to immerse myself in the history of that place and to try to imagine to live in such a citadel during its glory days.. South Asia offers a very rich variety of historical evidences, related to human civilization and its evolution during the ages. Many such sites have already been recognized by UNESCO.	<urn:uuid:2da341c9-7f98-48ac-ad7c-5f15ef7dd033>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/19th-20th-century-developments-art	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00315.warc.gz	en	0.986735	602	3.703125	4	[ 0.34959906339645386, 0.23488207161426544, 0.23457343876361847, -0.03501075506210327, 0.0522184856235981, -0.0033617496956139803, -0.34846973419189453, 0.0433921217918396, -0.3656345307826996, -0.2562867999076843, 0.06975547969341278, 0.06555140018463135, 0.08853253722190857, 0.203103572130...	1	How art developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Read the underlying article to know about it in detail. Art is subject to traditions and to changes in such traditions, for instance 20th century art breaking the artistic traditions that can be traced back to the Renaissance. As will be evaluated here the 19th century witnessed artistic trends away from traditional ways of producing art, which later bore fruit in the earlier decades of the 20th century. One group of 19th century artists that moved away from traditional art were the Impressionists. As the name of the group suggests these artists painted their impressions of the subjects they were painting. Traditional artists would draw or paint objects and subjects to be as realistic as they could make them. In reality, the more traditionally leaning artists were producing art pretty much using the techniques and styles dominant since the Renaissance. Some of the most important Impressionists included Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and to a lesser extent Paul Cezanne. This group was strongest in France yet was not exclusively French in membership. Among their most famous pieces of art were ballet dancers, Rouen Cathedral, and Poplar trees. The Impressionists were hoping to challenge traditional art, and they arguably succeeded in doing so. The change did not happen overnight with some critics and patrons preferring the work of traditional artists. They did not always understand the work of the more modern artists, and often disliked liked what they saw. A 20th century group of artists that were influenced by the Impressionists was the Cubists. To a large extent Paul Cezanne provided the link between the two groups, his work coming a little after the Impressionists, and a fraction before the Cubists. Cezanne had liked to paint card players as well as women in swimming suits bathing. These two themes were notable settings for his works. Pablo Picasso was not only the most well-known purveyor of Cubism he was the most famous painter of the 20th century. Picasso liked to paint a series of paintings with related themes running through them such as his blue and rose pieces of art. Ironically despite being famed for his different periods of work, his best known work is Guernica. It conveys the horrors of bombing and air raids. This well known work depicts the German bombing of that unfortunate town during 1937 in the course of the Spanish Civil War. Are you searching for a beautiful city to travel in Africa? Here's an offer to a glittering and shinning golden metropolis that stands in the global south. . Traveling to a historical site such as a medieval fortress represents a great opportunity for me to immerse myself in the history of that place and to try to imagine to live in such a citadel during its glory days.. South Asia offers a very rich variety of historical evidences, related to human civilization and its evolution during the ages. Many such sites have already been recognized by UNESCO.	608	ENGLISH	1
Wuthering Heights’ first published in 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell is written by Emily Bronte and it is her only novel. Emily Bronte used the name ‘Ellis Bell’ due to the fact that this book was published in the 1800’s when women hardly had any rights therefore Emily Bronte thought it better to use a male name as both her sister’s did. The word ‘Wuthering’ means turbulent weather in Yorkshire language; therefore it is used to describe the disastrous weather on the moors where this story is based. This book uses very old and intricate language as it is set way back in the 1800’s. The haunting intensity of Catherine Earnshaw’s attachment to Heatchcliff is the focus of this novel in which relations between men and women are described with an emotional and imaginative power unparalleled in English fiction. The narrative tale tells the story of the all-encompassing and passionate, yet thwarted, love between Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw, and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them. Catherine and Heathcliff had always been very close to each other and were always indivisible. But miserably, they were indeed separated many times due to many various reasons. Catherine and Heathcliff turned into soul mates only a few days after Mr Earnshaw found a ‘black gypsy’ wandering on the silent and violent streets of Liverpool and decided to espouse him, it was Mr Earnshaw himself who gave this black gypsy a Christian name ; Heathcliff. It was fate that Mr Earnshaw randomly found Heathcliff and brought him home. The first separation between Catherine and Heathcliff was when they were children. They were inseparable and enjoyed spending time together running wild on the moors all the time, as a punishment Heathcliff and Cathy would be sent into separate rooms for a whole day, something they couldn’t bare. This was the biggest punishment they could ever get as Nell Dean had said ‘the greatest punishment we could invent for her was to keep her separate from him’. This showed how close Cathy and Heathcliff were and the family was to blame for their first separation. The next time that the two were separated was when Hindley returned after Mr Earnshaw’s death, Hindley hated Heathcliff his whole life due to Mr Earnshaw favouring Heathcliff more than his own blood, as a result when Mr Earnshaw died Hindley made himself the master of the house and degraded Heathcliff by making him a servant. This resulted in Cathy and Heathcliff not being able to see each other as often as they had before. When Hindley came to the funeral with a wife called Frances, he became tyrannical as Nelly says ‘ He drove him from their company to the servants, deprived him of the instructions of the curate, and insisted he should labour out of the doors instead, compelling him to do so as hard as any other lad on the farm’. By not letting Heathcliff complete his education and making him work and live like all the other servants he degraded Heathcliff completely and lowered his social class. Jealousy and revenge both play a big part in this separation of Cathy and Heathcliff. Jealousy due to the fact that Mr Earnshaw would always prefer Heathcliff, a ‘black gypsy’ found on the streets of Liverpool, to Hindley, his own blood. It is comprehensible that Hindley would feel jealous if his own father preferred an adopted boy than Hindley himself just as any other boy would. Hindley’s jealousy towards Heathcliff increased to highest level it could possibly be when Mr Earnshaw sent Hindley to boarding school just so that Heathcliff is safe. Mr Earnshaw made it very evident that he loved and cared for Heathcliff much more than for Hindley. Hindley realised this in time as Nelly narrates ‘The young master had learnt to regard his father as an oppressor rather than a friend, and Heathcliff as an usurper of his parents affection and his privileges, and he grew bitter with brooding over these injuries’. The jealousy Hindley had for Heathcliff also played a big part in the revenge Hindley took against Heathcliif as the jealousy made Hindley hate Heathcliff to the limit and wanted to get back at him in a cruel and tyrannical way. Family also played a big role in this separation as it was Mr Earnshaw’s fault for not treating both his sons equally. When Catherine and Heathcliff went to Thrushcross Grange she was bitten by a dog. This is an important separation that needs to be discussed as it is apparent that this is a big turning pointing the novel. One Sunday evening, it chanced that they were banished from the sitting-room, for making a noise, and when Nelly went to look for them they were nowhere to be found. It emerged that Cathy and Heathcliff had run away to get a sight of liberty and while they were enjoying their free liberty they got a glimpse of the grange light therefore went to get a clue about how the Linton’s spend their Sunday evenings. While they were their they were having a great time watching Edgar and Isabella but that time didn’t last long as someone from the grange heard the two of them laughing. They sent a dog to catch Cathy and Heathcliff but Heathcliff got away while the dog bit Cathy. As a result Cathy was taken into the grange as Edgar Linton recognised Catherine, Heathcliff on the other hand was told to get lost and was socially discriminated when they called him ‘a wicked gypsy’. Fate also plays a big role here as it has in the whole book; it was destiny that Cathy got bitten by the bulldog not Heathcliff. It was five weeks during which Cathrine stayed at the grange away from Heathcliff. During this time she was introduced to a lot of new things she had never seen before like luxuries and wealth. The Linton’s loved her like their own child and treated her better than everyone in her own family; they groomed her into a fine beautiful young lady. All these luxuries made Cathy a very materialistic person. One more thing is the Lintons were upper class while the Earnshaws were middle class, after the rise in class it was very hard for Cathy to change class again. Everyone in the Earnshaw residence was totally astonished after seeing a fine young lady who was well dressed instead of the old mischievous dirty girl who used to run around the moors everyday. At seeing Cathy, Hindley praised Cathy by saying ‘Why Cathy! You’re quite a beauty. ‘ Cathy also made a joke out of Heathcliff by saying ‘Why, how very black and cross you look! And how-how funny and grim! But that’s because I m used to Edgar and Isabella Linton’. Heathcliff could not bare this and replied by saying ‘I shall not stand to be laughed at, I shall not bear it’. This started creating problems in Cathy and Heathcliff’s relation.	<urn:uuid:51f29758-8be9-4582-b4e6-cf0e248d0bcc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ozziessay.com.au/essay-on-wuthering-heights-3-4022/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00291.warc.gz	en	0.987973	1,513	3.53125	4	[ -0.2227272242307663, 0.09984539449214935, 0.0309764314442873, 0.4684072434902191, -0.33761006593704224, 0.18120484054088593, -0.1283615529537201, -0.036562997847795486, 0.20686140656471252, -0.5742766857147217, 0.28178510069847107, -0.33993205428123474, 0.16266104578971863, 0.1200300902128...	3	Wuthering Heights’ first published in 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell is written by Emily Bronte and it is her only novel. Emily Bronte used the name ‘Ellis Bell’ due to the fact that this book was published in the 1800’s when women hardly had any rights therefore Emily Bronte thought it better to use a male name as both her sister’s did. The word ‘Wuthering’ means turbulent weather in Yorkshire language; therefore it is used to describe the disastrous weather on the moors where this story is based. This book uses very old and intricate language as it is set way back in the 1800’s. The haunting intensity of Catherine Earnshaw’s attachment to Heatchcliff is the focus of this novel in which relations between men and women are described with an emotional and imaginative power unparalleled in English fiction. The narrative tale tells the story of the all-encompassing and passionate, yet thwarted, love between Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw, and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them. Catherine and Heathcliff had always been very close to each other and were always indivisible. But miserably, they were indeed separated many times due to many various reasons. Catherine and Heathcliff turned into soul mates only a few days after Mr Earnshaw found a ‘black gypsy’ wandering on the silent and violent streets of Liverpool and decided to espouse him, it was Mr Earnshaw himself who gave this black gypsy a Christian name ; Heathcliff. It was fate that Mr Earnshaw randomly found Heathcliff and brought him home. The first separation between Catherine and Heathcliff was when they were children. They were inseparable and enjoyed spending time together running wild on the moors all the time, as a punishment Heathcliff and Cathy would be sent into separate rooms for a whole day, something they couldn’t bare. This was the biggest punishment they could ever get as Nell Dean had said ‘the greatest punishment we could invent for her was to keep her separate from him’. This showed how close Cathy and Heathcliff were and the family was to blame for their first separation. The next time that the two were separated was when Hindley returned after Mr Earnshaw’s death, Hindley hated Heathcliff his whole life due to Mr Earnshaw favouring Heathcliff more than his own blood, as a result when Mr Earnshaw died Hindley made himself the master of the house and degraded Heathcliff by making him a servant. This resulted in Cathy and Heathcliff not being able to see each other as often as they had before. When Hindley came to the funeral with a wife called Frances, he became tyrannical as Nelly says ‘ He drove him from their company to the servants, deprived him of the instructions of the curate, and insisted he should labour out of the doors instead, compelling him to do so as hard as any other lad on the farm’. By not letting Heathcliff complete his education and making him work and live like all the other servants he degraded Heathcliff completely and lowered his social class. Jealousy and revenge both play a big part in this separation of Cathy and Heathcliff. Jealousy due to the fact that Mr Earnshaw would always prefer Heathcliff, a ‘black gypsy’ found on the streets of Liverpool, to Hindley, his own blood. It is comprehensible that Hindley would feel jealous if his own father preferred an adopted boy than Hindley himself just as any other boy would. Hindley’s jealousy towards Heathcliff increased to highest level it could possibly be when Mr Earnshaw sent Hindley to boarding school just so that Heathcliff is safe. Mr Earnshaw made it very evident that he loved and cared for Heathcliff much more than for Hindley. Hindley realised this in time as Nelly narrates ‘The young master had learnt to regard his father as an oppressor rather than a friend, and Heathcliff as an usurper of his parents affection and his privileges, and he grew bitter with brooding over these injuries’. The jealousy Hindley had for Heathcliff also played a big part in the revenge Hindley took against Heathcliif as the jealousy made Hindley hate Heathcliff to the limit and wanted to get back at him in a cruel and tyrannical way. Family also played a big role in this separation as it was Mr Earnshaw’s fault for not treating both his sons equally. When Catherine and Heathcliff went to Thrushcross Grange she was bitten by a dog. This is an important separation that needs to be discussed as it is apparent that this is a big turning pointing the novel. One Sunday evening, it chanced that they were banished from the sitting-room, for making a noise, and when Nelly went to look for them they were nowhere to be found. It emerged that Cathy and Heathcliff had run away to get a sight of liberty and while they were enjoying their free liberty they got a glimpse of the grange light therefore went to get a clue about how the Linton’s spend their Sunday evenings. While they were their they were having a great time watching Edgar and Isabella but that time didn’t last long as someone from the grange heard the two of them laughing. They sent a dog to catch Cathy and Heathcliff but Heathcliff got away while the dog bit Cathy. As a result Cathy was taken into the grange as Edgar Linton recognised Catherine, Heathcliff on the other hand was told to get lost and was socially discriminated when they called him ‘a wicked gypsy’. Fate also plays a big role here as it has in the whole book; it was destiny that Cathy got bitten by the bulldog not Heathcliff. It was five weeks during which Cathrine stayed at the grange away from Heathcliff. During this time she was introduced to a lot of new things she had never seen before like luxuries and wealth. The Linton’s loved her like their own child and treated her better than everyone in her own family; they groomed her into a fine beautiful young lady. All these luxuries made Cathy a very materialistic person. One more thing is the Lintons were upper class while the Earnshaws were middle class, after the rise in class it was very hard for Cathy to change class again. Everyone in the Earnshaw residence was totally astonished after seeing a fine young lady who was well dressed instead of the old mischievous dirty girl who used to run around the moors everyday. At seeing Cathy, Hindley praised Cathy by saying ‘Why Cathy! You’re quite a beauty. ‘ Cathy also made a joke out of Heathcliff by saying ‘Why, how very black and cross you look! And how-how funny and grim! But that’s because I m used to Edgar and Isabella Linton’. Heathcliff could not bare this and replied by saying ‘I shall not stand to be laughed at, I shall not bear it’. This started creating problems in Cathy and Heathcliff’s relation.	1,459	ENGLISH	1
At the time, there were two leading schools of thought in painting: the Florentine and the Venetian. They can also be seen as “disegno” versus “colore,” or drawing versus color. Although drawing and color are both essential elements in painting, the Florentine school emphasized that draftsmanship was the most important component in achieving naturality. By contrast, the Venetian school approached painting believing that color was the most powerful factor. Since Titian was born into the Republic of Venice, he was naturally schooled into the Venetian style. However, it was through Titian’s artistic talents and mastery of color that Venetian painting developed into the more dominant, popular style within Italy and inspired the later emergence of Baroque art. Titian, or Tiziano Vecellio, was estimated to have been born between 1488-90 in the town of Pieve di Cadore, Italy—which is about 80 miles north of Venice. Like many artists of this time, Titian received his start in the art world at a very young age. When he was about ten or twelve, Titian was sent away from his hometown to the cultural hub of Venice. There, through a series of family connections, young Titian found his way into the studio of Gentile Bellini (c. 1429-1507) and his younger brother, Giovanni (c. 1430-1516). The Bellini brothers are accredited with revolutionizing the Venetian style of painting, and it is in their workshop that Titian learned the technique to the decadent, coloristic style. Working With Giorgione While working under Giovanni Bellini, Titian met several budding contemporary artists, including the notable Giorgione (c. 1477/78-1510). At around 1509, Titian followed the slightly older Giorgione to be his painting assistant, and together the two produced a number of famous paintings. However, their relationship was not without rivalry. Like Titian, Giorgione inherited exquisite skills from working under the Bellini brothers, and he specialized in applying layers upon layers of colors to achieve the effect of sfumato, in which colors and tones hazily blend into one another. In spite of this, Titian was consistently pointed out by contemporary critics as the better artist. Even today, many of the paintings they created together are still ambiguously assigned to both Titian and Giorgione, as historians are unsure of the disparity of their hands. After the death of Giorgione in 1510, and Giovanni Bellini in 1516, Titian was the leading upholder of the Venetian style. Slowly, Titian began to leave behind the styles of his tutors and fulfill his own artistic vision. Likewise, Titian’s fame and popularity as a painter grew and among the star-studded list of clients were Doges, kings, princes, duchesses, popes, cardinals, and artists. Titian achieved equal success to Michelangelo and even obtained the Freedom of the City when he visited Rome in 1546. Even when Titian was already an established, well-off artist in his sixties, he did not stop cultivating his painting style. In fact, according to historical sources, Titian became more perfectionist in his old age, keeping canvases for up to ten years at a time.What is most notable in the later phase of Titian’s art is that naturalistic painting—which had dominated the Renaissance as the ideal for so long—ceased to hold interest for him. During this period, Titian’s brushstrokes became looser, and his colors and textures more atmospheric. These last works especially show their effects on subsequent art movements like the Baroque period. After a long, prolific, and successful life, Titian died between 87-88 years of age, leaving his last painting, Pietà, unfinished. What Titian started to do in his final working years had lasting effects on the course of western art history. Titian freed the use of color and brushstrokes to an unprecedented degree that inspired both contemporaries like Tintoretto and El Greco, as well as succeeding artists like Rubens and Delacroix.	<urn:uuid:15b8be4b-3916-4e2a-a7ab-c17814a86795>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mymodernmet.com/titian-paintings/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00331.warc.gz	en	0.983127	899	3.671875	4	[ 0.07297754287719727, -0.04429291933774948, 0.32591068744659424, -0.29929259419441223, -0.4655519723892212, 0.08722983300685883, 0.12125501036643982, 0.48251405358314514, 0.009070701897144318, -0.18152737617492676, 0.07339529693126678, -0.18678797781467438, 0.16164544224739075, 0.6075488328...	2	At the time, there were two leading schools of thought in painting: the Florentine and the Venetian. They can also be seen as “disegno” versus “colore,” or drawing versus color. Although drawing and color are both essential elements in painting, the Florentine school emphasized that draftsmanship was the most important component in achieving naturality. By contrast, the Venetian school approached painting believing that color was the most powerful factor. Since Titian was born into the Republic of Venice, he was naturally schooled into the Venetian style. However, it was through Titian’s artistic talents and mastery of color that Venetian painting developed into the more dominant, popular style within Italy and inspired the later emergence of Baroque art. Titian, or Tiziano Vecellio, was estimated to have been born between 1488-90 in the town of Pieve di Cadore, Italy—which is about 80 miles north of Venice. Like many artists of this time, Titian received his start in the art world at a very young age. When he was about ten or twelve, Titian was sent away from his hometown to the cultural hub of Venice. There, through a series of family connections, young Titian found his way into the studio of Gentile Bellini (c. 1429-1507) and his younger brother, Giovanni (c. 1430-1516). The Bellini brothers are accredited with revolutionizing the Venetian style of painting, and it is in their workshop that Titian learned the technique to the decadent, coloristic style. Working With Giorgione While working under Giovanni Bellini, Titian met several budding contemporary artists, including the notable Giorgione (c. 1477/78-1510). At around 1509, Titian followed the slightly older Giorgione to be his painting assistant, and together the two produced a number of famous paintings. However, their relationship was not without rivalry. Like Titian, Giorgione inherited exquisite skills from working under the Bellini brothers, and he specialized in applying layers upon layers of colors to achieve the effect of sfumato, in which colors and tones hazily blend into one another. In spite of this, Titian was consistently pointed out by contemporary critics as the better artist. Even today, many of the paintings they created together are still ambiguously assigned to both Titian and Giorgione, as historians are unsure of the disparity of their hands. After the death of Giorgione in 1510, and Giovanni Bellini in 1516, Titian was the leading upholder of the Venetian style. Slowly, Titian began to leave behind the styles of his tutors and fulfill his own artistic vision. Likewise, Titian’s fame and popularity as a painter grew and among the star-studded list of clients were Doges, kings, princes, duchesses, popes, cardinals, and artists. Titian achieved equal success to Michelangelo and even obtained the Freedom of the City when he visited Rome in 1546. Even when Titian was already an established, well-off artist in his sixties, he did not stop cultivating his painting style. In fact, according to historical sources, Titian became more perfectionist in his old age, keeping canvases for up to ten years at a time.What is most notable in the later phase of Titian’s art is that naturalistic painting—which had dominated the Renaissance as the ideal for so long—ceased to hold interest for him. During this period, Titian’s brushstrokes became looser, and his colors and textures more atmospheric. These last works especially show their effects on subsequent art movements like the Baroque period. After a long, prolific, and successful life, Titian died between 87-88 years of age, leaving his last painting, Pietà, unfinished. What Titian started to do in his final working years had lasting effects on the course of western art history. Titian freed the use of color and brushstrokes to an unprecedented degree that inspired both contemporaries like Tintoretto and El Greco, as well as succeeding artists like Rubens and Delacroix.	895	ENGLISH	1
There is evidence that the origin of some of these traditions and sayings are not 100% true. Nevertheless, I find them interesting. The following are a few more theories about life in England during the 1500s. - With the thick thatched roofs that were filled with all sorts of bugs and animals, it was impossible to keep things from falling from the roof into the house. That posed a real problem in the bedroom where bugs and droppings would fall on the beds. A bed with four tall posts that held a cloth covering offered some protection. That’s how canopy beds came into existence. - In those days, they cooked with a big kettle that always hung over the fire. Every day they lit the fire and added things to the pot. They would eat stew for dinner, leaving the leftovers in the pot for the next day. Sometimes the stew had food in it that had been there for quite some time. Hence the rhyme, “Peas porridge hot, peas porridge cold, peas porridge in the pot nine days old”. - People with money had plates made of pewter. Food with a high acid content caused some lead to leach onto the food, causing lead poisoning and death. This happened so often with tomatoes that tomatoes were considered poisonous for the next 400 years. - Bread was divided according to status. Workers got the burnt bottom of the loaf, the family got the middle – while guests received the top or “upper crust”. - Lead cups were used to drink ale or whiskey. The combination would sometimes knock them out for a couple of days. Others would take them for dead and prepare for burial. Prior to burial they would be laid out on the kitchen table for a couple of days. The family would gather around, eating and drinking, while they waited to see if the dead person would wake up. Hence the custom of holding a “wake”. - Since England is so old and small, the local folks started running out of places to bury people. To alleviate this problem, they would dig up coffins and take the bones to a “bone-house” and reuse the grave. When reopening these coffins, one out of twenty-five coffins were found to have scratch marks on the inside. They realized they had been burying some people alive. - To reduce the incidence of burying people alive, some would tie a string on the wrist of the corpse, lead it through the lid of the coffin and up through the ground where it would be tied to a bell. Someone would have to sit out in the graveyard all night (“graveyard shift”) to listen for the bell. Thus, someone could be “saved by the bell”.	<urn:uuid:f9db1976-1ad9-424a-ac73-381036f8316d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pharocattle.com/blog/more-traditions-and-sayings	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00385.warc.gz	en	0.980231	569	3.734375	4	[ -0.19950798153877258, 0.19909735023975372, 0.38468360900878906, -0.00926014594733715, 0.36947134137153625, -0.273633748292923, 0.3401086926460266, -0.0025525540113449097, -0.01731696166098118, -0.070046067237854, -0.14996767044067383, -0.18463832139968872, 0.12122351676225662, 0.0579261705...	2	There is evidence that the origin of some of these traditions and sayings are not 100% true. Nevertheless, I find them interesting. The following are a few more theories about life in England during the 1500s. - With the thick thatched roofs that were filled with all sorts of bugs and animals, it was impossible to keep things from falling from the roof into the house. That posed a real problem in the bedroom where bugs and droppings would fall on the beds. A bed with four tall posts that held a cloth covering offered some protection. That’s how canopy beds came into existence. - In those days, they cooked with a big kettle that always hung over the fire. Every day they lit the fire and added things to the pot. They would eat stew for dinner, leaving the leftovers in the pot for the next day. Sometimes the stew had food in it that had been there for quite some time. Hence the rhyme, “Peas porridge hot, peas porridge cold, peas porridge in the pot nine days old”. - People with money had plates made of pewter. Food with a high acid content caused some lead to leach onto the food, causing lead poisoning and death. This happened so often with tomatoes that tomatoes were considered poisonous for the next 400 years. - Bread was divided according to status. Workers got the burnt bottom of the loaf, the family got the middle – while guests received the top or “upper crust”. - Lead cups were used to drink ale or whiskey. The combination would sometimes knock them out for a couple of days. Others would take them for dead and prepare for burial. Prior to burial they would be laid out on the kitchen table for a couple of days. The family would gather around, eating and drinking, while they waited to see if the dead person would wake up. Hence the custom of holding a “wake”. - Since England is so old and small, the local folks started running out of places to bury people. To alleviate this problem, they would dig up coffins and take the bones to a “bone-house” and reuse the grave. When reopening these coffins, one out of twenty-five coffins were found to have scratch marks on the inside. They realized they had been burying some people alive. - To reduce the incidence of burying people alive, some would tie a string on the wrist of the corpse, lead it through the lid of the coffin and up through the ground where it would be tied to a bell. Someone would have to sit out in the graveyard all night (“graveyard shift”) to listen for the bell. Thus, someone could be “saved by the bell”.	551	ENGLISH	1
New research by New York University Steinhardt Associate Professor Susannah Levi finds that children with poorer language skills are at a disadvantage when given tasks or being spoken to by strangers because they cannot, as easily as their peers, understand speech from people they do not know. Levi’s research evaluated school-aged children and found that children with high language skills—a better ability to understand and process language—were able to understand speech well both by people they knew and were familiar with, as well as strangers who had a similar accent to people they were familiar with. Children with lower language skills understood speech from familiar speakers well, but found it more challenging to understand speakers who they did not know. “These findings suggest that children who have lower language skills are able to understand speech from familiar speakers, as would be the case with a teacher or parent, but may have a harder time with new speakers, such as a substitute teacher or when interacting with other people in their day to day interactions,” said Susannah Levi, NYU Steinhardt professor and the study’s lead author. Levi previously published research showing that when school-aged children are familiar with someone’s voice or accent, they can more accurately and quickly process what a person is saying—a concept known as “familiar talker advantage.” The new research, published in the Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, by Levi and her co-authors examined how this advantage is impacted by a child’s language ability. With the concept “familiar talker advantage,” child listeners naturally store information about what they hear and the way words sound when spoken from people they know. Each time a child is spoken to they go back to this stored information to process and understand words that are spoken to them. This new research demonstrates that children with poorer language skills have a more difficult time retrieving and processing this information. Source: Read Full Article	<urn:uuid:9145c1a3-261a-4f78-9a07-ebc275185b2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://fitnessefficace.com/kids-health/some-children-find-it-harder-to-understand-what-strangers-are-saying/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00305.warc.gz	en	0.980652	397	3.625	4	[ -0.4317437410354614, -0.23741687834262848, -0.0068094064481556416, -0.047724101692438126, -0.660887598991394, 0.3802976608276367, 0.49789878726005554, 0.1019805520772934, -0.08249491453170776, -0.18652626872062683, 0.2769240438938141, 0.18905681371688843, 0.3839244544506073, 0.281237274408...	5	New research by New York University Steinhardt Associate Professor Susannah Levi finds that children with poorer language skills are at a disadvantage when given tasks or being spoken to by strangers because they cannot, as easily as their peers, understand speech from people they do not know. Levi’s research evaluated school-aged children and found that children with high language skills—a better ability to understand and process language—were able to understand speech well both by people they knew and were familiar with, as well as strangers who had a similar accent to people they were familiar with. Children with lower language skills understood speech from familiar speakers well, but found it more challenging to understand speakers who they did not know. “These findings suggest that children who have lower language skills are able to understand speech from familiar speakers, as would be the case with a teacher or parent, but may have a harder time with new speakers, such as a substitute teacher or when interacting with other people in their day to day interactions,” said Susannah Levi, NYU Steinhardt professor and the study’s lead author. Levi previously published research showing that when school-aged children are familiar with someone’s voice or accent, they can more accurately and quickly process what a person is saying—a concept known as “familiar talker advantage.” The new research, published in the Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, by Levi and her co-authors examined how this advantage is impacted by a child’s language ability. With the concept “familiar talker advantage,” child listeners naturally store information about what they hear and the way words sound when spoken from people they know. Each time a child is spoken to they go back to this stored information to process and understand words that are spoken to them. This new research demonstrates that children with poorer language skills have a more difficult time retrieving and processing this information. Source: Read Full Article	371	ENGLISH	1
Robbery of the King’s Treasure at Westminster Abbey How a theft from Edward I’s royal treasury at Westminster Abbey did nothing to help strained relations between abbey and royal palace – or the state of the king’s finances. On 6 June 1303, Edward I ordered an investigation into a matter of the gravest seriousness: much of the treasure stored in the supposedly impregnable royal treasury at Westminster Abbey had been stolen. This treasury was housed either in the Pyx Chamber, which was beside the Chapter House in the Westminster Abbey cloister, or in the Chapter House crypt. The Pyx Chamber, which dates to the 11th century, is named after the wooden boxes, called pyxes, where a sample of the coinage of the realm was held in advance of the ‘Trial of the Pyx’, a public demonstration that the coinage of the day was pure. Many valuables were held in the treasury – jewellery, crowns, plate, cups of state, ceremonial swords and other precious objects – to be given as presents or used on grand occasions. Immediately after the shocking theft of much of this treasure, suspicion fell on the abbot and monks, who consequently were all briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London. But King Edward, perhaps reluctant to humiliate a great royal foundation such as Westminster Abbey, eventually released them. Further enquiries identified the culprit as one Richard Pudlicote of Oxfordshire, a gentleman who may have had a grudge against the king, having been imprisoned in Flanders a few years earlier as surety for Edward’s growing debts. According to Pudlicote’s confession, his knowledge of the abbey and the treasury within came from an earlier small-scale theft: the said Richard had noticed a ladder on a house being roofed near the gate from the palace to the abbey, and he placed this ladder against a window of the chapter house, which opened and shut with a cord: using this cord he opened the window. From there he went to the Refectory door, which he found locked, but opened it with his knife and went inside. He found 6 hanapers [goblets] in a cupboard behind the door, and in another cupboard more than thirty silver dishes and under a bench hanapers [wicker baskets] of drinking cups all gathered up. He took all these away with him and shut the door behind him, but left it unlocked … This is how he knew the layout of the abbey, where the treasury was and how he could get in. He then worked away patiently for months before this much larger robbery: Eight days before Christmas he came there to break in with tools acquired for the job, namely two chisels, large and small, a knife and some smaller iron ‘engines’, and he worked at night until a fortnight after Easter, and on the night of Wednesday, the eve of Saint Mark, he got into the treasury, stayed inside through Saint Mark’s day sorting out the things he wanted to carry off, and on the following night he got out, leaving part of the treasure under the bush, to recover it the next night, and the rest he carried away with him, getting away through a gate behind St Margaret’s Church. When the loot started showing up in brothels and pawn shops, Pudlicote was arrested with £2,200 worth of stolen property in his possession. He was sentenced to death in November 1305, carted from the Tower of London in a wheelbarrow, and hanged on the Abbot’s Gallows in Tothill Lane. Pudlicote’s role may have been exaggerated: his confession seems to have been designed to exonerate the monks who must have been complicit in what looked very like an inside job. But clearly an example needed to be made – although a gruesome legend asserting that the skin was flayed from his body and affixed to the treasury door to deter other potential thieves is, it seems, apocryphal. Whoever was to blame, the burglary – and the high-profile trials and sentencing that followed – was a national scandal. It left a lasting mistrust between the king and Westminster Abbey. And although some of the stolen treasure was eventually recovered, the burglary was also a blow to the king’s finances which he could have done without. When he died in 1307, Edward was probably in debt to the tune of £200,000, then a massive sum. Many petitions in Parliament heard during the last years of his reign testify to resentment at the king’s failure to pay his debts – and much of that money was still owed at the end of his son’s reign 20 years later. By Jeremy Ashbee	<urn:uuid:ab1b38a6-b769-4e51-a648-d451456be4f2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/chapter-house-and-pyx-chamber/history-treasure-at-westminster/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00528.warc.gz	en	0.981429	995	3.328125	3	[ -0.3111027181148529, -0.04940054938197136, -0.10135462135076523, -0.27075546979904175, 0.0843934416770935, -0.36922895908355713, 0.6359094977378845, -0.2460165172815323, 0.08286869525909424, 0.4779651463031769, 0.17273077368736267, -0.3353167772293091, -0.09904102236032486, 0.0679261162877...	4	Robbery of the King’s Treasure at Westminster Abbey How a theft from Edward I’s royal treasury at Westminster Abbey did nothing to help strained relations between abbey and royal palace – or the state of the king’s finances. On 6 June 1303, Edward I ordered an investigation into a matter of the gravest seriousness: much of the treasure stored in the supposedly impregnable royal treasury at Westminster Abbey had been stolen. This treasury was housed either in the Pyx Chamber, which was beside the Chapter House in the Westminster Abbey cloister, or in the Chapter House crypt. The Pyx Chamber, which dates to the 11th century, is named after the wooden boxes, called pyxes, where a sample of the coinage of the realm was held in advance of the ‘Trial of the Pyx’, a public demonstration that the coinage of the day was pure. Many valuables were held in the treasury – jewellery, crowns, plate, cups of state, ceremonial swords and other precious objects – to be given as presents or used on grand occasions. Immediately after the shocking theft of much of this treasure, suspicion fell on the abbot and monks, who consequently were all briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London. But King Edward, perhaps reluctant to humiliate a great royal foundation such as Westminster Abbey, eventually released them. Further enquiries identified the culprit as one Richard Pudlicote of Oxfordshire, a gentleman who may have had a grudge against the king, having been imprisoned in Flanders a few years earlier as surety for Edward’s growing debts. According to Pudlicote’s confession, his knowledge of the abbey and the treasury within came from an earlier small-scale theft: the said Richard had noticed a ladder on a house being roofed near the gate from the palace to the abbey, and he placed this ladder against a window of the chapter house, which opened and shut with a cord: using this cord he opened the window. From there he went to the Refectory door, which he found locked, but opened it with his knife and went inside. He found 6 hanapers [goblets] in a cupboard behind the door, and in another cupboard more than thirty silver dishes and under a bench hanapers [wicker baskets] of drinking cups all gathered up. He took all these away with him and shut the door behind him, but left it unlocked … This is how he knew the layout of the abbey, where the treasury was and how he could get in. He then worked away patiently for months before this much larger robbery: Eight days before Christmas he came there to break in with tools acquired for the job, namely two chisels, large and small, a knife and some smaller iron ‘engines’, and he worked at night until a fortnight after Easter, and on the night of Wednesday, the eve of Saint Mark, he got into the treasury, stayed inside through Saint Mark’s day sorting out the things he wanted to carry off, and on the following night he got out, leaving part of the treasure under the bush, to recover it the next night, and the rest he carried away with him, getting away through a gate behind St Margaret’s Church. When the loot started showing up in brothels and pawn shops, Pudlicote was arrested with £2,200 worth of stolen property in his possession. He was sentenced to death in November 1305, carted from the Tower of London in a wheelbarrow, and hanged on the Abbot’s Gallows in Tothill Lane. Pudlicote’s role may have been exaggerated: his confession seems to have been designed to exonerate the monks who must have been complicit in what looked very like an inside job. But clearly an example needed to be made – although a gruesome legend asserting that the skin was flayed from his body and affixed to the treasury door to deter other potential thieves is, it seems, apocryphal. Whoever was to blame, the burglary – and the high-profile trials and sentencing that followed – was a national scandal. It left a lasting mistrust between the king and Westminster Abbey. And although some of the stolen treasure was eventually recovered, the burglary was also a blow to the king’s finances which he could have done without. When he died in 1307, Edward was probably in debt to the tune of £200,000, then a massive sum. Many petitions in Parliament heard during the last years of his reign testify to resentment at the king’s failure to pay his debts – and much of that money was still owed at the end of his son’s reign 20 years later. By Jeremy Ashbee	969	ENGLISH	1
Amherst County Courthouse Location within the U.S. state of Virginia Virginia's location within the U.S. \|Named for\|\|Jeffery Amherst\| \|o Total\|\|479 sq mi (1,240 km2)\| \|o Land\|\|474 sq mi (1,230 km2)\| \|o Water\|\|4.9 sq mi (13 km2) 1.0%\| \| o Estimate \| \|o Density\|\|68/sq mi (26/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|UTC-5 (Eastern)\| \|o Summer (DST)\|\|UTC-4 (EDT)\| Amherst County is a county, located in the Piedmont region and near the center of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. The county is part of the Lynchburg, VA Metropolitan Statistical Area, and its county seat is also named Amherst. Amherst County was created in 1761 out of Albemarle County, and it was named in honor of Lord Jeffery Amherst, the so-called "Conqueror of Canada". In 1807 as population increased, the county was reduced in size in order to form Nelson County. Tobacco was the major cash crop of the county during its early years. The labor-intensive crop was worked and processed by enslaved Africans and African Americans before the American Civil War. Beginning thousands of years in the past, Native Americans were the first humans to populate the area. They hunted and fished mainly along the countless rivers and streams in the county. With the establishment of the Virginia Colony in 1607, English emigrants arrived in North America. By the late 17th century English explorers and traders had traveled up the James River to this area. Early trading posts were established between 1710 and 1720. By 1730, many new English colonial families moved into the area currently known as Amherst County, drawn by the desire for land and the good tobacco-growing soil. Amherst County was formed in 1761, from part of southwestern Albemarle County. The original county seat had been in Cabelsville, now Colleen, in what would later become Nelson County. The county was named for Lord Amherst, known as the "Conqueror of Canada", who commanded the British forces that successfully secured Canada from the French during the Seven Years War. Jeffery Amherst had previously been named as Governor of Virginia, although he never came to this colony. In 1806 the county took its present proportions, when Nelson County was formed from its northern half. At that point, the county seat was moved to the village of Five Oaks, later renamed Amherst. The present county courthouse was built in 1870 and has served the county ever since. Amherst County produced more Confederate soldiers per capita than anywhere else in the Confederate States of America. In the early days, the major crop raised in Amherst County was tobacco. Apple orchards were part of mixed farming that replaced tobacco, especially in the late 19th century. Timber, mining and milling were also important industries. The introduction of the railroad in the late 19th century greatly influenced the county's growth. The county contains many good examples of 18th, 19th and early 20th century rural and small town architecture. The downtown area of Amherst is a classic example of early 20th century commercial architecture. Recreational attractions are located throughout the county. There are four recreational and public lakes, namely Mill Creek, Thrashers Lake, Otter Lake and Stonehouse Lake, which offer opportunities to fish, canoe or kayak. There are many parks and trails in the county, including about 25 miles of the Appalachian Trail, which runs through the George Washington National Forest. Offshoot trails lead to peaks in Amherst, such at Mount Pleasant, Cole Mountain, and Tar Jacket Ridge. As of the census of 2000, there were 31,894 people, 11,941 households, and 8,645 families residing in the county. The population density was 67 people per square mile (26/km²). There were 12,958 housing units at an average density of 27 per square mile (11/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 77.67% White, 19.79% Black or African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.35% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.41% from other races, and 0.94% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 11,941 households out of which 31.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.00% were married couples living together, 12.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.60% were non-families. 24.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.95. In the county, the population was spread out with 23.50% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 27.70% from 25 to 44, 25.30% from 45 to 64, and 13.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.10 males. The median income for a household in the county was $37,393, and the median income for a family was $42,876. Males had a median income of $31,493 versus $22,155 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,952. About 8.00% of families and 10.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.20% of those under age 18 and 11.60% of those age 65 or over. The Board of Supervisors are elected from single-member districts. Amherst County is represented by Republican Tom A. Garrett, Jr. in the Virginia Senate, Republican T. Scott Garrett and Republican Ronnie R. Campbell in the Virginia House of Delegates, and Republican Ben Cline in the U.S. House of Representatives.	<urn:uuid:74cc7536-cfb5-4d53-9402-7dd871b81c48>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=Amherst_County,_Virginia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00167.warc.gz	en	0.980565	1,330	3.8125	4	[ -0.3360660970211029, -0.031346529722213745, 0.3716755509376526, -0.20020991563796997, -0.01949036493897438, -0.2751896381378174, -0.17414778470993042, -0.3154885172843933, -0.09872196614742279, 0.46740806102752686, 0.02170363813638687, -0.3491066098213196, -0.16712577641010284, -0.26111298...	1	Amherst County Courthouse Location within the U.S. state of Virginia Virginia's location within the U.S. \|Named for\|\|Jeffery Amherst\| \|o Total\|\|479 sq mi (1,240 km2)\| \|o Land\|\|474 sq mi (1,230 km2)\| \|o Water\|\|4.9 sq mi (13 km2) 1.0%\| \| o Estimate \| \|o Density\|\|68/sq mi (26/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|UTC-5 (Eastern)\| \|o Summer (DST)\|\|UTC-4 (EDT)\| Amherst County is a county, located in the Piedmont region and near the center of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. The county is part of the Lynchburg, VA Metropolitan Statistical Area, and its county seat is also named Amherst. Amherst County was created in 1761 out of Albemarle County, and it was named in honor of Lord Jeffery Amherst, the so-called "Conqueror of Canada". In 1807 as population increased, the county was reduced in size in order to form Nelson County. Tobacco was the major cash crop of the county during its early years. The labor-intensive crop was worked and processed by enslaved Africans and African Americans before the American Civil War. Beginning thousands of years in the past, Native Americans were the first humans to populate the area. They hunted and fished mainly along the countless rivers and streams in the county. With the establishment of the Virginia Colony in 1607, English emigrants arrived in North America. By the late 17th century English explorers and traders had traveled up the James River to this area. Early trading posts were established between 1710 and 1720. By 1730, many new English colonial families moved into the area currently known as Amherst County, drawn by the desire for land and the good tobacco-growing soil. Amherst County was formed in 1761, from part of southwestern Albemarle County. The original county seat had been in Cabelsville, now Colleen, in what would later become Nelson County. The county was named for Lord Amherst, known as the "Conqueror of Canada", who commanded the British forces that successfully secured Canada from the French during the Seven Years War. Jeffery Amherst had previously been named as Governor of Virginia, although he never came to this colony. In 1806 the county took its present proportions, when Nelson County was formed from its northern half. At that point, the county seat was moved to the village of Five Oaks, later renamed Amherst. The present county courthouse was built in 1870 and has served the county ever since. Amherst County produced more Confederate soldiers per capita than anywhere else in the Confederate States of America. In the early days, the major crop raised in Amherst County was tobacco. Apple orchards were part of mixed farming that replaced tobacco, especially in the late 19th century. Timber, mining and milling were also important industries. The introduction of the railroad in the late 19th century greatly influenced the county's growth. The county contains many good examples of 18th, 19th and early 20th century rural and small town architecture. The downtown area of Amherst is a classic example of early 20th century commercial architecture. Recreational attractions are located throughout the county. There are four recreational and public lakes, namely Mill Creek, Thrashers Lake, Otter Lake and Stonehouse Lake, which offer opportunities to fish, canoe or kayak. There are many parks and trails in the county, including about 25 miles of the Appalachian Trail, which runs through the George Washington National Forest. Offshoot trails lead to peaks in Amherst, such at Mount Pleasant, Cole Mountain, and Tar Jacket Ridge. As of the census of 2000, there were 31,894 people, 11,941 households, and 8,645 families residing in the county. The population density was 67 people per square mile (26/km²). There were 12,958 housing units at an average density of 27 per square mile (11/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 77.67% White, 19.79% Black or African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.35% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.41% from other races, and 0.94% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 11,941 households out of which 31.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.00% were married couples living together, 12.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.60% were non-families. 24.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.95. In the county, the population was spread out with 23.50% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 27.70% from 25 to 44, 25.30% from 45 to 64, and 13.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.10 males. The median income for a household in the county was $37,393, and the median income for a family was $42,876. Males had a median income of $31,493 versus $22,155 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,952. About 8.00% of families and 10.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.20% of those under age 18 and 11.60% of those age 65 or over. The Board of Supervisors are elected from single-member districts. Amherst County is represented by Republican Tom A. Garrett, Jr. in the Virginia Senate, Republican T. Scott Garrett and Republican Ronnie R. Campbell in the Virginia House of Delegates, and Republican Ben Cline in the U.S. House of Representatives.	1,499	ENGLISH	1
Unformatted text preview: Colonial Society and Economy Although the colonists enjoyed a good deal of political autonomy through their elected assemblies (for example, the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Maryland House of Delegates), the colonies were part of the English imperial system. The Navigation Acts, first eructed by Parliament in 1660, regulated trade hy requiring that gets he shipped in English ships with predominantly Inglish crows and that certain commodities, called enumerated articles, be shipped to only England or its colonies. The laws reflected the economic policy known as mercantilism, which held that colonics exist for the benefit of the mother country as a source of raw materials and a market for its manufactured goods. On the international scene, the colonies could not cscape the great power rivalry between Englund and France. Each of the wars fought between the two countries in Europe had its counterpart in North America. By 1750, more than one million people, representing a population increase of significant proportions, wore living in the thirtoon colonios along the Atlantic coast. Discaso, which had throatonod the survival of many of the carly sottiamants, was much roducod. Infant mortality rates in the colonies were much lower than those in England, and life expectancy was considerably higher. Women married earlier, giving them the opportunity to have more children, and large families were the norm. It was not uncommon at all for a woman to have eight children and more than forty grandchildren. Natural increase, the excess of live births over deaths, was important to the population growth, but ongoing European immigration was a factor as well. Whether refugees from war (the Germans, for example) or victims of persecution or economic conditions in their homelands (the Irish and Scotch-Irish), the new arrivals added to the ethnic and religious mosaic of eighteenth-century America. The largest ethnic group to arrive-the African slaves-came in chains. The expansion of slavery. At midcentury, just under a quarter million blacks lived in the colonies, almost twenty times the number in 1700. The slave numbers increased, as had the white population, through a combination of immigration, albeit forced, and natural increase. As the supply of indentured servants diminished, in part because work opportunities had improved in England, the supply of slaves either imported directly from Africa or transshipped from the West Indies was increased. Charleston, South Carolina, and Newport, Rhode Island, were important points of entry. Competition from Brazilian and Caribbean planters kept the price of male field hands high, however, and the planters' North American counterparts responded by buying women and encouraging slave families. The overwhelming majority of slaves lived in the southern colonies, but there was regional variation in distribution. In the Chesapeake area, slaveholding was far from universal, and many of the plantations had fewer than twenty slaves. A typical South Carolina planter, on the other hand, might own as many as fifty slaves to work in the rice fields. In some districts of the sparsely populated South Carolina colony, blacks outnumbered whites by as much as eight to one, and they were able to retain theirAfrican culture more than slaves who were taken to Virginia or Maryland. Although a mainstay of the southern economy, slavery was not unknown in the northern colonies. Slaves made up twenty percent of the population of New York in 1746, for example. Working as domestics, assistants to craftsmen or stevedores in the port cities, they lived in their master's home, as did indentured servants and apprentices. The slaves' resistance to their situation was often passive, involving feigning illness, breaking equipment, and generally disrupting the routine of the plantation, but it occasionally did turn violent. Given the demographics, it is not surprising that the largest colonial slave revolt-the Stono Rebellion-took place in South Carolina. In 1739, about one hundred fugitive slaves killed twenty whites on their way to Florida and were killed themselves when captured. The rebellion sparked other slave revolts over the next few years. Colonial agriculture. The overwhelming majority of colonists were farmers. New England's rocky soil and short growing season along with the practice of dividing already small farms among siblings led families to a barely subsistent living. The crops they grew-barley, wheal, and oals were the same as those grown in England, so they had little export value compared with the staples of the southern plantations. Many New Englanders left farming to fish or produce lumber, tar, and pitch that could be exchanged for English manufactured goods. In the Middle Colonies, richer land and a better climate created a small surplus. Corn, wheat, and livestock were shipped primarily to the West Indies from the growing commercial centers of Philadelphia and New York, Tobacco remained the most important cash crop around Chesapeake Bay but the volatility of tobacco prices encouraged planters to diversity. Cereal grains, flax, and cattle became important to the economies of Virginia and Maryland in the eighteenth century. Rice cultivation expanded in South Carolina and Georgia, and indigo was added around 1740. The indigo plant was used to make a blue dye much in demand by the English textile industry. Population growth put pressure on the limited supply of land in the north, while the best land in the south was already in the hands of planters. With opportunities for nowcomers limited in the settled coastal areas, many German and Scotch-Irish immigrants pushed into the interior, where available land was more abundant. Filtering into the backcountry of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, they established farms on the frontier and grew just enough food to keep themselves going. Colonial trade and industry. The colonies were part of an Atlantic trading network that linked them with England, Africa, and the West Indies. The pattern of commerce, not 100 accurately called the Triangular Trade, involved the exchange of products from colonial farms, plantations, fisheries, and forests with England for manufactured goods and the West Indies for slaves, molasses, and sugar. In New England. molasses and sugar were distilled into rum, which was used to buy African slaves. Southern Europe was also a valuable market for colonial foodstuffs.Colonial industry was closely associaled with trade. A significant percentage of Allantic shipping was on vessels built in the colonies, and shipbuilding stimulated other crafts, such as the sewing of sails, miling of lumber, and manufacturing of naval slores. Mercantile theory encouraged the colonies to provide raw materials for England's industrializing economy: pig iron and coal became important exports. Concurrently, restrictions were placed on finished goods. For example, Parliament, concerned about possible competition from colonial hatters, prohibited the export of hats from one colony to another and limited the number of apprentices in each hatmaker's shop. The social structure of the colonies. At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves and indentured servants; successful planters in the south and wealthy merchants in the north were the colonial elite. In the Chesapeake area, the signs of prosperity were visible in brick and mortar. The rather modest houses of even the most prosperous farmers of the seventeenth century had given way to spacious mansions in the eighteenth century. South Carolina planters often owned townhouses in Charleston and would probably have gone to someplace like Newport to escape the heat in summer Both in their lifestyles and social pursuits (such as horse racing), the southern gentry emulated the English country squire. Large landholders were not confined just to the southern colonies. The descendants of the Dutch patroons and the men who received lands from the English royal governors controlled estates in the middle colonies. Their farms were worked by tenant farmers, who received a share of the crop for their labor. In the northern cities, wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the merchants; below them was the middle class of skilled craftsmen and shopkeepers. Craftsmen leamed their trade as apprentices and became journeymen when their term of apprenticeship (as long as seven years) was completed. Even as wage earners, the journeymen often still lived with their former master and ate at his lable. Saving enough money to go into business for himself was the dream of every journeyman. Among the urban poor were the unskilled laborers, stevedores, and crew members of the fishing and whaling fleets. Economic recessions were common in the colonies during the eighteenth century, and they affected workers in the cities most. When the supply of labor outstripped demand, wages fell and the level of unemployment rose By and large, women in the colonies assumed traditional roles; they took care of their home and brought up their children. On small farms throughout the colonies and in the backcountry, they also worked the fields and cared for livestock alongside their husbands and children. Urban women, freed from such domestic chores as spinning and candle making (cloth and candles could be purchased in the cities), had somewhat more leisure time, and they might help their husbands in their shop or lavern. Although women gave up their property rights when they married, single women and widows could inherit properly under English law. It was not uncommon for a woman to manage her husband's business after his death. Midwifery, which required years of training, was the one profession open to women.	<urn:uuid:ed74736d-fd98-441b-8caa-2db71aa97952>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studysoup.com/guide/2604148/honors-world-history-i-study-guide	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00269.warc.gz	en	0.980093	1,881	3.921875	4	[ -0.2783324718475342, -0.10770930349826813, 0.5135659575462341, 0.0639854222536087, 0.3345233201980591, -0.003836788237094879, -0.23826909065246582, 0.15967629849910736, -0.0864601880311966, 0.35914117097854614, 0.3004534840583801, -0.07072706520557404, -0.1721607744693756, 0.22122478485107...	1	Unformatted text preview: Colonial Society and Economy Although the colonists enjoyed a good deal of political autonomy through their elected assemblies (for example, the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Maryland House of Delegates), the colonies were part of the English imperial system. The Navigation Acts, first eructed by Parliament in 1660, regulated trade hy requiring that gets he shipped in English ships with predominantly Inglish crows and that certain commodities, called enumerated articles, be shipped to only England or its colonies. The laws reflected the economic policy known as mercantilism, which held that colonics exist for the benefit of the mother country as a source of raw materials and a market for its manufactured goods. On the international scene, the colonies could not cscape the great power rivalry between Englund and France. Each of the wars fought between the two countries in Europe had its counterpart in North America. By 1750, more than one million people, representing a population increase of significant proportions, wore living in the thirtoon colonios along the Atlantic coast. Discaso, which had throatonod the survival of many of the carly sottiamants, was much roducod. Infant mortality rates in the colonies were much lower than those in England, and life expectancy was considerably higher. Women married earlier, giving them the opportunity to have more children, and large families were the norm. It was not uncommon at all for a woman to have eight children and more than forty grandchildren. Natural increase, the excess of live births over deaths, was important to the population growth, but ongoing European immigration was a factor as well. Whether refugees from war (the Germans, for example) or victims of persecution or economic conditions in their homelands (the Irish and Scotch-Irish), the new arrivals added to the ethnic and religious mosaic of eighteenth-century America. The largest ethnic group to arrive-the African slaves-came in chains. The expansion of slavery. At midcentury, just under a quarter million blacks lived in the colonies, almost twenty times the number in 1700. The slave numbers increased, as had the white population, through a combination of immigration, albeit forced, and natural increase. As the supply of indentured servants diminished, in part because work opportunities had improved in England, the supply of slaves either imported directly from Africa or transshipped from the West Indies was increased. Charleston, South Carolina, and Newport, Rhode Island, were important points of entry. Competition from Brazilian and Caribbean planters kept the price of male field hands high, however, and the planters' North American counterparts responded by buying women and encouraging slave families. The overwhelming majority of slaves lived in the southern colonies, but there was regional variation in distribution. In the Chesapeake area, slaveholding was far from universal, and many of the plantations had fewer than twenty slaves. A typical South Carolina planter, on the other hand, might own as many as fifty slaves to work in the rice fields. In some districts of the sparsely populated South Carolina colony, blacks outnumbered whites by as much as eight to one, and they were able to retain theirAfrican culture more than slaves who were taken to Virginia or Maryland. Although a mainstay of the southern economy, slavery was not unknown in the northern colonies. Slaves made up twenty percent of the population of New York in 1746, for example. Working as domestics, assistants to craftsmen or stevedores in the port cities, they lived in their master's home, as did indentured servants and apprentices. The slaves' resistance to their situation was often passive, involving feigning illness, breaking equipment, and generally disrupting the routine of the plantation, but it occasionally did turn violent. Given the demographics, it is not surprising that the largest colonial slave revolt-the Stono Rebellion-took place in South Carolina. In 1739, about one hundred fugitive slaves killed twenty whites on their way to Florida and were killed themselves when captured. The rebellion sparked other slave revolts over the next few years. Colonial agriculture. The overwhelming majority of colonists were farmers. New England's rocky soil and short growing season along with the practice of dividing already small farms among siblings led families to a barely subsistent living. The crops they grew-barley, wheal, and oals were the same as those grown in England, so they had little export value compared with the staples of the southern plantations. Many New Englanders left farming to fish or produce lumber, tar, and pitch that could be exchanged for English manufactured goods. In the Middle Colonies, richer land and a better climate created a small surplus. Corn, wheat, and livestock were shipped primarily to the West Indies from the growing commercial centers of Philadelphia and New York, Tobacco remained the most important cash crop around Chesapeake Bay but the volatility of tobacco prices encouraged planters to diversity. Cereal grains, flax, and cattle became important to the economies of Virginia and Maryland in the eighteenth century. Rice cultivation expanded in South Carolina and Georgia, and indigo was added around 1740. The indigo plant was used to make a blue dye much in demand by the English textile industry. Population growth put pressure on the limited supply of land in the north, while the best land in the south was already in the hands of planters. With opportunities for nowcomers limited in the settled coastal areas, many German and Scotch-Irish immigrants pushed into the interior, where available land was more abundant. Filtering into the backcountry of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, they established farms on the frontier and grew just enough food to keep themselves going. Colonial trade and industry. The colonies were part of an Atlantic trading network that linked them with England, Africa, and the West Indies. The pattern of commerce, not 100 accurately called the Triangular Trade, involved the exchange of products from colonial farms, plantations, fisheries, and forests with England for manufactured goods and the West Indies for slaves, molasses, and sugar. In New England. molasses and sugar were distilled into rum, which was used to buy African slaves. Southern Europe was also a valuable market for colonial foodstuffs.Colonial industry was closely associaled with trade. A significant percentage of Allantic shipping was on vessels built in the colonies, and shipbuilding stimulated other crafts, such as the sewing of sails, miling of lumber, and manufacturing of naval slores. Mercantile theory encouraged the colonies to provide raw materials for England's industrializing economy: pig iron and coal became important exports. Concurrently, restrictions were placed on finished goods. For example, Parliament, concerned about possible competition from colonial hatters, prohibited the export of hats from one colony to another and limited the number of apprentices in each hatmaker's shop. The social structure of the colonies. At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves and indentured servants; successful planters in the south and wealthy merchants in the north were the colonial elite. In the Chesapeake area, the signs of prosperity were visible in brick and mortar. The rather modest houses of even the most prosperous farmers of the seventeenth century had given way to spacious mansions in the eighteenth century. South Carolina planters often owned townhouses in Charleston and would probably have gone to someplace like Newport to escape the heat in summer Both in their lifestyles and social pursuits (such as horse racing), the southern gentry emulated the English country squire. Large landholders were not confined just to the southern colonies. The descendants of the Dutch patroons and the men who received lands from the English royal governors controlled estates in the middle colonies. Their farms were worked by tenant farmers, who received a share of the crop for their labor. In the northern cities, wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the merchants; below them was the middle class of skilled craftsmen and shopkeepers. Craftsmen leamed their trade as apprentices and became journeymen when their term of apprenticeship (as long as seven years) was completed. Even as wage earners, the journeymen often still lived with their former master and ate at his lable. Saving enough money to go into business for himself was the dream of every journeyman. Among the urban poor were the unskilled laborers, stevedores, and crew members of the fishing and whaling fleets. Economic recessions were common in the colonies during the eighteenth century, and they affected workers in the cities most. When the supply of labor outstripped demand, wages fell and the level of unemployment rose By and large, women in the colonies assumed traditional roles; they took care of their home and brought up their children. On small farms throughout the colonies and in the backcountry, they also worked the fields and cared for livestock alongside their husbands and children. Urban women, freed from such domestic chores as spinning and candle making (cloth and candles could be purchased in the cities), had somewhat more leisure time, and they might help their husbands in their shop or lavern. Although women gave up their property rights when they married, single women and widows could inherit properly under English law. It was not uncommon for a woman to manage her husband's business after his death. Midwifery, which required years of training, was the one profession open to women.	1,913	ENGLISH	1
\|The Aztec Ruins National Monument is the site of ancient ruins from 1000 years ago. This location is estimated to have housed about 5000 people who abandoned this place 800 years ago. Once thought to have been built by Aztec people that is how it got it's name. However it is now believed to be the ancestors of the pueblo people who still inhabit this area. The great Kiva has been restored and would have been a gathering place for spiritual events and no women would have been allowed inside. The small cubicle rooms would have housed the community and stored supplies. It is speculated that these dwellings were 4 stories tall at one time. The residents would have farmed, raised sheep and hunted until water and other resources ran out forcing them to move. Similar villages such as Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde are close by villages which probably traded with these people. There is much speculated but still unknown about this great community. Considering they had no iron tools, the rock work, pottery and designs are amazing, evidence of a highly intelligent and social community. It was a privilege to have walked where these people once walked. We also visited the nearby modern town of Aztec which will be in the next entry.	<urn:uuid:35814fcf-ee07-4871-a262-30e7a601f1b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://contiki.mytripjournal.com/MTJ/WebObjects/MyTripJournal.woa/1/wa/mapclick?index=135&tid=24572&page=0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00515.warc.gz	en	0.988293	247	3.265625	3	[ -0.2584489583969116, 0.47221484780311584, 0.3864496052265167, 0.5553973913192749, -0.25991034507751465, -0.02555389329791069, -0.02612539380788803, 0.2900875508785248, -0.5853908658027649, -0.3483862280845642, 0.18195167183876038, -0.37544599175453186, 0.1008618101477623, 0.496210426092147...	1	\|The Aztec Ruins National Monument is the site of ancient ruins from 1000 years ago. This location is estimated to have housed about 5000 people who abandoned this place 800 years ago. Once thought to have been built by Aztec people that is how it got it's name. However it is now believed to be the ancestors of the pueblo people who still inhabit this area. The great Kiva has been restored and would have been a gathering place for spiritual events and no women would have been allowed inside. The small cubicle rooms would have housed the community and stored supplies. It is speculated that these dwellings were 4 stories tall at one time. The residents would have farmed, raised sheep and hunted until water and other resources ran out forcing them to move. Similar villages such as Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde are close by villages which probably traded with these people. There is much speculated but still unknown about this great community. Considering they had no iron tools, the rock work, pottery and designs are amazing, evidence of a highly intelligent and social community. It was a privilege to have walked where these people once walked. We also visited the nearby modern town of Aztec which will be in the next entry.	255	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 12/03/2014) Chedi formed one of the most ancient tribes among the Ksatriyas in early Vedic times. As early as the period of the Rig Veda , the Chedi kings had acquired great renown by their munificent gifts at sacrifices, and also by their great prowess in battle. The Chedi are not expressly mentioned in the later Vedic literature, but that did not mean that they had become extinct, for they appear in the Mahabharata as one of the leading powers of Northern India. It is probable that they were not so prominent in their sacrificial rites, or their political power, in the Brahman age as they had been in the earlier era of the Rig Vedic hymns. has glorified a Chedi king called Vasu. Vasu acquired the designation of Uparicara. This Chedi king was a Paurava and was characterised by great religious merit. In the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, it has been mentioned that Vasu, the Paurava, conquered the beautiful and excellent kingdom of the Chedi on the advice of the god Indra. History says that the next Chedi monarch who appears to have acquired considerable power in the epic period is Shishupala who is called Damaghosasuta or Damaghosatmaja. He had allied himself with the great Jarasandha and on account of his heroism was appointed general of the Magadhan emperor. It has been recorded that Sishupala's conduct had roused the displeasure of many of the Kshatriya tribes of his time, but he was looked upon with such fear that he was considered as an incarnation of the great Daitya Hiranya-Kasipu, and the epic refers to the fact he bore a charmed life unassailable by any ordinary mortal. Several accounts say that the Chedi had helped the Pandavas in the great battle of Kurukshetra . It has been stated that during those times that is during the time of the Mahabharata the Chedi had been very powerful. Mahabharata narrates that Chedi allied in a group with western tribes like the as the Panchala, Matsyas and Karusas, and also with peoples who lived in the east, such as the Kasis and Kosalas. The closest neighbours of the Chedi were the Matsyas. Chedi has been mentioned in many of the Puranic treatise like the Padma Purana . They have mentioned Chedi as a janapada or a country. Chedi is also mentioned in the Jaina and Buddhist literatures as one of the sixteen mahajanapadas . Some historical account says that Chedi comprised the southern portion of Bundelkhand and northern portion of Jabalpur About the Chedi people it has been said in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, that the kingdom of Chedi was full of riches, gems and precious stones, and contained much mineral wealth. The cities in the kingdom were full of honest, virtuous, and contented people. The sons were mindful of their parents' welfare. In Chedi, the four castes were engaged in doing their respective duties. The hospitality of the Chedi people is well known. The Chedi of the Vedic period, like other tribes, e.g. the Purus, were a group of families. The whole tribe was governed by a Raja whose power was checked to an undefined extent by a tribal council. Coins issued by the Chedi kings have been discovered. Gold, silver and copper coins of Gangeyadeva have been discovered. On one side is the name of the king in two lines, and on the other a figure of a four-armed goddess. Coins of one king of the Chedi or Kalacuri dynasty of Kalyanapura have also been discovered. On one side of the coins is engraved the figure of the boar-incarnation, and on the other is written ' Murari' in Nagari characters. Murari was perhaps another name of Somesvaradeva, the second king of the Kalachuri Chedi dynasty.	<urn:uuid:08212834-eac7-4c29-baad-293878f35eac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/47/cedis.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00326.warc.gz	en	0.986516	906	3.609375	4	[ -0.19731146097183228, 0.3210344910621643, 0.31381887197494507, 0.02530151791870594, -0.4355309307575226, -0.32716476917266846, 0.5004881024360657, 0.20165282487869263, -0.11306837201118469, -0.03766392171382904, 0.0001818547025322914, -0.6989859342575073, 0.21863991022109985, 0.39178448915...	1	(Last Updated on : 12/03/2014) Chedi formed one of the most ancient tribes among the Ksatriyas in early Vedic times. As early as the period of the Rig Veda , the Chedi kings had acquired great renown by their munificent gifts at sacrifices, and also by their great prowess in battle. The Chedi are not expressly mentioned in the later Vedic literature, but that did not mean that they had become extinct, for they appear in the Mahabharata as one of the leading powers of Northern India. It is probable that they were not so prominent in their sacrificial rites, or their political power, in the Brahman age as they had been in the earlier era of the Rig Vedic hymns. has glorified a Chedi king called Vasu. Vasu acquired the designation of Uparicara. This Chedi king was a Paurava and was characterised by great religious merit. In the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, it has been mentioned that Vasu, the Paurava, conquered the beautiful and excellent kingdom of the Chedi on the advice of the god Indra. History says that the next Chedi monarch who appears to have acquired considerable power in the epic period is Shishupala who is called Damaghosasuta or Damaghosatmaja. He had allied himself with the great Jarasandha and on account of his heroism was appointed general of the Magadhan emperor. It has been recorded that Sishupala's conduct had roused the displeasure of many of the Kshatriya tribes of his time, but he was looked upon with such fear that he was considered as an incarnation of the great Daitya Hiranya-Kasipu, and the epic refers to the fact he bore a charmed life unassailable by any ordinary mortal. Several accounts say that the Chedi had helped the Pandavas in the great battle of Kurukshetra . It has been stated that during those times that is during the time of the Mahabharata the Chedi had been very powerful. Mahabharata narrates that Chedi allied in a group with western tribes like the as the Panchala, Matsyas and Karusas, and also with peoples who lived in the east, such as the Kasis and Kosalas. The closest neighbours of the Chedi were the Matsyas. Chedi has been mentioned in many of the Puranic treatise like the Padma Purana . They have mentioned Chedi as a janapada or a country. Chedi is also mentioned in the Jaina and Buddhist literatures as one of the sixteen mahajanapadas . Some historical account says that Chedi comprised the southern portion of Bundelkhand and northern portion of Jabalpur About the Chedi people it has been said in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, that the kingdom of Chedi was full of riches, gems and precious stones, and contained much mineral wealth. The cities in the kingdom were full of honest, virtuous, and contented people. The sons were mindful of their parents' welfare. In Chedi, the four castes were engaged in doing their respective duties. The hospitality of the Chedi people is well known. The Chedi of the Vedic period, like other tribes, e.g. the Purus, were a group of families. The whole tribe was governed by a Raja whose power was checked to an undefined extent by a tribal council. Coins issued by the Chedi kings have been discovered. Gold, silver and copper coins of Gangeyadeva have been discovered. On one side is the name of the king in two lines, and on the other a figure of a four-armed goddess. Coins of one king of the Chedi or Kalacuri dynasty of Kalyanapura have also been discovered. On one side of the coins is engraved the figure of the boar-incarnation, and on the other is written ' Murari' in Nagari characters. Murari was perhaps another name of Somesvaradeva, the second king of the Kalachuri Chedi dynasty.	875	ENGLISH	1
Women As Propriety In Shakespeare's The Merchant Of Venice and The Taming Of the Shrew "We may say that the dominant ideas in most societies are the ideas of the dominant sex, associated and mingled with those of dominant class." (Chedgzoy, pg.50) During the Elizabethan time men dominated society. Historically speaking males have always held more power then females in most cultures. Although a few cultures were Matriarchal societies. Yet even in these cultures women were not the superior power but were valued as equal to men. Most of the matriarchal societies viewed women as the embodiment of the goddess. Women have never been the sole dominant sex in a society. The fall of the Matriarchal societies occurred mostly from the organization of Christianity. The Christian ideals taught that women were not intended to have influential roles in society. In the Elizabethan era women were in a weak social position. In addition when Shakespeare writes about women he encompasses the complex issues that socially surround females. Shakespeare allows the audience to observe issues that effect their own factual society acted out on stage. At this time the society was definitely patriarchal, where women were viewed as inferior. In addition women had little to no power over there own lives. Fathers viewed their daughters as their propriety. Which left daughters in a powerless position. The power that women did have was their personal sexuality, virginity was prized and seen as a jewel. Once daughters were married their husbands also valued them as propriety. "Marriages were still arranged, as they had been in the Middle Ages, to further the interests of land-owning families. On marriage all the girl's legal rights ceased and she became as much property of her husbands as his horse or barn. Concern about this contractual, propriety-owning side of marriage, particularly as it effects the girl's father and the prospective suitors, occurs in some Shakespeare's plays.."(Pitt, pg.14) The two plays that most notably deal with the issues of marriage and propriety are The Merchant Of Venice, and The Taming Of the Shrew. I chose to focus on women issues in Shakespeare plays because I found this area to be the most interesting. Throughout this web page one can find information on Elizabethan marriage and women during this time. The two plays that are written about contain significant evidence on how women were in inferior positions. "The household was the microcosm of the state, and women's subjection a happy paradigm of civil order." (Dusinberre, pg.78) The household was a mirror of society and this made it extremely difficult for women to gain power of their own lives. Females were dependent on their fathers during childhood and were obliged to obey their fathers. Once females grew up and got married they were obliged to obey their husbands. During this time men and women were not viewed as an adult until they were...	<urn:uuid:95f127b2-5d1c-48f8-b5c8-9171740f6b32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/comparing-women-as-propriety-in-the-merchant-of-venice-therefore-the-taming-of-the-shrew	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00002.warc.gz	en	0.99018	589	3.578125	4	[ 0.10818003118038177, 0.1506296694278717, 0.2857041358947754, -0.20336121320724487, -0.3919171094894409, 0.2877861261367798, 0.20273631811141968, 0.2972734272480011, 0.016624366864562035, -0.27763354778289795, -0.15781114995479584, 0.07300684601068497, 0.254114031791687, -0.0122659504413604...	1	Women As Propriety In Shakespeare's The Merchant Of Venice and The Taming Of the Shrew "We may say that the dominant ideas in most societies are the ideas of the dominant sex, associated and mingled with those of dominant class." (Chedgzoy, pg.50) During the Elizabethan time men dominated society. Historically speaking males have always held more power then females in most cultures. Although a few cultures were Matriarchal societies. Yet even in these cultures women were not the superior power but were valued as equal to men. Most of the matriarchal societies viewed women as the embodiment of the goddess. Women have never been the sole dominant sex in a society. The fall of the Matriarchal societies occurred mostly from the organization of Christianity. The Christian ideals taught that women were not intended to have influential roles in society. In the Elizabethan era women were in a weak social position. In addition when Shakespeare writes about women he encompasses the complex issues that socially surround females. Shakespeare allows the audience to observe issues that effect their own factual society acted out on stage. At this time the society was definitely patriarchal, where women were viewed as inferior. In addition women had little to no power over there own lives. Fathers viewed their daughters as their propriety. Which left daughters in a powerless position. The power that women did have was their personal sexuality, virginity was prized and seen as a jewel. Once daughters were married their husbands also valued them as propriety. "Marriages were still arranged, as they had been in the Middle Ages, to further the interests of land-owning families. On marriage all the girl's legal rights ceased and she became as much property of her husbands as his horse or barn. Concern about this contractual, propriety-owning side of marriage, particularly as it effects the girl's father and the prospective suitors, occurs in some Shakespeare's plays.."(Pitt, pg.14) The two plays that most notably deal with the issues of marriage and propriety are The Merchant Of Venice, and The Taming Of the Shrew. I chose to focus on women issues in Shakespeare plays because I found this area to be the most interesting. Throughout this web page one can find information on Elizabethan marriage and women during this time. The two plays that are written about contain significant evidence on how women were in inferior positions. "The household was the microcosm of the state, and women's subjection a happy paradigm of civil order." (Dusinberre, pg.78) The household was a mirror of society and this made it extremely difficult for women to gain power of their own lives. Females were dependent on their fathers during childhood and were obliged to obey their fathers. Once females grew up and got married they were obliged to obey their husbands. During this time men and women were not viewed as an adult until they were...	593	ENGLISH	1
The men who gathered in that blistering humid room in Philadelphia in 1787 to create our governing document did not represent a cross section of the American population. Unlike most Americans, they were wealthy lawyers and planters and most were extremely well-educated. Though they may not have all attended universities, they were well read in history and political philosophy. We know the major influences of men like Locke and Montesquieu upon our governing documents, but we know little today of James Harrington. All of the founders were familiar with Harrington. His writing was the inspiration for the original South Carolina government and in many ways also on the Constitution. If we want to try to understand the thinking behind the Constitution, and make better historical arguments, it is helpful to know what inspired the men who wrote it. Writing during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, Harrington described the fictional utopian nation of Oceana. The Commonwealth of Oceana, like all utopian novels, was meant to shed light on the author’s own government and its shortcomings. Harrington criticized Cromwell, thinly veiled as Olphaus Megaletor in the tract, and served time in the Tower for his criticism. Harrington believed that all political power should be shared by men of property and that property should be distributed amongst the middle class, a concept shared later by Thomas Jefferson. Harrington believed that these property holders should vote for senators who serve limited terms so all could take turns in governing. Like most political philosophers of the time, Harrington saw these men as those who had a stake in society and so should hold the power. Power should also be held in a bicameral legislature, with a lesser and greater house making the laws. The key to freedom for Harrington was that the property holding citizens had an obligation to serve in the militia. Under the Cromwell rule, the army had become a tool for tyranny. Not being property holders themselves, Cromwell’s solders did not have a stake in society and cared little for the rights of the people. They had become professional soldiers, whose only loyalty was to Cromwell. If the property holding citizens were the militia, he believed, they would not drain the purse. More importantly, they would be the ones who ruled. If they attacked the system, they would only be attacking the system that placed them in power. In other words, a standing army can lead to tyranny, whereas an armed citizenry of stakeholders leads to democracy. Another author every founder knew was Thomas Gordon who wrote under the name “Cato.” The original Cato was a Roman Senator who stood against Caesar and was a popular pen name for anyone representing republicanism. In his 1722 Cato Letter #65, Gordon wrote, “In attacks upon a free state, every man will fight to defend it, because every man has something to defend in it. He is in love with his condition, his ease, and property, and will venture his life rather than lose them; because with them he loses all the blessings of life. When these blessings are gone, it is madness to think that any man will spill his blood for him who took them away, and is doubtless his enemy, though he may call himself his prince. It is much more natural to wish his destruction, and help to procure it.” Harrington understood there would always be those who tried to take advantage of the stakeholders, like Cromwell, who wanted to take power. The answer was for stakeholders to practice public virtue, the ability to look beyond themselves for the good of the state. As we see from Cato, virtuous citizens must be willing to lose their lives for the good of the state. You can see the influence of Harrington and Gordon in the creation of the Bill of Rights. They both saw a standing army as a potential for tyranny, hence, the Second Amendment. I am not trying to make an argument for or against gun control here, only to show the influences on the founders and their points of view. What can be drawn from understanding men like Harrington is the concept of virtue. There have been so many arguments as to why we are so divided today and why there are so many issues such as random violence. I have heard blame placed on a loss of God, a growth in white supremacy, the NRA, and violent video games. Maybe what we have really lost is public virtue. Maybe what we have lost is the willingness to give our lives for what we believe in and to put public virtue before ourselves. Historically speaking, Oceana may be a fictional nation, but maybe Harrington understood something. If we could ever bring back the notion of public virtue, maybe we could attack the causes of our divide instead of always having to fix the consequences. Dr. James Finck is an Associate Professor of History at the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma and Chair of the Oklahoma Civil War Symposium. Follow Historically Speaking at www.Historicallyspeaking.blog or Facebook at @jamesWfinck.	<urn:uuid:5411a319-330a-4975-8e84-5847de460546>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.timelinesmagazine.com/publication/timelines_magazine/public-virtue/article_6d223194-064f-11ea-882e-ab9589545955.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00051.warc.gz	en	0.981623	1,012	3.453125	3	[ -0.11258392035961151, 0.4832218289375305, 0.04120798036456108, -0.312341570854187, -0.3432891368865967, 0.05473712086677551, 0.33107131719589233, 0.04802962392568588, -0.2616279721260071, 0.1378432810306549, 0.21808640658855438, 0.11291562020778656, 0.1349686086177826, -0.01817087829113006...	1	The men who gathered in that blistering humid room in Philadelphia in 1787 to create our governing document did not represent a cross section of the American population. Unlike most Americans, they were wealthy lawyers and planters and most were extremely well-educated. Though they may not have all attended universities, they were well read in history and political philosophy. We know the major influences of men like Locke and Montesquieu upon our governing documents, but we know little today of James Harrington. All of the founders were familiar with Harrington. His writing was the inspiration for the original South Carolina government and in many ways also on the Constitution. If we want to try to understand the thinking behind the Constitution, and make better historical arguments, it is helpful to know what inspired the men who wrote it. Writing during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, Harrington described the fictional utopian nation of Oceana. The Commonwealth of Oceana, like all utopian novels, was meant to shed light on the author’s own government and its shortcomings. Harrington criticized Cromwell, thinly veiled as Olphaus Megaletor in the tract, and served time in the Tower for his criticism. Harrington believed that all political power should be shared by men of property and that property should be distributed amongst the middle class, a concept shared later by Thomas Jefferson. Harrington believed that these property holders should vote for senators who serve limited terms so all could take turns in governing. Like most political philosophers of the time, Harrington saw these men as those who had a stake in society and so should hold the power. Power should also be held in a bicameral legislature, with a lesser and greater house making the laws. The key to freedom for Harrington was that the property holding citizens had an obligation to serve in the militia. Under the Cromwell rule, the army had become a tool for tyranny. Not being property holders themselves, Cromwell’s solders did not have a stake in society and cared little for the rights of the people. They had become professional soldiers, whose only loyalty was to Cromwell. If the property holding citizens were the militia, he believed, they would not drain the purse. More importantly, they would be the ones who ruled. If they attacked the system, they would only be attacking the system that placed them in power. In other words, a standing army can lead to tyranny, whereas an armed citizenry of stakeholders leads to democracy. Another author every founder knew was Thomas Gordon who wrote under the name “Cato.” The original Cato was a Roman Senator who stood against Caesar and was a popular pen name for anyone representing republicanism. In his 1722 Cato Letter #65, Gordon wrote, “In attacks upon a free state, every man will fight to defend it, because every man has something to defend in it. He is in love with his condition, his ease, and property, and will venture his life rather than lose them; because with them he loses all the blessings of life. When these blessings are gone, it is madness to think that any man will spill his blood for him who took them away, and is doubtless his enemy, though he may call himself his prince. It is much more natural to wish his destruction, and help to procure it.” Harrington understood there would always be those who tried to take advantage of the stakeholders, like Cromwell, who wanted to take power. The answer was for stakeholders to practice public virtue, the ability to look beyond themselves for the good of the state. As we see from Cato, virtuous citizens must be willing to lose their lives for the good of the state. You can see the influence of Harrington and Gordon in the creation of the Bill of Rights. They both saw a standing army as a potential for tyranny, hence, the Second Amendment. I am not trying to make an argument for or against gun control here, only to show the influences on the founders and their points of view. What can be drawn from understanding men like Harrington is the concept of virtue. There have been so many arguments as to why we are so divided today and why there are so many issues such as random violence. I have heard blame placed on a loss of God, a growth in white supremacy, the NRA, and violent video games. Maybe what we have really lost is public virtue. Maybe what we have lost is the willingness to give our lives for what we believe in and to put public virtue before ourselves. Historically speaking, Oceana may be a fictional nation, but maybe Harrington understood something. If we could ever bring back the notion of public virtue, maybe we could attack the causes of our divide instead of always having to fix the consequences. Dr. James Finck is an Associate Professor of History at the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma and Chair of the Oklahoma Civil War Symposium. Follow Historically Speaking at www.Historicallyspeaking.blog or Facebook at @jamesWfinck.	1,018	ENGLISH	1
Empty fort strategy See also: Empty fort strategy In the novel, during one of the northern expeditions, Zhuge Liang’s troops were defeated in the Battle of Jieting due to the incompetence of the commander Ma Su. In order to buy time for the Shu troops to escape, Zhuge Liang ordered the soldiers to leave the city’s gates wide open. Some of the soldiers disguised themselves as ordinary civilians doing day-to-day work such as sweeping near the city gates. Zhuge Liang personally stood guard on top of the gates, by playing the zither calmly in the face of great danger. The Wei commander Sima Yi suspected that there may be troops lying in ambush within the city and he believed that Zhuge Liang would not be foolish enough to leave the city gates wide open for the enemy to charge in, hence he ordered his troops to retreat. Historical records indicated that the Wei troops did not pursue the retreating Shu troops after the Battle of Jieting. According to Professor Yi Zhongtian, this event could not have taken place due to these reasons; Firstly, Sima Yi was not present at the site where this event took place as he was stationed far away in Wancheng (宛城) according to historical records. Secondly, it was impossible to have gotten to such close proximity to Zhuge Liang to watch his facial expressions and hear him play the zither clearly and if so, the Wei army could have ordered an archer to shoot down Zhuge Liang. Thirdly, based on Sima Yi’s expertise in military strategy, Sima Yi would possibly have ordered his army to surround the city and not attack even if he believed that there was an ambush inside, to verify that his assumption was true.	<urn:uuid:7aea43f8-c918-4356-bf33-bc44738b8560>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://fate.forum.st/t69-fiction-vs-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00131.warc.gz	en	0.986851	360	3.359375	3	[ -0.4312148690223694, 0.33407196402549744, 0.3586951494216919, 0.18761976063251495, 0.005812111776322126, 0.051009032875299454, 0.17608259618282318, 0.17705199122428894, 0.029394829645752907, -0.042027637362480164, 0.5056645274162292, -0.34968388080596924, 0.20239119231700897, 0.61151564121...	4	Empty fort strategy See also: Empty fort strategy In the novel, during one of the northern expeditions, Zhuge Liang’s troops were defeated in the Battle of Jieting due to the incompetence of the commander Ma Su. In order to buy time for the Shu troops to escape, Zhuge Liang ordered the soldiers to leave the city’s gates wide open. Some of the soldiers disguised themselves as ordinary civilians doing day-to-day work such as sweeping near the city gates. Zhuge Liang personally stood guard on top of the gates, by playing the zither calmly in the face of great danger. The Wei commander Sima Yi suspected that there may be troops lying in ambush within the city and he believed that Zhuge Liang would not be foolish enough to leave the city gates wide open for the enemy to charge in, hence he ordered his troops to retreat. Historical records indicated that the Wei troops did not pursue the retreating Shu troops after the Battle of Jieting. According to Professor Yi Zhongtian, this event could not have taken place due to these reasons; Firstly, Sima Yi was not present at the site where this event took place as he was stationed far away in Wancheng (宛城) according to historical records. Secondly, it was impossible to have gotten to such close proximity to Zhuge Liang to watch his facial expressions and hear him play the zither clearly and if so, the Wei army could have ordered an archer to shoot down Zhuge Liang. Thirdly, based on Sima Yi’s expertise in military strategy, Sima Yi would possibly have ordered his army to surround the city and not attack even if he believed that there was an ambush inside, to verify that his assumption was true.	358	ENGLISH	1
- Landing at Anzac Cove Infobox Military Conflict conflict=Landing at Anzac Cove caption="Anzac, the landing 1915" by George Lambert. partof=First World War 25 April- 3 May, 1915 Anzac Cove, Gallipoli strength2=1 battalion 1 div. in reserve casualties1=8,709 killed or wounded casualties2=19,441 killed or wounded The landing at Anzac Cove was part of the amphibious invasion of the Gallipolipeninsula by British and French forces on April 25, 1915. The landing, north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast of the peninsula, was made by soldiers of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and was the first significant combat of the war for these two countries. Another landing was made several miles to the south west at Cape Helles by British and French troops. The purpose of the invasion was to neutralize the Turkish forts that controlled the passage of the Dardanellesstraits. The Anzac Cove landing went awry when the boats strayed off course in the pre-dawn dark and what was planned as a swift operation became a protracted and bloody eight-month struggle. In that period the frontline of the Anzac battlefield remained little changed from the ground captured on the first day of the landing, a space less than three-quarters of a square mile (2 km²) in size—home to over 20,000 men. Winning control of the Dardanelles was originally intended to be a purely naval operation but after the loss of three battleships during the attack of March 18it was decided that the aid of the army would be required to defeat the forts that guarded the straits. See Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign. Mediterranean Expeditionary Forcewas formed under General Sir Ian Hamilton and a two-pronged landing on the peninsula was planned. The British 29th Divisionwould carry out the main landing at Cape Helleson the tip of the peninsula and advance along its length towards the forts at Kilitbahir which controlled the passage of the Narrows of the Dardanelles. However, because it was not possible to land the entire force on the limited beaches at Helles, a secondary landing by the Australian (and) New Zealand Army Corps, north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, was planned. If resistance was strong, this secondary landing would be treated as a feint to draw defenders from Helles and the attacking force would be withdrawn. If successful, the attacking force would be a mere five miles (8 km) from the Narrows and in command of the high ground thereby denying the passage of reinforcements to Helles. The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed in Egyptfrom the Australian and New Zealand infantrythat had been in training prior to moving to the Western Frontin France. When the need for infantry at Gallipoli arose, they were ideally placed to participate. Two divisions were formed; the Australian 1st Division containing the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Brigades, and the New Zealand and Australian Divisioncontaining the Australian 4th Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade. The terrain behind the planned landing site was rough, thinly wooded and covered with scrub. The main ridge line, the Kocaçimentepe Range (mistakenly called the Sari Bair Range by the British), ran along the length of the peninsula behind the landing area. There was little flat ground; the area was dominated by a series of ridges and eroded gullies or ravines. The peak of Hill 971 ("Kocaçimentepe") was the highest point on the peninsula. Anzac Coveitself is a shallow, nondescript stretch of beach about one kilometre wide, bounded by the headlands of Ari Burnu to the north and Hell Spit to the south. The British planners identified three ridge lines as objectives for the invasion. The first ridge started above Ari Burnu at Plugge's Plateau (named later for Colonel A. Plugge of the AucklandBattalion). The ridge continued via a perilously narrow stretch known as the "Razor's Edge" to a plateau called Russell's Top. A number of lesser spurs projected from Russell's Top towards the beach; the most prominent was a striking, eroded outcrop that was inevitably named "The Sphinx" by soldiers who had until recently been encamped near the Pyramids of Giza. Neighbouring it to the north was Walker's Ridge which provided a direct, if exposed, route to the Top from the beach. Russell's Top was connected to the main range at Baby 700 via a narrow saddle known as "The Nek". Baby 700 was so named because it and its neighbouring hill, Big 700 (later known as Battleship Hill), lay within the convert\|600\|ft\|m\|sing=on contour on the British maps. (Baby 700 is actually convert\|590\|ft\|m in height.) The second ridge also connected to the main range at Baby 700. Between the first and second ridges lay "Monash Valley" named after General John Monash. On the second ridge was one of the largest regions of level ground known as 400 Plateau (as it was bounded by the convert\|400\|ft\|m\|sing=on contour). It was a wide, heart-shaped area of relatively level ground, thickly covered with scrub but largely treeless. The northern "lobe" of the plateau became known as "Johnston's Jolly", after Colonel Johnston, commander of the divisional artillery, who positioned guns opposite it with which, in the vernacular of the day, he could "jolly up" the Turks on the plateau. The southern "lobe" was distinguished by a solitary Turkish Pinetree, initially named the "Lonesome Pine", after a popular songof the time, but afterwards shortened to Lone Pine. From this plateau, a number of lesser ridges projected towards the beach north of Gaba Tepe. The seaward ridge was Bolton's Ridge, the inland ridge, Pine Ridge. The third ridge, known to the ANZACs as "Gun Ridge" and the Turks as "Topçuluk Sirt" (Artillery Ridge), because of some artilleryemplacements that were located there, stretched from Gaba Tepe to the main range at Chunuk Bair, above Battleship Hill. Between the second and third ridges lay Legge Valley. Plan of the Landing The ANZAC landing area was a broad, four mile (6 km) stretch of beach from about a mile (1.6 km) north of Gaba Tepe to a point near Fisherman's Hut, north of Anzac Cove. It was officially designated "Z Beach". (The five landing beaches at Helles were designated "S", "V", "W", "X" and "Y Beach"). To attain surprise the landing would commence following moonset, about one hour before dawn. The landing would begin with the arrival of a "covering" force to swiftly capture the area surrounding the landing zone and make it secure for the main force. The Australian 3rd Brigadewas selected as the covering force. Three battalions were to seize the third ridge line as well as Gaba Tepe while the fourth battalion remained in reserve. Following the covering force, the Australian 2nd Brigade would land and move to the north, climbing to the summit of the main range at Hill 971 and protecting the left flank of the landing. The original plan called for the capture of Mal Tepe, halfway across the peninsula, on the first day but only if the landing was successful would this objective be pursued by the main force; the Australian 1st Brigade and the two brigades of the New Zealand and Australian Division. The first wave of the covering force would come ashore from the cutters of three battleships which were to approach within three miles (5 km) of the shore. The remaining waves of the covering force would be landed from seven destroyers which were to approach close in to the beach. The main force would land from transports. The first wave The first troops to land were two companies of each of the 9th, 10th and 11th Battalions of the Australian 3rd Brigade. The companies embarked from three "Formidable"-class battleships; HMS "Queen", HMS "London" and HMS "Prince of Wales". Each battleship dispatched four steamboats towing three row boats (launches and pinnaces)—a total of 48 boats. The moon set at 3am and the battleships released the tows at 3.30am. Given the night was pitch dark, the tows headed due east and so relied on the battleships having been in the correct position when they were released. The journey of the tows became a shambles and numerous theories have been proposed to explain what went amiss. The southern-most tow kept a good course and was aimed correctly just north of Gaba Tepe but its commander found the neighbouring tows were heading northwards, leaving him isolated. He altered course to bring his tow closer and this may have caused a ripple effect as the other tows responded with a similar correction. As the shore was sighted, the headland of Ari Burnu became visible and some tows mistook this for Gaba Tepe and hence veered even "further" north. For whatever reason, these first boats which were meant to land on a two mile (3 km) front between Hell Spit and Gaba Tepe ended up concentrated about Ari Burnu, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of their intended landing area—in fact, in the landing area of the 2nd Brigade which was to follow. The area about Ari Burnu was defended by a single company of the 2nd Battalion, 27th Regiment, Turkish 9th Division. The Australians began to come ashore at 4.30am, the first man to land was Cpl. Joseph Stratford #1179. 9th Btn. according to eyewitnes reports he was waist deep in water, he disposed most of his heavy equipment and charged towards the enemy, he was cut down in a hail of bullets and is buried at Lone Pine. The first troops to land were met by sporadic rifle and machine gunfire but casualties were relatively light. The 11th Battalion, which had landed just north of Ari Burnu, suffered the worst. The main enemy was confusion. The erratic course of the tows meant that the units had become intermingled. Officers were unsure where their units were or indeed where they themselves were; some thought that they had landed at Gaba Tepe. The geography was utterly unfamiliar and no objective could be identified. Most of the troops of the 9th and 10th Battalions began to climb the first hill that confronted them which was unfortunately the dead-end Plugge's Plateau. The second wave The second wave, comprising the second halves of the 9th, 10th and 11th as well as the complete 12th Battalion (which was intended to be the brigade reserve), landed from seven destroyers; HMS "Chelmer", HMS "Colne", HMS "Ribble", HMS "Usk", HMS "Foxhound", HMS "Scourge" and HMS "Beagle". The destroyers had begun to move in at 4am and approached to within 500 metres of the shore before unloading their cargo into their boats. They too had moved too far to the north but were in places closer to the planned landing area—the "Beagle" unloaded south of Hell Spit on the intended beach, far enough south in fact that she came under machine gun fire from Gaba Tepe. The relatively short distance to travel meant that the battalions tended to land in the correct order and not become mixed as had happened with the first companies to land, however, with the element of surprise gone, the second wave was under fire the whole time. Those units that did land to the south of the first wave's landing at Ari Burnu were confronted by gentler terrain than Plugge's Plateau and so, despite coming ashore 20 minutes after the first wave, they tended to make faster progress inland towards the second ridge. As was the case with the first wave, those of the second who landed north of Ari Burnu encountered heavy fire and suffered casualties both in the boats and on the shore. To the north, some parties avoided the bottleneck on Plugge's and reached the extension of the first ridge at Russell's Top. One party, under the command of Captain Tulloch of the 11th Battalion, had followed the beach to the north and then ascended Walker's Ridge. There they encountered other parties from the 12th Battalion, one under Captain Lalor, which had scaled the cliff faces between Plugge's and the Sphinx. The remainder of the Australian 1st Division (the 1st and 2nd Brigades) began to land from the transports between 5.30am and 7.30am. Boats from the transport "Galeka", bearing about 140 men of the 7th Battalion, made the most northerly landing of the day, opposite Fisherman's Hut. They were met by a withering fusillade from the Turkish defenders and less than 40 men made it to the beach. Over the next night and day numerous attempts were made to recover the wounded from the exposed boats. The Turkish reaction At 6am, news of the landing reached the German commander of the Fifth Army, General Liman von Sanders. He believed the Gaba Tepe landing was a feint and that the main blow would fall at Bulair, where the peninsula joins the Turkish mainland. The demonstration by the Royal Naval Divisionin the Gulf of Saros, opposite Bulair, reinforced this belief. Von Sanders therefore retained two divisions, the 5th and the 7th, at Bulair, leaving the 9th and 19th divisions to deal with the Anzac and Helles landings. The reaction of the commander of the 9th Division was to send the two remaining battalions of the 27th Regiment (1st and 3rd) to reinforce the 2nd. Mustafa Kemal, commander of the Turkish 19th Divisionwhich was in reserve only a few miles from the landing, was instructed to send a single battalion as well. When reports reached Kemal that the Australians were making for the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, he was convinced the landing was not a feint and so, making a decision that probably doomed the Anzac landing to failure, if not defeat, he led the entire 57th Regiment forward to counter-attack, setting up his headquarters on the third ridge at Scrubby Knoll (understandably known to the Turks as "Kemal Tepe" — "Kemal's Hill"). The remaining regiments of the 19th Division, the 72nd and 77th Regiments, would join the fight in the evening. Only two regiments, the 25th and 26th, were available to counter the British landing at Helles. As the morning progressed, the focus of the left flank of the landing became Baby 700 which was of immense importance as it commanded the junction of the two ridges and hence access from the landing area to the first significant peak of the main range at Chunuk Bair. It also had a view straight down Monash Valley which was to become the main ANZAC base on the left. Captain Tulloch led his force of about 60 men from Russell's Top across the Nek and, working around the inland side of Baby 700, began to drive the thin line of Turkish defenders back up the ridge. Tulloch's small force managed to advance to a point just below the crest of Battleship Hill on the inland side. Here they were stopped by mounting Turkish resistance to the front on Chunuk Bair and were threatened with outflanking from the seaward side of the hill. Tulloch therefore withdrew his force to Baby 700. The Turkish reinforcements had begun to arrive. The 1st Battalion of the 57th Regiment attacked along Mortar Ridge towards Baby 700 from the inland side. The 2nd Battalion had swung around behind Battleship Hill and advanced down the range on the seaward side of Baby 700. Captain Lalor, aware that his 12th Battalion was meant to be in reserve and that the Nek was a vital defensive position, began to dig in on Russell's Top. At about 8.30am, having no sign of Tulloch's progress, Lalor decided to advance across the Nek onto Baby 700. The Australians took up positions on the far side of the summit and on the spur that led down towards the beach but were repeatedly forced to withdraw to the shelter of the near side. Five attempts were made to get across between 7.30am and 3pm. Shortly after the landing, the commander of the 3rd Brigade, ColonelSinclair-MacLagan, had begun directing his forces on Plugge's Plateau to move up Monash Valley. The first companies were ordered to form strong posts on the second ridge, along the eastern face of the valley which was cut by steep, eroded ravines. These posts, which hung precariously from the lip of the valley wall, would come to be known as "Courtney's", "Steele's" and "Quinn's" Posts. Other forces from Plugge's were sent via Monash Valley towards Baby 700 but as fighting developed at the posts along the valley wall, these troops were repeatedly drawn off as reinforcements. Consequently, few additional troops would arrive to support those on Russell's Top as they attempted to capture and hold Baby 700. Around 10am MacLagan obtained reinforcements from the newly arrived 1st Brigade; one company from the 1st Battalion and two from the 2nd Battalion. The Aucklandand Canterbury Battalions of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, under the temporary command of Brigadier GeneralH.B. Walker, an ANZAC staff officer, were also directed to Baby 700. As the Turks also continued to reinforce, the position on Baby 700 deteriorated and became more untenable for the ANZACs whose flanks were in the air. They lacked sufficient machine guns and artillery support was non-existent. At about 4pm, the Turkish 57th Regiment, now with the 3rd Battalion in support, mounted a concerted counter-attack on Baby 700. With the aid of artillery fire, they broke through the Anzac line forcing them to abandon the hill. The survivors retreated across the Nek or into Malone's Gully (on the seaward side of the Nek) and Monash Valley (on the inland side). A few became lost and ended up in the valley on the far side of the second ridge (Mule Valley) and were captured or killed. One party under the command of Colonel Braund of the Australian 2nd Battalion was holding a line near the top of Walker's Ridge but Russell's Top was thinly held. During the night of April 25, a small force of Turks from the 3rd Battalion, 57th Regiment, succeeded in infiltrating the line at the Nek and advancing along the Top, effectively splitting the left and right flanks of the Anzac firing line. The Turks withdrew from the Top before dawn, possibly encouraged by a naval bombardment. The covering force attempted to carry out their orders, despite the disarray of the landing, and so, crossing 400 Plateau, small parties headed for the third ridge. However, the only groups to reach there were from the second wave which had avoided Plugge's. Two fast-moving scouts of the 10th Battalion made the deepest penetration when they reconnoitred Scrubby Knoll on the third ridge. Lieutenant Loutit of the 10th Battalion led 30 men to a spur of the knoll, just short of the third ridge. Like Tulloch on Battleship Hill, these men had fleeting views of the Narrows, three miles (5 km) away. However, a sizeable Turkish force was amassing and, receiving few reinforcements, they were compelled to withdraw to the second ridge at 9.30am. They were pursued across the valley by the first Turkish troops of the 3rd Battalion, 27th Regiment which began to counter-attack against the thin Australian firing line that was forming along the second ridge and across the plateau. By this stage Colonel MacLagan had already decided to change the plan and hold a position on the second ridge. The 9th and 10th Battalions began to dig in across the plateau. His orders did not reach everyone. Isolated groups continued to push for the original objectives and were lost. As troops of the 2nd Brigade began to arrive, MacLagan made the fatal decision to advance the 9th Battalion, which had formed the semblance of a firing line across the middle of the plateau. By sections the Australians advanced and effectively vanished into the mounting Turkish fire. MacLagan attempted to rescind the order shortly afterwards but by this time the battalion was dispersed. MacLagan convinced Colonel M'Cay of the 2nd Brigade to send his battalions, which had landed in some kind of order, forward into the plateau's void as well. The day's fighting on 400 Plateau was confused. The thick scrub meant that men lying prone were invisible but unsighted and so it was nearly impossible to maintain contact with adjacent units. When standing up to move, the men were visible to the Turkish defenders on the surrounding hills, thereby summoning a hail of gunfire and shrapnel. Lacking coherent organisation, small bands would advance, either following the original orders to reach the third ridge or new orders to reinforce the "firing line", wherever that was. The outcome was inevitably the same; they became detached, lost, pinned down and reduced by casualties. By 1pm some semblance of a line had been re-established on 400 Plateau but it was thin and discontinuous. The 2nd and 3rd Brigades had been fully committed and the 1st Brigade battalions were now being led in to the fight. At 4.45pm, threatened by a Turkish counter-attack, General Bridges, commander of the 1st Division, committed the last of the reserves, the 4th Battalion, on the plateau. South of Lone Pine, the 8th Battalion had established a strong line on Bolton's Ridge which secured the southern flank of the landing. Major H.G. Bennett led 300 men of the 6th Battalion forward from Bolton's Ridge to Pine Ridge which extended south from Lone Pine and faced the third ridge across Legge Valley. Bennett was wounded in the wrist and forced to withdraw. When the Turkish 27th Regiment counter-attacked around 17:00, the force Bennett had established on the Pine Ridge was surrounded and annihilated, the Turks taking no prisoners. Consolidating the landing Assessing the situation on the first night, the consensus reached within the Corps was to re-embark the troops and abandon the Anzac landing. This was partially motivated by a mistaken belief, garnered from over-optimistic Staff reports, that the Helles landing had been a success. The main concern was that the ANZACs were in no condition to withstand a major Turkish counter-attack which everyone anticipated would occur the following morning. However, General Hamilton refused to evacuate the landing. To do so before dawn on the 26th would have been impossible anyway, as the transports and boats were scattered or damaged and those that were serviceable were engaged in loading the vast ranks of wounded men, lying on the beach. Hamilton concluded his order with: :"You have got through the difficult business, now you have only to dig, dig, dig, until you are safe." Dawn came and went on April 26without a Turkish attack. The Turks of the 9th and 19th Divisions were as exhausted as the ANZACs and had lost nearly as heavily in the first day's fighting. The fresh divisions with which an attack could have been made, the 5th and 7th Divisions, had been held at Bulair all day on the 25th. The 26th was not without bloodshed for the Australians. In a tragic fiasco, the one battalion of the 1st Division that had survived the landing relatively unscathed, the 4th Battalion, made a general advance, marching north across 400 Plateau along no man's land. They were cut to pieces crossing Lone Pine. A few reached Johnston's Jolly where they sought shelter. The exact reason for the disaster was never determined but it seems that the 4th Battalion, expecting the ANZAC advance to resume at any time, had followed a movement on their left when General Bridges had instructed troops on Lone Pine to straighten their line. April 27, Kemal had the troops he needed to launch his general counter-attack with the intention of driving the ANZACs into the sea. The attack was made on the entire Anzac perimeter, from Baby 700 in the north, along the second ridge, across 400 Plateau and down Bolton's Ridge to the beach. The critical situation at Helles meant that most Turkish reserves were dispatched there however Kemal had received the Turkish 33rd and 64th Regiments and his 72nd Regiment was still largely intact. He counter-attacked with five regiments, keeping the 33rd in reserve, but poor communications meant that his battalions did not coordinate their movements. At 2.30pm, the 57th Regiment attacked in six waves, advancing down Battleship Hill. In view of the British naval forces, the HMS "Queen Elizabeth" put six 15-in shells amongst the Turkish lines, scattering them and breaking the attack. The Turks resumed the attack at the Nek under the cover of darkness but were driven off by 10pm. The 3rd Battalion of the Turkish 72nd Regiment attempted to attack across the Chessboard against Pope's Hill but were caught in enfilading fire from a small Australian outpost near Quinn's. Elsewhere the Turks were able to get close, but not break into, the Anzac posts along the second ridge. At 11am a large force had advanced across Lone Pine towards the Australian line but were driven off by noon. After nightfall a Turkish attack was made against Bolton's Ridge but, aided by field artillery guns firing over open sights, the attackers were held off, despite getting to within convert\|25\|yd\|m of the Australian trenches. For the time being, the Anzac landing was safe. April 28the Anzacs were reinforced by the arrival of four battalions of the Royal Naval Division; the Chatham, Portsmouthand Deal Battalions of the Royal Marine Brigade and the Nelson Battalion of the 1st Royal Naval Brigade. These were sent in along the second ridge and 400 Plateau to relieve the Australian 1st and 3rd Brigades which had been under constant pressure since the landing. The relieved brigades attempted to reorganise on the beach. Meanwhile Kemal planned a third counter-attack, having received five new battalions. Having failed in their first two attempts, the Turks were now entrenching opposite the Anzac firing line so that a distinct system of trenches became established. Preliminary moves were made on April 30but the main counter-attack was launched on May 1. The newly-arrived Marines suffered the most under the attack but as with the two previous efforts, it was completely defeated. For the time being, Kemal accepted he had insufficient resources to dislodge the invaders. A gap remained in the Anzac perimeter at the head of Monash Valley between the New Zealanders on the left along Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top and the Australian 4th Brigade holding the Posts along the second ridge (Quinn's, Courtney's and Steele's). The Turks held the Chessboard and the Nek and had a foothold on Russell's Top. From here they could fire into the back of Quinn's and the other posts. Therefore an attack was planned to extend the Anzac line to encompass Baby 700. After dusk on May 2, the 16th and 13th Battalions of the 4th Brigade climbed the Bloody Angle, next to Quinn's, and attempted to establish a line along the Chessboard to Baby 700. They only managed to form a series of disjointed trenches along the foot of the Chessboard. The OtagoBattalion of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade was meant to capture the summit of Baby 700 but reached the front late by which time the Turkish defences were aroused. Only adjacent to Quinn's were the original objectives achieved. Elsewhere the positions gained were useless, being overlooked and exposed, offering no advantage to the Anzacs. With dawn on May 3, most of the troops withdrew. Some of the 13th Battalion held out all day, abandoning their trenches that night. The debacle of the attack was compounded when the Nelson and Portsmouth Battalions of the RND were told to advance in support after dawn on May 3, by which time the attack had clearly failed. In a move that gave "Dead Man's Ridge" its name, the Marines of the Portsmouth Battalion were led up that precipitous slope in full view of the Turkish machine guns. The attackers suffered about 1,000 casualties in this attack, only one of which was taken prisoner. The 16th Battalion had lost 338 men, over half its strength. The New Zealanders lost at least 324 men. The Anzac battlefield had reached a stalemate. For General Hamilton, the Helles front was paramount and over the following months it would be the scene of a series of bloody engagements as the British and French edged imperceptibly closer to their first day objectives of Krithia and the hill of Achi Baba. The majority of reinforcements were directed to Helles, Anzac receiving only the dismounted Australian light horseand New Zealand mounted regiments. Anzac was maintained as a threat to the Turkish line of communications and a drain on their resources. When the British ceased offensive operations at Helles, Anzac provided the base from which to launch a new offensive in August in what became the Battle of Sari Bair. The reorganisation of the brigades of the Australian 1st Division following the reinforcement by the RND allowed a tally of the battalions to be made. In the period from April 25 to 30, the casualties for each brigade are shown in the table. Only one soldier of the 1st Division was taken prisoner in this period. Some of the missing were found to have been wounded and already evacuated. Most of the missing were dead. The New Zealand and Australian Division suffered about 2,000 casualties during the landing and consolidation phase. By May 3, the casualty figure was about 8,500 including 600 from the Royal Naval Division. Of this figure, about 2,300 were killed in action or died of wounds. Despite magnificent bravery by many, the troops failed to achieve their objectives. Hundreds were found to be milling around the beaches supposedly helping wounded "mates". Accusations of cowardice were made but were eventually lost in massive losses which were to follow on the Western Front. Many were to feel vindicated at the exclusion of Victorian units from the landings as the Boer War's "Battle of Wilmansrust" had cast doubt on their ability. Eventually the British Empire's greatest defeat up to that time would be overcome by the myth of the "mate" and British propaganda and the horror of the Western Front would overcome the debacle at Gallipoli. In many respects Gallipoli's debacle would become, like the Charge of the Light Brigade, a glorious defeat. Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: ANZAC Cove — Coordinates: 40°14′46″N 26°16′40″E / 40.24611°N 26.27778°E / 40.24611; 26.27778 … Wikipedia Anzac Cove — /ænzæk ˈkoʊv/ (say anzak kohv) noun the cove on the western coast of the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey where Australian and New Zealand troops landed in 1915 during World War I. Only 660 metres long, the small and narrow beach of Anzac Cove is… … Australian English dictionary ANZAC spirit — The Anzac spirit or Anzac legend is a concept which suggests that Australian and New Zealand soldiers possess shared national characteristics, specifically the qualities those soldiers are believed to have shown on the battlefield in World War I … Wikipedia ANZAC War Memorial — Infobox Military Memorial name=ANZAC War Memorial country=Australia caption=ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney commemorates=the AIF dead of World War I unveiled=24 November 1934 coordinates=coord\|33\|52\|32.6\|S\|151\|12\|39.4\|E\|display=inline,title … Wikipedia Anzac Day — Dawn Service at Kings Park, Western Australia, 25 April 2009, 94th anniversary Observed by Memorial services, public holiday Type Patriotic, Historical … Wikipedia ANZAC (disambiguation) — ANZAC is an acronym for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, an army corps that fought at the Battle of Gallipoli in World War I and was disbanded in 1916.ANZAC may also refer to:* ANZAC biscuit, a traditional Australian and New Zealand biscuit … Wikipedia ANZAC — army formations and units include both Australian and New Zealand troops. The term ANZAC originated as an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, an army corps of Australian and New Zealand troops who fought against the Turks in… … Wikipedia Anzac Day — April 25, a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand commemorating the Anzac landing on Gallipoli, Turkey, in 1915, the first major engagement of Australian and New Zealand forces in World War I. * * * ▪ holiday in Australia and… … Universalium Gallipoli Campaign — See also: Timeline of the Battle of Gallipoli Gallipoli Campaign Part of the Middle Eastern Theatre (First World War) … Wikipedia Military history of Australia during World War I — … Wikipedia	<urn:uuid:d88f16b5-dd8e-4c9a-bfc0-a3cf5a132508>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://enwiki.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/289317	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00244.warc.gz	en	0.981149	7,078	3.59375	4	[ 0.024701636284589767, 0.3153466582298279, -0.04100663959980011, -0.28879666328430176, -0.22218744456768036, 0.17930825054645538, -0.12316673994064331, 0.449604868888855, -0.027276592329144478, -0.13128235936164856, -0.131924569606781, -0.9835180044174194, 0.21545466780662537, 0.69122081995...	2	- Landing at Anzac Cove Infobox Military Conflict conflict=Landing at Anzac Cove caption="Anzac, the landing 1915" by George Lambert. partof=First World War 25 April- 3 May, 1915 Anzac Cove, Gallipoli strength2=1 battalion 1 div. in reserve casualties1=8,709 killed or wounded casualties2=19,441 killed or wounded The landing at Anzac Cove was part of the amphibious invasion of the Gallipolipeninsula by British and French forces on April 25, 1915. The landing, north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast of the peninsula, was made by soldiers of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and was the first significant combat of the war for these two countries. Another landing was made several miles to the south west at Cape Helles by British and French troops. The purpose of the invasion was to neutralize the Turkish forts that controlled the passage of the Dardanellesstraits. The Anzac Cove landing went awry when the boats strayed off course in the pre-dawn dark and what was planned as a swift operation became a protracted and bloody eight-month struggle. In that period the frontline of the Anzac battlefield remained little changed from the ground captured on the first day of the landing, a space less than three-quarters of a square mile (2 km²) in size—home to over 20,000 men. Winning control of the Dardanelles was originally intended to be a purely naval operation but after the loss of three battleships during the attack of March 18it was decided that the aid of the army would be required to defeat the forts that guarded the straits. See Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign. Mediterranean Expeditionary Forcewas formed under General Sir Ian Hamilton and a two-pronged landing on the peninsula was planned. The British 29th Divisionwould carry out the main landing at Cape Helleson the tip of the peninsula and advance along its length towards the forts at Kilitbahir which controlled the passage of the Narrows of the Dardanelles. However, because it was not possible to land the entire force on the limited beaches at Helles, a secondary landing by the Australian (and) New Zealand Army Corps, north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, was planned. If resistance was strong, this secondary landing would be treated as a feint to draw defenders from Helles and the attacking force would be withdrawn. If successful, the attacking force would be a mere five miles (8 km) from the Narrows and in command of the high ground thereby denying the passage of reinforcements to Helles. The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed in Egyptfrom the Australian and New Zealand infantrythat had been in training prior to moving to the Western Frontin France. When the need for infantry at Gallipoli arose, they were ideally placed to participate. Two divisions were formed; the Australian 1st Division containing the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Brigades, and the New Zealand and Australian Divisioncontaining the Australian 4th Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade. The terrain behind the planned landing site was rough, thinly wooded and covered with scrub. The main ridge line, the Kocaçimentepe Range (mistakenly called the Sari Bair Range by the British), ran along the length of the peninsula behind the landing area. There was little flat ground; the area was dominated by a series of ridges and eroded gullies or ravines. The peak of Hill 971 ("Kocaçimentepe") was the highest point on the peninsula. Anzac Coveitself is a shallow, nondescript stretch of beach about one kilometre wide, bounded by the headlands of Ari Burnu to the north and Hell Spit to the south. The British planners identified three ridge lines as objectives for the invasion. The first ridge started above Ari Burnu at Plugge's Plateau (named later for Colonel A. Plugge of the AucklandBattalion). The ridge continued via a perilously narrow stretch known as the "Razor's Edge" to a plateau called Russell's Top. A number of lesser spurs projected from Russell's Top towards the beach; the most prominent was a striking, eroded outcrop that was inevitably named "The Sphinx" by soldiers who had until recently been encamped near the Pyramids of Giza. Neighbouring it to the north was Walker's Ridge which provided a direct, if exposed, route to the Top from the beach. Russell's Top was connected to the main range at Baby 700 via a narrow saddle known as "The Nek". Baby 700 was so named because it and its neighbouring hill, Big 700 (later known as Battleship Hill), lay within the convert\|600\|ft\|m\|sing=on contour on the British maps. (Baby 700 is actually convert\|590\|ft\|m in height.) The second ridge also connected to the main range at Baby 700. Between the first and second ridges lay "Monash Valley" named after General John Monash. On the second ridge was one of the largest regions of level ground known as 400 Plateau (as it was bounded by the convert\|400\|ft\|m\|sing=on contour). It was a wide, heart-shaped area of relatively level ground, thickly covered with scrub but largely treeless. The northern "lobe" of the plateau became known as "Johnston's Jolly", after Colonel Johnston, commander of the divisional artillery, who positioned guns opposite it with which, in the vernacular of the day, he could "jolly up" the Turks on the plateau. The southern "lobe" was distinguished by a solitary Turkish Pinetree, initially named the "Lonesome Pine", after a popular songof the time, but afterwards shortened to Lone Pine. From this plateau, a number of lesser ridges projected towards the beach north of Gaba Tepe. The seaward ridge was Bolton's Ridge, the inland ridge, Pine Ridge. The third ridge, known to the ANZACs as "Gun Ridge" and the Turks as "Topçuluk Sirt" (Artillery Ridge), because of some artilleryemplacements that were located there, stretched from Gaba Tepe to the main range at Chunuk Bair, above Battleship Hill. Between the second and third ridges lay Legge Valley. Plan of the Landing The ANZAC landing area was a broad, four mile (6 km) stretch of beach from about a mile (1.6 km) north of Gaba Tepe to a point near Fisherman's Hut, north of Anzac Cove. It was officially designated "Z Beach". (The five landing beaches at Helles were designated "S", "V", "W", "X" and "Y Beach"). To attain surprise the landing would commence following moonset, about one hour before dawn. The landing would begin with the arrival of a "covering" force to swiftly capture the area surrounding the landing zone and make it secure for the main force. The Australian 3rd Brigadewas selected as the covering force. Three battalions were to seize the third ridge line as well as Gaba Tepe while the fourth battalion remained in reserve. Following the covering force, the Australian 2nd Brigade would land and move to the north, climbing to the summit of the main range at Hill 971 and protecting the left flank of the landing. The original plan called for the capture of Mal Tepe, halfway across the peninsula, on the first day but only if the landing was successful would this objective be pursued by the main force; the Australian 1st Brigade and the two brigades of the New Zealand and Australian Division. The first wave of the covering force would come ashore from the cutters of three battleships which were to approach within three miles (5 km) of the shore. The remaining waves of the covering force would be landed from seven destroyers which were to approach close in to the beach. The main force would land from transports. The first wave The first troops to land were two companies of each of the 9th, 10th and 11th Battalions of the Australian 3rd Brigade. The companies embarked from three "Formidable"-class battleships; HMS "Queen", HMS "London" and HMS "Prince of Wales". Each battleship dispatched four steamboats towing three row boats (launches and pinnaces)—a total of 48 boats. The moon set at 3am and the battleships released the tows at 3.30am. Given the night was pitch dark, the tows headed due east and so relied on the battleships having been in the correct position when they were released. The journey of the tows became a shambles and numerous theories have been proposed to explain what went amiss. The southern-most tow kept a good course and was aimed correctly just north of Gaba Tepe but its commander found the neighbouring tows were heading northwards, leaving him isolated. He altered course to bring his tow closer and this may have caused a ripple effect as the other tows responded with a similar correction. As the shore was sighted, the headland of Ari Burnu became visible and some tows mistook this for Gaba Tepe and hence veered even "further" north. For whatever reason, these first boats which were meant to land on a two mile (3 km) front between Hell Spit and Gaba Tepe ended up concentrated about Ari Burnu, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of their intended landing area—in fact, in the landing area of the 2nd Brigade which was to follow. The area about Ari Burnu was defended by a single company of the 2nd Battalion, 27th Regiment, Turkish 9th Division. The Australians began to come ashore at 4.30am, the first man to land was Cpl. Joseph Stratford #1179. 9th Btn. according to eyewitnes reports he was waist deep in water, he disposed most of his heavy equipment and charged towards the enemy, he was cut down in a hail of bullets and is buried at Lone Pine. The first troops to land were met by sporadic rifle and machine gunfire but casualties were relatively light. The 11th Battalion, which had landed just north of Ari Burnu, suffered the worst. The main enemy was confusion. The erratic course of the tows meant that the units had become intermingled. Officers were unsure where their units were or indeed where they themselves were; some thought that they had landed at Gaba Tepe. The geography was utterly unfamiliar and no objective could be identified. Most of the troops of the 9th and 10th Battalions began to climb the first hill that confronted them which was unfortunately the dead-end Plugge's Plateau. The second wave The second wave, comprising the second halves of the 9th, 10th and 11th as well as the complete 12th Battalion (which was intended to be the brigade reserve), landed from seven destroyers; HMS "Chelmer", HMS "Colne", HMS "Ribble", HMS "Usk", HMS "Foxhound", HMS "Scourge" and HMS "Beagle". The destroyers had begun to move in at 4am and approached to within 500 metres of the shore before unloading their cargo into their boats. They too had moved too far to the north but were in places closer to the planned landing area—the "Beagle" unloaded south of Hell Spit on the intended beach, far enough south in fact that she came under machine gun fire from Gaba Tepe. The relatively short distance to travel meant that the battalions tended to land in the correct order and not become mixed as had happened with the first companies to land, however, with the element of surprise gone, the second wave was under fire the whole time. Those units that did land to the south of the first wave's landing at Ari Burnu were confronted by gentler terrain than Plugge's Plateau and so, despite coming ashore 20 minutes after the first wave, they tended to make faster progress inland towards the second ridge. As was the case with the first wave, those of the second who landed north of Ari Burnu encountered heavy fire and suffered casualties both in the boats and on the shore. To the north, some parties avoided the bottleneck on Plugge's and reached the extension of the first ridge at Russell's Top. One party, under the command of Captain Tulloch of the 11th Battalion, had followed the beach to the north and then ascended Walker's Ridge. There they encountered other parties from the 12th Battalion, one under Captain Lalor, which had scaled the cliff faces between Plugge's and the Sphinx. The remainder of the Australian 1st Division (the 1st and 2nd Brigades) began to land from the transports between 5.30am and 7.30am. Boats from the transport "Galeka", bearing about 140 men of the 7th Battalion, made the most northerly landing of the day, opposite Fisherman's Hut. They were met by a withering fusillade from the Turkish defenders and less than 40 men made it to the beach. Over the next night and day numerous attempts were made to recover the wounded from the exposed boats. The Turkish reaction At 6am, news of the landing reached the German commander of the Fifth Army, General Liman von Sanders. He believed the Gaba Tepe landing was a feint and that the main blow would fall at Bulair, where the peninsula joins the Turkish mainland. The demonstration by the Royal Naval Divisionin the Gulf of Saros, opposite Bulair, reinforced this belief. Von Sanders therefore retained two divisions, the 5th and the 7th, at Bulair, leaving the 9th and 19th divisions to deal with the Anzac and Helles landings. The reaction of the commander of the 9th Division was to send the two remaining battalions of the 27th Regiment (1st and 3rd) to reinforce the 2nd. Mustafa Kemal, commander of the Turkish 19th Divisionwhich was in reserve only a few miles from the landing, was instructed to send a single battalion as well. When reports reached Kemal that the Australians were making for the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, he was convinced the landing was not a feint and so, making a decision that probably doomed the Anzac landing to failure, if not defeat, he led the entire 57th Regiment forward to counter-attack, setting up his headquarters on the third ridge at Scrubby Knoll (understandably known to the Turks as "Kemal Tepe" — "Kemal's Hill"). The remaining regiments of the 19th Division, the 72nd and 77th Regiments, would join the fight in the evening. Only two regiments, the 25th and 26th, were available to counter the British landing at Helles. As the morning progressed, the focus of the left flank of the landing became Baby 700 which was of immense importance as it commanded the junction of the two ridges and hence access from the landing area to the first significant peak of the main range at Chunuk Bair. It also had a view straight down Monash Valley which was to become the main ANZAC base on the left. Captain Tulloch led his force of about 60 men from Russell's Top across the Nek and, working around the inland side of Baby 700, began to drive the thin line of Turkish defenders back up the ridge. Tulloch's small force managed to advance to a point just below the crest of Battleship Hill on the inland side. Here they were stopped by mounting Turkish resistance to the front on Chunuk Bair and were threatened with outflanking from the seaward side of the hill. Tulloch therefore withdrew his force to Baby 700. The Turkish reinforcements had begun to arrive. The 1st Battalion of the 57th Regiment attacked along Mortar Ridge towards Baby 700 from the inland side. The 2nd Battalion had swung around behind Battleship Hill and advanced down the range on the seaward side of Baby 700. Captain Lalor, aware that his 12th Battalion was meant to be in reserve and that the Nek was a vital defensive position, began to dig in on Russell's Top. At about 8.30am, having no sign of Tulloch's progress, Lalor decided to advance across the Nek onto Baby 700. The Australians took up positions on the far side of the summit and on the spur that led down towards the beach but were repeatedly forced to withdraw to the shelter of the near side. Five attempts were made to get across between 7.30am and 3pm. Shortly after the landing, the commander of the 3rd Brigade, ColonelSinclair-MacLagan, had begun directing his forces on Plugge's Plateau to move up Monash Valley. The first companies were ordered to form strong posts on the second ridge, along the eastern face of the valley which was cut by steep, eroded ravines. These posts, which hung precariously from the lip of the valley wall, would come to be known as "Courtney's", "Steele's" and "Quinn's" Posts. Other forces from Plugge's were sent via Monash Valley towards Baby 700 but as fighting developed at the posts along the valley wall, these troops were repeatedly drawn off as reinforcements. Consequently, few additional troops would arrive to support those on Russell's Top as they attempted to capture and hold Baby 700. Around 10am MacLagan obtained reinforcements from the newly arrived 1st Brigade; one company from the 1st Battalion and two from the 2nd Battalion. The Aucklandand Canterbury Battalions of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, under the temporary command of Brigadier GeneralH.B. Walker, an ANZAC staff officer, were also directed to Baby 700. As the Turks also continued to reinforce, the position on Baby 700 deteriorated and became more untenable for the ANZACs whose flanks were in the air. They lacked sufficient machine guns and artillery support was non-existent. At about 4pm, the Turkish 57th Regiment, now with the 3rd Battalion in support, mounted a concerted counter-attack on Baby 700. With the aid of artillery fire, they broke through the Anzac line forcing them to abandon the hill. The survivors retreated across the Nek or into Malone's Gully (on the seaward side of the Nek) and Monash Valley (on the inland side). A few became lost and ended up in the valley on the far side of the second ridge (Mule Valley) and were captured or killed. One party under the command of Colonel Braund of the Australian 2nd Battalion was holding a line near the top of Walker's Ridge but Russell's Top was thinly held. During the night of April 25, a small force of Turks from the 3rd Battalion, 57th Regiment, succeeded in infiltrating the line at the Nek and advancing along the Top, effectively splitting the left and right flanks of the Anzac firing line. The Turks withdrew from the Top before dawn, possibly encouraged by a naval bombardment. The covering force attempted to carry out their orders, despite the disarray of the landing, and so, crossing 400 Plateau, small parties headed for the third ridge. However, the only groups to reach there were from the second wave which had avoided Plugge's. Two fast-moving scouts of the 10th Battalion made the deepest penetration when they reconnoitred Scrubby Knoll on the third ridge. Lieutenant Loutit of the 10th Battalion led 30 men to a spur of the knoll, just short of the third ridge. Like Tulloch on Battleship Hill, these men had fleeting views of the Narrows, three miles (5 km) away. However, a sizeable Turkish force was amassing and, receiving few reinforcements, they were compelled to withdraw to the second ridge at 9.30am. They were pursued across the valley by the first Turkish troops of the 3rd Battalion, 27th Regiment which began to counter-attack against the thin Australian firing line that was forming along the second ridge and across the plateau. By this stage Colonel MacLagan had already decided to change the plan and hold a position on the second ridge. The 9th and 10th Battalions began to dig in across the plateau. His orders did not reach everyone. Isolated groups continued to push for the original objectives and were lost. As troops of the 2nd Brigade began to arrive, MacLagan made the fatal decision to advance the 9th Battalion, which had formed the semblance of a firing line across the middle of the plateau. By sections the Australians advanced and effectively vanished into the mounting Turkish fire. MacLagan attempted to rescind the order shortly afterwards but by this time the battalion was dispersed. MacLagan convinced Colonel M'Cay of the 2nd Brigade to send his battalions, which had landed in some kind of order, forward into the plateau's void as well. The day's fighting on 400 Plateau was confused. The thick scrub meant that men lying prone were invisible but unsighted and so it was nearly impossible to maintain contact with adjacent units. When standing up to move, the men were visible to the Turkish defenders on the surrounding hills, thereby summoning a hail of gunfire and shrapnel. Lacking coherent organisation, small bands would advance, either following the original orders to reach the third ridge or new orders to reinforce the "firing line", wherever that was. The outcome was inevitably the same; they became detached, lost, pinned down and reduced by casualties. By 1pm some semblance of a line had been re-established on 400 Plateau but it was thin and discontinuous. The 2nd and 3rd Brigades had been fully committed and the 1st Brigade battalions were now being led in to the fight. At 4.45pm, threatened by a Turkish counter-attack, General Bridges, commander of the 1st Division, committed the last of the reserves, the 4th Battalion, on the plateau. South of Lone Pine, the 8th Battalion had established a strong line on Bolton's Ridge which secured the southern flank of the landing. Major H.G. Bennett led 300 men of the 6th Battalion forward from Bolton's Ridge to Pine Ridge which extended south from Lone Pine and faced the third ridge across Legge Valley. Bennett was wounded in the wrist and forced to withdraw. When the Turkish 27th Regiment counter-attacked around 17:00, the force Bennett had established on the Pine Ridge was surrounded and annihilated, the Turks taking no prisoners. Consolidating the landing Assessing the situation on the first night, the consensus reached within the Corps was to re-embark the troops and abandon the Anzac landing. This was partially motivated by a mistaken belief, garnered from over-optimistic Staff reports, that the Helles landing had been a success. The main concern was that the ANZACs were in no condition to withstand a major Turkish counter-attack which everyone anticipated would occur the following morning. However, General Hamilton refused to evacuate the landing. To do so before dawn on the 26th would have been impossible anyway, as the transports and boats were scattered or damaged and those that were serviceable were engaged in loading the vast ranks of wounded men, lying on the beach. Hamilton concluded his order with: :"You have got through the difficult business, now you have only to dig, dig, dig, until you are safe." Dawn came and went on April 26without a Turkish attack. The Turks of the 9th and 19th Divisions were as exhausted as the ANZACs and had lost nearly as heavily in the first day's fighting. The fresh divisions with which an attack could have been made, the 5th and 7th Divisions, had been held at Bulair all day on the 25th. The 26th was not without bloodshed for the Australians. In a tragic fiasco, the one battalion of the 1st Division that had survived the landing relatively unscathed, the 4th Battalion, made a general advance, marching north across 400 Plateau along no man's land. They were cut to pieces crossing Lone Pine. A few reached Johnston's Jolly where they sought shelter. The exact reason for the disaster was never determined but it seems that the 4th Battalion, expecting the ANZAC advance to resume at any time, had followed a movement on their left when General Bridges had instructed troops on Lone Pine to straighten their line. April 27, Kemal had the troops he needed to launch his general counter-attack with the intention of driving the ANZACs into the sea. The attack was made on the entire Anzac perimeter, from Baby 700 in the north, along the second ridge, across 400 Plateau and down Bolton's Ridge to the beach. The critical situation at Helles meant that most Turkish reserves were dispatched there however Kemal had received the Turkish 33rd and 64th Regiments and his 72nd Regiment was still largely intact. He counter-attacked with five regiments, keeping the 33rd in reserve, but poor communications meant that his battalions did not coordinate their movements. At 2.30pm, the 57th Regiment attacked in six waves, advancing down Battleship Hill. In view of the British naval forces, the HMS "Queen Elizabeth" put six 15-in shells amongst the Turkish lines, scattering them and breaking the attack. The Turks resumed the attack at the Nek under the cover of darkness but were driven off by 10pm. The 3rd Battalion of the Turkish 72nd Regiment attempted to attack across the Chessboard against Pope's Hill but were caught in enfilading fire from a small Australian outpost near Quinn's. Elsewhere the Turks were able to get close, but not break into, the Anzac posts along the second ridge. At 11am a large force had advanced across Lone Pine towards the Australian line but were driven off by noon. After nightfall a Turkish attack was made against Bolton's Ridge but, aided by field artillery guns firing over open sights, the attackers were held off, despite getting to within convert\|25\|yd\|m of the Australian trenches. For the time being, the Anzac landing was safe. April 28the Anzacs were reinforced by the arrival of four battalions of the Royal Naval Division; the Chatham, Portsmouthand Deal Battalions of the Royal Marine Brigade and the Nelson Battalion of the 1st Royal Naval Brigade. These were sent in along the second ridge and 400 Plateau to relieve the Australian 1st and 3rd Brigades which had been under constant pressure since the landing. The relieved brigades attempted to reorganise on the beach. Meanwhile Kemal planned a third counter-attack, having received five new battalions. Having failed in their first two attempts, the Turks were now entrenching opposite the Anzac firing line so that a distinct system of trenches became established. Preliminary moves were made on April 30but the main counter-attack was launched on May 1. The newly-arrived Marines suffered the most under the attack but as with the two previous efforts, it was completely defeated. For the time being, Kemal accepted he had insufficient resources to dislodge the invaders. A gap remained in the Anzac perimeter at the head of Monash Valley between the New Zealanders on the left along Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top and the Australian 4th Brigade holding the Posts along the second ridge (Quinn's, Courtney's and Steele's). The Turks held the Chessboard and the Nek and had a foothold on Russell's Top. From here they could fire into the back of Quinn's and the other posts. Therefore an attack was planned to extend the Anzac line to encompass Baby 700. After dusk on May 2, the 16th and 13th Battalions of the 4th Brigade climbed the Bloody Angle, next to Quinn's, and attempted to establish a line along the Chessboard to Baby 700. They only managed to form a series of disjointed trenches along the foot of the Chessboard. The OtagoBattalion of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade was meant to capture the summit of Baby 700 but reached the front late by which time the Turkish defences were aroused. Only adjacent to Quinn's were the original objectives achieved. Elsewhere the positions gained were useless, being overlooked and exposed, offering no advantage to the Anzacs. With dawn on May 3, most of the troops withdrew. Some of the 13th Battalion held out all day, abandoning their trenches that night. The debacle of the attack was compounded when the Nelson and Portsmouth Battalions of the RND were told to advance in support after dawn on May 3, by which time the attack had clearly failed. In a move that gave "Dead Man's Ridge" its name, the Marines of the Portsmouth Battalion were led up that precipitous slope in full view of the Turkish machine guns. The attackers suffered about 1,000 casualties in this attack, only one of which was taken prisoner. The 16th Battalion had lost 338 men, over half its strength. The New Zealanders lost at least 324 men. The Anzac battlefield had reached a stalemate. For General Hamilton, the Helles front was paramount and over the following months it would be the scene of a series of bloody engagements as the British and French edged imperceptibly closer to their first day objectives of Krithia and the hill of Achi Baba. The majority of reinforcements were directed to Helles, Anzac receiving only the dismounted Australian light horseand New Zealand mounted regiments. Anzac was maintained as a threat to the Turkish line of communications and a drain on their resources. When the British ceased offensive operations at Helles, Anzac provided the base from which to launch a new offensive in August in what became the Battle of Sari Bair. The reorganisation of the brigades of the Australian 1st Division following the reinforcement by the RND allowed a tally of the battalions to be made. In the period from April 25 to 30, the casualties for each brigade are shown in the table. Only one soldier of the 1st Division was taken prisoner in this period. Some of the missing were found to have been wounded and already evacuated. Most of the missing were dead. The New Zealand and Australian Division suffered about 2,000 casualties during the landing and consolidation phase. By May 3, the casualty figure was about 8,500 including 600 from the Royal Naval Division. Of this figure, about 2,300 were killed in action or died of wounds. Despite magnificent bravery by many, the troops failed to achieve their objectives. Hundreds were found to be milling around the beaches supposedly helping wounded "mates". Accusations of cowardice were made but were eventually lost in massive losses which were to follow on the Western Front. Many were to feel vindicated at the exclusion of Victorian units from the landings as the Boer War's "Battle of Wilmansrust" had cast doubt on their ability. Eventually the British Empire's greatest defeat up to that time would be overcome by the myth of the "mate" and British propaganda and the horror of the Western Front would overcome the debacle at Gallipoli. In many respects Gallipoli's debacle would become, like the Charge of the Light Brigade, a glorious defeat. Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: ANZAC Cove — Coordinates: 40°14′46″N 26°16′40″E / 40.24611°N 26.27778°E / 40.24611; 26.27778 … Wikipedia Anzac Cove — /ænzæk ˈkoʊv/ (say anzak kohv) noun the cove on the western coast of the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey where Australian and New Zealand troops landed in 1915 during World War I. Only 660 metres long, the small and narrow beach of Anzac Cove is… … Australian English dictionary ANZAC spirit — The Anzac spirit or Anzac legend is a concept which suggests that Australian and New Zealand soldiers possess shared national characteristics, specifically the qualities those soldiers are believed to have shown on the battlefield in World War I … Wikipedia ANZAC War Memorial — Infobox Military Memorial name=ANZAC War Memorial country=Australia caption=ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney commemorates=the AIF dead of World War I unveiled=24 November 1934 coordinates=coord\|33\|52\|32.6\|S\|151\|12\|39.4\|E\|display=inline,title … Wikipedia Anzac Day — Dawn Service at Kings Park, Western Australia, 25 April 2009, 94th anniversary Observed by Memorial services, public holiday Type Patriotic, Historical … Wikipedia ANZAC (disambiguation) — ANZAC is an acronym for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, an army corps that fought at the Battle of Gallipoli in World War I and was disbanded in 1916.ANZAC may also refer to:* ANZAC biscuit, a traditional Australian and New Zealand biscuit … Wikipedia ANZAC — army formations and units include both Australian and New Zealand troops. The term ANZAC originated as an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, an army corps of Australian and New Zealand troops who fought against the Turks in… … Wikipedia Anzac Day — April 25, a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand commemorating the Anzac landing on Gallipoli, Turkey, in 1915, the first major engagement of Australian and New Zealand forces in World War I. * * * ▪ holiday in Australia and… … Universalium Gallipoli Campaign — See also: Timeline of the Battle of Gallipoli Gallipoli Campaign Part of the Middle Eastern Theatre (First World War) … Wikipedia Military history of Australia during World War I — … Wikipedia	7,456	ENGLISH	1
Possible evidence for life in ancient Mars Last month, Curiosity did its first drill on the surface of Mars. The section of Mars that the drill took place was where there was a great possibility for that part to have been under water in the past. The next step was for Curiosity to proceed with analysis of the sample collected. The last few days it was reported by scientist John Grotzinger that they have found a habitable environment. Simple organic forms were found in the powdered sample of rock. The materials found could only form in water that can support life (non-acidic). Furthermore, carbon dioxide was found in the drill sample which is an element available to any living organism. However it is not clear yet if the organic material found was brought to Mars by Curiosity from Earth or is indigenous to Mars. Inside the rock it has been discovered that the iron compounds of the surface do not exist. And since the surface is acidic, couldn’t support life. But under the surface iron compounds do not exist and the colour is grey. Another element showing the possibility of an ancient habitable Mars. You can read more here.	<urn:uuid:945cfef3-5ed2-4336-a02b-3c23d21c1aee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-space/possible-evidence-life-ancient-mars-00213	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00212.warc.gz	en	0.981701	231	3.390625	3	[ -0.4289385676383972, 0.36104267835617065, 0.026080984622240067, 0.4512009918689728, -0.2259615957736969, 0.03401275351643562, -0.010003946721553802, 0.29302337765693665, -0.4098057746887207, 0.05105549842119217, 0.14369075000286102, -0.4792526364326477, 0.04962907359004021, 0.0817065536975...	11	Possible evidence for life in ancient Mars Last month, Curiosity did its first drill on the surface of Mars. The section of Mars that the drill took place was where there was a great possibility for that part to have been under water in the past. The next step was for Curiosity to proceed with analysis of the sample collected. The last few days it was reported by scientist John Grotzinger that they have found a habitable environment. Simple organic forms were found in the powdered sample of rock. The materials found could only form in water that can support life (non-acidic). Furthermore, carbon dioxide was found in the drill sample which is an element available to any living organism. However it is not clear yet if the organic material found was brought to Mars by Curiosity from Earth or is indigenous to Mars. Inside the rock it has been discovered that the iron compounds of the surface do not exist. And since the surface is acidic, couldn’t support life. But under the surface iron compounds do not exist and the colour is grey. Another element showing the possibility of an ancient habitable Mars. You can read more here.	229	ENGLISH	1
The geographical area now known as France was in 1355 divided between the Franks, and the English. The area in what is now North – West Spain was an independant nation—Navarre. Ximene’s inheritance—Occitan— was under control of the Franks despite the fact that its inhabitants speak a different language and have a different Culture. As she struggled to define her role and destiny Ximene could not avoid the conflict. Because she was thrown into close contact with the Black Prince and ultimately John Stanley, her perfect knight, the most important background force was the strategy and objectives of the King and Queen of England. The hundred years war started because the Franks rejected Edward III’s claim to the Frankish Throne. This was partly because there were doubts about Edwards parentage. Edward was however prepared to wage war to claim what he saw as his rights. Edward had married Philippa d’Avesnes of Hainhault. Philippa was a strong minded constructive partner. She took a number of personal initiatives to improve the English economy but is remembered mainly because she had a very dark skin. her dan was inherited by her son, hence the Black Prince. There was dissension within Edward’s own family. Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster was incredibly, selfishly, wealthy. His failure to share his wealth with even his siblings caused considerable resentment. he also had doubts about King Edward’s parentage and actively plotted to depose him. Lionel of Antwerp, John Of Gaunt and Edmund of Langley, The Younger Princes, are siblings to the Black Prince	<urn:uuid:7f60c577-b915-42b0-8998-5e40185cde62>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ximene.net/home/characters-2-2/the-plantagenets/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00415.warc.gz	en	0.985363	340	3.859375	4	[ -0.04473160207271576, 0.4966318607330322, 0.11654911190271378, -0.19048984348773956, -0.11814109981060028, -0.09017245471477509, 0.18211954832077026, 0.0898464247584343, 0.03560240566730499, -0.08948313444852829, -0.13991610705852509, -0.7746919989585876, 0.0034070489928126335, 0.317889571...	16	The geographical area now known as France was in 1355 divided between the Franks, and the English. The area in what is now North – West Spain was an independant nation—Navarre. Ximene’s inheritance—Occitan— was under control of the Franks despite the fact that its inhabitants speak a different language and have a different Culture. As she struggled to define her role and destiny Ximene could not avoid the conflict. Because she was thrown into close contact with the Black Prince and ultimately John Stanley, her perfect knight, the most important background force was the strategy and objectives of the King and Queen of England. The hundred years war started because the Franks rejected Edward III’s claim to the Frankish Throne. This was partly because there were doubts about Edwards parentage. Edward was however prepared to wage war to claim what he saw as his rights. Edward had married Philippa d’Avesnes of Hainhault. Philippa was a strong minded constructive partner. She took a number of personal initiatives to improve the English economy but is remembered mainly because she had a very dark skin. her dan was inherited by her son, hence the Black Prince. There was dissension within Edward’s own family. Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster was incredibly, selfishly, wealthy. His failure to share his wealth with even his siblings caused considerable resentment. he also had doubts about King Edward’s parentage and actively plotted to depose him. Lionel of Antwerp, John Of Gaunt and Edmund of Langley, The Younger Princes, are siblings to the Black Prince	330	ENGLISH	1

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