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Editor's Note: Claire Strom, associate professor of history at North Dakota State University in Fargo, recently penned a book that, among other things, questions the agricultural legacy of the great "empire builder," James J. Hill (Profiting from the Plains: The Great Northern Railway and Corporate Development of the American West). Arguably, Hill has probably had more influence than any other individual on the development of the Ninth District, and his impact is still felt today. Strom recently sat down to discuss Hill's legacy and influence on the northern Great Plains.
fedgazette: Before we can talk about the development of rail companies in what was then known as the Great Northwest, we first have to discuss the role of government in the development of rail lines. Please describe the influence of government on rail development in the latter decades of the 19th century.
Strom: The key problem for all of the West was that railroads could not be developed in the same way that they were in the East. In the East, you ran a rail line from Town A to Town B, started traffic between those two towns, and from that you were able to generate enough income to extend the line to Town C. The problem in the West was that there were no towns. So, in the case of transcontinental railroads, for example, you had to build a rail line from St. Louis all the way to California before you could effectively start to generate profits. And no company could afford to front that kind of money.
Likewise, many believed that the federal government should get involved, and there was much congressional discussion about this before the Civil War. However, they couldn't decide whether there should be a southerly or northerly route to the West Coast. Once the Civil War started, of course, the sectional rivalry in Congress disappeared because the two sections were split. At that point the federal government—the Union government—could commit to aiding railroads, and the first railway land grant was issued in 1862. Most of the great transcontinental railroads were built with federal land grants.
It quickly became apparent that rail companies were abusing these land grants—by getting multiple grants, for example, from federal, state and local governments. There were also famous scandals that occurred and, so, by the 1870s and 1880s, the federal government had lost its appetite for issuing these grants to rail companies. The Great Northern [James J. Hill's line], then, completed in 1893, was the only transcontinental line built without federal land grants. It did receive state grants, though.
fedgazette: Land grants for rail lines, of course, had a great impact on the development of this region. However, other pieces of legislation at that time had an equally important influence.
Strom: That's right. There were three huge acts in 1862: the Pacific Railway Act, the Morrill Land Grant Act and the Homestead Act (see sidebar). So, in terms of transforming the West, 1862 was a crucial year that really redefined the landscape of the American West.
The Homestead Act and the land grant acts for the railways really work together, of course. Indeed, in many cases, settlers chose to homestead on land that belonged to the rail companies precisely because it was along the railways. The rail companies got to choose the better land, and since homestead land was often fairly poor, some settlers actually bought land from the rail companies. So if you had a little money, it was a better deal to purchase land than it was to homestead. And, in fact, that was how a lot of rail companies made their money—they didn't make their money through freight, but made it through selling land to settlers.
And the problem becomes, especially with the Southern Pacific and Union Pacific, that they built really bad rail lines. Some sections of track had to be replaced before the whole line was completed because they didn't care about the line as much as they cared about getting it done so they could get their hands on the land.
Now that, again, is why the Great Northern was such a distinctive line. Hill and his cohorts had to make money from the railway, so they built a good railway. And it was the only one that really had high-quality steel; it was the only one where they were very careful to pick the flattest pieces of land that best passed through the mountains. So, out of all the transcontinentals, it was the best line.
fedgazette: So let's talk about Hill's big idea to build an intercontinental railroad. He begins locally, in Minnesota, with regional lines, correct?
Strom: Well, he bought a Minnesota line that had to cross the Canadian border by a certain date or he would lose its state land grant—this was the only land grant that he did have. And he and [railroad entrepreneur Norman] Kittson and some other financiers bought the line and met the deadline.
Then he wanted to go west. Now, Hill was a Canadian, and he initially wanted to push westward through Canada. And the Canadians wouldn't let him; in fact, he waged a huge battle with the Canadian Pacific. Losing, he eventually dropped down back into the United States and laid his track along what became Route 2, about as close to the border as you can get without being in Canada.
fedgazette: So this brings us back to a previous point: Hill had to build a line and earn a profit without federal land grants. Was this what influenced his involvement in agricultural development? Was this his incentive to get involved?
Strom: Very much so, but there's a combination here. As I always tell my students, people are very complex and they often have multiple motivations, and usually we find ways to bring all those motivations into sync so they support each other. Hill very much wanted to see a pattern of small, family-owned farms across the northern Great Plains. He thought that would be best for America; he thought that would be best for the settlers; he very much subscribed to the Jeffersonian philosophy of a rural America. He was also a neo-Malthusian, who believed that the cities in the East were becoming too big and that they would soon tax the finite resources available to support their booming populations. Farming the new frontier would address this problem.
In combination with this vision was a more practical aim. If his ideal had come to pass, it would have provided a huge amount of money for his railroads. Now, I don't think that means he was any less idealistic. I think he really believed in his ideals. But, of course, he had a very good economic reason for that belief. And so, over the course of his life, that was what he was trying to promote on the northern Great Plains—these small, family-owned farms.
He started off here in the [Red River] Valley, and he riddled the area with branch lines to serve the bonanza wheat farmers. His railroads made huge amounts of money taking that wheat down to Minneapolis. But he didn't like those big bonanza farms, even though he owned one himself. So he subdivided his, put houses on those subdivisions and sold them as small family farms. That worked, somewhat, in the Valley, where we've got good soil and relatively good moisture, but further west this was just not going to work.
Hill did not put all his eggs in one basket. He was always looking for other ways to make the lines profitable: He invested in township formation, like in Great Falls, Mont.; he invested in mining; he invested in coal; he invested in irrigation for apple orchards in Washington state. And those investments tended to be successful. For example, he worked very closely with the Anaconda mine in Butte, Mont. So it was not like he was just out there trying to promote agriculture; he certainly did other things to make his lines successful.
But agriculture was something that he was particularly interested in, and it was something that succeeded, but not in terms of his vision. Agriculture on the Plains remained extensive rather than intensive. You can only make good profits from vast acreages; you have to move to mechanization; you have to import labor—it became a commercial endeavor rather than a family-farm endeavor, which was what he wanted.
fedgazette: Let's talk about that a little more. Those idealistic notions of rural America are still very much alive today, even after they've been challenged for so long. Indeed, 100 years ago people on the Plains understood that farming in this region was a hardscrabble life and—as you note in your book—there was a big movement of people off the Plains and into the cities, a movement that continues to this day. What was Hill's reaction or understanding of this phenomenon?
Strom: If you go back—and I'm primarily an agricultural historian, not a railroad historian—to the earliest Colonial days, commercialization of farming has always been the name of the game. So by the early 20th century, this was nothing new. And yet we always have this myth of this Jeffersonian yeoman and how it would be so wonderful to have lots of small-scale, family-owned farms, growing mainly for their own subsistence with a little extra for the market. We still have it, as you say, even today.
It strikes me—and I may be wrong in this—but it strikes me that the people who talk the loudest about how we need those family farms are people who aren't living on them. And Hill didn't live on one either. He lived in St. Paul and New York. He had an apartment in Paris. He was well-set to tell people in North Dakota how they should live. Hill wasn't alone in this regard. There were plenty of others willing to say that others should go west and experience the pure life, who didn't follow their own advice, such as Horace Greeley, the newspaper publisher from New York City. But that's the way people are—they like to tell other people how to live.
fedgazette: When it comes to agricultural concepts, Hill was involved in many, from grain farming to raising stock. One of the most influential ideas at the time was that of dryland farming. Please describe this notion and its influence on Plains development.
Strom: Dryland farming is a term that incorporates a huge variety of techniques and agricultural science. Basically, it's a way to produce crops—and at this time, especially wheat—on arid land. The basic question was: How do you maximize water retention? And the answer could be anything from the species of wheat to grow to using cover crops to irrigation to fertilization. But at the time that Hill was working, the two key issues were crop rotation and deep plowing.
The way that plowing worked is that your plow dug very deeply, and that encouraged capillary action—so the theory went—that would get the water up toward the surface and to the root of the plant. And at the same time, the plow would tamp down the surface ground and provide a barrier so the moisture in the ground would not evaporate. Did it work? Perhaps somewhat, but this was a time when there was actually fairly good rainfall on the Plains. So while (farmers) were congratulating themselves for this new technique, they may have actually just benefited from higher-than-average rainfall.
This dryland farming boom—and it wasn't just Hill who was promoting this—caused floods of immigrants to move to Montana and the Dakotas. Then the bubble burst, if you will, and dry years returned. There were counties in Montana during this time that lost their entire population. Things just dried up, went away. And you don't see much wheat out there these days.
We also have to remember that this was a time when Americans were deeply optimistic about what they could achieve. They fundamentally believed that man and science could conquer any obstacle. We perhaps have a more complex view of our relationship with the environment 100 years later.
fedgazette: Hill also spent a great deal of time and resources on breeding stock, from horses to cows to beef cattle.
Strom: That's right, his dream was to have these family farms with healthy pigs and chickens and cows. A family would be able to sustain itself and then produce extra for the market. He did everything in his power to introduce quality stock into the region's farms. And in some instances, he was very successful.
One of the things he did, a number of times, was give away breeding stock to farmers along his lines. And the condition was that the bull or the boar would act as sire for neighboring farms. Now, with the pigs, he was very successful; he did improve the breeding stock. But pigs are easy to keep. Purebred cattle, on the other hand, on the northern Great Plains, were really difficult to keep. They took a lot of work, and the winters were long and difficult, making care that much harder. Often the farmers ended up killing the bulls and had good Sunday dinners for a while, and that was the end of that idea.
fedgazette: One thing you do in your book is take on those historians and history popularizers who give a lot of credit to Hill for influencing the development of agriculture. Why are they wrong?
Strom: Hill was terribly active in agricultural issues. He was front and center at state and county fairs, in state legislatures, at congressional hearings, and involved in major legislative issues. If you were around and you were engaged in agricultural development at that time, you would have known him. I think most historians have only looked tangentially at this question, and what they see, quite rightly, is this guy who was in everybody's face when it comes to agriculture. He was everywhere.
And when I looked at that question, I recognized that, yes, he was front and center, but very little of what he wanted actually came to pass. And when it did, like dryland farming, he was only one of many promoters. It wasn't like he was the only one beating the dryland farming drum and changing people's minds.
Where I can accept that he was cutting edge and influential was with the type of railroad he built, the quality of railroad he built, the way he financed the railroad—that was just remarkable. As far as agriculture goes, he was pretty much a neophyte and a failure. He failed in other things too. That shouldn't surprise us, of course. We all fail in aspects of our lives, and that doesn't make us woefully inadequate people; it makes us human.
fedgazette: Thank you, Professor Strom. | <urn:uuid:07467017-bf91-42e2-bd91-55adabc0e7c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.minneapolisfed.org/article/2007/claire-strom-on-james-j-hills-legacy-and-influence-on-the-northern-great-plains | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.98896 | 3,059 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2598697841167... | 1 | Editor's Note: Claire Strom, associate professor of history at North Dakota State University in Fargo, recently penned a book that, among other things, questions the agricultural legacy of the great "empire builder," James J. Hill (Profiting from the Plains: The Great Northern Railway and Corporate Development of the American West). Arguably, Hill has probably had more influence than any other individual on the development of the Ninth District, and his impact is still felt today. Strom recently sat down to discuss Hill's legacy and influence on the northern Great Plains.
fedgazette: Before we can talk about the development of rail companies in what was then known as the Great Northwest, we first have to discuss the role of government in the development of rail lines. Please describe the influence of government on rail development in the latter decades of the 19th century.
Strom: The key problem for all of the West was that railroads could not be developed in the same way that they were in the East. In the East, you ran a rail line from Town A to Town B, started traffic between those two towns, and from that you were able to generate enough income to extend the line to Town C. The problem in the West was that there were no towns. So, in the case of transcontinental railroads, for example, you had to build a rail line from St. Louis all the way to California before you could effectively start to generate profits. And no company could afford to front that kind of money.
Likewise, many believed that the federal government should get involved, and there was much congressional discussion about this before the Civil War. However, they couldn't decide whether there should be a southerly or northerly route to the West Coast. Once the Civil War started, of course, the sectional rivalry in Congress disappeared because the two sections were split. At that point the federal government—the Union government—could commit to aiding railroads, and the first railway land grant was issued in 1862. Most of the great transcontinental railroads were built with federal land grants.
It quickly became apparent that rail companies were abusing these land grants—by getting multiple grants, for example, from federal, state and local governments. There were also famous scandals that occurred and, so, by the 1870s and 1880s, the federal government had lost its appetite for issuing these grants to rail companies. The Great Northern [James J. Hill's line], then, completed in 1893, was the only transcontinental line built without federal land grants. It did receive state grants, though.
fedgazette: Land grants for rail lines, of course, had a great impact on the development of this region. However, other pieces of legislation at that time had an equally important influence.
Strom: That's right. There were three huge acts in 1862: the Pacific Railway Act, the Morrill Land Grant Act and the Homestead Act (see sidebar). So, in terms of transforming the West, 1862 was a crucial year that really redefined the landscape of the American West.
The Homestead Act and the land grant acts for the railways really work together, of course. Indeed, in many cases, settlers chose to homestead on land that belonged to the rail companies precisely because it was along the railways. The rail companies got to choose the better land, and since homestead land was often fairly poor, some settlers actually bought land from the rail companies. So if you had a little money, it was a better deal to purchase land than it was to homestead. And, in fact, that was how a lot of rail companies made their money—they didn't make their money through freight, but made it through selling land to settlers.
And the problem becomes, especially with the Southern Pacific and Union Pacific, that they built really bad rail lines. Some sections of track had to be replaced before the whole line was completed because they didn't care about the line as much as they cared about getting it done so they could get their hands on the land.
Now that, again, is why the Great Northern was such a distinctive line. Hill and his cohorts had to make money from the railway, so they built a good railway. And it was the only one that really had high-quality steel; it was the only one where they were very careful to pick the flattest pieces of land that best passed through the mountains. So, out of all the transcontinentals, it was the best line.
fedgazette: So let's talk about Hill's big idea to build an intercontinental railroad. He begins locally, in Minnesota, with regional lines, correct?
Strom: Well, he bought a Minnesota line that had to cross the Canadian border by a certain date or he would lose its state land grant—this was the only land grant that he did have. And he and [railroad entrepreneur Norman] Kittson and some other financiers bought the line and met the deadline.
Then he wanted to go west. Now, Hill was a Canadian, and he initially wanted to push westward through Canada. And the Canadians wouldn't let him; in fact, he waged a huge battle with the Canadian Pacific. Losing, he eventually dropped down back into the United States and laid his track along what became Route 2, about as close to the border as you can get without being in Canada.
fedgazette: So this brings us back to a previous point: Hill had to build a line and earn a profit without federal land grants. Was this what influenced his involvement in agricultural development? Was this his incentive to get involved?
Strom: Very much so, but there's a combination here. As I always tell my students, people are very complex and they often have multiple motivations, and usually we find ways to bring all those motivations into sync so they support each other. Hill very much wanted to see a pattern of small, family-owned farms across the northern Great Plains. He thought that would be best for America; he thought that would be best for the settlers; he very much subscribed to the Jeffersonian philosophy of a rural America. He was also a neo-Malthusian, who believed that the cities in the East were becoming too big and that they would soon tax the finite resources available to support their booming populations. Farming the new frontier would address this problem.
In combination with this vision was a more practical aim. If his ideal had come to pass, it would have provided a huge amount of money for his railroads. Now, I don't think that means he was any less idealistic. I think he really believed in his ideals. But, of course, he had a very good economic reason for that belief. And so, over the course of his life, that was what he was trying to promote on the northern Great Plains—these small, family-owned farms.
He started off here in the [Red River] Valley, and he riddled the area with branch lines to serve the bonanza wheat farmers. His railroads made huge amounts of money taking that wheat down to Minneapolis. But he didn't like those big bonanza farms, even though he owned one himself. So he subdivided his, put houses on those subdivisions and sold them as small family farms. That worked, somewhat, in the Valley, where we've got good soil and relatively good moisture, but further west this was just not going to work.
Hill did not put all his eggs in one basket. He was always looking for other ways to make the lines profitable: He invested in township formation, like in Great Falls, Mont.; he invested in mining; he invested in coal; he invested in irrigation for apple orchards in Washington state. And those investments tended to be successful. For example, he worked very closely with the Anaconda mine in Butte, Mont. So it was not like he was just out there trying to promote agriculture; he certainly did other things to make his lines successful.
But agriculture was something that he was particularly interested in, and it was something that succeeded, but not in terms of his vision. Agriculture on the Plains remained extensive rather than intensive. You can only make good profits from vast acreages; you have to move to mechanization; you have to import labor—it became a commercial endeavor rather than a family-farm endeavor, which was what he wanted.
fedgazette: Let's talk about that a little more. Those idealistic notions of rural America are still very much alive today, even after they've been challenged for so long. Indeed, 100 years ago people on the Plains understood that farming in this region was a hardscrabble life and—as you note in your book—there was a big movement of people off the Plains and into the cities, a movement that continues to this day. What was Hill's reaction or understanding of this phenomenon?
Strom: If you go back—and I'm primarily an agricultural historian, not a railroad historian—to the earliest Colonial days, commercialization of farming has always been the name of the game. So by the early 20th century, this was nothing new. And yet we always have this myth of this Jeffersonian yeoman and how it would be so wonderful to have lots of small-scale, family-owned farms, growing mainly for their own subsistence with a little extra for the market. We still have it, as you say, even today.
It strikes me—and I may be wrong in this—but it strikes me that the people who talk the loudest about how we need those family farms are people who aren't living on them. And Hill didn't live on one either. He lived in St. Paul and New York. He had an apartment in Paris. He was well-set to tell people in North Dakota how they should live. Hill wasn't alone in this regard. There were plenty of others willing to say that others should go west and experience the pure life, who didn't follow their own advice, such as Horace Greeley, the newspaper publisher from New York City. But that's the way people are—they like to tell other people how to live.
fedgazette: When it comes to agricultural concepts, Hill was involved in many, from grain farming to raising stock. One of the most influential ideas at the time was that of dryland farming. Please describe this notion and its influence on Plains development.
Strom: Dryland farming is a term that incorporates a huge variety of techniques and agricultural science. Basically, it's a way to produce crops—and at this time, especially wheat—on arid land. The basic question was: How do you maximize water retention? And the answer could be anything from the species of wheat to grow to using cover crops to irrigation to fertilization. But at the time that Hill was working, the two key issues were crop rotation and deep plowing.
The way that plowing worked is that your plow dug very deeply, and that encouraged capillary action—so the theory went—that would get the water up toward the surface and to the root of the plant. And at the same time, the plow would tamp down the surface ground and provide a barrier so the moisture in the ground would not evaporate. Did it work? Perhaps somewhat, but this was a time when there was actually fairly good rainfall on the Plains. So while (farmers) were congratulating themselves for this new technique, they may have actually just benefited from higher-than-average rainfall.
This dryland farming boom—and it wasn't just Hill who was promoting this—caused floods of immigrants to move to Montana and the Dakotas. Then the bubble burst, if you will, and dry years returned. There were counties in Montana during this time that lost their entire population. Things just dried up, went away. And you don't see much wheat out there these days.
We also have to remember that this was a time when Americans were deeply optimistic about what they could achieve. They fundamentally believed that man and science could conquer any obstacle. We perhaps have a more complex view of our relationship with the environment 100 years later.
fedgazette: Hill also spent a great deal of time and resources on breeding stock, from horses to cows to beef cattle.
Strom: That's right, his dream was to have these family farms with healthy pigs and chickens and cows. A family would be able to sustain itself and then produce extra for the market. He did everything in his power to introduce quality stock into the region's farms. And in some instances, he was very successful.
One of the things he did, a number of times, was give away breeding stock to farmers along his lines. And the condition was that the bull or the boar would act as sire for neighboring farms. Now, with the pigs, he was very successful; he did improve the breeding stock. But pigs are easy to keep. Purebred cattle, on the other hand, on the northern Great Plains, were really difficult to keep. They took a lot of work, and the winters were long and difficult, making care that much harder. Often the farmers ended up killing the bulls and had good Sunday dinners for a while, and that was the end of that idea.
fedgazette: One thing you do in your book is take on those historians and history popularizers who give a lot of credit to Hill for influencing the development of agriculture. Why are they wrong?
Strom: Hill was terribly active in agricultural issues. He was front and center at state and county fairs, in state legislatures, at congressional hearings, and involved in major legislative issues. If you were around and you were engaged in agricultural development at that time, you would have known him. I think most historians have only looked tangentially at this question, and what they see, quite rightly, is this guy who was in everybody's face when it comes to agriculture. He was everywhere.
And when I looked at that question, I recognized that, yes, he was front and center, but very little of what he wanted actually came to pass. And when it did, like dryland farming, he was only one of many promoters. It wasn't like he was the only one beating the dryland farming drum and changing people's minds.
Where I can accept that he was cutting edge and influential was with the type of railroad he built, the quality of railroad he built, the way he financed the railroad—that was just remarkable. As far as agriculture goes, he was pretty much a neophyte and a failure. He failed in other things too. That shouldn't surprise us, of course. We all fail in aspects of our lives, and that doesn't make us woefully inadequate people; it makes us human.
fedgazette: Thank you, Professor Strom. | 3,031 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reception children discovered frost and ice outside today. They practiced writing in the frost with either their fingers or a stick. Children developed the skill of estimating, that we have been learning in maths by dropping the ice and estimating how many pieces it had broken into. They checked their answers by counting the smaller pieces of ice!
Children were developing their writing skills today. In the mud kitchen, pancakes were being made with a delicious topping of maple syrup. A list of ingredients was added to the menu board. Inside, children were labelling their pictures and models and making books.
Year 5 have begun writing about aliens! We started by learning about each planet before designing an alien that we thought would be well suited to the environment on a particular planet. Each alien had to have three adaptations to ensure it could survive on its planet. Some aliens inhaled hydrogen and used it to power their hoverboard legs to remain above the surface on a gas planet with a hydrogen based atmosphere. Some aliens were furry to keep them warm. Some aliens used their tentacles to propel them above the surface. Some had huge eyes to help them see through the storms. I was amazed by the thought that went into them. We have now begun using language creatively to describe the aliens. The children are choosing and placing words and phrases to ensure their reader is either disgusted, scared or intrigued by their alien.
Year 5 have been exploring the beginning of The Tempest ready for their performance. They have been using their bodies to create the sound of a storm. Today, they used their learning to produce some incredible sentences describing the storm.
This morning Year 1 have become authors and are writing their own stories. The classroom is a full of children fully focused on their learning and I am so excited to read their stories later today!
This week, Year 4 have been learning ten spellings that do not fit any rules that they have learnt so far. We have been discussing different ways to remember the tricky spellings. We practised the spellings by writing on each other’s backs and guessing the words. What tricks can you remember?
Today, year 5 have had an extraordinary day. We were really lucky to have a team from The National Holocaust Centre and Museum share an insightful journey of a boy, Leo, in 1938. The children had many opportunities of open discussions and were given many clues which helped them learn and understand every step of his journey where it all started in Berlin. It has been a successful day and what the children have learnt today will be the base of our next learning in Literacy.
Today, Year 5, along with some children from Year 3 and 4 have been using their plan from last week to start writing letters as if they were being an evacuee from WW1. We created a success criteria so we know exactly how to be successful in our learning and to also know what to include in our letter. Children have stopped and reflected on their learning and have already made changes which shows that writing can always get better and better. I’ve also been amazed to see that they have applied specific learning from guided reading to their letter writing.
Today Year 5 and some year 3 and 4 children have been learning about what happened to children who were evacuated during the war. They were surprised to learn that if they had lived in a busy city during the war, they would have been sent away to live with either relatives or a host family in the countryside where it was safer, leaving their grown up’s behind!
Next week they will be writing as an evacuee from their plans, see examples below, a letter home to their families telling them all about their experiences from leaving their grown ups at the train station to travelling to the countryside and meeting their new host families and joining a new school. Please ask your children to share what they have learnt so far! | <urn:uuid:9189e9fc-0112-4ec7-ba4c-90d9abd75760> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.maplecross.herts.sch.uk/category/subject-3/writing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.987917 | 779 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.10411150753498... | 1 | Reception children discovered frost and ice outside today. They practiced writing in the frost with either their fingers or a stick. Children developed the skill of estimating, that we have been learning in maths by dropping the ice and estimating how many pieces it had broken into. They checked their answers by counting the smaller pieces of ice!
Children were developing their writing skills today. In the mud kitchen, pancakes were being made with a delicious topping of maple syrup. A list of ingredients was added to the menu board. Inside, children were labelling their pictures and models and making books.
Year 5 have begun writing about aliens! We started by learning about each planet before designing an alien that we thought would be well suited to the environment on a particular planet. Each alien had to have three adaptations to ensure it could survive on its planet. Some aliens inhaled hydrogen and used it to power their hoverboard legs to remain above the surface on a gas planet with a hydrogen based atmosphere. Some aliens were furry to keep them warm. Some aliens used their tentacles to propel them above the surface. Some had huge eyes to help them see through the storms. I was amazed by the thought that went into them. We have now begun using language creatively to describe the aliens. The children are choosing and placing words and phrases to ensure their reader is either disgusted, scared or intrigued by their alien.
Year 5 have been exploring the beginning of The Tempest ready for their performance. They have been using their bodies to create the sound of a storm. Today, they used their learning to produce some incredible sentences describing the storm.
This morning Year 1 have become authors and are writing their own stories. The classroom is a full of children fully focused on their learning and I am so excited to read their stories later today!
This week, Year 4 have been learning ten spellings that do not fit any rules that they have learnt so far. We have been discussing different ways to remember the tricky spellings. We practised the spellings by writing on each other’s backs and guessing the words. What tricks can you remember?
Today, year 5 have had an extraordinary day. We were really lucky to have a team from The National Holocaust Centre and Museum share an insightful journey of a boy, Leo, in 1938. The children had many opportunities of open discussions and were given many clues which helped them learn and understand every step of his journey where it all started in Berlin. It has been a successful day and what the children have learnt today will be the base of our next learning in Literacy.
Today, Year 5, along with some children from Year 3 and 4 have been using their plan from last week to start writing letters as if they were being an evacuee from WW1. We created a success criteria so we know exactly how to be successful in our learning and to also know what to include in our letter. Children have stopped and reflected on their learning and have already made changes which shows that writing can always get better and better. I’ve also been amazed to see that they have applied specific learning from guided reading to their letter writing.
Today Year 5 and some year 3 and 4 children have been learning about what happened to children who were evacuated during the war. They were surprised to learn that if they had lived in a busy city during the war, they would have been sent away to live with either relatives or a host family in the countryside where it was safer, leaving their grown up’s behind!
Next week they will be writing as an evacuee from their plans, see examples below, a letter home to their families telling them all about their experiences from leaving their grown ups at the train station to travelling to the countryside and meeting their new host families and joining a new school. Please ask your children to share what they have learnt so far! | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Agreed means something that was decided on by two or more people.
Two people that settled on a particular time to meet is an example of an agreed time.
- Agreed is defined as two or more people who shared the same idea.
An example of agreed is when all jurors believed the defendant was guilty.
- The definition of agreed means that someone did what another person wanted him to do.
If you tried a new product because a friend suggested it, that is an example of agreed.
- simple past tense and past participle of agree
(comparative more agreed, superlative most agreed)
- In harmony.
- We are much more agreed on goals than on methods.
- Indicates agreement on the part of the speaker.
- Totally agreed!
- Brandon, we all agreed on those rules.
- He agreed to keep our conversation limited to the two of us and is willing to listen to you.
- We breakfasted and were on the road by the agreed time.
- He agreed to take the boy with him and teach him how to be a good sailor.
- I agreed to this and I want the baby as much as you do. | <urn:uuid:9259dd93-15e2-4bfc-a15f-743dae814c6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.yourdictionary.com/agreed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.982541 | 249 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.04825442284345627... | 1 | - Agreed means something that was decided on by two or more people.
Two people that settled on a particular time to meet is an example of an agreed time.
- Agreed is defined as two or more people who shared the same idea.
An example of agreed is when all jurors believed the defendant was guilty.
- The definition of agreed means that someone did what another person wanted him to do.
If you tried a new product because a friend suggested it, that is an example of agreed.
- simple past tense and past participle of agree
(comparative more agreed, superlative most agreed)
- In harmony.
- We are much more agreed on goals than on methods.
- Indicates agreement on the part of the speaker.
- Totally agreed!
- Brandon, we all agreed on those rules.
- He agreed to keep our conversation limited to the two of us and is willing to listen to you.
- We breakfasted and were on the road by the agreed time.
- He agreed to take the boy with him and teach him how to be a good sailor.
- I agreed to this and I want the baby as much as you do. | 232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cananea Strike, also known as the Cananea Riot, or the Cananea Massacre, took place in the Mexican mining town of Cananea, Sonora, in June 1906. Although the workers were forced to return to their positions with no demand being met, the action was a key event in the general unrest that emerged during the final years of the regime of President Porfirio Díaz and that prefigured the Mexican Revolution of 1910. In the incident twenty-three people died, on both sides, twenty-two were injured, and more than fifty were arrested.
In 1906 Cananea was a company town with a population totaling 23,000. Of these 21,000 were Mexican and the remainder American. Order was kept by a private police force maintained by the Cananea Consolidated Copper Company. The only source of foodstuffs and other commodities was a company store, which reportedly sold its goods at high prices.
By 1906, the Nogales-based Cananea Consolidated Copper Company had some 5,360 Mexican workers employed at its Cananea copper mines, earning three and a half pesos per day while the 2,200 American workers there were earning five pesos for the same job. Conditions in which the Mexican employees worked were deplorable. During the celebrations of Cinco de Mayo, the Mexican employees made public their complaints while the local authority applied martial law to avoid further conflicts.
On June 1, most of the Mexican miners went on strike. Led by Juan José Ríos, Manuel Macario Diéguez and Esteban Baca Calderón, their demands were the removal of one foreman named Luis, the pay of five pesos for eight hours' work, the employment quotas ensuring seventy-five percent of the jobs for Mexicans and twenty-five percent for foreigners, the deployment of responsible and respectful men to operate the cages and that all Mexican workers to be entitled to promotions, in accordance with their skills.
The company executives rejected all of the petitions and the workers decided to march and gather people from other towns in the municipality. The population supported the workers and the crowd numbered more than 3,000 people. While they were marching in front of the wood shop of the company, the American employees in charge of that department, the Metcalf brothers, threw water at them and then fired shots, killing three people. The angry mob detained the brothers and lynched them by setting them on fire. When they approached the government building of the municipal president they were received by a 275-man American posse led by Arizona Rangers. Other workers were killed while the strike leaders were sent to prison. Contemporary news reports in the New York Times on June 3, 1906 reported that on June 1, strikers destroyed a lumber mill and killed two brothers who were defending the mine. Eleven casualties were reported among the Mexican "rioters".
About half of the company police avoided involvement in the disturbance. Responding to a telegraphed plea from Colonel William Cornell Greene of the Greene Consolidated Copper Company, a posse of 275 volunteers from Bisbee, Douglas and Naco, Arizona, commanded by Captain Thomas H. Rynning of the Arizona Rangers, entered Mexico against the orders of Joseph Henry Kibbey, Governor of Arizona Territory. At the order of Rafael Izabal Governor of Sonora, forty Rurales (mounted police) were despatched from Hermosillo to reinforce a detachment under Colonel Emilio Kosterlitsky already present. Mexican Federal troops were also sent to Cananea. Four troops of the 5th Cavalry en route from Fort Huachuca were held at Naco, Arizona, on the border on the orders of President William Howard Taft.
A tense confrontation between striking miners and approximately 200 Americans ensued. Many participants were armed and shots were exchanged. At Colonel Kosterlitsky's orders the American interventionists left the town by rail, to return across the border. Mexican Rurales and Federal soldiers then disarmed the strikers and made arrests.
According to Colonel Green the "trouble was incited by a Socialistic organization that has been formed by malcontents opposed to the Díaz government." Shortly before the strike, a political party called the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) had been established with wide support. The PLM quickly became involved in aggressively pressing for industrial and rural reform. At both the French-controlled Rio Blanco textile factory and the American-owned Cananea Copper Company mine, PLM literature was subsequently to be found distributed through the workers' settlements.
Although the government forces present had behaved with relative restraint, the entry of armed foreigners into national territory caused Mexican outrage against the Diaz administration. Diaz had sent orders to Governor Izabal not to accept any American involvement in restoring order in Cananea but the telegram had arrived after the trainload of Arizona Rangers and civilian supporters had crossed the border.
The incident became linked with the Río Blanco strike of January 1907 as two symbols of the Porfirio Díaz administration's corruption, subservience to foreign interests and civil repression. They became "household words for hundreds of thousands of Mexicans".
A corrido titled "Cananea jail" written in 1917 commemorates the incident.
The Cananea municipal jail, built in 1903 and located in downtown Cananea, is currently a museum Workers' Struggle Museum and also houses exhibitions of photographs and instruments used in mining.
The mine in Cananea currently continues to be worked for copper. After the original 1906 strike the Cananea mine has remained the scene of frequent labor disputes, with the most recent incident being a five-month miners strike that has lasted into January, 2008. | <urn:uuid:310cde0d-d434-42f5-bbe7-5217cfacab77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Cananea-strike | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.980014 | 1,174 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.068435758... | 1 | The Cananea Strike, also known as the Cananea Riot, or the Cananea Massacre, took place in the Mexican mining town of Cananea, Sonora, in June 1906. Although the workers were forced to return to their positions with no demand being met, the action was a key event in the general unrest that emerged during the final years of the regime of President Porfirio Díaz and that prefigured the Mexican Revolution of 1910. In the incident twenty-three people died, on both sides, twenty-two were injured, and more than fifty were arrested.
In 1906 Cananea was a company town with a population totaling 23,000. Of these 21,000 were Mexican and the remainder American. Order was kept by a private police force maintained by the Cananea Consolidated Copper Company. The only source of foodstuffs and other commodities was a company store, which reportedly sold its goods at high prices.
By 1906, the Nogales-based Cananea Consolidated Copper Company had some 5,360 Mexican workers employed at its Cananea copper mines, earning three and a half pesos per day while the 2,200 American workers there were earning five pesos for the same job. Conditions in which the Mexican employees worked were deplorable. During the celebrations of Cinco de Mayo, the Mexican employees made public their complaints while the local authority applied martial law to avoid further conflicts.
On June 1, most of the Mexican miners went on strike. Led by Juan José Ríos, Manuel Macario Diéguez and Esteban Baca Calderón, their demands were the removal of one foreman named Luis, the pay of five pesos for eight hours' work, the employment quotas ensuring seventy-five percent of the jobs for Mexicans and twenty-five percent for foreigners, the deployment of responsible and respectful men to operate the cages and that all Mexican workers to be entitled to promotions, in accordance with their skills.
The company executives rejected all of the petitions and the workers decided to march and gather people from other towns in the municipality. The population supported the workers and the crowd numbered more than 3,000 people. While they were marching in front of the wood shop of the company, the American employees in charge of that department, the Metcalf brothers, threw water at them and then fired shots, killing three people. The angry mob detained the brothers and lynched them by setting them on fire. When they approached the government building of the municipal president they were received by a 275-man American posse led by Arizona Rangers. Other workers were killed while the strike leaders were sent to prison. Contemporary news reports in the New York Times on June 3, 1906 reported that on June 1, strikers destroyed a lumber mill and killed two brothers who were defending the mine. Eleven casualties were reported among the Mexican "rioters".
About half of the company police avoided involvement in the disturbance. Responding to a telegraphed plea from Colonel William Cornell Greene of the Greene Consolidated Copper Company, a posse of 275 volunteers from Bisbee, Douglas and Naco, Arizona, commanded by Captain Thomas H. Rynning of the Arizona Rangers, entered Mexico against the orders of Joseph Henry Kibbey, Governor of Arizona Territory. At the order of Rafael Izabal Governor of Sonora, forty Rurales (mounted police) were despatched from Hermosillo to reinforce a detachment under Colonel Emilio Kosterlitsky already present. Mexican Federal troops were also sent to Cananea. Four troops of the 5th Cavalry en route from Fort Huachuca were held at Naco, Arizona, on the border on the orders of President William Howard Taft.
A tense confrontation between striking miners and approximately 200 Americans ensued. Many participants were armed and shots were exchanged. At Colonel Kosterlitsky's orders the American interventionists left the town by rail, to return across the border. Mexican Rurales and Federal soldiers then disarmed the strikers and made arrests.
According to Colonel Green the "trouble was incited by a Socialistic organization that has been formed by malcontents opposed to the Díaz government." Shortly before the strike, a political party called the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) had been established with wide support. The PLM quickly became involved in aggressively pressing for industrial and rural reform. At both the French-controlled Rio Blanco textile factory and the American-owned Cananea Copper Company mine, PLM literature was subsequently to be found distributed through the workers' settlements.
Although the government forces present had behaved with relative restraint, the entry of armed foreigners into national territory caused Mexican outrage against the Diaz administration. Diaz had sent orders to Governor Izabal not to accept any American involvement in restoring order in Cananea but the telegram had arrived after the trainload of Arizona Rangers and civilian supporters had crossed the border.
The incident became linked with the Río Blanco strike of January 1907 as two symbols of the Porfirio Díaz administration's corruption, subservience to foreign interests and civil repression. They became "household words for hundreds of thousands of Mexicans".
A corrido titled "Cananea jail" written in 1917 commemorates the incident.
The Cananea municipal jail, built in 1903 and located in downtown Cananea, is currently a museum Workers' Struggle Museum and also houses exhibitions of photographs and instruments used in mining.
The mine in Cananea currently continues to be worked for copper. After the original 1906 strike the Cananea mine has remained the scene of frequent labor disputes, with the most recent incident being a five-month miners strike that has lasted into January, 2008. | 1,218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early man didn’t really have any tooth worries. Not only did the people in pre-agricultural societies not have any sugar or processed foods to worry about, the life expectancy was so low that you were often dead before tooth rot set in anyway. However, when mankind started to learn how to farm, tooth decay started getting real. Indeed, archaeologists have found evidence that people living more than 15,000 years ago were suffering from cavities. What’s more, they were also using flints to clean their teeth and to even knock rotting teeth out.
Shockingly, such primitive dentistry was to remain the norm for many centuries. While the people of ancient Egypt, Rome or Greece might have been pioneers in many fields, including maths, astronomy and even medicine, their knowledge of oral health was basic to say the least. And this approach to dental health continued right through the Middle Ages. In fact, it was only really with the Enlightenment that real, expert dentists started to emerge. But even then, treatments were carried out without any anaesthetics.
The history of dentistry, therefore, makes for some pretty tough reading. Going to the dentist could be bloody, gory, painful and often even fatal, as the below shows. So, here we present the history of dentistry, blood and all:
Bow drills were used 9,000 years ago
Fear of the dentist’s drill is not a new phenomenon. In fact, archaeologists have discovered evidence that humans were facing the trauma of going under the drill some 9,000 years ago. Of course, the equipment used back them was far more primitive than today’s advanced tools. However, the general aim and method was the same – drilling into the tooth to address decay and prevent a cavity from growing any bigger.
The first evidence of ancient peoples using dental techniques goes as far back as 7,000BC. Archaeologists studying the ancient Indus civilization, who settled the Indus Valley between modern-day India and Pakistan, found bow drills they believe were used for primitive dental surgery. With the string of the bow pulled taught, the drill bit would go into the affected tooth and, it was hoped, drain all the infection out. Of course, all this was done slowly and carefully, and all without any anaesthetics to ease the considerable pain.
It’s widely assumed that these first dentists were actually primitive jewellers. During the ancient Indus civilization, jewellery was very popular and bow drills were used to bore holes in beads to make necklaces and bracelets. Since they had the necessary equipment, these beadmakers would also be employed as makeshift dental surgeons, though their excellent hand-eye coordination and precise technique would likely have made up for their lack of medical knowledge. And, of course, if these beadmakers were the first dentists, then their assistants would have been the first dental assistants. After all, at least two other people would have been required to hold the patient down during the painful procedure. | <urn:uuid:0b573a6e-3ecd-44ff-be4f-0ada7b8ef604> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/from-ancient-egypt-to-the-nazis-16-horrors-of-dentistry-through-the-centuries/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.987073 | 616 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.376336932182312... | 6 | Early man didn’t really have any tooth worries. Not only did the people in pre-agricultural societies not have any sugar or processed foods to worry about, the life expectancy was so low that you were often dead before tooth rot set in anyway. However, when mankind started to learn how to farm, tooth decay started getting real. Indeed, archaeologists have found evidence that people living more than 15,000 years ago were suffering from cavities. What’s more, they were also using flints to clean their teeth and to even knock rotting teeth out.
Shockingly, such primitive dentistry was to remain the norm for many centuries. While the people of ancient Egypt, Rome or Greece might have been pioneers in many fields, including maths, astronomy and even medicine, their knowledge of oral health was basic to say the least. And this approach to dental health continued right through the Middle Ages. In fact, it was only really with the Enlightenment that real, expert dentists started to emerge. But even then, treatments were carried out without any anaesthetics.
The history of dentistry, therefore, makes for some pretty tough reading. Going to the dentist could be bloody, gory, painful and often even fatal, as the below shows. So, here we present the history of dentistry, blood and all:
Bow drills were used 9,000 years ago
Fear of the dentist’s drill is not a new phenomenon. In fact, archaeologists have discovered evidence that humans were facing the trauma of going under the drill some 9,000 years ago. Of course, the equipment used back them was far more primitive than today’s advanced tools. However, the general aim and method was the same – drilling into the tooth to address decay and prevent a cavity from growing any bigger.
The first evidence of ancient peoples using dental techniques goes as far back as 7,000BC. Archaeologists studying the ancient Indus civilization, who settled the Indus Valley between modern-day India and Pakistan, found bow drills they believe were used for primitive dental surgery. With the string of the bow pulled taught, the drill bit would go into the affected tooth and, it was hoped, drain all the infection out. Of course, all this was done slowly and carefully, and all without any anaesthetics to ease the considerable pain.
It’s widely assumed that these first dentists were actually primitive jewellers. During the ancient Indus civilization, jewellery was very popular and bow drills were used to bore holes in beads to make necklaces and bracelets. Since they had the necessary equipment, these beadmakers would also be employed as makeshift dental surgeons, though their excellent hand-eye coordination and precise technique would likely have made up for their lack of medical knowledge. And, of course, if these beadmakers were the first dentists, then their assistants would have been the first dental assistants. After all, at least two other people would have been required to hold the patient down during the painful procedure. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
R Charlesworth: March 2018
Another busy, fun week in Base 4. The children have been doing some very creative writing based upon the scary 'Shrike' from our story. Shrike is a resurrected man who is now part man part robot, in the story he is taken apart and out back together so that the mayor of London can learn more about him. We used this to inspire our writing and we too have been dissecting Shrike. The children have used interesting word choices, combining human and metal parts to give an image of this strange creature, we have then used prepositions to give a structure and cohesion to our work. These have been fantastic.
In our maths lessons this week Y5 have been looking at multiplication and division, investigating the different methods we can use to answer more complicated calculations. Y6 have been learning about algebra and ratio, we have looked at how and why these are useful in real life and we have been working through a range of problems. The children have looked at different methods to solve these (such as bar models), deciding on which one is right for them.
We have also been busy looking into history — what is it? What do we know about it? The children discussed the civilisations that they knew about or they had heard of and, in their teams, they put these into a timeline using their knowledge and some reasoning skills! The children did such an excellent job, not only in terms of their history but team work too, listening to each-others ideas and sharing roles within the group, well done. When we looked at their timelines and compare them to an accurate one, the children were shocked by....the Egyptians — they were truly surprised by how long their civilisation existed.
We have also enjoyed creating our own version of a dissected Shrike! We have looked at the artist Alberto Giacometti and used his artwork as inspiration for our own images. We used part pencils to create an image of Shrike's face and then moved on to creating pieces of sculpture for his ribs/ circuit boards. The children have done a great job of starting these and hopefully we will have wonderful finished pieces next week.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning...
It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who...
I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a... | <urn:uuid:51cf9717-14d9-4a91-9d96-c923c332aa97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-4-news-six.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00553.warc.gz | en | 0.982495 | 618 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.646359503269... | 1 | R Charlesworth: March 2018
Another busy, fun week in Base 4. The children have been doing some very creative writing based upon the scary 'Shrike' from our story. Shrike is a resurrected man who is now part man part robot, in the story he is taken apart and out back together so that the mayor of London can learn more about him. We used this to inspire our writing and we too have been dissecting Shrike. The children have used interesting word choices, combining human and metal parts to give an image of this strange creature, we have then used prepositions to give a structure and cohesion to our work. These have been fantastic.
In our maths lessons this week Y5 have been looking at multiplication and division, investigating the different methods we can use to answer more complicated calculations. Y6 have been learning about algebra and ratio, we have looked at how and why these are useful in real life and we have been working through a range of problems. The children have looked at different methods to solve these (such as bar models), deciding on which one is right for them.
We have also been busy looking into history — what is it? What do we know about it? The children discussed the civilisations that they knew about or they had heard of and, in their teams, they put these into a timeline using their knowledge and some reasoning skills! The children did such an excellent job, not only in terms of their history but team work too, listening to each-others ideas and sharing roles within the group, well done. When we looked at their timelines and compare them to an accurate one, the children were shocked by....the Egyptians — they were truly surprised by how long their civilisation existed.
We have also enjoyed creating our own version of a dissected Shrike! We have looked at the artist Alberto Giacometti and used his artwork as inspiration for our own images. We used part pencils to create an image of Shrike's face and then moved on to creating pieces of sculpture for his ribs/ circuit boards. The children have done a great job of starting these and hopefully we will have wonderful finished pieces next week.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning...
It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who...
I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a... | 615 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States Navy designed the Cleveland class of light cruisers for World War II with the goal of increased range and AA armament as compared with earlier classes.
Although 39 ships were projected to be built, only 27 were actually commissioned. Two additional ships, USS Fargo (CL-106) and USS Huntington (CL-107) were completed to a slightly different design, with a more compact superstructure and single funnel, and were known as the Fargo class. Nine ships were reordered as Independence-class light carriers. Six ships were later refit as Galveston- and Providence-class guided missile cruisers.
The ships were mainly used in the Pacific during World War II, but some saw action in Europe and off the coast of Africa. All survived the war. Except for Manchester, which remained in service until 1956, all were decommissioned by 1950. The six converted into missile ships were reactivated in the mid-50’s and retired in the early 70’s.
Only one Cleveland class ship remains, Little Rock, which is now a museum in Buffalo, NY. | <urn:uuid:8783925c-32c0-4c5d-89c3-3b5aef256bd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gearthhacks.com/downloads/3-Cleveland-Class-Cruiser-in-San-Francisco-1946/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.990079 | 224 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.384317725896... | 1 | The United States Navy designed the Cleveland class of light cruisers for World War II with the goal of increased range and AA armament as compared with earlier classes.
Although 39 ships were projected to be built, only 27 were actually commissioned. Two additional ships, USS Fargo (CL-106) and USS Huntington (CL-107) were completed to a slightly different design, with a more compact superstructure and single funnel, and were known as the Fargo class. Nine ships were reordered as Independence-class light carriers. Six ships were later refit as Galveston- and Providence-class guided missile cruisers.
The ships were mainly used in the Pacific during World War II, but some saw action in Europe and off the coast of Africa. All survived the war. Except for Manchester, which remained in service until 1956, all were decommissioned by 1950. The six converted into missile ships were reactivated in the mid-50’s and retired in the early 70’s.
Only one Cleveland class ship remains, Little Rock, which is now a museum in Buffalo, NY. | 233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of Dawson is told through the story of several immigrant women who lived and worked there. What was it like to be an immigrant woman in a Rocky Mountain coaltown in the first part of the 20th century? What obstacles did they face and have to overcome? As they raised their families and worked to sustain them, what dreams did they have for themselves and their loved ones in this new land?
Between 1876 and 1926, 9 million Italians immigrated to the United States. Italy was a new country but it was also a weak one. The majority of the country was poor and there was little respect for the government. From the mountain towns outside of Modena, in north-central Italy, a large number of families made their way across the Atlantic Ocean, to Ellis Island, seeking a new life. Some of them would eventually settle in Dawson. Our family would arrive in America a few days after Thanksgiving, in 1905.
In 1897 a revolt against the Turks in Crete led to war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, and then to self-governance for Crete. Notwithstanding this, conditions in Greece were difficult, and many Greeks immigrated to the United States. Our Greek would leave her family in Crete to travel to America. With WWI brewing on the horizon, she would be fortunate to escape Europe. But the Greek community in Dawson would be second to the Italian, in losses in the mining disasters to come.
In 1908 a young woman and her cousin left for America, journeying to marry men they had never met before, but who had requested brides from their home town. Eventually arriving in Dawson, she would begin a new adventure. She would raise a family of five children, lose a husband to the coalmines, and through sheer determination and hard will, eventually send all her children to univeristy in New Mexico.
The Mexican revolution of 1910 brought a time of political change and instability to Mexico. Up to one million Mexicans fled north into the United States, but they weren’t always welcomed with open arms. In New Mexico, old Spanish families looked down on the new arrivals, as did some of their compatriots. Nonetheless, many pushed on, pushing aside the ethnic stereotypes and economic discrimination, to find a more stable life for their families in Dawson. | <urn:uuid:2f7862aa-5b50-48b5-84df-2bb3487185fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dawsondocumentary.org/the-protagonists | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.98521 | 470 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.06356098502... | 1 | The history of Dawson is told through the story of several immigrant women who lived and worked there. What was it like to be an immigrant woman in a Rocky Mountain coaltown in the first part of the 20th century? What obstacles did they face and have to overcome? As they raised their families and worked to sustain them, what dreams did they have for themselves and their loved ones in this new land?
Between 1876 and 1926, 9 million Italians immigrated to the United States. Italy was a new country but it was also a weak one. The majority of the country was poor and there was little respect for the government. From the mountain towns outside of Modena, in north-central Italy, a large number of families made their way across the Atlantic Ocean, to Ellis Island, seeking a new life. Some of them would eventually settle in Dawson. Our family would arrive in America a few days after Thanksgiving, in 1905.
In 1897 a revolt against the Turks in Crete led to war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, and then to self-governance for Crete. Notwithstanding this, conditions in Greece were difficult, and many Greeks immigrated to the United States. Our Greek would leave her family in Crete to travel to America. With WWI brewing on the horizon, she would be fortunate to escape Europe. But the Greek community in Dawson would be second to the Italian, in losses in the mining disasters to come.
In 1908 a young woman and her cousin left for America, journeying to marry men they had never met before, but who had requested brides from their home town. Eventually arriving in Dawson, she would begin a new adventure. She would raise a family of five children, lose a husband to the coalmines, and through sheer determination and hard will, eventually send all her children to univeristy in New Mexico.
The Mexican revolution of 1910 brought a time of political change and instability to Mexico. Up to one million Mexicans fled north into the United States, but they weren’t always welcomed with open arms. In New Mexico, old Spanish families looked down on the new arrivals, as did some of their compatriots. Nonetheless, many pushed on, pushing aside the ethnic stereotypes and economic discrimination, to find a more stable life for their families in Dawson. | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Britain’s most distinguished historian of ancient Greek art recounts the influence of Greek communities and their culture through Central Asia, India and Western China, from the Bronze Age through to the rise of Islam. John Boardman examines a wealth of art and artifacts as well as literary sources to reveal the remarkable influence of Greek culture upon peoples – Anatolians, Levantines, Persians, Asiatics, Indians, Chinese – whose settled civilizations were far older, with their own strong traditions in life, government and the arts.
The Greeks were not empire-builders. They did not seek to conquer or rule. However, they were highly literate and adept at trade; they spread a monetary economy through Eurasia; their religion was easily adapted to that of others; their art developed a form of narrative that was to be dominant for centuries to come; and their poets and philosophers were widely respected outside their homeland. | <urn:uuid:c5dad8eb-a72e-4ce2-976a-17ca643ddc7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thamesandhudson.com/greeks-in-asia-9780500252130 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.98735 | 182 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.18032470345497... | 6 | Britain’s most distinguished historian of ancient Greek art recounts the influence of Greek communities and their culture through Central Asia, India and Western China, from the Bronze Age through to the rise of Islam. John Boardman examines a wealth of art and artifacts as well as literary sources to reveal the remarkable influence of Greek culture upon peoples – Anatolians, Levantines, Persians, Asiatics, Indians, Chinese – whose settled civilizations were far older, with their own strong traditions in life, government and the arts.
The Greeks were not empire-builders. They did not seek to conquer or rule. However, they were highly literate and adept at trade; they spread a monetary economy through Eurasia; their religion was easily adapted to that of others; their art developed a form of narrative that was to be dominant for centuries to come; and their poets and philosophers were widely respected outside their homeland. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many periods of time throughout the United states history can be described as paradoxical, or a statement of contradiction. Charles Darwin wrote this statement in his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness” (Dickens 1). This quote was written about the French Revolution with the use of the paradox to show how it was both the worst and best of times. This can also be said about many other time periods, but more specifically the Industrial Revolution. In the wake of the Industrial Revolution there was a major advancement in industries, which led to faster production time and transportation leading to cheaper prices, however it also led to the suffering of both adult and child workers. The Industrial Revolution brought great times to the people with faster production and cheaper prices because of the assembly lines. Thomas Ford’s first car, the Model T, was sold at $850 which was $100 less than his competitors in 1903 before the assembly line, but by 1925 it was being sold at $290 despite other companies telling him to raise his prices after the creation of the assembly line (DiBacco 124; 128). Prices of the Model T were also lowered between 1908-1912 from before the assembly until after. Prices started at $825 in 1908 pre-assembly line to $575 in 1912 after high sales and efficient production methods, such as the assembly line (Nardo, United States 62). Production was also increased thanks to the assembly line for example in 1899 approximately 2,500 cars were produced in one year by hand, but after the assembly line the Model T cars produced made up of half of the cars produced in 1916 alone. Over 15 million Model T’s were sold before they were discontinued (Nardo, United States 58;63). Henry Ford introduced the assembly line in 1913. By 1914 the time to make a car went from twelve hours, twenty-eight minutes to two hours, thirty-eight minutes. By 1915 it took only one hour, thirty-three minutes (DiBacco 125). Production time and cheaper prices decreased due to the assembly lines during the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution offered not only faster production and cheaper prices, but it also offered faster and cheaper transportation. The construction of two railroads that started in San Francisco and Nebraska and met up in Utah became the first transcontinental railroad, which has been said to be one of the greatest outcomes of the Industrial Revolution (“Early American Railroads”). Before transcontinental railroads were built it took 5-6 months at the cost of $1000 to get from one side of the country to the other , but after transcontinental railroads it took approximately 5 days at the cost of $150 (Mintz and McNeil). Railroads were not constructed just for transcontinental trips, but a way to reduce travel time from other transportation options. An example of this is when a 17-mile trip that took less than an hour started as a 40-mile canal trip that took a least 24 hours, but was reduced due to the construction of railroads (“Early American Railroads”). In 1807, the first steamboat was built and took astronomical prices to move goods to a lower price. Steamboats were not only used to lower the price of transporting goods, but shortening trips, such as a 5 day trip from Albany to New York to only 32 hours (Kras 74). Steamboats could travel half the time it took a ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. This did not eliminate ships, but made steamships for first-class passengers, mail, and high-fare freight (Kras 77). The Industrial Revolution improved transportation options by making them faster, cheaper, and better.Although the Industrial Revolution was great for many citizens, workers were suffering in factories especially children that were overworked, underpaid, and put in dangers way. Children were favored over adults to work in the businesses because of their small, agile hands which were preferred for delicate jobs in factories. They were also chosen because of their willingness to accept lower wages than adults and their nonexistent work experience so there is no way they can complain over their substandard working conditions (Woog 24). Children who worked in factories or mills would work approximately 16 hours each day, but the bosses figured that they could get the children to work and produce more if they forced them to sleep at work. One case stated that they would work for 7 hours straight, then get a half an hour break, and move onto working for another 3 ½ hours. This would happen continuously for several days per week (Nardo, Workers 59).The bosses of these factories and mills were also good at bypassing any laws against child labor. Children from the ages of five and up would work anywhere from 14 to 18 hours with their parents. It was uncommon for labor inspectors to show up, but if they did the children were hidden in cases or forced to pretend they were not working (Woog 24). Due to being overworked, children faced severe physical hardships, such as “knock-knees,” which is when the knees turn inwards from being so weak and would develop from standing too long. One case of “knock-knees” was so severe that an individual lost 12 inches of their height from it. Accidents in the A common accident in factories would be loss of fingers and partial scalpings, but another major deficit would be when a large machine would snatch up an entire child. One survivor of this horrific incident was a 10 year old girl got her apron caught in the machine and it crushed every bone in her body and her head was crushed (Nardo, Workers 60-61). Children faced many hardships during the Industrial Revolution as overworked and underpaid workers. As well as children facing the hardships of the Industrial Revolution adults were equally affected from the results of increased productions with unsafe and unsanitary working conditions. Many railroads workers were Chinese immigrants, and they were expected to be lowered down holes to light fuses in the mountains and had to be pulled out before the powder detonated. They worked for roughly 13 hours every day and were paid $6 per month. They striked against the company to earn higher wages, but the executives withheld their food supply until they stopped striking (Mintz and McNeil). It was common for factories to lock the exits on each floor and emergency exits led nowhere. On March 25th, 1911 a fire broke out on the 9th floor in a triangle waist factory and since the doors were locked the women inside were destined to burn to death or jump out the windows in an attempt to save themselves, but by the end 146 of 500 workers died in the fire (“Fire”). These accidents are not a thing of the past there are still sweatshops today and a study that the U.S. Department of Labor held found that approximately 98% of Los Angeles apparel factories have poor working conditions resulting in severe injuries or death, 67% of Los Angeles apparel factories, and 63% of New York apparel factories violate minimum wage and overtime laws (“Fire”). In Illinois, the construction of the Illinois Central Railroad was starting and many immigrants came to work. Illinois was a host for major diseases such as cholera, malaria, dysentery, and ague and at the first sign of a breakout workers would drop everything and leave. Cholera deaths in Illinois usually ranged from three to eighty at railroad construction sights. Another health deficit of workers in Illinois was from being in the sun all day with poor food quality and little water leading to dehydration (Newton-Matza 97). Railroad workers were exposed to a lot of dangers in this work including being tossed from the top of trains and little to no financial resource. Many people who were hurt on the job would sue their employer, but there was one case that set the standard for employee injury. An engineer, Farwell, was thrown from his train and had his hand crushed under the train wheel. He sued his employer, but the judge ruled against him saying that he was aware of dangers resulting in the job due to his acceptance of his $2 per day wage (Newton-Matza 95-96). Workers of the Industrial Revolution were mistreated, underpaid, and placed in dangerous and unsanitary working conditions.The increased timing and cheaper prices were the positive outcomes of the Industrial Revolution, but it also led to negative outcomes such as child labor and harsh working conditions. The Industrial Revolution led to the works of the assembly line which made products to be made faster leading to cheaper prices, and the prices of transporting became exponentially cheaper and quicker to transport goods and people. The outcomes produced were also negative due to the long hours and dangerous working conditions for child laborers and the dangerous and unsanitary working conditions of the workers. In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution was a time period that perfectly resembled a time where it was both the best and worst of times. | <urn:uuid:a23b2c82-d853-4398-8332-c432a3ccbfd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/many-it-was-the-age-of-foolishness-dickens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.987606 | 1,836 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.42606282234... | 1 | Many periods of time throughout the United states history can be described as paradoxical, or a statement of contradiction. Charles Darwin wrote this statement in his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness” (Dickens 1). This quote was written about the French Revolution with the use of the paradox to show how it was both the worst and best of times. This can also be said about many other time periods, but more specifically the Industrial Revolution. In the wake of the Industrial Revolution there was a major advancement in industries, which led to faster production time and transportation leading to cheaper prices, however it also led to the suffering of both adult and child workers. The Industrial Revolution brought great times to the people with faster production and cheaper prices because of the assembly lines. Thomas Ford’s first car, the Model T, was sold at $850 which was $100 less than his competitors in 1903 before the assembly line, but by 1925 it was being sold at $290 despite other companies telling him to raise his prices after the creation of the assembly line (DiBacco 124; 128). Prices of the Model T were also lowered between 1908-1912 from before the assembly until after. Prices started at $825 in 1908 pre-assembly line to $575 in 1912 after high sales and efficient production methods, such as the assembly line (Nardo, United States 62). Production was also increased thanks to the assembly line for example in 1899 approximately 2,500 cars were produced in one year by hand, but after the assembly line the Model T cars produced made up of half of the cars produced in 1916 alone. Over 15 million Model T’s were sold before they were discontinued (Nardo, United States 58;63). Henry Ford introduced the assembly line in 1913. By 1914 the time to make a car went from twelve hours, twenty-eight minutes to two hours, thirty-eight minutes. By 1915 it took only one hour, thirty-three minutes (DiBacco 125). Production time and cheaper prices decreased due to the assembly lines during the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution offered not only faster production and cheaper prices, but it also offered faster and cheaper transportation. The construction of two railroads that started in San Francisco and Nebraska and met up in Utah became the first transcontinental railroad, which has been said to be one of the greatest outcomes of the Industrial Revolution (“Early American Railroads”). Before transcontinental railroads were built it took 5-6 months at the cost of $1000 to get from one side of the country to the other , but after transcontinental railroads it took approximately 5 days at the cost of $150 (Mintz and McNeil). Railroads were not constructed just for transcontinental trips, but a way to reduce travel time from other transportation options. An example of this is when a 17-mile trip that took less than an hour started as a 40-mile canal trip that took a least 24 hours, but was reduced due to the construction of railroads (“Early American Railroads”). In 1807, the first steamboat was built and took astronomical prices to move goods to a lower price. Steamboats were not only used to lower the price of transporting goods, but shortening trips, such as a 5 day trip from Albany to New York to only 32 hours (Kras 74). Steamboats could travel half the time it took a ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. This did not eliminate ships, but made steamships for first-class passengers, mail, and high-fare freight (Kras 77). The Industrial Revolution improved transportation options by making them faster, cheaper, and better.Although the Industrial Revolution was great for many citizens, workers were suffering in factories especially children that were overworked, underpaid, and put in dangers way. Children were favored over adults to work in the businesses because of their small, agile hands which were preferred for delicate jobs in factories. They were also chosen because of their willingness to accept lower wages than adults and their nonexistent work experience so there is no way they can complain over their substandard working conditions (Woog 24). Children who worked in factories or mills would work approximately 16 hours each day, but the bosses figured that they could get the children to work and produce more if they forced them to sleep at work. One case stated that they would work for 7 hours straight, then get a half an hour break, and move onto working for another 3 ½ hours. This would happen continuously for several days per week (Nardo, Workers 59).The bosses of these factories and mills were also good at bypassing any laws against child labor. Children from the ages of five and up would work anywhere from 14 to 18 hours with their parents. It was uncommon for labor inspectors to show up, but if they did the children were hidden in cases or forced to pretend they were not working (Woog 24). Due to being overworked, children faced severe physical hardships, such as “knock-knees,” which is when the knees turn inwards from being so weak and would develop from standing too long. One case of “knock-knees” was so severe that an individual lost 12 inches of their height from it. Accidents in the A common accident in factories would be loss of fingers and partial scalpings, but another major deficit would be when a large machine would snatch up an entire child. One survivor of this horrific incident was a 10 year old girl got her apron caught in the machine and it crushed every bone in her body and her head was crushed (Nardo, Workers 60-61). Children faced many hardships during the Industrial Revolution as overworked and underpaid workers. As well as children facing the hardships of the Industrial Revolution adults were equally affected from the results of increased productions with unsafe and unsanitary working conditions. Many railroads workers were Chinese immigrants, and they were expected to be lowered down holes to light fuses in the mountains and had to be pulled out before the powder detonated. They worked for roughly 13 hours every day and were paid $6 per month. They striked against the company to earn higher wages, but the executives withheld their food supply until they stopped striking (Mintz and McNeil). It was common for factories to lock the exits on each floor and emergency exits led nowhere. On March 25th, 1911 a fire broke out on the 9th floor in a triangle waist factory and since the doors were locked the women inside were destined to burn to death or jump out the windows in an attempt to save themselves, but by the end 146 of 500 workers died in the fire (“Fire”). These accidents are not a thing of the past there are still sweatshops today and a study that the U.S. Department of Labor held found that approximately 98% of Los Angeles apparel factories have poor working conditions resulting in severe injuries or death, 67% of Los Angeles apparel factories, and 63% of New York apparel factories violate minimum wage and overtime laws (“Fire”). In Illinois, the construction of the Illinois Central Railroad was starting and many immigrants came to work. Illinois was a host for major diseases such as cholera, malaria, dysentery, and ague and at the first sign of a breakout workers would drop everything and leave. Cholera deaths in Illinois usually ranged from three to eighty at railroad construction sights. Another health deficit of workers in Illinois was from being in the sun all day with poor food quality and little water leading to dehydration (Newton-Matza 97). Railroad workers were exposed to a lot of dangers in this work including being tossed from the top of trains and little to no financial resource. Many people who were hurt on the job would sue their employer, but there was one case that set the standard for employee injury. An engineer, Farwell, was thrown from his train and had his hand crushed under the train wheel. He sued his employer, but the judge ruled against him saying that he was aware of dangers resulting in the job due to his acceptance of his $2 per day wage (Newton-Matza 95-96). Workers of the Industrial Revolution were mistreated, underpaid, and placed in dangerous and unsanitary working conditions.The increased timing and cheaper prices were the positive outcomes of the Industrial Revolution, but it also led to negative outcomes such as child labor and harsh working conditions. The Industrial Revolution led to the works of the assembly line which made products to be made faster leading to cheaper prices, and the prices of transporting became exponentially cheaper and quicker to transport goods and people. The outcomes produced were also negative due to the long hours and dangerous working conditions for child laborers and the dangerous and unsanitary working conditions of the workers. In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution was a time period that perfectly resembled a time where it was both the best and worst of times. | 1,938 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Allan Pinkerton was born in Glasgow, Scotland on August 25th 1819. In 1842 he left Scotland and came to the United States. He decided to live in a small town outside of Chicago, Illinois where he worked as a barrel maker. He became involved in detective work after spotting and helping to capture a known group of counterfeiters who were wanted by authorities.
Pinkerton saw the counterfeiters while he was exploring an area looking for wood to produce his barrels. After this event Pinkerton quit barrel making and became deputy sheriff of Kane County, Illinois. Pinkerton next joined the Chicago police department. He then quit and formed his own detective agency. This agency would eventually become the Pinkerton National Detective Agency.
For a more in depth look at Allan Pinkerton read Lincoln’s Spymaster: Allan Pinkerton, America’s First Private Eye
Allan Pinkerton in the Civil War
His inauguration was to take place on March 4th 1861. At this time Lincoln was in Springfield Illinois and had to travel by train to the capital for the inauguration. Many people in the north did not like Lincoln and he received many threats on his life.
Some people were determined not to let him take the oath of office and were planning to assassinate him while he was en route to the inauguration in Washington D.C. There were many plots against Lincoln, however the one which gave authorities the biggest concern occurred in Baltimore, Maryland. Allan Pinkerton along with two other detectives were assigned to investigate the threat in Baltimore.
After determining that the threat was indeed real they informed Colonel Charles Stone who was the Inspector General and in charge of President Lincoln’s safety at the time. Colonel Stone based on the advice of Allan Pinkerton and the other detectives altered President Lincoln’s arrival time in the capital, having him arrive one day sooner than was originally planned.
Allan Pinkerton Joins General George McClellan
In 1862 Union General George McClellan worked with Allan Pinkerton to form an early version of the secret service. Pinkerton sent these Civil War spies into southern territory to acquire intelligence about the Confederates army. Pinkerton not only sent agents but he personally went south in an effort to gather intelligence for the northern war effort.
Pinkerton was a staunch abolitionist and was eager to end slavery and the rebellion. In order to help keep his identity secret he used the alias Major E.J. Allen in all of his correspondence with Union commanders.
Allan Pinkerton After the Civil War
After the Civil War Pinkerton continued his detective work. In 1872 one of his detectives James McParlan infiltrated a group known as the Molly Maguires. This was a violent and dangerous secret society made up of coal miners in Pennsylvania. After investigating this group for four years the leaders of this group were arrested and tried for murder. Many of them were convicted and hanged in 1877.
He also joined up with big business in order to control and subdue worker protests. He was against workers forming labor unions and put these movements down sometimes with brutal tactics. He earned a bad reputation as a strike-breaker and was disliked by many working class people. Allan Pinkerton died on July 1st 1884. The Pinkerton Detective Agency still operates today. | <urn:uuid:6a1cceeb-a5b8-4502-acd6-3ae66e6c7b00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.civilwaracademy.com/allan-pinkerton | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.985624 | 667 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.084819652140... | 4 | Allan Pinkerton was born in Glasgow, Scotland on August 25th 1819. In 1842 he left Scotland and came to the United States. He decided to live in a small town outside of Chicago, Illinois where he worked as a barrel maker. He became involved in detective work after spotting and helping to capture a known group of counterfeiters who were wanted by authorities.
Pinkerton saw the counterfeiters while he was exploring an area looking for wood to produce his barrels. After this event Pinkerton quit barrel making and became deputy sheriff of Kane County, Illinois. Pinkerton next joined the Chicago police department. He then quit and formed his own detective agency. This agency would eventually become the Pinkerton National Detective Agency.
For a more in depth look at Allan Pinkerton read Lincoln’s Spymaster: Allan Pinkerton, America’s First Private Eye
Allan Pinkerton in the Civil War
His inauguration was to take place on March 4th 1861. At this time Lincoln was in Springfield Illinois and had to travel by train to the capital for the inauguration. Many people in the north did not like Lincoln and he received many threats on his life.
Some people were determined not to let him take the oath of office and were planning to assassinate him while he was en route to the inauguration in Washington D.C. There were many plots against Lincoln, however the one which gave authorities the biggest concern occurred in Baltimore, Maryland. Allan Pinkerton along with two other detectives were assigned to investigate the threat in Baltimore.
After determining that the threat was indeed real they informed Colonel Charles Stone who was the Inspector General and in charge of President Lincoln’s safety at the time. Colonel Stone based on the advice of Allan Pinkerton and the other detectives altered President Lincoln’s arrival time in the capital, having him arrive one day sooner than was originally planned.
Allan Pinkerton Joins General George McClellan
In 1862 Union General George McClellan worked with Allan Pinkerton to form an early version of the secret service. Pinkerton sent these Civil War spies into southern territory to acquire intelligence about the Confederates army. Pinkerton not only sent agents but he personally went south in an effort to gather intelligence for the northern war effort.
Pinkerton was a staunch abolitionist and was eager to end slavery and the rebellion. In order to help keep his identity secret he used the alias Major E.J. Allen in all of his correspondence with Union commanders.
Allan Pinkerton After the Civil War
After the Civil War Pinkerton continued his detective work. In 1872 one of his detectives James McParlan infiltrated a group known as the Molly Maguires. This was a violent and dangerous secret society made up of coal miners in Pennsylvania. After investigating this group for four years the leaders of this group were arrested and tried for murder. Many of them were convicted and hanged in 1877.
He also joined up with big business in order to control and subdue worker protests. He was against workers forming labor unions and put these movements down sometimes with brutal tactics. He earned a bad reputation as a strike-breaker and was disliked by many working class people. Allan Pinkerton died on July 1st 1884. The Pinkerton Detective Agency still operates today. | 680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New England vs. the Chesapeake Region (DBQ) Settlers arrived to the Chesapeake region only to be greeted by unhealthy lands full of despair and labor. New Englanders, on the other hand, were welcomed by fresh air and clean water. As the years passed, the state of these two lands stabilized a bit with each other, but the people’s way of living in these regions did not. New England and the Chesapeake region developed differently because of the types of people who came to each of these places, the goals settlers had in mind when they came, and their individuality/teamwork.
The Chesapeake region was occupied mainly by single men, while New England had families. The list of emigrants bound for New England is detailed, with the age of the passenger and their relationship with another person on board, with a decent amount of women (Doc. B). However, the list of emigrants bound for Virginia only has the person’s name and age, with less than twenty women on board (Doc. C). As a result, New England became very populous while the Chesapeake had a less than satisfactory population.
Another reason why the two regions were different was because the settlers each ad different goals to fulfill. New Englanders, for example, wanted to start a new life with religious freedom. John Winthrop discusses how the settlers “Must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, we shall be made a story and a by-word throughout the world”. The Puritan settlers incorporated their beliefs in many things, as well as proper education. For instance, children were taught religion, as well as reading and writing.
The people also ran their own churches and had a congregational church overnment, similar to democracy in a political government. Settlers in the Chesapeake area, however, only desired wealth from gold and agriculture by using slaves. Captain John Smith recounts his experience as “The worse with their golden promises made all men their slaves in hope of recompenses. There was no talk… but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, The people in Virginia only stayed for economic prosperity such as growing tobacco and mining for gold, even though the condition of the land was terrible and disease ridden.
Both states had different things in mind, in terms of beliefs and goals. Lastly, the people of New England were interactive with others while the people of Virginia were independent. John Winthrop addressed the people as “[Yet] we must be knit together in this work as one man. We must entertain each other in brotherly affection; we must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities for the supply of others’ necessities”. Settlers in New England were on relatively good terms with each other, with religion keeping them together. In Virginia things were different.
Since the settlers there did not come to the Chesapeake area to start a new life, they ot many people to trust, since everyone was out to make riches. Governor Berkeley and his Council stated “Also at least one third [of the freemen available for defense] are single freemen (whose labor will hardly maintain them) or men much in debt… in hopes of bettering their condition by sharing the plunder of the country with them”. The governing body of Virginia did not trust the single, young men that came because they may get swayed by the other enemy countries and betray their own. In conclusion, the settlers may not have been loyal.
The Chesapeake region and New England developed differently because of the different people that gathered in those two lands, the goals they both had, and their unity. The Chesapeake area overall was not a good place to stay because of population issues, poor living conditions, and lack of loyalty. New England had better conditions: A big population, positive goals that were beneficial to the settlers, and loyalty. Virginia created a place for settlers to make wealth in a risky way, while New England became a haven for Puritans that were looking to get away from Old England and start anew. | <urn:uuid:a33a447f-6c25-4935-9fd1-57ae2d126b59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://patentdebate.com/new-england-vs-the-chesapeake-region/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.983295 | 843 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.02352... | 1 | New England vs. the Chesapeake Region (DBQ) Settlers arrived to the Chesapeake region only to be greeted by unhealthy lands full of despair and labor. New Englanders, on the other hand, were welcomed by fresh air and clean water. As the years passed, the state of these two lands stabilized a bit with each other, but the people’s way of living in these regions did not. New England and the Chesapeake region developed differently because of the types of people who came to each of these places, the goals settlers had in mind when they came, and their individuality/teamwork.
The Chesapeake region was occupied mainly by single men, while New England had families. The list of emigrants bound for New England is detailed, with the age of the passenger and their relationship with another person on board, with a decent amount of women (Doc. B). However, the list of emigrants bound for Virginia only has the person’s name and age, with less than twenty women on board (Doc. C). As a result, New England became very populous while the Chesapeake had a less than satisfactory population.
Another reason why the two regions were different was because the settlers each ad different goals to fulfill. New Englanders, for example, wanted to start a new life with religious freedom. John Winthrop discusses how the settlers “Must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, we shall be made a story and a by-word throughout the world”. The Puritan settlers incorporated their beliefs in many things, as well as proper education. For instance, children were taught religion, as well as reading and writing.
The people also ran their own churches and had a congregational church overnment, similar to democracy in a political government. Settlers in the Chesapeake area, however, only desired wealth from gold and agriculture by using slaves. Captain John Smith recounts his experience as “The worse with their golden promises made all men their slaves in hope of recompenses. There was no talk… but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, The people in Virginia only stayed for economic prosperity such as growing tobacco and mining for gold, even though the condition of the land was terrible and disease ridden.
Both states had different things in mind, in terms of beliefs and goals. Lastly, the people of New England were interactive with others while the people of Virginia were independent. John Winthrop addressed the people as “[Yet] we must be knit together in this work as one man. We must entertain each other in brotherly affection; we must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities for the supply of others’ necessities”. Settlers in New England were on relatively good terms with each other, with religion keeping them together. In Virginia things were different.
Since the settlers there did not come to the Chesapeake area to start a new life, they ot many people to trust, since everyone was out to make riches. Governor Berkeley and his Council stated “Also at least one third [of the freemen available for defense] are single freemen (whose labor will hardly maintain them) or men much in debt… in hopes of bettering their condition by sharing the plunder of the country with them”. The governing body of Virginia did not trust the single, young men that came because they may get swayed by the other enemy countries and betray their own. In conclusion, the settlers may not have been loyal.
The Chesapeake region and New England developed differently because of the different people that gathered in those two lands, the goals they both had, and their unity. The Chesapeake area overall was not a good place to stay because of population issues, poor living conditions, and lack of loyalty. New England had better conditions: A big population, positive goals that were beneficial to the settlers, and loyalty. Virginia created a place for settlers to make wealth in a risky way, while New England became a haven for Puritans that were looking to get away from Old England and start anew. | 827 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert E Lee
By Shawn BoosRobert E Lee was an American Confederate army general. He helped lead the south against the north Union army during the American civil war. Lee is known for the huge role he played with helping the Confederate Army. He commanded the southern forces for three years until his surrender in 1865.
Robert E Lee was born in 1807 on January 19th. He was born in Northeastern Virginia in his family home called Stratford Hall. Lee came from a long line of American patriots. Lee wanted to continue his families’ legacy and started at West Point at 18 years old. Lee then graduated from West Point in 1831.
When the United States went to war with Mexico, Lee got the chance to show how great of a soldier he was. During this war, he was known for being a brave commander. When the U.S. had won the war, Lee was seen as a hero and was sought to be a great general in the next war that the U.S. would face.
His first civil war battle was in 1859. He was asked to end John Brown’s revolt and Lee did so in just an hour. He was then asked to help lead the Union army but turned it down and quit the military because his loyalty belonged to Virginia. Then in 1861, Lee agreed to help the Confederate army. In 1862, he was put in charge of the army of Northern Virginia. He had many big victories that included the Seven Days Battles and the Second Manassas. But after this, things seemed to go down hill for Robert E Lee. At the battle of Antietam, he barely got out alive. He then took another big loss at the battle of Gettysburg. Things continued to go badly for Lee and in 1864 the Union had control of Richmond and Petersburg. Then in 1865, Robert E Lee was forced to surrender to Union General Ulysses S Grant.
After the war, Lee became a President of a college in Virginia but then died of a stroke in 1870. Robert E Lee will always be known for his work on the battlefield and his loyalty to Virginia. Lee was one of the top Generals in U.S. history who had many victories for the Confederates in the Civil war and for the U.S. in the American Mexican war.
Robert E Lee | <urn:uuid:3fb27475-0979-43ab-9b90-0355b31c2f6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freedomrunners.org/robert-e-lee-by-shawn-boosrobert-e-lee-was-an-american-confederate-army-general/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.990882 | 477 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.12824749946... | 2 | Robert E Lee
By Shawn BoosRobert E Lee was an American Confederate army general. He helped lead the south against the north Union army during the American civil war. Lee is known for the huge role he played with helping the Confederate Army. He commanded the southern forces for three years until his surrender in 1865.
Robert E Lee was born in 1807 on January 19th. He was born in Northeastern Virginia in his family home called Stratford Hall. Lee came from a long line of American patriots. Lee wanted to continue his families’ legacy and started at West Point at 18 years old. Lee then graduated from West Point in 1831.
When the United States went to war with Mexico, Lee got the chance to show how great of a soldier he was. During this war, he was known for being a brave commander. When the U.S. had won the war, Lee was seen as a hero and was sought to be a great general in the next war that the U.S. would face.
His first civil war battle was in 1859. He was asked to end John Brown’s revolt and Lee did so in just an hour. He was then asked to help lead the Union army but turned it down and quit the military because his loyalty belonged to Virginia. Then in 1861, Lee agreed to help the Confederate army. In 1862, he was put in charge of the army of Northern Virginia. He had many big victories that included the Seven Days Battles and the Second Manassas. But after this, things seemed to go down hill for Robert E Lee. At the battle of Antietam, he barely got out alive. He then took another big loss at the battle of Gettysburg. Things continued to go badly for Lee and in 1864 the Union had control of Richmond and Petersburg. Then in 1865, Robert E Lee was forced to surrender to Union General Ulysses S Grant.
After the war, Lee became a President of a college in Virginia but then died of a stroke in 1870. Robert E Lee will always be known for his work on the battlefield and his loyalty to Virginia. Lee was one of the top Generals in U.S. history who had many victories for the Confederates in the Civil war and for the U.S. in the American Mexican war.
Robert E Lee | 504 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Peter Konieczny
Unless you were the son of a king, the hardest job to get in the Middle Ages was to become a king. Even if you were shrewd and had the backing of a strong army, the chances of successfully seizing the throne were often very low. Yet, in 1135 a nobleman named Stephen of Blois was able to become the King of England. Here is the story of his success.
The opportunity to become a king only comes when the current king is either incapable or dies without someone to inherit his domain. The latter was the situation that faced England when King Henry I passed away in 1135, Henry had ruled England for 35 years and Normandy for almost as long, and had a reputation for being a strong, some would say tyrannical, ruler.
However, he only had two legitimate children during his lifetime (he had many illegitimate
ones) – William and Matilda. When William died during the tragic Sinking of the White Ship in 1120, Henry attempted to name his daughter Matilda as his successor. A political alliance was arranged through her marriage to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, one of Henry’s rivals, and then Henry made his leading nobles swear an oath that only daughter would inherit the crown him after he died.
Despite being about 68 years old, Henry was still an active ruler and had gone to his domains in Normandy in the fall of 1135. According to the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, the king had just finished a hunting trip and was having a dinner of lamprey eels, a food his doctor had told him to avoid. Ignoring the advice, the king ate the food, and “this meal brought on a most destructive humour, and violently stimulating similar symptoms, producing a deadly chill in his aged body, and a sudden and extreme convulsion. Against this, nature reacted by stirring up an acute fever to dissolve the inflammation with very heavy sweating.”
On December 1st, about a week after he fell ill, Henry died.
Tip #1: Act quickly
If one believes the often hyperbolic comments of contemporary chroniclers, both England and Normandy fell into immediate chaos. John of Worcester writes that, “conflict arose, infiltrating the tall, massive, and diverse fortifications of both greater and lesser alike, and devastating everything. Each man plundered the goods of others. The strong violently oppressed the weak.”
Fear gripped both England and Normandy, and as not only did local uprisings take place, but news soon arrived that the Welsh and Scots were marching their armies into England. People were looking to have a ruler installed immediately.
Into this confusion stepped in Stephen of Blois, Count of Boulogne. Stephen was a nephew of King Henry – his mother Adela was Henry’s sister – and he was regarded as competent member of the Norman nobility. Over the years Henry had treated him well, bestowing on Stephen lands and lordships, but he had never thought of naming Stephen as a potential heir. Among the many reasons against this idea was that Stephen had an older brother named Theobald, who would have had a better claim to any throne.
As word spread of Henry’s death, Theobald and the other leading nobles in Normandy decided to take a cautious approach. The first matter was to make sure that Henry received a proper burial. Then they wanted to meet and settle who would become their next King. Although they had all sworn to support Matilda, the nobles never wanted a woman to be their new ruler. Moreover, they distrusted Geoffrey and the Angevins. Instead they would settle the issue of succession themselves, presumably through negotiation and bargaining.
There was only one noble who thought otherwise – as soon as Stephen heard of Henry’s death he immediately set sail for England with a few of his supporters, a sea crossing that would have had some danger in the cold days of December. But the Count of Boulogne was determined to enact his plan as quickly as possible, before any of his rivals new what was happening.
Tip #2 – Go to the heart of power
According to the Gesta Stephani, a chronicle with a pro-Stephen point of view, the count:
journeyed hastily to London, the capital, the queen of the whole kingdom. At his arrival the town was immediately filled with excitement and came to meet him with acclamation, and whereas it had been sadly mourning the previous death of its protector Henry, it revelled in exultant joy as though it had recovered him in Stephen. So the elders and those most shrewd in counsel summoned an assembly, and taking prudent forethought for the state of the kingdom, on their own initiative, they agreed unanimously to choose a king. For, they said, every kingdom was exposed to calamities from ill fortune when a representative of the whole government and a fount of justice was lacking.
Stephen realized something that no other potential contender to the English throne realized – if one wanted to rule England he had to gain London. His timing was great too, as the Londoners wanted to have to a king as soon as possible. They claimed it was their right to elect their own king, but Stephen was the only candidate presenting himself, making their decision all the more easier.
Tip #3 – Pick an enemy you can beat
Although the people of London had chosen Stephen to be their king, the count still had to
prove himself, and he already had a challenge. Apparently, a local noble, who had been once the doorkeeper for Henry I, was terrorizing the area around London:
With a mixed body of peasants and mercenaries, harassing his neighbours in every direction, he made himself unendurable to all, sometimes by insatiable pillage, sometimes by fire and sword. At length Stephen met him with spirit and after triumphantly capturing some of his followers either deprived of them of their lives or put them in chains; and shutting up their leader himself together with others he finally hanged him on a gallows.
Stephen’s quick victory showed that he was a capable leader who would act decisively to defeat a threat. He has also chosen an opponent that was not much of a challenge – a minor official and a band of rogues. Stephen could have decided that he had to fight against Matilda, or march off to the borders to confront the Welsh or Scots, but that would have been a much more riskier enterprise. He was fighting only battles that he was sure to win.
Tip #4 – Get the money
Henry had been dead less than two week, but Stephen was now heading to the city of Winchester for the next phase of his plan. Here his brother Henry was serving as the Bishop and according to many of contemporary chroniclers he was very influential in carrying out Stephen’s scheme. Besides giving him a warm welcome to Winchester, Henry had been busy trying to convince or bribe the man who had control over Henry’s treasury – William de Pont de l’Arche. Once Stephen arrived William gave him the keys to the treasure, giving him access to all of Henry’s accumulated wealth.
Now that he had the support of London and a vast amount of money, it is no surprise that English nobles were coming to offer their support. As Gesta Stephani notes:
When reports spread through the kingdom of the tidings of the new king’s arrival, a great many, and those especially who before his accession had bound themselves in friendship to him or his brothers, receiving him with joy and jubilation, followed his lead with all their efforts.
As Stephen piled up his supporters in England, events in Normandy were also working in his favour. Matilda had quickly left Anjou and went to Normandy, and soon had taken possession of several key towns. However, when her husband arrived with his Angevin soldiers, the lingering animosity between them and the Normans soon led to trouble. Orderic Vitalis reports that
which dispersed through the province round about, committed outages, violated churches and cemeteries, oppressed the peasants, and repaid those who had received them kindly with many injuries and wrongs. After the Normans, who are innately warlike and bold, had realized that the crimes of their guests were stirring up trouble, they too took up arms in their anger and pursued them through villages and woods and, is commonly alleged, put more than seven hundred to death with fire and sword.The remainder, terrified by the bloody assaults of the Normans, fled with dishonor back to their own country and, nobles of the oath and had even picked Stephen after being severely punished by the sharp swords of the Normans, made no further attempt to repeat the experience for the time being.
This effectively put an end to Matilda’s campaign to take control of Normandy. Meanwhile, Theobold and the Norman nobles continued to discuss who amongst themselves should
become the next king, seemingly unaware that back in England Stephen was already completing his plan to take the throne.
Tip #5 – Get God’s approval
The final phase in his plan was to get approval from the religious establishment, most notably from the Archbishop of Canterbury, the leading churchman in England. The archbishop was wary of supporting Stephen’s claim, reminding everyone of the oath that he and other nobles had made years earlier to support Matilda so that she could become the next ruler. Stephen’s supporters argued that King Henry had forced them them take that oath, making it invalid. Others claimed that on his deathbed Henry had absolved his nobles of the oath and had even picked Stephen to be the new king instead.
Besides these arguments, Stephen had another card to play – he was promising the Church many benefits and rewards for their support. Basically this was bribery, and Stephen was willing to make any agreement. Afterwards he would renege on many of his promises, but for the immediate future he was presenting himself as the best friend to the Church. The archbishop was soon convinced that Stephen was the best man for the job.
On December 21st, Theobald and the other Norman leadership met to discuss the succession issue. Theobald was confident that they would choose him to be the next King. However, shocking news arrived during the meeting – Stephen was to be crowned the next day at Westminster Abbey. The Norman nobles were astonished, and in the end they did not want to risk having England and Normandy split up or fall into war. They accepted the fait accompli that Stephen had orchestrated.
On December 22nd, three weeks after Henry I died, Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey. He had taken advantage of an opportunity and acted when nobody else did. It is also clear that this was something that he had planned in advance – perhaps for years – working with his brother the Bishop of Winchester to secure the elements needed to aspire to the kingdom.
However, gaining the throne and holding the throne were different matters, and Stephen’s reign (1135 to 1154) was particularly rough – it even got the nickname ‘The Anarchy’. Matilda was not about to let go of her claim to the English throne, and Stephen’s failure to live up to his many promises would earn new enemies, all of which led to more wars and rebellions. Still, Stephen’s spectacular rise to becoming the King of England is a testament to, as one chronicler describes him, “a man of great boldness and valour.”
See also: Was the White Ship disaster mass murder?
This article was first published in The Medieval Magazine – a monthly digital magazine that tells the story of the Middle Ages. Learn how to subscribe by visiting their website.
Top Image: An unfinished drawing of King Stephen from a 15th century manuscript – British Library MS Harley 4205 f. 2v | <urn:uuid:98b02f3c-9ac8-4849-80e4-26a7bb7d6a5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medievalists.net/2018/09/become-king-england-stephen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.99136 | 2,452 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1701329499483... | 1 | By Peter Konieczny
Unless you were the son of a king, the hardest job to get in the Middle Ages was to become a king. Even if you were shrewd and had the backing of a strong army, the chances of successfully seizing the throne were often very low. Yet, in 1135 a nobleman named Stephen of Blois was able to become the King of England. Here is the story of his success.
The opportunity to become a king only comes when the current king is either incapable or dies without someone to inherit his domain. The latter was the situation that faced England when King Henry I passed away in 1135, Henry had ruled England for 35 years and Normandy for almost as long, and had a reputation for being a strong, some would say tyrannical, ruler.
However, he only had two legitimate children during his lifetime (he had many illegitimate
ones) – William and Matilda. When William died during the tragic Sinking of the White Ship in 1120, Henry attempted to name his daughter Matilda as his successor. A political alliance was arranged through her marriage to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, one of Henry’s rivals, and then Henry made his leading nobles swear an oath that only daughter would inherit the crown him after he died.
Despite being about 68 years old, Henry was still an active ruler and had gone to his domains in Normandy in the fall of 1135. According to the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, the king had just finished a hunting trip and was having a dinner of lamprey eels, a food his doctor had told him to avoid. Ignoring the advice, the king ate the food, and “this meal brought on a most destructive humour, and violently stimulating similar symptoms, producing a deadly chill in his aged body, and a sudden and extreme convulsion. Against this, nature reacted by stirring up an acute fever to dissolve the inflammation with very heavy sweating.”
On December 1st, about a week after he fell ill, Henry died.
Tip #1: Act quickly
If one believes the often hyperbolic comments of contemporary chroniclers, both England and Normandy fell into immediate chaos. John of Worcester writes that, “conflict arose, infiltrating the tall, massive, and diverse fortifications of both greater and lesser alike, and devastating everything. Each man plundered the goods of others. The strong violently oppressed the weak.”
Fear gripped both England and Normandy, and as not only did local uprisings take place, but news soon arrived that the Welsh and Scots were marching their armies into England. People were looking to have a ruler installed immediately.
Into this confusion stepped in Stephen of Blois, Count of Boulogne. Stephen was a nephew of King Henry – his mother Adela was Henry’s sister – and he was regarded as competent member of the Norman nobility. Over the years Henry had treated him well, bestowing on Stephen lands and lordships, but he had never thought of naming Stephen as a potential heir. Among the many reasons against this idea was that Stephen had an older brother named Theobald, who would have had a better claim to any throne.
As word spread of Henry’s death, Theobald and the other leading nobles in Normandy decided to take a cautious approach. The first matter was to make sure that Henry received a proper burial. Then they wanted to meet and settle who would become their next King. Although they had all sworn to support Matilda, the nobles never wanted a woman to be their new ruler. Moreover, they distrusted Geoffrey and the Angevins. Instead they would settle the issue of succession themselves, presumably through negotiation and bargaining.
There was only one noble who thought otherwise – as soon as Stephen heard of Henry’s death he immediately set sail for England with a few of his supporters, a sea crossing that would have had some danger in the cold days of December. But the Count of Boulogne was determined to enact his plan as quickly as possible, before any of his rivals new what was happening.
Tip #2 – Go to the heart of power
According to the Gesta Stephani, a chronicle with a pro-Stephen point of view, the count:
journeyed hastily to London, the capital, the queen of the whole kingdom. At his arrival the town was immediately filled with excitement and came to meet him with acclamation, and whereas it had been sadly mourning the previous death of its protector Henry, it revelled in exultant joy as though it had recovered him in Stephen. So the elders and those most shrewd in counsel summoned an assembly, and taking prudent forethought for the state of the kingdom, on their own initiative, they agreed unanimously to choose a king. For, they said, every kingdom was exposed to calamities from ill fortune when a representative of the whole government and a fount of justice was lacking.
Stephen realized something that no other potential contender to the English throne realized – if one wanted to rule England he had to gain London. His timing was great too, as the Londoners wanted to have to a king as soon as possible. They claimed it was their right to elect their own king, but Stephen was the only candidate presenting himself, making their decision all the more easier.
Tip #3 – Pick an enemy you can beat
Although the people of London had chosen Stephen to be their king, the count still had to
prove himself, and he already had a challenge. Apparently, a local noble, who had been once the doorkeeper for Henry I, was terrorizing the area around London:
With a mixed body of peasants and mercenaries, harassing his neighbours in every direction, he made himself unendurable to all, sometimes by insatiable pillage, sometimes by fire and sword. At length Stephen met him with spirit and after triumphantly capturing some of his followers either deprived of them of their lives or put them in chains; and shutting up their leader himself together with others he finally hanged him on a gallows.
Stephen’s quick victory showed that he was a capable leader who would act decisively to defeat a threat. He has also chosen an opponent that was not much of a challenge – a minor official and a band of rogues. Stephen could have decided that he had to fight against Matilda, or march off to the borders to confront the Welsh or Scots, but that would have been a much more riskier enterprise. He was fighting only battles that he was sure to win.
Tip #4 – Get the money
Henry had been dead less than two week, but Stephen was now heading to the city of Winchester for the next phase of his plan. Here his brother Henry was serving as the Bishop and according to many of contemporary chroniclers he was very influential in carrying out Stephen’s scheme. Besides giving him a warm welcome to Winchester, Henry had been busy trying to convince or bribe the man who had control over Henry’s treasury – William de Pont de l’Arche. Once Stephen arrived William gave him the keys to the treasure, giving him access to all of Henry’s accumulated wealth.
Now that he had the support of London and a vast amount of money, it is no surprise that English nobles were coming to offer their support. As Gesta Stephani notes:
When reports spread through the kingdom of the tidings of the new king’s arrival, a great many, and those especially who before his accession had bound themselves in friendship to him or his brothers, receiving him with joy and jubilation, followed his lead with all their efforts.
As Stephen piled up his supporters in England, events in Normandy were also working in his favour. Matilda had quickly left Anjou and went to Normandy, and soon had taken possession of several key towns. However, when her husband arrived with his Angevin soldiers, the lingering animosity between them and the Normans soon led to trouble. Orderic Vitalis reports that
which dispersed through the province round about, committed outages, violated churches and cemeteries, oppressed the peasants, and repaid those who had received them kindly with many injuries and wrongs. After the Normans, who are innately warlike and bold, had realized that the crimes of their guests were stirring up trouble, they too took up arms in their anger and pursued them through villages and woods and, is commonly alleged, put more than seven hundred to death with fire and sword.The remainder, terrified by the bloody assaults of the Normans, fled with dishonor back to their own country and, nobles of the oath and had even picked Stephen after being severely punished by the sharp swords of the Normans, made no further attempt to repeat the experience for the time being.
This effectively put an end to Matilda’s campaign to take control of Normandy. Meanwhile, Theobold and the Norman nobles continued to discuss who amongst themselves should
become the next king, seemingly unaware that back in England Stephen was already completing his plan to take the throne.
Tip #5 – Get God’s approval
The final phase in his plan was to get approval from the religious establishment, most notably from the Archbishop of Canterbury, the leading churchman in England. The archbishop was wary of supporting Stephen’s claim, reminding everyone of the oath that he and other nobles had made years earlier to support Matilda so that she could become the next ruler. Stephen’s supporters argued that King Henry had forced them them take that oath, making it invalid. Others claimed that on his deathbed Henry had absolved his nobles of the oath and had even picked Stephen to be the new king instead.
Besides these arguments, Stephen had another card to play – he was promising the Church many benefits and rewards for their support. Basically this was bribery, and Stephen was willing to make any agreement. Afterwards he would renege on many of his promises, but for the immediate future he was presenting himself as the best friend to the Church. The archbishop was soon convinced that Stephen was the best man for the job.
On December 21st, Theobald and the other Norman leadership met to discuss the succession issue. Theobald was confident that they would choose him to be the next King. However, shocking news arrived during the meeting – Stephen was to be crowned the next day at Westminster Abbey. The Norman nobles were astonished, and in the end they did not want to risk having England and Normandy split up or fall into war. They accepted the fait accompli that Stephen had orchestrated.
On December 22nd, three weeks after Henry I died, Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey. He had taken advantage of an opportunity and acted when nobody else did. It is also clear that this was something that he had planned in advance – perhaps for years – working with his brother the Bishop of Winchester to secure the elements needed to aspire to the kingdom.
However, gaining the throne and holding the throne were different matters, and Stephen’s reign (1135 to 1154) was particularly rough – it even got the nickname ‘The Anarchy’. Matilda was not about to let go of her claim to the English throne, and Stephen’s failure to live up to his many promises would earn new enemies, all of which led to more wars and rebellions. Still, Stephen’s spectacular rise to becoming the King of England is a testament to, as one chronicler describes him, “a man of great boldness and valour.”
See also: Was the White Ship disaster mass murder?
This article was first published in The Medieval Magazine – a monthly digital magazine that tells the story of the Middle Ages. Learn how to subscribe by visiting their website.
Top Image: An unfinished drawing of King Stephen from a 15th century manuscript – British Library MS Harley 4205 f. 2v | 2,430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slave owners were afraid if slaves were literate, they would be able to make a better life for themselves. Therefore, it was forbidden by law for blacks to read or write. Anyone caught teaching an enslaved man or woman to read or write was fined, but the punishment was worse for who were caught.
In the North, White mobs in several localities invaded black schools; during these raids, books were burned and teachers who dared to teach blacks were ran out of town. In 1833, a young black girl by the name of Sarah Harris applied for admission as a non-resident student of a boarding school operated by Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut. She was accepted, and just about every parent of a child attending the school withdrew their child in protest. However, that did not stop Crandall from opening a school especially for black girls.
When citizens heard about the new school, they gathered and tried to burn the school down and threw manure at Crandall. Local doctors refused to treat her and the grocers and other stores stopped allowing her to patron them. A vagrancy law under which outsiders might be given ten lashes on their bare backs was invoked against the young black students, but abolitionists put up bonds for them.
Connecticut later passed a law against the free establishment of black schools. The law was aimed toward Prudence Crandall, but she refused to obey, which led to her arrest and overnight stay in jail. Crandall would not accept any bail money from friends as she wanted to call attention to her unfair persecution. Crandall was later convicted, but the conviction was later released due to a technicality.
Soon afterwards, a mob broke all the windows of her school building and endangered the lives of her and students. Crandall wanted to protect her students, so she made the decision to close the school and ultimately moved away from the area. | <urn:uuid:d1ca5c17-10fd-4466-8285-45d646d9ba59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackthen.com/a-crime-to-teach-blacks-prudence-crandalls-remarkable-attempt-to-educate-blacks-in-the-north/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.989365 | 388 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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In the North, White mobs in several localities invaded black schools; during these raids, books were burned and teachers who dared to teach blacks were ran out of town. In 1833, a young black girl by the name of Sarah Harris applied for admission as a non-resident student of a boarding school operated by Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut. She was accepted, and just about every parent of a child attending the school withdrew their child in protest. However, that did not stop Crandall from opening a school especially for black girls.
When citizens heard about the new school, they gathered and tried to burn the school down and threw manure at Crandall. Local doctors refused to treat her and the grocers and other stores stopped allowing her to patron them. A vagrancy law under which outsiders might be given ten lashes on their bare backs was invoked against the young black students, but abolitionists put up bonds for them.
Connecticut later passed a law against the free establishment of black schools. The law was aimed toward Prudence Crandall, but she refused to obey, which led to her arrest and overnight stay in jail. Crandall would not accept any bail money from friends as she wanted to call attention to her unfair persecution. Crandall was later convicted, but the conviction was later released due to a technicality.
Soon afterwards, a mob broke all the windows of her school building and endangered the lives of her and students. Crandall wanted to protect her students, so she made the decision to close the school and ultimately moved away from the area. | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Mexican immigrants especially hard. Along with the job crisis and food shortages that affected all U.S. workers, Mexicans and Mexican Americans had to face an additional threat: deportation. As unemployment swept the U.S...
... middle of paper ...
...the United States with other components. For example the sky is covered by smoke that is enveloping the American flag. Therefore it corresponds to the pollution caused by the industrialization of the country. There are skyscrapers that characterize the development, luxury, and advantages of the U.S. The industrial technology is also denoted with things such as a megaphone, speaker, and a fan. Finally, in my opinion, the main part of this picture is a self-portrait of Frida Kahlo on the border of these two structures. She is holding a Mexican flag, dressed in a typical dress whilst her face observes the Mexican side. In fact, Frida expresses her love for her country in a firm and courageous attitude. In summary all these elements in her picture show us the bigger, greater, and more valiant position of Frida Kahlo defending her country against the United States.
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- This picture that was made by an artist name Frida Kahlo, who was born on July 6, 1907, in her parents ' house known as La Casa Azul(The Blue House), in Coyoacan. At the time, Coyoacán was a small town on the outskirts of Mexico City. Kahlo contracted polio at age six, which left her right leg thinner than the left; she disguised this later in life by wearing long skirts or trousers. To help her regain her strength, her father encouraged her to exercise and play sports. She took up bicycling, roller skating, swimming, boxing, and wrestling, despite the fact that many of these activities were then reserved for boys.... [tags: Great Depression, Wall Street Crash of 1929]
1006 words (2.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo was born in July 6th 1907 to a Mexican Roman Catholic Mother, which was of Indian Spanish decent, and to a German photographer father. Frida was born at the Blue House which was built by Frida’s father. Frida grew up looking at her father’s photography that helped her learn of Mexican History, Art, and, Architecture. Frida had three sisters –Mitilde and Adriana that were older and Christina who was younger. Sometimes her father would take Frida when he would go paint the country side, she would watch him use his paints and brushes.... [tags: paint, portrait, gallery]
1353 words (3.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo: A Mexican Surrealist Artist Frida Kahlo was a Mexican artist, famous for her self-reflective, Surrealist paintings. She was born in 1907 and died from pneumonia and other complications in 1954 at the mere age of forty-seven. Frida was the daughter of Guillermo Kahlo, a Hungarian Jew and notable Mexican photographer, and Matilde Calderon, who was of Spanish and Indian descent (Taschen, 7). Although Guillermo had two daughters from a previous marriage, Frida was the first daughter to be born to he and his second wife, Matilde.... [tags: Biography Biographies]
3354 words (9.6 pages)
- Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo was an amazing woman whose many tragedies influenced her to put her stories into her paintings. She was born in July 6th 1907 to a Mexican Roman Catholic mother who was of Indian and Spanish decent and a German photographer father (Fabiny). Frida had three sisters, Mitilde and Adriana, who were older and Christina who was younger. She learned about Mexican history, art and architecture by looking at her father’s photography.... [tags: Artist, Mexico]
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- Frida Kahlo: A Life in Pain “They thought I was a Surrealist, but I wasn’t. I never painted dreams. I painted my reality,” said Frida Kahlo describing her art work (Frida Kahlo n.d.). Kahlo was a Mexican artist from the mid-20th century. She was born on July 6, 1907 in Coyoacan, Mexico, and the daughter of German and Mexican descendants (Lucie-Smith 1999). During her lifetime Kahlo embarked on many hardships caused by illness, heartache, and love. She became known for her haunting self portraits, radical politics, and that infamous unibrow (Stephen 2008).... [tags: Biography, painter, diary of Frida Kahlo]
1171 words (3.3 pages)
- There are many professional artists that exhibit amazing creativity. In particular, the motion picture film Frida, which was directed by Julie Taymor, revealed the life of a creative artist named Frida Kahlo. Most of Frida’s paintings were results of complications and hardships in her life. Particularly In Frida, there various themes that related to her life. The three interesting themes that were represented in this movie to me were perseverance, sexuality, and artistic skill represented in pain.... [tags: Frida Kahlo]
1084 words (3.1 pages)
- Some people become artists for the pleasure, but others might have an ability to perceive art in a deeper sense than what is being presented. Artists like Diego Velázquez, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Sandro Botticelli could actually see the essence of art which motivated them to give the world a canvas of questionable knowledge. Later another artist emerged with the same ability, Frida Kahlo. She used her life as her canvas; allowed people to view the world from behind the surrealistic doors. In addition, she was able to present self-portraits in many forms, all influenced by a tragic bus accident which led to a broken spine that affected her whole life.... [tags: Biography]
1337 words (3.8 pages)
- To many of her biographers and admirers she is simply referred to as Frida, an artist who self-consciously chose the practice of art as a means of survival and self-expression, while always referencing the political and cultural complexities that surrounded her life. Many of Kahlo’s paintings correspond to her passion for nationalism and the search for la ‘mexicanidad’ (Mexicanness; the unchanging philosophical essence of the Mexican). (Devouring Frida-94) As Kahlo’s life and work are studied under various cultural lenses, it is always apparent that her art and specific political views are based on the assertion that she embraced her Hispanic heritage and culture.... [tags: Mexico, Mexico City, Frida Kahlo]
1726 words (4.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo's Influence Frida Kahlo's influence still lingers around the world. Even with Frida dead for almost two decades, she is still celebrated and thought of as an idol. Frida Kahlo was an artist in many different ways. Besides Frida's incredible talent to paint surrealist thoughts and emotions on canvas, she also was and artist in her mind and body. Frida's attire of traditional Mexican clothing, which consisted of long, colorful dresses and exotic jewelry, and her thick connection eyebrows, became her trademark.... [tags: Papers]
1062 words (3 pages)
- Frida Kahlo was a half-mexican, half-hungarian painter of the 20th century born Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón in Coyoacán, Mexico City on July 6, 1907. During her short lived life, she had many accomplishments. She was a surrealist artist whos paintings reflected her thoughts and feelings. Her creative style was always amazing but confusing. Unfortunately, she lived most of her artistic life in the shadow of her husband, Diego Rivera, and her work was not truly recognized until after her death.... [tags: Biography Biographies Bio]
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... middle of paper ...
...the United States with other components. For example the sky is covered by smoke that is enveloping the American flag. Therefore it corresponds to the pollution caused by the industrialization of the country. There are skyscrapers that characterize the development, luxury, and advantages of the U.S. The industrial technology is also denoted with things such as a megaphone, speaker, and a fan. Finally, in my opinion, the main part of this picture is a self-portrait of Frida Kahlo on the border of these two structures. She is holding a Mexican flag, dressed in a typical dress whilst her face observes the Mexican side. In fact, Frida expresses her love for her country in a firm and courageous attitude. In summary all these elements in her picture show us the bigger, greater, and more valiant position of Frida Kahlo defending her country against the United States.
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- This picture that was made by an artist name Frida Kahlo, who was born on July 6, 1907, in her parents ' house known as La Casa Azul(The Blue House), in Coyoacan. At the time, Coyoacán was a small town on the outskirts of Mexico City. Kahlo contracted polio at age six, which left her right leg thinner than the left; she disguised this later in life by wearing long skirts or trousers. To help her regain her strength, her father encouraged her to exercise and play sports. She took up bicycling, roller skating, swimming, boxing, and wrestling, despite the fact that many of these activities were then reserved for boys.... [tags: Great Depression, Wall Street Crash of 1929]
1006 words (2.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo was born in July 6th 1907 to a Mexican Roman Catholic Mother, which was of Indian Spanish decent, and to a German photographer father. Frida was born at the Blue House which was built by Frida’s father. Frida grew up looking at her father’s photography that helped her learn of Mexican History, Art, and, Architecture. Frida had three sisters –Mitilde and Adriana that were older and Christina who was younger. Sometimes her father would take Frida when he would go paint the country side, she would watch him use his paints and brushes.... [tags: paint, portrait, gallery]
1353 words (3.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo: A Mexican Surrealist Artist Frida Kahlo was a Mexican artist, famous for her self-reflective, Surrealist paintings. She was born in 1907 and died from pneumonia and other complications in 1954 at the mere age of forty-seven. Frida was the daughter of Guillermo Kahlo, a Hungarian Jew and notable Mexican photographer, and Matilde Calderon, who was of Spanish and Indian descent (Taschen, 7). Although Guillermo had two daughters from a previous marriage, Frida was the first daughter to be born to he and his second wife, Matilde.... [tags: Biography Biographies]
3354 words (9.6 pages)
- Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo was an amazing woman whose many tragedies influenced her to put her stories into her paintings. She was born in July 6th 1907 to a Mexican Roman Catholic mother who was of Indian and Spanish decent and a German photographer father (Fabiny). Frida had three sisters, Mitilde and Adriana, who were older and Christina who was younger. She learned about Mexican history, art and architecture by looking at her father’s photography.... [tags: Artist, Mexico]
1396 words (4 pages)
- Frida Kahlo: A Life in Pain “They thought I was a Surrealist, but I wasn’t. I never painted dreams. I painted my reality,” said Frida Kahlo describing her art work (Frida Kahlo n.d.). Kahlo was a Mexican artist from the mid-20th century. She was born on July 6, 1907 in Coyoacan, Mexico, and the daughter of German and Mexican descendants (Lucie-Smith 1999). During her lifetime Kahlo embarked on many hardships caused by illness, heartache, and love. She became known for her haunting self portraits, radical politics, and that infamous unibrow (Stephen 2008).... [tags: Biography, painter, diary of Frida Kahlo]
1171 words (3.3 pages)
- There are many professional artists that exhibit amazing creativity. In particular, the motion picture film Frida, which was directed by Julie Taymor, revealed the life of a creative artist named Frida Kahlo. Most of Frida’s paintings were results of complications and hardships in her life. Particularly In Frida, there various themes that related to her life. The three interesting themes that were represented in this movie to me were perseverance, sexuality, and artistic skill represented in pain.... [tags: Frida Kahlo]
1084 words (3.1 pages)
- Some people become artists for the pleasure, but others might have an ability to perceive art in a deeper sense than what is being presented. Artists like Diego Velázquez, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Sandro Botticelli could actually see the essence of art which motivated them to give the world a canvas of questionable knowledge. Later another artist emerged with the same ability, Frida Kahlo. She used her life as her canvas; allowed people to view the world from behind the surrealistic doors. In addition, she was able to present self-portraits in many forms, all influenced by a tragic bus accident which led to a broken spine that affected her whole life.... [tags: Biography]
1337 words (3.8 pages)
- To many of her biographers and admirers she is simply referred to as Frida, an artist who self-consciously chose the practice of art as a means of survival and self-expression, while always referencing the political and cultural complexities that surrounded her life. Many of Kahlo’s paintings correspond to her passion for nationalism and the search for la ‘mexicanidad’ (Mexicanness; the unchanging philosophical essence of the Mexican). (Devouring Frida-94) As Kahlo’s life and work are studied under various cultural lenses, it is always apparent that her art and specific political views are based on the assertion that she embraced her Hispanic heritage and culture.... [tags: Mexico, Mexico City, Frida Kahlo]
1726 words (4.9 pages)
- Frida Kahlo's Influence Frida Kahlo's influence still lingers around the world. Even with Frida dead for almost two decades, she is still celebrated and thought of as an idol. Frida Kahlo was an artist in many different ways. Besides Frida's incredible talent to paint surrealist thoughts and emotions on canvas, she also was and artist in her mind and body. Frida's attire of traditional Mexican clothing, which consisted of long, colorful dresses and exotic jewelry, and her thick connection eyebrows, became her trademark.... [tags: Papers]
1062 words (3 pages)
- Frida Kahlo was a half-mexican, half-hungarian painter of the 20th century born Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón in Coyoacán, Mexico City on July 6, 1907. During her short lived life, she had many accomplishments. She was a surrealist artist whos paintings reflected her thoughts and feelings. Her creative style was always amazing but confusing. Unfortunately, she lived most of her artistic life in the shadow of her husband, Diego Rivera, and her work was not truly recognized until after her death.... [tags: Biography Biographies Bio]
1363 words (3.9 pages) | 1,717 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is part of the Southern Alps Mountain Range and is flanked by the Hooker Glacier to the southwest and the Tasman Glacier to the east. The mountain has three peaks: The south peak being the lowest at 3,593m/11,788 ft., The middle peak at 3,717m/12,195 ft. and the North peak being the highest at 3,724m/12,218 ft. This is the height of the north peak after the landslide of December 1991 which took 30 meters off the top and also turned the summit into a knife-edge ridge.
The mountain was named by Captain John Lort Stokes in honour of Captain James Cook who travelled around the islands of New Zealand in 1770 however the first Europeans to see Mount Cook were probably members of Abel Tasman's crew.
It was first climbed by Tom Fyre, George Graham and Jack Clarke. Mount Cook is a favourite destination for climbers and was used by Sir Edmund Hillary as training for his historic climb of Mount Everest. | <urn:uuid:d4e9c43f-008d-438f-9315-7ebc328efd89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cook | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.984091 | 206 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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The mountain was named by Captain John Lort Stokes in honour of Captain James Cook who travelled around the islands of New Zealand in 1770 however the first Europeans to see Mount Cook were probably members of Abel Tasman's crew.
It was first climbed by Tom Fyre, George Graham and Jack Clarke. Mount Cook is a favourite destination for climbers and was used by Sir Edmund Hillary as training for his historic climb of Mount Everest. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rhodes. (n.d.). In YourDictionary. Retrieved from https://www.yourdictionary.com/Rhodes
An island of southeast Greece in the Aegean Sea off southwest Turkey. It is the largest of the Dodecanese Islands and was colonized by Dorians from Argos before 1000 BC and strongly influenced by the Minoan culture of Crete. The harbor of the ancient city of Rhodes, on the northeast end of the island, was the site of the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue erected 292-280 BC that was one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
After his return from his Egyptian campaign, he was preparing an expedition against Rhodes when he was overtaken by sickness and died, on the 22nd of September 1521, in the ninth year of his reign, near the very spot where he had attacked his father's troops, not far from Adrianople.
Rulers of this name are found at Rhodes as late as the 1st century B.C. The Prytaneum was regarded as the religious and political centre of the community and was thus the nucleus of all government, and the official "home" of the whole people.
They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had vindicated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading centres like Famagusta flourished vigorously.
Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Rhodes - where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the Greek Althotas - and Malta.
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An island of southeast Greece in the Aegean Sea off southwest Turkey. It is the largest of the Dodecanese Islands and was colonized by Dorians from Argos before 1000 BC and strongly influenced by the Minoan culture of Crete. The harbor of the ancient city of Rhodes, on the northeast end of the island, was the site of the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue erected 292-280 BC that was one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
After his return from his Egyptian campaign, he was preparing an expedition against Rhodes when he was overtaken by sickness and died, on the 22nd of September 1521, in the ninth year of his reign, near the very spot where he had attacked his father's troops, not far from Adrianople.
Rulers of this name are found at Rhodes as late as the 1st century B.C. The Prytaneum was regarded as the religious and political centre of the community and was thus the nucleus of all government, and the official "home" of the whole people.
They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had vindicated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading centres like Famagusta flourished vigorously.
Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Rhodes - where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the Greek Althotas - and Malta.
TIMOCREON, of Ialysus in Rhodes, Greek lyric poet, flourished about 480 B.C. During the Persian wars he had been banished on suspicion of "medism." | 394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I need three examples of how the Nazis dehumanized the Jews or treated them with compassion in Night.
The Nazis most definitely treated the Jewish people as less than human. The Nazis doctors experimented on the Jewish people in an attempt to create a "perfect" superior race of man. The Nazis also crammed the Jewish people in to cattle cars to transport...
(The entire section contains 140 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
Well, this answer has more to do with history than with what happens in Night. Hitler was a member of the National Socialist German Worker's Party, or the Nazi party. After being voted into power as Chancellor of Germany in 1933, the Nazis took control of the government. In 1936, they enacted the Nuremberg Laws, which practically strips the Jews (and other undesirable groups) of their German citizenship. In 1938, Kristallnacht, or "the Night of Broken Glass," occurred, when the Nazi soldiers vandalized Jewish homes, shops, and synagogues. The SS originally had the Jews quartered into the ghettos, where they were crammed and isolated from the rest of the city, hoping that eventual starvation and disease would kill the Jews off. However, they thought that the process was too slow, so instead, they were shipped off to labor camps to be worked to death. In some countries, they were rounded up and sent to mass grave sites where they were shot and killed. The Jews would be shipped in cattle cars packed full. In Night, Elie mentioned the burning smell of urine and the inability to move or breathe.
However, as terrible as this sounds, they again thought that the process was too slow, so Himmler came up with the Final Solution to exterminate the Jewish race. This is what most people think about - Auschwitz, Dachau, etc - the extermination camps. Here, the SS would select who would "live" and who would die. Usually the young children and elderly - the people who are unable to work - would immediately be sent off to be killed in the gas chambers. The SS would lie and tell them that they are going to get deloused, so they are standing in these chambers naked. The SS watch these deaths through little windows into the shower rooms, like it's a show. They would then release carbon monoxide into the chambers. The people would realize what was going on, so they would try to break out of the shower house. People would climb on top of each other, trample each other, claw at the walls and ceilings. If you look at the gas chambers now, you can still see the claw marks (I visited Dachau and it was the most humbling experience in my life). From here, prisoners would unload the naked bodies from the chambers and put them in the ovens in the crematorium, after taking out anything of value, such as golden teeth. They would then be burned in the ovens.
The ones that were selected to live were dehumanized even more so. The one thing that connects a man to his identity is his name. To be forcefully stripped of your name is to lose everything that you hold. The Nazis stripped the Jews of their names and tattooed a number onto their arms. Both men and women had their hair shaved. A woman is recognized as a woman for her hair. Having that shaved off takes away her womanhood. They were stripped naked in front of the soldiers, who treated them worse than animals, and deloused. From here, they were sent off to other labor camps, where they were worked to death and fed rotten food filled with worms. If you were unable to work, you would be killed. Some prisoners were also used for human experimentation, especially twins. Some prisoners were made into other items. They were treated as expendables.
Granted, there are instances of kindness, but almost never from the soldiers themselves. | <urn:uuid:f64635df-9cc3-4652-8263-618fd44eac96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/book-night-by-elie-wiesel-did-nazis-dehumanize-87667?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.989192 | 794 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1721515953... | 1 | I need three examples of how the Nazis dehumanized the Jews or treated them with compassion in Night.
The Nazis most definitely treated the Jewish people as less than human. The Nazis doctors experimented on the Jewish people in an attempt to create a "perfect" superior race of man. The Nazis also crammed the Jewish people in to cattle cars to transport...
(The entire section contains 140 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
Well, this answer has more to do with history than with what happens in Night. Hitler was a member of the National Socialist German Worker's Party, or the Nazi party. After being voted into power as Chancellor of Germany in 1933, the Nazis took control of the government. In 1936, they enacted the Nuremberg Laws, which practically strips the Jews (and other undesirable groups) of their German citizenship. In 1938, Kristallnacht, or "the Night of Broken Glass," occurred, when the Nazi soldiers vandalized Jewish homes, shops, and synagogues. The SS originally had the Jews quartered into the ghettos, where they were crammed and isolated from the rest of the city, hoping that eventual starvation and disease would kill the Jews off. However, they thought that the process was too slow, so instead, they were shipped off to labor camps to be worked to death. In some countries, they were rounded up and sent to mass grave sites where they were shot and killed. The Jews would be shipped in cattle cars packed full. In Night, Elie mentioned the burning smell of urine and the inability to move or breathe.
However, as terrible as this sounds, they again thought that the process was too slow, so Himmler came up with the Final Solution to exterminate the Jewish race. This is what most people think about - Auschwitz, Dachau, etc - the extermination camps. Here, the SS would select who would "live" and who would die. Usually the young children and elderly - the people who are unable to work - would immediately be sent off to be killed in the gas chambers. The SS would lie and tell them that they are going to get deloused, so they are standing in these chambers naked. The SS watch these deaths through little windows into the shower rooms, like it's a show. They would then release carbon monoxide into the chambers. The people would realize what was going on, so they would try to break out of the shower house. People would climb on top of each other, trample each other, claw at the walls and ceilings. If you look at the gas chambers now, you can still see the claw marks (I visited Dachau and it was the most humbling experience in my life). From here, prisoners would unload the naked bodies from the chambers and put them in the ovens in the crematorium, after taking out anything of value, such as golden teeth. They would then be burned in the ovens.
The ones that were selected to live were dehumanized even more so. The one thing that connects a man to his identity is his name. To be forcefully stripped of your name is to lose everything that you hold. The Nazis stripped the Jews of their names and tattooed a number onto their arms. Both men and women had their hair shaved. A woman is recognized as a woman for her hair. Having that shaved off takes away her womanhood. They were stripped naked in front of the soldiers, who treated them worse than animals, and deloused. From here, they were sent off to other labor camps, where they were worked to death and fed rotten food filled with worms. If you were unable to work, you would be killed. Some prisoners were also used for human experimentation, especially twins. Some prisoners were made into other items. They were treated as expendables.
Granted, there are instances of kindness, but almost never from the soldiers themselves. | 805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gryet, some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) west of Nexø and just north of Bodilsker on the Danish island of Bornholm, is a site with one of Denmark's largest collections of megaliths with tall upright stones standing among the trees in a little wood.
Gryet is on high ground which was once surrounded by water or marshes. In the iron age, those living in the area found it to be an ideal site for their graves.
There were once over 60 stones but several have been removed and many have now fallen to the ground. The highest, once standing on the mound at the southern side of the wood, was removed in the 17th century to be used as a gravestone. The megaliths, which bear no inscription, stand over graves where the remains of burnt bones are buried. In the early Bronze Age and late Iron Age (1100 BC), it appears to have been common practice to set megaliths over graves of this kind. The stones stand alone or in small groups. As the site has not been archeologically investigated, it is not known why the stones were raised there.
Another important megalithic site on Bornholm is Louisenlund near Østermarie.
It was thanks to Emil Vedel, governor of Bornholm from 1866, that the site has been preserved. In 1870, he noticed that some of the stones were being broken up and removed. By 1875 he had managed to have the site listed, saving it from further damage. | <urn:uuid:74177830-3f71-4cac-bbcc-8af3dee3ea3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Gryet | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.981652 | 314 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.796638786792755... | 1 | Gryet, some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) west of Nexø and just north of Bodilsker on the Danish island of Bornholm, is a site with one of Denmark's largest collections of megaliths with tall upright stones standing among the trees in a little wood.
Gryet is on high ground which was once surrounded by water or marshes. In the iron age, those living in the area found it to be an ideal site for their graves.
There were once over 60 stones but several have been removed and many have now fallen to the ground. The highest, once standing on the mound at the southern side of the wood, was removed in the 17th century to be used as a gravestone. The megaliths, which bear no inscription, stand over graves where the remains of burnt bones are buried. In the early Bronze Age and late Iron Age (1100 BC), it appears to have been common practice to set megaliths over graves of this kind. The stones stand alone or in small groups. As the site has not been archeologically investigated, it is not known why the stones were raised there.
Another important megalithic site on Bornholm is Louisenlund near Østermarie.
It was thanks to Emil Vedel, governor of Bornholm from 1866, that the site has been preserved. In 1870, he noticed that some of the stones were being broken up and removed. By 1875 he had managed to have the site listed, saving it from further damage. | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In December 1901 - Guglielmo Marconi became the first to send a wireless signal across the Atlantic. This remarkable achievement with such primitive equipment marked the birth of world-wide communication.
During the spring of 1900, Marconi had succeeded in sending reliable signals from St. Catherines in the Isle of Wight to The Lizard in Cornwall, a distance of 186 miles. This encouraged his belief that by using larger aerials and far more powerful transmitters he would be able to achieve transatlantic distances. Scientists were highly sceptical, many said it was impossible because of the curvature of the earth.
Marconi determined to make the attempt. A transmitting station nearly one hundred times more powerful than any previously constructed was built at Poldhu near Mullion in Cornwall. Enormous aerials were erected at Poldhu and at Cape Cod in Massachusetts but both were wrecked in severe gales. Another, less ambitious in design, was put up at Poldhu while Marconi and his two assistants sailed to Newfoundland where, from the top of Signal Hill, a receiving aerial was hoisted, at the third attempt, by means of a kite.
At 12.30 pm (Newfoundland time) on 12th December, 1901, Marconi and his assistant G S Kemp, using one of the primitive receivers of the period with a telephone earpiece heard a faint succession of Ss in Morse code. Signals from Poldhu, 2,200 miles away, had crossed the Atlantic.
To commemorate this historic achievement, a Special Exhibition was held at the Science Museum from 13th December 1961 - 25th January 1962. Among the many historic exhibits and original photographs, a notable feature was a recording of Marconis voice telling in his own words of how success was achieved.
During the early 1890s, many of the leading physicists were closely interested in the properties of 'Hertzian waves' but none expressed a thought that these waves would be of the slightest value for the purpose of communication.
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi, working at his parents residence at Pontecchio in Italy, discovered the great increase in range which could be obtained by the use of an elevated aerial. It was this discovery which paved the way for the use of Hertzian waves in a practicable system of wireless telegraphy.
Early in the following year - 1896 - Marconi arrived in England and applied for the worlds first patent for wireless telegraphy. He had chosen to come to England partly because this country was then the most powerful maritime nation in the world and it seemed likely that wireless telegraphy would be of value to shipping, and partly because of a national affinity, his mother being Irish. While Marconi had Italian citizenship by descent from his parents, it is unlikely he qualified for dual citizenship in Ireland or England at that time.
In I897 he founded the Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company (which in 1900 became MARCONIs WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY LIMITED), and this provided him with the money and technical resources necessary for his future developments.
Marconi spent the next four years in an almost continual round of experiment, development and demonstration, his object being continually to improve the reliability and range of his apparatus. At first only covering a mile or so on Salisbury Plain, he was soon communicating regularly from Alum Bay near the Needles in the Isle of Wight to Bournemouth and then to Sandbanks at the entrance to Poole Harbour, a distance of 18 miles. In March 1899 he spanned the English Channel and early in the following year he set up reliable communication from the Isle of Wight to The Lizard in Cornwall, a distance of 186 miles.
The shipping companies had shown mild interest but very little enthusiasm to install wireless equipment on their ships. It seemed, in fact, that far greater ranges and a chain of land stations would be required before wireless telegraphy would have a wide appeal. The scientists of the day, however, were almost united in believing that wireless waves, like light waves, would not follow the curvature of the earth. Therefore, they said, really long ranges were impossible.
Marconi thought otherwise. Experiments had led him to believe that the key to longer ranges lay in the employment of larger aerials and higher transmitter powers. He therefore determined to build two super-power transmitting stations, one on each side of the Atlantic, and to attempt two-way communication. Accordingly, a site was selected at Poldhu in Cornwall and the other at Cape Cod in Massachusetts.
It is difficult to visualise the stupendous problems which confronted him. The aerial system, at both Poldhu and Cape Cod, was of a size and complexity which had never been attempted before, for it consisted of twenty 200ft masts in a circle with an inverted cone of about 400 wires leading down to the transmitter. As to the transmitter itself, it was to be 100 times more powerful than any hitherto built, and no precedents whatever existed for the design. Marconi delegated the responsibility for this to his scientific adviser, Professor J A (later Sir Ambrose) Fleming, and Fleming carried it out brilliantly.
Some details of the transmitter may be of interest. The prime mover for the generation of power was a Hornsby-Ackroyd oil engine which drove a Mather and Platt 2,000V 50 Hz alternator. This was capable of delivering 25kW, although from a paper read by Fleming to the Royal Society of Arts in December 1921 it would appear that the plant was considerably under-run at the time of the transatlantic tests.
The transmitter proper, which embodied a form of the new syntonic tuning with all its advantages, employed two 20kW Berry transformers parallel-connected to step up the input voltage to 20,000 Volts. This was fed through RF chokes to a closed oscillatory circuit in which a capacitor discharged across a spark gap via the primary of a 'jigger' or RF transformer. The secondary of this transformer connected to a second spark gap and capacitor and the primary of a second RF transformer, the secondary winding of this transformer being in series with the aerial. Keying was effected by the short circuiting of the chokes in the alternator output.
The capacitors were made of 20 glass plates each 16 in square, backed on one side with one square foot of tinfoil. The plates were immersed in linseed oil contained in stoneware boxes; each box had a capacity of approximately 0.05μF.
Both the Poldhu and Cape Cod stations were all but ready when a double catastrophe struck; severe gales wrecked the aerial arrays and masts at both stations almost simultaneously.
With £50,000 already spent on the project, Marconi elected not to wait until both stations were repaired. Instead, a new aerial system was erected at Poldhu, consisting of 54 copper wires arranged in a fan-shape and upheld by a triatic slung between two 150ft masts. The current into the bottom of this aerial is stated by Fleming to have been 17 amperes and the radiated frequency is thought to have been between 100 -150 kHz. No one knows for certain, however, as no reliable means of measurement existed at the time and individual estimates made by those on the spot differ considerably.
With the encouraging news that Poldhus signals were being strongly received at Crookhaven in Ireland, 225 miles away, Marconi, with two assistants - Kemp and Paget - took passage to St. Johns, Newfoundland, the nearest landfall in the New World, taking with them large canvas kites and several small balloons with which Marconi proposed to raise the aerial. This latter course of action was decided upon for two reasons; to avoid the public speculation that the erection of tall masts would bring, and to save time.
At St. Johns all possible assistance was given them by the Governor of Newfoundland, Sir Cavendish Boyle, and the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Bond. Six hundred feet up on the clifftop of Signal Hill, overlooking St. Johns harbour, was the disused Barracks Hospital; a ground-floor room in this building was placed at Marconis disposal, and here he set up his instruments.
On 9th December a cable was sent to Poldhu instructing the engineers to begin transmissions on the 11th, between 3 pm and 7 pm GMT. The signals were to consist of repetitions of three dots (the Morse letter 'S'). This letter was chosen because - to quote Marconi himself - 'the switching arrangements at Poldhu were not constructed at the time to withstand long periods of operation - especially if letters containing dashes were sent - without considerable wear and tear, and if Ss were sent an automatic sender could be employed'.
Heavy gales were sweeping Newfoundland, however, and the next two days were spent in unsuccessful attempts to keep an aerial aloft. A balloon and a kite were lost in these endeavours.
On 12th December a full gale was still blowing, but despite this a kite was flown carrying an aerial to a height of 400 ft. Marconi began a listening watch, using his latest syntonic receiver, but could receive no signals because the erratic movements of the kite were continually altering the angle of the aerial to earth, and therefore its capacity. He decided, therefore, to revert to the older, untuned receiver, using a telephone earpiece in series with the coherer.
Various types of coherer were tried, one of which was the so-called 'Italian Navy' device. This is of particular technical interest in that it is described as consisting of a glass tube with a plug of iron at one end and another of carbon at the other, with a globule of mercury between them. The device was self-restoring and had to be used in conjunction with a telephone earpiece. It would seem, therefore, that what is described as a coherer was in fact a true semi-conductor rectifier with either the dissimilar plugs, or oxide film on the mercury, or possibly other surface impurities, performing the rectification process.
At 12.30 pm, Newfoundland time, on 12th December, 1901, Marconi heard, faintly but distinctly, the groups of three dots which could only have been emanating from Poldhu, 2,200 miles away. He passed the earpiece to Kemp, who confirmed that he had not been mistaken. Paget, to his lifelong regret, was ill on that day and was not present.
The feat was all the more remarkable when it is remembered that the onus was almost entirely on the transmitter, for no amplification was possible at the receiver, and so the received signal itself had to be strong enough to operate the earpiece.
The use of a telephone in place of a recording tape and the absence of any unbiased witness had unfortunate consequences for, immediately the news was made public, a stormy controversy arose as to whether Marconi and Kemp had been deceived into misinterpreting the noise of static as Morse signals. In this matter events conspired against Marconi in that the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, which had a message-carrying monopoly covering Newfoundland, threatened legal action if further experiments were carried out, and so there was no opportunity of giving a public demonstration. But two months later tests were carried out between Poldhu and the liner Philadelphia en route from Southampton to New York in which Ss were received on the ship at a distance of 2,099 miles and these were amply verified by witnesses. Ten months later - in December 1902 - two-way communication was effected between Poldhu and a new high-power transmitting station at Glace Bay, Canada - a circumstance made possible by the generous action of the Canadian Government in donating £16,000 towards the cost of the station.
There remained the problem of reconciling the theories of the scientists with the practical results achieved by Marconi. At that time no one knew of the existence in the upper atmosphere of an ionised layer which serves to reflect radio waves and so to make long-distance communication possible. ln 1902 Heaviside in England and Kennelly in America independently postulated the existence of such a belt to account for Marconis achievement, but its actual physical existence remained a matter for controversy until the 1920s.
There were, in fact, many unknowns at the time. Until the tests between Poldhu and the liner Philadelphia in February 1902 it had not been realised that much longer ranges were obtainable at night. Indeed, it was only then that it was realised that for the transatlantic experiment a listening watch had been kept at the worst possible time of the day! Again, the very success of the operation led to a universal acceptance of the rule 'the lower the frequency, the greater the range', and it was not until 1924 that the value of the short-waves for long distance communication was realised, largely as a result of the pioneering work of amateurs. The inauguration in 1924 of the Marconi-Franklin short-wave beam-radio service ushered in a completely new era in international radio communication. incidentally, it was at the Poldhu site that much of the experimental work in connection with short-wave beam transmission took place.
In the same way as Marconi by the introduction of the aerial/earth system had taken wireless waves out of the laboratory into the realm of practical communications, so by the 1901 transatlantic experiment did he introduce the concept of high-power radio engineering and world coverage. And although the spark telegraphy of that day was not electronically generated, it did lead directly to the invention of the thermionic valve and through this to the dawn of the electronics age. | <urn:uuid:4cc78f47-7326-4cfc-b96c-c2a4c2b71d6c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://r-type.org/timeline/time-063.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.981203 | 2,818 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.4039230346... | 2 | In December 1901 - Guglielmo Marconi became the first to send a wireless signal across the Atlantic. This remarkable achievement with such primitive equipment marked the birth of world-wide communication.
During the spring of 1900, Marconi had succeeded in sending reliable signals from St. Catherines in the Isle of Wight to The Lizard in Cornwall, a distance of 186 miles. This encouraged his belief that by using larger aerials and far more powerful transmitters he would be able to achieve transatlantic distances. Scientists were highly sceptical, many said it was impossible because of the curvature of the earth.
Marconi determined to make the attempt. A transmitting station nearly one hundred times more powerful than any previously constructed was built at Poldhu near Mullion in Cornwall. Enormous aerials were erected at Poldhu and at Cape Cod in Massachusetts but both were wrecked in severe gales. Another, less ambitious in design, was put up at Poldhu while Marconi and his two assistants sailed to Newfoundland where, from the top of Signal Hill, a receiving aerial was hoisted, at the third attempt, by means of a kite.
At 12.30 pm (Newfoundland time) on 12th December, 1901, Marconi and his assistant G S Kemp, using one of the primitive receivers of the period with a telephone earpiece heard a faint succession of Ss in Morse code. Signals from Poldhu, 2,200 miles away, had crossed the Atlantic.
To commemorate this historic achievement, a Special Exhibition was held at the Science Museum from 13th December 1961 - 25th January 1962. Among the many historic exhibits and original photographs, a notable feature was a recording of Marconis voice telling in his own words of how success was achieved.
During the early 1890s, many of the leading physicists were closely interested in the properties of 'Hertzian waves' but none expressed a thought that these waves would be of the slightest value for the purpose of communication.
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi, working at his parents residence at Pontecchio in Italy, discovered the great increase in range which could be obtained by the use of an elevated aerial. It was this discovery which paved the way for the use of Hertzian waves in a practicable system of wireless telegraphy.
Early in the following year - 1896 - Marconi arrived in England and applied for the worlds first patent for wireless telegraphy. He had chosen to come to England partly because this country was then the most powerful maritime nation in the world and it seemed likely that wireless telegraphy would be of value to shipping, and partly because of a national affinity, his mother being Irish. While Marconi had Italian citizenship by descent from his parents, it is unlikely he qualified for dual citizenship in Ireland or England at that time.
In I897 he founded the Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company (which in 1900 became MARCONIs WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY LIMITED), and this provided him with the money and technical resources necessary for his future developments.
Marconi spent the next four years in an almost continual round of experiment, development and demonstration, his object being continually to improve the reliability and range of his apparatus. At first only covering a mile or so on Salisbury Plain, he was soon communicating regularly from Alum Bay near the Needles in the Isle of Wight to Bournemouth and then to Sandbanks at the entrance to Poole Harbour, a distance of 18 miles. In March 1899 he spanned the English Channel and early in the following year he set up reliable communication from the Isle of Wight to The Lizard in Cornwall, a distance of 186 miles.
The shipping companies had shown mild interest but very little enthusiasm to install wireless equipment on their ships. It seemed, in fact, that far greater ranges and a chain of land stations would be required before wireless telegraphy would have a wide appeal. The scientists of the day, however, were almost united in believing that wireless waves, like light waves, would not follow the curvature of the earth. Therefore, they said, really long ranges were impossible.
Marconi thought otherwise. Experiments had led him to believe that the key to longer ranges lay in the employment of larger aerials and higher transmitter powers. He therefore determined to build two super-power transmitting stations, one on each side of the Atlantic, and to attempt two-way communication. Accordingly, a site was selected at Poldhu in Cornwall and the other at Cape Cod in Massachusetts.
It is difficult to visualise the stupendous problems which confronted him. The aerial system, at both Poldhu and Cape Cod, was of a size and complexity which had never been attempted before, for it consisted of twenty 200ft masts in a circle with an inverted cone of about 400 wires leading down to the transmitter. As to the transmitter itself, it was to be 100 times more powerful than any hitherto built, and no precedents whatever existed for the design. Marconi delegated the responsibility for this to his scientific adviser, Professor J A (later Sir Ambrose) Fleming, and Fleming carried it out brilliantly.
Some details of the transmitter may be of interest. The prime mover for the generation of power was a Hornsby-Ackroyd oil engine which drove a Mather and Platt 2,000V 50 Hz alternator. This was capable of delivering 25kW, although from a paper read by Fleming to the Royal Society of Arts in December 1921 it would appear that the plant was considerably under-run at the time of the transatlantic tests.
The transmitter proper, which embodied a form of the new syntonic tuning with all its advantages, employed two 20kW Berry transformers parallel-connected to step up the input voltage to 20,000 Volts. This was fed through RF chokes to a closed oscillatory circuit in which a capacitor discharged across a spark gap via the primary of a 'jigger' or RF transformer. The secondary of this transformer connected to a second spark gap and capacitor and the primary of a second RF transformer, the secondary winding of this transformer being in series with the aerial. Keying was effected by the short circuiting of the chokes in the alternator output.
The capacitors were made of 20 glass plates each 16 in square, backed on one side with one square foot of tinfoil. The plates were immersed in linseed oil contained in stoneware boxes; each box had a capacity of approximately 0.05μF.
Both the Poldhu and Cape Cod stations were all but ready when a double catastrophe struck; severe gales wrecked the aerial arrays and masts at both stations almost simultaneously.
With £50,000 already spent on the project, Marconi elected not to wait until both stations were repaired. Instead, a new aerial system was erected at Poldhu, consisting of 54 copper wires arranged in a fan-shape and upheld by a triatic slung between two 150ft masts. The current into the bottom of this aerial is stated by Fleming to have been 17 amperes and the radiated frequency is thought to have been between 100 -150 kHz. No one knows for certain, however, as no reliable means of measurement existed at the time and individual estimates made by those on the spot differ considerably.
With the encouraging news that Poldhus signals were being strongly received at Crookhaven in Ireland, 225 miles away, Marconi, with two assistants - Kemp and Paget - took passage to St. Johns, Newfoundland, the nearest landfall in the New World, taking with them large canvas kites and several small balloons with which Marconi proposed to raise the aerial. This latter course of action was decided upon for two reasons; to avoid the public speculation that the erection of tall masts would bring, and to save time.
At St. Johns all possible assistance was given them by the Governor of Newfoundland, Sir Cavendish Boyle, and the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Bond. Six hundred feet up on the clifftop of Signal Hill, overlooking St. Johns harbour, was the disused Barracks Hospital; a ground-floor room in this building was placed at Marconis disposal, and here he set up his instruments.
On 9th December a cable was sent to Poldhu instructing the engineers to begin transmissions on the 11th, between 3 pm and 7 pm GMT. The signals were to consist of repetitions of three dots (the Morse letter 'S'). This letter was chosen because - to quote Marconi himself - 'the switching arrangements at Poldhu were not constructed at the time to withstand long periods of operation - especially if letters containing dashes were sent - without considerable wear and tear, and if Ss were sent an automatic sender could be employed'.
Heavy gales were sweeping Newfoundland, however, and the next two days were spent in unsuccessful attempts to keep an aerial aloft. A balloon and a kite were lost in these endeavours.
On 12th December a full gale was still blowing, but despite this a kite was flown carrying an aerial to a height of 400 ft. Marconi began a listening watch, using his latest syntonic receiver, but could receive no signals because the erratic movements of the kite were continually altering the angle of the aerial to earth, and therefore its capacity. He decided, therefore, to revert to the older, untuned receiver, using a telephone earpiece in series with the coherer.
Various types of coherer were tried, one of which was the so-called 'Italian Navy' device. This is of particular technical interest in that it is described as consisting of a glass tube with a plug of iron at one end and another of carbon at the other, with a globule of mercury between them. The device was self-restoring and had to be used in conjunction with a telephone earpiece. It would seem, therefore, that what is described as a coherer was in fact a true semi-conductor rectifier with either the dissimilar plugs, or oxide film on the mercury, or possibly other surface impurities, performing the rectification process.
At 12.30 pm, Newfoundland time, on 12th December, 1901, Marconi heard, faintly but distinctly, the groups of three dots which could only have been emanating from Poldhu, 2,200 miles away. He passed the earpiece to Kemp, who confirmed that he had not been mistaken. Paget, to his lifelong regret, was ill on that day and was not present.
The feat was all the more remarkable when it is remembered that the onus was almost entirely on the transmitter, for no amplification was possible at the receiver, and so the received signal itself had to be strong enough to operate the earpiece.
The use of a telephone in place of a recording tape and the absence of any unbiased witness had unfortunate consequences for, immediately the news was made public, a stormy controversy arose as to whether Marconi and Kemp had been deceived into misinterpreting the noise of static as Morse signals. In this matter events conspired against Marconi in that the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, which had a message-carrying monopoly covering Newfoundland, threatened legal action if further experiments were carried out, and so there was no opportunity of giving a public demonstration. But two months later tests were carried out between Poldhu and the liner Philadelphia en route from Southampton to New York in which Ss were received on the ship at a distance of 2,099 miles and these were amply verified by witnesses. Ten months later - in December 1902 - two-way communication was effected between Poldhu and a new high-power transmitting station at Glace Bay, Canada - a circumstance made possible by the generous action of the Canadian Government in donating £16,000 towards the cost of the station.
There remained the problem of reconciling the theories of the scientists with the practical results achieved by Marconi. At that time no one knew of the existence in the upper atmosphere of an ionised layer which serves to reflect radio waves and so to make long-distance communication possible. ln 1902 Heaviside in England and Kennelly in America independently postulated the existence of such a belt to account for Marconis achievement, but its actual physical existence remained a matter for controversy until the 1920s.
There were, in fact, many unknowns at the time. Until the tests between Poldhu and the liner Philadelphia in February 1902 it had not been realised that much longer ranges were obtainable at night. Indeed, it was only then that it was realised that for the transatlantic experiment a listening watch had been kept at the worst possible time of the day! Again, the very success of the operation led to a universal acceptance of the rule 'the lower the frequency, the greater the range', and it was not until 1924 that the value of the short-waves for long distance communication was realised, largely as a result of the pioneering work of amateurs. The inauguration in 1924 of the Marconi-Franklin short-wave beam-radio service ushered in a completely new era in international radio communication. incidentally, it was at the Poldhu site that much of the experimental work in connection with short-wave beam transmission took place.
In the same way as Marconi by the introduction of the aerial/earth system had taken wireless waves out of the laboratory into the realm of practical communications, so by the 1901 transatlantic experiment did he introduce the concept of high-power radio engineering and world coverage. And although the spark telegraphy of that day was not electronically generated, it did lead directly to the invention of the thermionic valve and through this to the dawn of the electronics age. | 2,937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franz Kafka was born in 1833 to a well-to-do middle-class Jewish family. His father, the self-made proprietor of a wholesale haberdashery business, was a domineering man whose approbation Franz continually struggled to win. The younger Kafka's feelings of inadequacy and guilt form the background of much of his work and are made explicit in his "Letter to His Father" (excerpted in this volume), which was written in 1919 but never sent. Kafka was educated in the German language schools of Prague and at the city's German University, where in 1908 he took a law degree. Literature, however, remained his sole passion. At this time he became part of a literary circle that included Franz Werfel, Martin Buber, and Kafka's close friend Max Brod. Encouraged by Brod, Kafka published the prose collection Observations in 1913. Two years later his story "The Stoker" won the Fontaine prize. In 1916 he began work on The Trial and between this time and 1923 produced three incomplete novels as well as numerous sketches and stories. In his lifetime some of his short works did appear: The Judgment (1916), The Metamorphosis (1916), The Penal Colony (1919), and The Country Doctor (1919). Before his death of tuberculosis in 1924, Kafka had charged Max Brod with the execution of his estate, ordering Brod to burn the manuscripts. With the somewhat circular justification that Kafka must have known his friend could not obey such an order, Brod decided to publish Kafka's writings. To this act of "betrayal" the world owes the preservation of some of the most unforgettable and influential literary works of our century. | <urn:uuid:c15228f2-9f34-4940-9446-75439273b5ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.target.com/p/the-metamorphosis-bantam-classics-by-franz-kafka-paperback/-/A-12082231 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.986916 | 353 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0804370343... | 2 | Franz Kafka was born in 1833 to a well-to-do middle-class Jewish family. His father, the self-made proprietor of a wholesale haberdashery business, was a domineering man whose approbation Franz continually struggled to win. The younger Kafka's feelings of inadequacy and guilt form the background of much of his work and are made explicit in his "Letter to His Father" (excerpted in this volume), which was written in 1919 but never sent. Kafka was educated in the German language schools of Prague and at the city's German University, where in 1908 he took a law degree. Literature, however, remained his sole passion. At this time he became part of a literary circle that included Franz Werfel, Martin Buber, and Kafka's close friend Max Brod. Encouraged by Brod, Kafka published the prose collection Observations in 1913. Two years later his story "The Stoker" won the Fontaine prize. In 1916 he began work on The Trial and between this time and 1923 produced three incomplete novels as well as numerous sketches and stories. In his lifetime some of his short works did appear: The Judgment (1916), The Metamorphosis (1916), The Penal Colony (1919), and The Country Doctor (1919). Before his death of tuberculosis in 1924, Kafka had charged Max Brod with the execution of his estate, ordering Brod to burn the manuscripts. With the somewhat circular justification that Kafka must have known his friend could not obey such an order, Brod decided to publish Kafka's writings. To this act of "betrayal" the world owes the preservation of some of the most unforgettable and influential literary works of our century. | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What happens in Richard III?
Richard III's rise to power is made possible by his ruthless assassination of his friends, his enemies, and even his wife. His defeat at the Battle of Bosworth comprises much of the action in the play's final act.
It's helpful to know that, before the play begins, King Henry VI and his son Prince Edward are killed in the war between the houses of York and Lancaster. Richard, then the Duke of Gloucester, kills Edward as part of his plot to assume the throne.
Richard manipulates Prince Edward's widow Anne into agreeing to marry him. This gives him the boost he needs to begin killing off and imprisoning his enemies, including Queen Elizabeth's son.
- Soon after ascending to the throne, Richard has his own wife killed to bolster his position with a new marriage. This doesn't prevent Henry Tudor, the then Earl of Richmond, from rallying against him and taking the throne, thus establishing the Tudor dynasty.
Richard III is the last of the four plays in Shakespeare's minor tetralogy of English history: it concludes a dramatic chronicle started by Henry VI: Part I and then moving through Henry VI: Part II and Henry VI: Part III. The entire four-play saga was composed early in Shakespeare's career, most scholars assigning Richard III a composition date of 1591 or 1592. Culminating with the defeat of the evil King Richard III at the battle of Bosworth field in the play's final act, Richard III is a dramatization of actual historical events that concluded in the year 1485, when the rule of the Plantagenet family over England was replaced by the Tudor monarchy. A full century after these events, Shakespeare's Elizabethan audiences were certainly familiar with them (as contemporary Americans are of their own Civil War), and they were particularly fascinated with the character of Richard III. Shakespeare's audiences could readily identify the various political factions and complex family relationships depicted in the play as they proceed from the three parts of Henry VI.
Today, readers and audiences may find it exceedingly difficult to follow the overlapping webs of political intrigue, family relationships, and personal vendettas. Fortunately, while a full knowledge of historical context would certainly enhance a modern reading of the text, it is not really necessary. The play, in fact, is dominated by Richard the hunchback Duke of Gloucester, who becomes Richard III through a series of horrible acts, killing off his enemies, his kinsmen, his wife and most of his supporters before reaching the Battle of Bosworth and crying out "My kingdom for a horse." In a work that is as much melodrama as history, Richard is a pure, self-professed villain of monstrous proportions. His evil drives the plot; and until his final defeat by the Duke of Richmond (who became Henry VII) in the play's last act, the good forces opposing him are weak, splintered, and ready prey for his schemes.
After the conclusion of the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, Edward IV is firmly restored to the throne. Before long, however, his treacherous brother Richard, the hunchbacked duke of Gloucester, resumes his plans for gaining the throne. Craftily he removes one obstacle in his path when he turns the king against the third brother, the duke of Clarence (whose given name is George) by telling the king of an ancient prophecy that his issue will be disinherited by one of the royal line whose name begins with the letter G. Clarence is immediately arrested and taken to the Tower. Richard goes to him, pretending sympathy, and advises him that the jealousy and hatred of Queen Elizabeth are responsible for his imprisonment. After promising to help his brother secure his freedom, Richard, as false in word as he is cruel in deed, gives orders that Clarence be stabbed in his cell and his body placed in a barrel of malmsey wine.
Hoping to make his position even stronger, Richard then makes plans to marry Lady Anne, the widow of Prince Edward, the former Prince of Wales...
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Richard III's rise to power is made possible by his ruthless assassination of his friends, his enemies, and even his wife. His defeat at the Battle of Bosworth comprises much of the action in the play's final act.
It's helpful to know that, before the play begins, King Henry VI and his son Prince Edward are killed in the war between the houses of York and Lancaster. Richard, then the Duke of Gloucester, kills Edward as part of his plot to assume the throne.
Richard manipulates Prince Edward's widow Anne into agreeing to marry him. This gives him the boost he needs to begin killing off and imprisoning his enemies, including Queen Elizabeth's son.
- Soon after ascending to the throne, Richard has his own wife killed to bolster his position with a new marriage. This doesn't prevent Henry Tudor, the then Earl of Richmond, from rallying against him and taking the throne, thus establishing the Tudor dynasty.
Richard III is the last of the four plays in Shakespeare's minor tetralogy of English history: it concludes a dramatic chronicle started by Henry VI: Part I and then moving through Henry VI: Part II and Henry VI: Part III. The entire four-play saga was composed early in Shakespeare's career, most scholars assigning Richard III a composition date of 1591 or 1592. Culminating with the defeat of the evil King Richard III at the battle of Bosworth field in the play's final act, Richard III is a dramatization of actual historical events that concluded in the year 1485, when the rule of the Plantagenet family over England was replaced by the Tudor monarchy. A full century after these events, Shakespeare's Elizabethan audiences were certainly familiar with them (as contemporary Americans are of their own Civil War), and they were particularly fascinated with the character of Richard III. Shakespeare's audiences could readily identify the various political factions and complex family relationships depicted in the play as they proceed from the three parts of Henry VI.
Today, readers and audiences may find it exceedingly difficult to follow the overlapping webs of political intrigue, family relationships, and personal vendettas. Fortunately, while a full knowledge of historical context would certainly enhance a modern reading of the text, it is not really necessary. The play, in fact, is dominated by Richard the hunchback Duke of Gloucester, who becomes Richard III through a series of horrible acts, killing off his enemies, his kinsmen, his wife and most of his supporters before reaching the Battle of Bosworth and crying out "My kingdom for a horse." In a work that is as much melodrama as history, Richard is a pure, self-professed villain of monstrous proportions. His evil drives the plot; and until his final defeat by the Duke of Richmond (who became Henry VII) in the play's last act, the good forces opposing him are weak, splintered, and ready prey for his schemes.
After the conclusion of the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, Edward IV is firmly restored to the throne. Before long, however, his treacherous brother Richard, the hunchbacked duke of Gloucester, resumes his plans for gaining the throne. Craftily he removes one obstacle in his path when he turns the king against the third brother, the duke of Clarence (whose given name is George) by telling the king of an ancient prophecy that his issue will be disinherited by one of the royal line whose name begins with the letter G. Clarence is immediately arrested and taken to the Tower. Richard goes to him, pretending sympathy, and advises him that the jealousy and hatred of Queen Elizabeth are responsible for his imprisonment. After promising to help his brother secure his freedom, Richard, as false in word as he is cruel in deed, gives orders that Clarence be stabbed in his cell and his body placed in a barrel of malmsey wine.
Hoping to make his position even stronger, Richard then makes plans to marry Lady Anne, the widow of Prince Edward, the former Prince of Wales...
(The entire section is 1,458 words.) | 837 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This morning Mason shared he had been to a “learning” museum over the weekend. We asked him what he had learned on his visit.
Acting on our invitation Mason proceeded to demonstrate what he had learned at the museum.
We watched as he built the “base” and then proceeded to carefully balance the blocks on the base.
We observed that he instinctively knew that balancing one block on top of another would not work for many reasons and therefore he built smaller towers on his base.
All very fascinating to observe from an educator’s lens…
More often than not we are advocating for play, always trying to bring forward how “play” engages the child’s mind in developing a deeper understanding of any concept in any learning domain. And this is a perfect example of just that.
Mason and the rest of the children, conceptually knew what a tower is but constructing it to demonstrate their understanding is another matter altogether, right? They knew somewhere in there they had to address stability and balance along with figuring out how all that applied to height…. such a fine way to “play” with all these complexities, wouldn’t you agree?
We followed through with our roles as the facilitators would in any process. We offered the children multiple materials along with images of towers and encouraged them to play some more. The idea is to encourage them to revisit their ideas and share their theories so we can derive an understanding based on real-time experiences.
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0.6881590485... | 5 | This morning Mason shared he had been to a “learning” museum over the weekend. We asked him what he had learned on his visit.
Acting on our invitation Mason proceeded to demonstrate what he had learned at the museum.
We watched as he built the “base” and then proceeded to carefully balance the blocks on the base.
We observed that he instinctively knew that balancing one block on top of another would not work for many reasons and therefore he built smaller towers on his base.
All very fascinating to observe from an educator’s lens…
More often than not we are advocating for play, always trying to bring forward how “play” engages the child’s mind in developing a deeper understanding of any concept in any learning domain. And this is a perfect example of just that.
Mason and the rest of the children, conceptually knew what a tower is but constructing it to demonstrate their understanding is another matter altogether, right? They knew somewhere in there they had to address stability and balance along with figuring out how all that applied to height…. such a fine way to “play” with all these complexities, wouldn’t you agree?
We followed through with our roles as the facilitators would in any process. We offered the children multiple materials along with images of towers and encouraged them to play some more. The idea is to encourage them to revisit their ideas and share their theories so we can derive an understanding based on real-time experiences.
Laurel Room Teachers | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was France defeated in 1940?
The fall of France in 1940 was sudden and shocking. French leaders believed that they had prepared for a potential war with Germany and were well prepared. Tragically, they were not. Within months of the German invasion, France collapsed. Why did France surrender so quickly?
In September 1939, the German war machine invaded Poland, and World War II began. France and its Britain declared against Germany in 1939. The French army was in theory as strong as Germanys. It had a vast Empire and a sophisticated arms industry. It had also established a series of fortifications along the eastern border of the country along with Germany, known as the Maginot Line. The Line was designed to keep German forces out of France. Initially, France and Great Britain appeared to be a match for Germany.
However, in weeks in the late spring and early summer of 1940, it became clear that France was woefully unprepared for the German onslaught. France suffered a humiliating defeat and was quickly occupied by Germany. Its failure was a result of a hopelessly divided French political elite, a lack of quality military leadership, rudimentary French military tactics. On the battlefield, France faced a vastly more prepared German army that utilized both more advanced weapons and sophisticated tactics. It was a mismatch.
What happened to France after World War One?
France had been fearful of Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In this war, the Prussians had quickly defeated the French and occupied much of the country. In World War I, The Germans had come very close to defeating the French, and without allied assistance, the country would have lost to Germany. Despite being among the victors in World War One, the French still dreaded a conflict with Germany. During the Versailles treaty negotiations after the collapse of Germany during World War, French negotiators were adamant Germany's military had to be neutralized.
The French, led by Prime Minister Clemenceau, adopted a hard line towards the Germans in 1918-1919. There was a thaw in the Franco-German relationship in the mid-1920s, and there was hope of a genuine rapprochement between the two largest powers in continental Europe.
However, the Great Depression and the rise of Hitler meant that the French were suddenly faced with a potentially aggressive regime in Germany. The French adopted a diplomatic policy of appeasement and sought to placate Hitler by offering him concessions, such as allowing him to re-militarize the Rhineland. Still, France took no chances and began to prepare their defenses.
The French devoted a considerable amount of resources and capital to the construction of the Maginot Line. This defensive line was named after a French Defence Minister. The French constructed a long line of fortifications along their eastern border with German. It stopped at the Belgian border. The French stationed all their forces behind the Maginot Line and adopted a defensive posture.
When Did Germany Invade France?
In September 1939, the French with the British declared war on Germany after Hitler invaded Poland. For several months, there was little or no activity on the Western Front. This period was known as the ‘Phoney War’. However, in the Spring of 1940, the Germans shifted their attention west and went on the offensive.
The Battle of France started on the invasion on May 10th, 1940 and only lasted only 46 days. Paris fell to the Germans on the 14th of June, after the virtual collapse of the French Army. French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud resigned on the June 16th during the catastrophe. His successor, Marshal Philippe Pétain, began negotiations to end the war. By July 25th, France was forced to surrender.
The German army suffered 157,000 casualties during the invasion of France, but the Allies's lost were considerably worse. The Allies lost over twice as many men and overall had 360,000 casualties. A further two million men were captured. Some 300,000 British and French troops escaped the Germans after being evacuated by naval forces at Dunkirk. The Germans occupied the majority of France. In the south of France, the Vichy Regime established a semi-autonomous political entity. Vichy maintained control over the majority of the French Colonies.
How did the German Army move so quickly through France?
Between the world wars, the German army developed the Blitzkrieg tactics. This strategy was based on high-speed and mobile attacks on the enemy’s weak points, and it proved devastating in France. The German victory was founded on a plan developed by the great military strategies, General Erich von Manstein. He adopted the Schlieffen Plan that was almost successful in WW I.
However, rather than advance on a broad front through Belgium, the Germans focused two-thirds of their forces, including most of their tanks, in the Ardennes region of Belgium. France and Belgium did reinforce the fortifications in this region because they assumed that the terrain was unsuitable for tanks. When the Germans attack came through the Ardennes, they caught the French and their British allies by surprise because the French believed it was impassable to tanks.
Having successfully made their way into France, German forces then employed a tactic known as the ‘sickle stroke’. Sweeping across the northern plains of France at great speed, they divided the French and British forces into two parts. The British army was left isolated in Belgium and the French were left to bear the brunt of the German forces.
The German army was substantially better than the French and the British. Hitler had built up the Germany army and in particular the air force (Luftwaffe). The Germans had developed superior weapons. In particular, they had developed superior aircraft such as the Stuka dive bomber and the Messerschmitt ME fighter plane, that wreaked havoc on the allies . The Germans placed a great deal of emphasis on mobile and armored warfare. They had superior tanks, such as Panzer Mk iv, which easily overcame the allies in almost every tank engagement in the Battle of France. Even though the German army was superior to the French in many ways the Fall of France was not inevitable.
Was France prepared for the German invasion?
French military tactics were extremely outdated at the start of the war. They had failed to recognize that warfare had fundamentally changed since the First World War. They were over-reliant upon the Maginot Line, and they believed that this would stop any German invasion in its track. Since they did not believe that could defeat Germany outright, they hoped that the Maginot would drive up casualties and Germany to the negotiating table. They relied on defensive tactics and failed to grasp the impact of modern tanks and aircraft.
The over-reliance on the Maginot Line meant that they were too defensive. The Maginot Line also failed to protect the entire French border. Instead of attacking France directly, Germany avoided the Maginot line by invading Belgium. French military planners have failed to plan for this contingency. The defensive line only partially defended France and indeed left the country open to an invasion via Belgium. The French High Command also failed to launch an offensive against Germany after the German attacked Poland.
The French army simply hid behind the Maginot Line and waited for the Germans to attack. When the Germans finally did attack through the Ardennes, the French army was trapped in bunkers, and its fortifications were immediately outflanked. Even when the Germans invaded Belgium, the French General Staff continued with their cautious policy and were slow to respond to the German threat.
While the French army was large and had been well resourced, it had not been modernized. It was still based on the idea that the next war would resemble the Great War. As a result, the French did not believe that any war with Germany, would be a mobile one, but rather a war of attrition. This meant that they failed to develop tank tactics that took advantage of their tanks offensive capabilities. Even when the French did effective field equipment, such as the SOMUA S35 tanks, they were mismanaged by French cavalry commanders. The Somua S35 tanks did not realize their true potential until German commanders commandeered them and utilized on the Eastern Front.
During the invasion, German Panzer tanks quickly overcame the French defenses on the plains of Northern France. The French air forces were also no match for the Germans in aerial combat. The French army was unable to cope with the German Blitzkrieg tactics and was quickly defeated after only six weeks of fighting.
Why did France have Poor Military and Political Leadership?
In 1940 the French general staff was led by General Maurice Gamelan, an officer widely respected. A veteran and war hero of the First World War, he was credited with developing the strategy that led to the decisive French victory at the Marne in 1914. He had also tried unsuccessfully, to modernize the army. But Gamelin was suffering from a serious illness, whose symptoms included poor concentration levels, memory loss and other cognitive difficulties Gamelin’s memoirs, published after the war showed symptoms of paranoia and delusions of grandeur. The military leadership below Gamelin was generally poor. They were slow to respond to the Germans, and there was a marked reluctance to take any initiative and go on the attack. The political leadership of France was also very poor. According to one French commentator during the war, they could not inspire the French people, they were more interested in fighting among themselves that the Germans.
France was bitterly divided between the left and the right. This lack of unity in France was crippling at a crucial juncture in the war. The division also extended to the relationships between the military and political leadership of France. The French Generals were rights wing and distrusted the left wing politicians who ran France. French ministers also did not trust the judgment of their generals. The French officer corps was more worried about a Communist revolution than a German invasion.
For example, General Weygand was more concerned with maintaining social stability in the wake of the German invasion than actually fighting the Germans. Many later accused some French Generals of being traitors. Perhaps the greatest weakness in the French leadership was that they did not have a true war leader; as one Frenchman stated in 1942 they ‘had no Churchill’. If France had a leader of the caliber of Clemenceau in 1940, perhaps the outcome of the Battle of France could have been different.
Defeatism in France
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France was a powerful country with a large army and a vast Empire that stretched around the globe, but it was not cohesive. It had stark political conflicts, and many politicians were more loyal to their political party than their country. People on both the extreme Left such as the Communists or the extreme right hated the French government so virulently, their support of the French government could be best described as half-hearted after the German invasion.
Many ordinary people were disgusted with the leaders of the Third Republic, who were widely seen as professional politicians who were both venal and corrupt. Furthermore, defeatism was rampant at the start of WW II. France had a low birth rate, and many were convinced that the country was degenerating, based on ideas current at the time. The cultural pessimism in France meant that many, in the political and military elite believed that France could not defeat Germany and that any efforts to resist the Germans were pointless. Many people believed that France was a nation in decline and that her greatest days had passed. This led to a spirit of defeatism in France in the Spring and Summer of 1940, that played an important role in the Fall of France. Despite the valiant efforts of many French men against the German invasion, the French government and military were ill-equipped both politically and militarily to meaningfully contest Germany.
While France was protected by the Maginot Line and a fairly large army, it put up little resistance to Germany. It only took a few weeks for the entire country to fall. The reasons for the sudden defeat of France in 1940 were numerous and varied.
They included a failure of leadership, both at the military and the political level. The army of France was not only poorly led but had been equipped with inferior arms and equipment. Moreover, the Maginot Line not only failed to protect France, but it encouraged a defensive mentality that allowed the Germans to take the initiative at crucial points during the invasion. The French public was also bitterly divided.
These political divisions and incompetent leadership convinced many French citizens that their country could not defeat Germany. All these combined factors combined ensured a swift between May and June 1940.
- Bond, Brian, Britain, France and Belgium, 1939–1940. (London, Brassey's, 1990), p.178
- Bond, p. 111
- Bond, p. 117
- Blatt, Joel, The French Defeat of 1940: Reassessments (Providence, RI, Berghahn, 1997), p. 111
- Blatt, p. 117
- Cooper, M. The German Army 1933–1945, Its Political and Military Failure. (Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day, 1978), p. 201
- Copper, p, 137
- Copper, p, 134
- Jackson, Julian T. The Fall of France: The German Invasion of 1940. (Oxford UP, 2003), p. 234
- Jackson, p. 235
- Why Did the French Army Collapse So Quickly? – Omnibooks Magazine, (London July, 1942), p. 6
- Jackson, p.117
- Bloch, Marc, Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940 (New York, NY: Norton, 1946), p. 117
- Copper, p, 144 | <urn:uuid:ef680b11-d7fb-4966-a3d4-612b0e700f1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dailyhistory.org/Why_was_France_defeated_in_1940%3F | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.986596 | 2,914 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.48176041245... | 1 | Why was France defeated in 1940?
The fall of France in 1940 was sudden and shocking. French leaders believed that they had prepared for a potential war with Germany and were well prepared. Tragically, they were not. Within months of the German invasion, France collapsed. Why did France surrender so quickly?
In September 1939, the German war machine invaded Poland, and World War II began. France and its Britain declared against Germany in 1939. The French army was in theory as strong as Germanys. It had a vast Empire and a sophisticated arms industry. It had also established a series of fortifications along the eastern border of the country along with Germany, known as the Maginot Line. The Line was designed to keep German forces out of France. Initially, France and Great Britain appeared to be a match for Germany.
However, in weeks in the late spring and early summer of 1940, it became clear that France was woefully unprepared for the German onslaught. France suffered a humiliating defeat and was quickly occupied by Germany. Its failure was a result of a hopelessly divided French political elite, a lack of quality military leadership, rudimentary French military tactics. On the battlefield, France faced a vastly more prepared German army that utilized both more advanced weapons and sophisticated tactics. It was a mismatch.
What happened to France after World War One?
France had been fearful of Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In this war, the Prussians had quickly defeated the French and occupied much of the country. In World War I, The Germans had come very close to defeating the French, and without allied assistance, the country would have lost to Germany. Despite being among the victors in World War One, the French still dreaded a conflict with Germany. During the Versailles treaty negotiations after the collapse of Germany during World War, French negotiators were adamant Germany's military had to be neutralized.
The French, led by Prime Minister Clemenceau, adopted a hard line towards the Germans in 1918-1919. There was a thaw in the Franco-German relationship in the mid-1920s, and there was hope of a genuine rapprochement between the two largest powers in continental Europe.
However, the Great Depression and the rise of Hitler meant that the French were suddenly faced with a potentially aggressive regime in Germany. The French adopted a diplomatic policy of appeasement and sought to placate Hitler by offering him concessions, such as allowing him to re-militarize the Rhineland. Still, France took no chances and began to prepare their defenses.
The French devoted a considerable amount of resources and capital to the construction of the Maginot Line. This defensive line was named after a French Defence Minister. The French constructed a long line of fortifications along their eastern border with German. It stopped at the Belgian border. The French stationed all their forces behind the Maginot Line and adopted a defensive posture.
When Did Germany Invade France?
In September 1939, the French with the British declared war on Germany after Hitler invaded Poland. For several months, there was little or no activity on the Western Front. This period was known as the ‘Phoney War’. However, in the Spring of 1940, the Germans shifted their attention west and went on the offensive.
The Battle of France started on the invasion on May 10th, 1940 and only lasted only 46 days. Paris fell to the Germans on the 14th of June, after the virtual collapse of the French Army. French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud resigned on the June 16th during the catastrophe. His successor, Marshal Philippe Pétain, began negotiations to end the war. By July 25th, France was forced to surrender.
The German army suffered 157,000 casualties during the invasion of France, but the Allies's lost were considerably worse. The Allies lost over twice as many men and overall had 360,000 casualties. A further two million men were captured. Some 300,000 British and French troops escaped the Germans after being evacuated by naval forces at Dunkirk. The Germans occupied the majority of France. In the south of France, the Vichy Regime established a semi-autonomous political entity. Vichy maintained control over the majority of the French Colonies.
How did the German Army move so quickly through France?
Between the world wars, the German army developed the Blitzkrieg tactics. This strategy was based on high-speed and mobile attacks on the enemy’s weak points, and it proved devastating in France. The German victory was founded on a plan developed by the great military strategies, General Erich von Manstein. He adopted the Schlieffen Plan that was almost successful in WW I.
However, rather than advance on a broad front through Belgium, the Germans focused two-thirds of their forces, including most of their tanks, in the Ardennes region of Belgium. France and Belgium did reinforce the fortifications in this region because they assumed that the terrain was unsuitable for tanks. When the Germans attack came through the Ardennes, they caught the French and their British allies by surprise because the French believed it was impassable to tanks.
Having successfully made their way into France, German forces then employed a tactic known as the ‘sickle stroke’. Sweeping across the northern plains of France at great speed, they divided the French and British forces into two parts. The British army was left isolated in Belgium and the French were left to bear the brunt of the German forces.
The German army was substantially better than the French and the British. Hitler had built up the Germany army and in particular the air force (Luftwaffe). The Germans had developed superior weapons. In particular, they had developed superior aircraft such as the Stuka dive bomber and the Messerschmitt ME fighter plane, that wreaked havoc on the allies . The Germans placed a great deal of emphasis on mobile and armored warfare. They had superior tanks, such as Panzer Mk iv, which easily overcame the allies in almost every tank engagement in the Battle of France. Even though the German army was superior to the French in many ways the Fall of France was not inevitable.
Was France prepared for the German invasion?
French military tactics were extremely outdated at the start of the war. They had failed to recognize that warfare had fundamentally changed since the First World War. They were over-reliant upon the Maginot Line, and they believed that this would stop any German invasion in its track. Since they did not believe that could defeat Germany outright, they hoped that the Maginot would drive up casualties and Germany to the negotiating table. They relied on defensive tactics and failed to grasp the impact of modern tanks and aircraft.
The over-reliance on the Maginot Line meant that they were too defensive. The Maginot Line also failed to protect the entire French border. Instead of attacking France directly, Germany avoided the Maginot line by invading Belgium. French military planners have failed to plan for this contingency. The defensive line only partially defended France and indeed left the country open to an invasion via Belgium. The French High Command also failed to launch an offensive against Germany after the German attacked Poland.
The French army simply hid behind the Maginot Line and waited for the Germans to attack. When the Germans finally did attack through the Ardennes, the French army was trapped in bunkers, and its fortifications were immediately outflanked. Even when the Germans invaded Belgium, the French General Staff continued with their cautious policy and were slow to respond to the German threat.
While the French army was large and had been well resourced, it had not been modernized. It was still based on the idea that the next war would resemble the Great War. As a result, the French did not believe that any war with Germany, would be a mobile one, but rather a war of attrition. This meant that they failed to develop tank tactics that took advantage of their tanks offensive capabilities. Even when the French did effective field equipment, such as the SOMUA S35 tanks, they were mismanaged by French cavalry commanders. The Somua S35 tanks did not realize their true potential until German commanders commandeered them and utilized on the Eastern Front.
During the invasion, German Panzer tanks quickly overcame the French defenses on the plains of Northern France. The French air forces were also no match for the Germans in aerial combat. The French army was unable to cope with the German Blitzkrieg tactics and was quickly defeated after only six weeks of fighting.
Why did France have Poor Military and Political Leadership?
In 1940 the French general staff was led by General Maurice Gamelan, an officer widely respected. A veteran and war hero of the First World War, he was credited with developing the strategy that led to the decisive French victory at the Marne in 1914. He had also tried unsuccessfully, to modernize the army. But Gamelin was suffering from a serious illness, whose symptoms included poor concentration levels, memory loss and other cognitive difficulties Gamelin’s memoirs, published after the war showed symptoms of paranoia and delusions of grandeur. The military leadership below Gamelin was generally poor. They were slow to respond to the Germans, and there was a marked reluctance to take any initiative and go on the attack. The political leadership of France was also very poor. According to one French commentator during the war, they could not inspire the French people, they were more interested in fighting among themselves that the Germans.
France was bitterly divided between the left and the right. This lack of unity in France was crippling at a crucial juncture in the war. The division also extended to the relationships between the military and political leadership of France. The French Generals were rights wing and distrusted the left wing politicians who ran France. French ministers also did not trust the judgment of their generals. The French officer corps was more worried about a Communist revolution than a German invasion.
For example, General Weygand was more concerned with maintaining social stability in the wake of the German invasion than actually fighting the Germans. Many later accused some French Generals of being traitors. Perhaps the greatest weakness in the French leadership was that they did not have a true war leader; as one Frenchman stated in 1942 they ‘had no Churchill’. If France had a leader of the caliber of Clemenceau in 1940, perhaps the outcome of the Battle of France could have been different.
Defeatism in France
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France was a powerful country with a large army and a vast Empire that stretched around the globe, but it was not cohesive. It had stark political conflicts, and many politicians were more loyal to their political party than their country. People on both the extreme Left such as the Communists or the extreme right hated the French government so virulently, their support of the French government could be best described as half-hearted after the German invasion.
Many ordinary people were disgusted with the leaders of the Third Republic, who were widely seen as professional politicians who were both venal and corrupt. Furthermore, defeatism was rampant at the start of WW II. France had a low birth rate, and many were convinced that the country was degenerating, based on ideas current at the time. The cultural pessimism in France meant that many, in the political and military elite believed that France could not defeat Germany and that any efforts to resist the Germans were pointless. Many people believed that France was a nation in decline and that her greatest days had passed. This led to a spirit of defeatism in France in the Spring and Summer of 1940, that played an important role in the Fall of France. Despite the valiant efforts of many French men against the German invasion, the French government and military were ill-equipped both politically and militarily to meaningfully contest Germany.
While France was protected by the Maginot Line and a fairly large army, it put up little resistance to Germany. It only took a few weeks for the entire country to fall. The reasons for the sudden defeat of France in 1940 were numerous and varied.
They included a failure of leadership, both at the military and the political level. The army of France was not only poorly led but had been equipped with inferior arms and equipment. Moreover, the Maginot Line not only failed to protect France, but it encouraged a defensive mentality that allowed the Germans to take the initiative at crucial points during the invasion. The French public was also bitterly divided.
These political divisions and incompetent leadership convinced many French citizens that their country could not defeat Germany. All these combined factors combined ensured a swift between May and June 1940.
- Bond, Brian, Britain, France and Belgium, 1939–1940. (London, Brassey's, 1990), p.178
- Bond, p. 111
- Bond, p. 117
- Blatt, Joel, The French Defeat of 1940: Reassessments (Providence, RI, Berghahn, 1997), p. 111
- Blatt, p. 117
- Cooper, M. The German Army 1933–1945, Its Political and Military Failure. (Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day, 1978), p. 201
- Copper, p, 137
- Copper, p, 134
- Jackson, Julian T. The Fall of France: The German Invasion of 1940. (Oxford UP, 2003), p. 234
- Jackson, p. 235
- Why Did the French Army Collapse So Quickly? – Omnibooks Magazine, (London July, 1942), p. 6
- Jackson, p.117
- Bloch, Marc, Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940 (New York, NY: Norton, 1946), p. 117
- Copper, p, 144 | 3,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Learning numeral identification and counting skills is certainly an important part of a preschool career. However, there are also more subtle, but necessary mathematics skills for a preschooler to obtain as they make their way to kindergarten. One of these is learning the language of mathematics: more than, less than, equals, a lot, some, fewer, take away, add, etc...
Our preschoolers do this naturally as we play math games from Mother Goose Time Curriculum. Usually once a month, we get a "Would You Rather" graphing game. This game changes with each new theme. Our theme this month was Winter in the Woods. Each of the students were given a bear counter and were asked to use this on our graphing chart in answer to the question asked.
For example, when asked, "Would you rather be a bear or a mouse?", the students placed their bear counter under the picture of the animal they would rather be. During the first question, the students placed their bears very haphazardly. We took the time to learn how to properly line up the bears in a graphing manner so that it was easy to see which column had more and which had less.
After choices were made, we counted each column and decided which had more, which had less, or if they were equal.
For some, it was easy for them to see that the longer line meant there were more. For others, it was necessary for them to count each column to decide. Some could county visually and some needed to touch each object to count correctly. I observed each child and made notes to asses each of their abilities. This helps me know exactly what to work on with each student. I also compile my findings in each student's portfolio and review it with the parents during our semi-annual conferences.
Another natural math concept we learn with MGT is patterning. Our daily calendar pieces are each adorned with a color and an image. As we place each calendar piece up daily, we begin to form a pattern on our circle time board. Eventually, we are able to see it develop and are able to use it as a teaching method for patterns. The first month of the school year is always a simple AB pattern. You can see this month is a bit more complex: an ABB pattern. Patterning is one of our 4 year old's favorite math skills. We introduce it to our 3 year old's and after a year of preschool, they are spotting patterns everywhere and building on to create more complex pattern designs.
Thanks to MGT, our students are always learning new skills while they explore their environment and are hard at play. To learn more about the curriculum we receive at no cost for our honest opinion of our experience, visit www.mothergoosetime.com. | <urn:uuid:89ec50a7-11da-4728-941a-934666093eab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ckapreschool.com/single-post/2016/12/17/The-Language-of-Mathematics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.98141 | 568 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.3412162363529... | 4 | Learning numeral identification and counting skills is certainly an important part of a preschool career. However, there are also more subtle, but necessary mathematics skills for a preschooler to obtain as they make their way to kindergarten. One of these is learning the language of mathematics: more than, less than, equals, a lot, some, fewer, take away, add, etc...
Our preschoolers do this naturally as we play math games from Mother Goose Time Curriculum. Usually once a month, we get a "Would You Rather" graphing game. This game changes with each new theme. Our theme this month was Winter in the Woods. Each of the students were given a bear counter and were asked to use this on our graphing chart in answer to the question asked.
For example, when asked, "Would you rather be a bear or a mouse?", the students placed their bear counter under the picture of the animal they would rather be. During the first question, the students placed their bears very haphazardly. We took the time to learn how to properly line up the bears in a graphing manner so that it was easy to see which column had more and which had less.
After choices were made, we counted each column and decided which had more, which had less, or if they were equal.
For some, it was easy for them to see that the longer line meant there were more. For others, it was necessary for them to count each column to decide. Some could county visually and some needed to touch each object to count correctly. I observed each child and made notes to asses each of their abilities. This helps me know exactly what to work on with each student. I also compile my findings in each student's portfolio and review it with the parents during our semi-annual conferences.
Another natural math concept we learn with MGT is patterning. Our daily calendar pieces are each adorned with a color and an image. As we place each calendar piece up daily, we begin to form a pattern on our circle time board. Eventually, we are able to see it develop and are able to use it as a teaching method for patterns. The first month of the school year is always a simple AB pattern. You can see this month is a bit more complex: an ABB pattern. Patterning is one of our 4 year old's favorite math skills. We introduce it to our 3 year old's and after a year of preschool, they are spotting patterns everywhere and building on to create more complex pattern designs.
Thanks to MGT, our students are always learning new skills while they explore their environment and are hard at play. To learn more about the curriculum we receive at no cost for our honest opinion of our experience, visit www.mothergoosetime.com. | 560 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stacey E. Williams
Ossie L. Neal
April 8, 2013
On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a city bus in Montgomery, Alabama. This single act of nonviolent resistance sparked the Montgomery bus boycott, an eleven-month struggle to desegregate the city’s buses.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was actually started before the arrest of Rosa Parks. The Women Political Council (WPC), founded in 1946, was a group of black professionals, were already looking into the Jim Crow practices on the Montgomery city buses. They had a meeting with then Mayor W.A. Gayle in March of 1954; they brought forward changes they wanted to see happen with the bus system. Blacks had to stand even if there were seats available on the bus, they paid their fare at the front of the bus and had to get back off and enter through the rear of the bus, the buses did not stop every corner in black neighborhoods as they did the white neighborhoods. This meeting failed to produce any results. Jo Ann Robinson, president of the WPC in a letter to the Mayor, stated that if there were no changes implemented, there would be a city-wide bus boycott of buses.
Claudette Colvin, 15 years old at the time, was arrested a year later for not giving up her seat, seven months later 18 year old Mary Louise Smith was arrested for the same infraction. Although these two young women was standing up for what was right, it took Rosa Parks to get the Boycott under way. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man. December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a 40-year-old black seamstress was on her way home from work when a white passenger got on the bus and did not have anywhere to sit. Rosa along with three other black Americans was sitting in a seat towards the front of the bus. The bus driver told them to move back so the white passenger could sit down, all but Rosa moved. After telling her again to move and her refusal not to move the police was called and Rosa Parks was arrested for “Refusing to obey orders of bus driver”. This was the beginning of a long year for Montgomery Alabama bus companies.
Rosa Parks Police Report
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) played a huge role in trying to stop segregation, they were looking for someone that would be able to stand up to the court system. Prior to Ms. Parks refusing to give up her seat, they had previously attempted this twice without any results. The Montgomery Bus Boycott took place only a few months after the Emmett Till’s murder, Ms. Parks arrest inspired black leaders to launch a one-day bus boycott, Jo Ann Robinson, Women Political Council, and 40,000 people organized the boycott in just two days. On December 5, 1955, the day of Rosa Parks trial, a meeting was held and it was decided then to protest. The next day they passed out flyers in every black elementary, junior high and high school in Montgomery that they were protesting and not to ride the bus today, do it for freedom. Excited that they emptied the buses that day by not riding, the committee met at the Holt Street Baptist Church and voted to keep the protest going, they elected Martin Luther King, Jr, who had no affiliation with the town leaders or other ministers to lead the Montgomery Improvement Association and the boycott.
Protesters support the boycott
Holt Street Baptist Church (the meeting place for the committee) King agreed and he gave a very inspiring speech, in his speech he said that if they were wrong so was the Constitution of the United States. The boycott took full swing and lasted from December 5, 1955 until December 1956. This hurt the bus company, and they suffered economically. During this time violence broke out, bombs were being thrown at the organizer’s homes, the white Citizens Council and the Klu Klux Klan held rallies in support of… | <urn:uuid:c191039f-cfdd-4ddf-99ad-e1689ee33c51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Organizational-Culture-604757.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.983289 | 827 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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Ossie L. Neal
April 8, 2013
On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a city bus in Montgomery, Alabama. This single act of nonviolent resistance sparked the Montgomery bus boycott, an eleven-month struggle to desegregate the city’s buses.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was actually started before the arrest of Rosa Parks. The Women Political Council (WPC), founded in 1946, was a group of black professionals, were already looking into the Jim Crow practices on the Montgomery city buses. They had a meeting with then Mayor W.A. Gayle in March of 1954; they brought forward changes they wanted to see happen with the bus system. Blacks had to stand even if there were seats available on the bus, they paid their fare at the front of the bus and had to get back off and enter through the rear of the bus, the buses did not stop every corner in black neighborhoods as they did the white neighborhoods. This meeting failed to produce any results. Jo Ann Robinson, president of the WPC in a letter to the Mayor, stated that if there were no changes implemented, there would be a city-wide bus boycott of buses.
Claudette Colvin, 15 years old at the time, was arrested a year later for not giving up her seat, seven months later 18 year old Mary Louise Smith was arrested for the same infraction. Although these two young women was standing up for what was right, it took Rosa Parks to get the Boycott under way. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man. December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a 40-year-old black seamstress was on her way home from work when a white passenger got on the bus and did not have anywhere to sit. Rosa along with three other black Americans was sitting in a seat towards the front of the bus. The bus driver told them to move back so the white passenger could sit down, all but Rosa moved. After telling her again to move and her refusal not to move the police was called and Rosa Parks was arrested for “Refusing to obey orders of bus driver”. This was the beginning of a long year for Montgomery Alabama bus companies.
Rosa Parks Police Report
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) played a huge role in trying to stop segregation, they were looking for someone that would be able to stand up to the court system. Prior to Ms. Parks refusing to give up her seat, they had previously attempted this twice without any results. The Montgomery Bus Boycott took place only a few months after the Emmett Till’s murder, Ms. Parks arrest inspired black leaders to launch a one-day bus boycott, Jo Ann Robinson, Women Political Council, and 40,000 people organized the boycott in just two days. On December 5, 1955, the day of Rosa Parks trial, a meeting was held and it was decided then to protest. The next day they passed out flyers in every black elementary, junior high and high school in Montgomery that they were protesting and not to ride the bus today, do it for freedom. Excited that they emptied the buses that day by not riding, the committee met at the Holt Street Baptist Church and voted to keep the protest going, they elected Martin Luther King, Jr, who had no affiliation with the town leaders or other ministers to lead the Montgomery Improvement Association and the boycott.
Protesters support the boycott
Holt Street Baptist Church (the meeting place for the committee) King agreed and he gave a very inspiring speech, in his speech he said that if they were wrong so was the Constitution of the United States. The boycott took full swing and lasted from December 5, 1955 until December 1956. This hurt the bus company, and they suffered economically. During this time violence broke out, bombs were being thrown at the organizer’s homes, the white Citizens Council and the Klu Klux Klan held rallies in support of… | 859 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women were not citizens in Ancient Greece and had limited roles outside the home. In Rome, the same thing took place in the early stages. In the later stages of the republic, women had a much more active role. They were able to own property amongst other things. Here are 10 important women in Ancient Greece & Rome who had influential and memorable roles.
1. Helen of Troy:
A whole war was fought over her for 10 years. She was abducted by the Trojan Prince, which led to the war between the Greeks and the inhabitants of Troy. The war is one of the most written about in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
2. Cleopatra VII:
She was the last pharaoh in Egypt. She was a Greek and part of the Ptolemaic Dynasty who ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. She is quite popular today in art and literature, especially in Shakespearean literature.
The mother of Alexander the Great. She was a feared leader who had a skill for defeating snakes in religious ceremonies. After the death of her son, she became a regent to her grandson. While regent, she tried to seize control of Macedonia.
4. Saint Helena:
She was the Empress Consort of Emperor Constantinus. She is credited for finding the relics of the True Cross. This was the cross that Jesus Christ was “crucified” on according to the Christians.
5. Livia Drusilla:
She was a member of the Claudian family, who was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero until the emperor Augustus forced her to become his wife. She was intelligent and provided administrative help to her husband. She was also active in helping her son, Tiberius in his rule, until her death at age 85.
She was also an essential part of Greek Mythology. The story revolves around a woman who seeks revenge against her betraying husband. Unsuccessfully trying to poison her husband, she flees to Asia where she becomes the Queen of Medes, her own people.
She was a regent for Vabalathus. She rebelled against Aurellian and set herself up as Queen of Palmyra, independently of Rome. She won several battles, however was not triumphant against the Roman legions.
8. Clodia Pulchra:
Mark Antony was her mother’s husband. She is the daughter of Fulvia and Publius Clodius Pulcher. As a gesture of alliance, Fluvia offered Clodia Pulchra to Octavian for marriage. The two married, but did not live happily ever after. Octavian divorced her and the marriage was never consummated.
She was an aristocrat who married 3 powerful men, including Mark Antony. All 3 of her husbands were active and supported Julius Ceasar. During the Perusine War, she fought to help her husband Mark Antony battle his enemy Octavian. Legacy wise, she is the first non-myth person to appear on Roman coins.
She was the mother Gracchi. Her most important role came in the Second Punic War. She was a leading example of virtuous woman. | <urn:uuid:ebe8d40c-a3b4-47e9-80d3-ea2371c81242> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://top-10-list.org/2011/11/10/top-10-women-in-ancient-greece-rome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.988449 | 656 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.446898937... | 11 | Women were not citizens in Ancient Greece and had limited roles outside the home. In Rome, the same thing took place in the early stages. In the later stages of the republic, women had a much more active role. They were able to own property amongst other things. Here are 10 important women in Ancient Greece & Rome who had influential and memorable roles.
1. Helen of Troy:
A whole war was fought over her for 10 years. She was abducted by the Trojan Prince, which led to the war between the Greeks and the inhabitants of Troy. The war is one of the most written about in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
2. Cleopatra VII:
She was the last pharaoh in Egypt. She was a Greek and part of the Ptolemaic Dynasty who ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. She is quite popular today in art and literature, especially in Shakespearean literature.
The mother of Alexander the Great. She was a feared leader who had a skill for defeating snakes in religious ceremonies. After the death of her son, she became a regent to her grandson. While regent, she tried to seize control of Macedonia.
4. Saint Helena:
She was the Empress Consort of Emperor Constantinus. She is credited for finding the relics of the True Cross. This was the cross that Jesus Christ was “crucified” on according to the Christians.
5. Livia Drusilla:
She was a member of the Claudian family, who was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero until the emperor Augustus forced her to become his wife. She was intelligent and provided administrative help to her husband. She was also active in helping her son, Tiberius in his rule, until her death at age 85.
She was also an essential part of Greek Mythology. The story revolves around a woman who seeks revenge against her betraying husband. Unsuccessfully trying to poison her husband, she flees to Asia where she becomes the Queen of Medes, her own people.
She was a regent for Vabalathus. She rebelled against Aurellian and set herself up as Queen of Palmyra, independently of Rome. She won several battles, however was not triumphant against the Roman legions.
8. Clodia Pulchra:
Mark Antony was her mother’s husband. She is the daughter of Fulvia and Publius Clodius Pulcher. As a gesture of alliance, Fluvia offered Clodia Pulchra to Octavian for marriage. The two married, but did not live happily ever after. Octavian divorced her and the marriage was never consummated.
She was an aristocrat who married 3 powerful men, including Mark Antony. All 3 of her husbands were active and supported Julius Ceasar. During the Perusine War, she fought to help her husband Mark Antony battle his enemy Octavian. Legacy wise, she is the first non-myth person to appear on Roman coins.
She was the mother Gracchi. Her most important role came in the Second Punic War. She was a leading example of virtuous woman. | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cogs were single-masted vessels, clinker-built with steep sides and a flat bottom.
Although the name cog is recorded as early as the 9th century,the seagoing vessel of that name seems to have evolved on the Frisian coast during the 12th century. Cogs progressively replaced Viking-type ships in Northern waters during the 13th century. Why this was the case is uncertain but cogs could carry more cargo than a knarrs of a similar size. Their flat bottoms allowed them to settle flat in harbour, making them easier to load and unload. Their high sides made them more difficult to board in a seafight, which may have made them safer from pirates.
Cogs were also used as military transports and warships, fitted with towers fore and aft.
The cog traditionally reached the Mediterranean in 1304. This led to a Mediterranean variant, the cocha. | <urn:uuid:66fbcd83-7d5c-46f8-9307-85234fa14885> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://criwmadog.wordpress.com/2014/01/24/su-mai/comment-page-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.984277 | 186 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3374... | 2 | Cogs were single-masted vessels, clinker-built with steep sides and a flat bottom.
Although the name cog is recorded as early as the 9th century,the seagoing vessel of that name seems to have evolved on the Frisian coast during the 12th century. Cogs progressively replaced Viking-type ships in Northern waters during the 13th century. Why this was the case is uncertain but cogs could carry more cargo than a knarrs of a similar size. Their flat bottoms allowed them to settle flat in harbour, making them easier to load and unload. Their high sides made them more difficult to board in a seafight, which may have made them safer from pirates.
Cogs were also used as military transports and warships, fitted with towers fore and aft.
The cog traditionally reached the Mediterranean in 1304. This led to a Mediterranean variant, the cocha. | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fighting for Freedom and Equality
Most countries in the world have in one way or another experienced a number of war during their process of civilization and development. Though the cause of the war was varied, more harm than god was the end product which saw the economy being affected adversely. The fight for freedom in the United States of America has a long history. But the most memorable and the climax of the fight for their rights is the periods that the United States of America experienced an internal strive. This was called the American civil war. It happened in the year of 1861 where the southern states were against the northern states in agitating for equal representation and respect for human rights. The northerners were mainly agrarian practitioners and were using human beings, especially the African American who were slaves in the production and forced labor on their farms. Since the end of the civil war and the subsequent reconstruction which ushered in new legislation of acts. For instance the thirteenth and fourteenth amendment acts; there has been a spirited and united cry and push agitating for the improved and better conditions by various groups and personalities. Among the prominent people is the like of doctor martin Luther king junior. This paper will thus seek to compare two prominent individuals of that time. It will look at both Lincoln and Marin Luther King, how they shared some similarities and how they were different as well.
From the emancipation act enacted in order to address and try to correct the social ills against the African Americans, who were being used as a source of cheap labor in slavery by the southern states. With the legislation or the enactment of what was called the thirteenth amendment, the slaves believed to have attained freedom. According to them, the Act meant that they were free to move the soil of the American country as they wished; they had a right to civility as any American among other privileges. As time went by there were still some white Americans who were strongly opposed to the reconstruction era that was as a result of the destruction during the civil war. Notably was the organization by the white Americans in the southern states or the confederacy called the Klu Klux Klan. It was founded in 1865 by the Tennessee veterans of the confederate army. Its main purpose for the formation was to restore the supremacy of the white Americans and intimidate the implementation of the reconstruction process. They employed vicious and violent means to scuttle the reconstruction process by use of assaulting the participants, murdering and intimidating the freedmen and the white Americans who were sympathizers of the slaves (Edgy, 2006).
The Klu Klux Klan, also known simply as the Klan, was brought to a halt with the enactment of the forces act by the federal government in the year 1870 and 1871. The Klu Klux Klan was and has been used to suppress the civil rights movement. It considers what the civil rights movement terms the freedom as a misconception and is convinced by the fact that whites are more superior to the African American citizens. Although the enactment of the forces act halted the rate of attacks and intimidation, there was the second formation of the Klu Klux Klan. Their main aim was more of the same; reestablish the whit Americans supremacy. It has been in contention with the ceaseless calls for more involving approach in addressing the injustices and disregard of human rights (Luther,1958).
On the other hand, there is the civil rights movement that has seen the achievements in recognizing the human rights by the relevant authorities. The leaders of the movement had to endure the well coordinated attacks and assaults by the opposing elements for instance the Klu Klux Klan. Although the attacks have been changing from time to time and form to another, they have not managed to halt the agitation for more recognition of the human rights. These are two groups that have been determined and dedicated to their missions however divergent and uncivilized they seem to be. The earlier struggle by the rights movement was mainly aimed at the recognition of all people as the American citizens irrespective of their race, color, origin or gender. It called for the total abolition of the slave practice and the implementation of the thirteenth and fourteenth amendment acts that spelled out for the recognition of other minority groups that were marginalized as legitimate Americans (Ibid).
With the enactment of the fifteenth amendment act, the African Americans were granted the rights to vote. This was not taken kindly by many white Americans who resorted to other forms of restrictions aimed at barring the African Americans the eligibility to vote. Some of the restrictions included the introduction of the poll tax. This was a kind of tax where an individual was expected to pay before being eligible to cast a vote. Most African Americans were not able to pay the tax and thus were locked out of the polling exercise. Another aspect that was used by the oppressors was the literacy tests. This was a legal challenge to render the fifteenth amendment Act ineffective by the opposing states. The challenge did not weigh down on the civil rights proponents but it rather reenergized and made them more committed to the cause of fighting for what they considered as the social ills and malpractices.
The activities Ku Klux Klan were reduced and the rate at which they carried out their atrocities was on the decline. This was a major score and triumph on the part of the civil rights activists and proponents. Although there was a limitation in the Ku Klux Klan activities, the Klan never ceased to exist entirely. There was one event that led to the reorganizing and formation of the second Ku Klux Klan. In the year 1915, there was the release of a film titled: the birth of a nation. In the film, the atrocities that were committed by the initial and the first Ku Klux Klan were highlighted. In the film the atrocities were glorified which was taken as an inspiration that led to the formation of the second Ku Klux Klan (Lawrence, 1959).
The human rights activists and the civil rights movement was not entirely reduced in its operations. In essence, the more the group was attacked the more resolve it chose on the main cause. The architects of the human rights groups have come to pass on but their legacy and what were their visions continues to live and be operational. One of the foremost architects of the recognition of the marginalized group and an end to the slavery was President Abraham Lincoln. At the time he was campaigning for the candidature of the presidential nomination, he raised a very emotive aspect of slavery which he promised to halt. This was to mush dismay by the democratic states in the south that relied heavily on the slaves as a source of cheap and forced labor. When he eventually won the presidential elections later on, the southern states declared their intention to secede from the union. At the same time, the frustration and anger by the slaves had reached a point where there were many escapes and joining the Native Americans in the resistance of the white rule. This led to the civil unrest in American history that has come to be called the American Civil War. The war ended with signing and defeating the southern states in their bid to secede from the union.
President Lincoln will be remembered for his decisions that led to the emancipation and the end of the American Civil War. Although he did not live long enough to ratify and implement his prescriptions, his legacy has been of great inspiration to many activists and leaders of various forums. He risked his life and his political clout for the sake of unity among the federal government and laid the foundation for the formation of right groups. Since the end of the civil war, the Americans have remained with much suspicion and disrespect for one another. This can be based on the color of the skin race or the gender of the person (Donald, 1996).
The spirit with which President Abraham Lincoln stood and defended the rights of fellow Americans that were being marginalized in the society can also be said of the late Dr. Martin Luther king junior. The difference between President Lincoln and Dr. Martin Luther king junior is that while the president based his quest on an end to slavery, Dr. King emphasized on the need for the granting and recognizing of the basic human rights. Although the amendment on the constitution had been made to accommodate and recognize the minority as legitimate citizens, their respective states still did not apply the laws to the later. There were reported claims of segregation in offering of services in public amenities. For instance there special schools that were designated for the whites only. This was never to admit any colored or any member of a marginalized group. Dr. King through his Christian ministries was able to reach a large congregation and lead to a mass movement that was opposed to the oppressions and mistreatment at the hands of the white Americans (Luther, 1958).
The rights that the African American were agitating for was the right to vote among others. Dr. King used to travel around giving sermons I church congregations and gatherings that had the majority membership of the African Americans in attendance. The struggle for the full recognition and application of the amendments still lives on to this moment. There are leaders of the right movements that have stepped in and are using the members in addressing the social imbalances like employment opportunities, fair judicial processes among other basic rights. The fight against the oppression and disregard to the rule of equal human rights will only change for better. The more communities try to suppress the movement and their spirited calls, the more energized the proponents of the rights will become. The rule of equal distribution and consideration can not be applied selectively. Human beings are logical animals and they can not be manipulated the way one wants, they will rebel and turn against you. (Ibid)
In conclusion, these two individuals fought hard for the freedom and embracement of human rights. Each one of them used his own tactics to overcome the vise of oppression and it is thus deserving to say their success was as a result of determination and the focus that they had on what they intended to achieve at the end of the struggle. Fear and inconsistency can not achieve any thing. For one to be successful, factors that enhance achievement namely determination, courage, focus among others should be the pillars for the success. | <urn:uuid:5d6515b0-1f04-408e-842e-7674687fdad9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://premiumqualityessays.com/essays/research/fighting-for-freedom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.983587 | 2,033 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.16841143... | 12 | Fighting for Freedom and Equality
Most countries in the world have in one way or another experienced a number of war during their process of civilization and development. Though the cause of the war was varied, more harm than god was the end product which saw the economy being affected adversely. The fight for freedom in the United States of America has a long history. But the most memorable and the climax of the fight for their rights is the periods that the United States of America experienced an internal strive. This was called the American civil war. It happened in the year of 1861 where the southern states were against the northern states in agitating for equal representation and respect for human rights. The northerners were mainly agrarian practitioners and were using human beings, especially the African American who were slaves in the production and forced labor on their farms. Since the end of the civil war and the subsequent reconstruction which ushered in new legislation of acts. For instance the thirteenth and fourteenth amendment acts; there has been a spirited and united cry and push agitating for the improved and better conditions by various groups and personalities. Among the prominent people is the like of doctor martin Luther king junior. This paper will thus seek to compare two prominent individuals of that time. It will look at both Lincoln and Marin Luther King, how they shared some similarities and how they were different as well.
From the emancipation act enacted in order to address and try to correct the social ills against the African Americans, who were being used as a source of cheap labor in slavery by the southern states. With the legislation or the enactment of what was called the thirteenth amendment, the slaves believed to have attained freedom. According to them, the Act meant that they were free to move the soil of the American country as they wished; they had a right to civility as any American among other privileges. As time went by there were still some white Americans who were strongly opposed to the reconstruction era that was as a result of the destruction during the civil war. Notably was the organization by the white Americans in the southern states or the confederacy called the Klu Klux Klan. It was founded in 1865 by the Tennessee veterans of the confederate army. Its main purpose for the formation was to restore the supremacy of the white Americans and intimidate the implementation of the reconstruction process. They employed vicious and violent means to scuttle the reconstruction process by use of assaulting the participants, murdering and intimidating the freedmen and the white Americans who were sympathizers of the slaves (Edgy, 2006).
The Klu Klux Klan, also known simply as the Klan, was brought to a halt with the enactment of the forces act by the federal government in the year 1870 and 1871. The Klu Klux Klan was and has been used to suppress the civil rights movement. It considers what the civil rights movement terms the freedom as a misconception and is convinced by the fact that whites are more superior to the African American citizens. Although the enactment of the forces act halted the rate of attacks and intimidation, there was the second formation of the Klu Klux Klan. Their main aim was more of the same; reestablish the whit Americans supremacy. It has been in contention with the ceaseless calls for more involving approach in addressing the injustices and disregard of human rights (Luther,1958).
On the other hand, there is the civil rights movement that has seen the achievements in recognizing the human rights by the relevant authorities. The leaders of the movement had to endure the well coordinated attacks and assaults by the opposing elements for instance the Klu Klux Klan. Although the attacks have been changing from time to time and form to another, they have not managed to halt the agitation for more recognition of the human rights. These are two groups that have been determined and dedicated to their missions however divergent and uncivilized they seem to be. The earlier struggle by the rights movement was mainly aimed at the recognition of all people as the American citizens irrespective of their race, color, origin or gender. It called for the total abolition of the slave practice and the implementation of the thirteenth and fourteenth amendment acts that spelled out for the recognition of other minority groups that were marginalized as legitimate Americans (Ibid).
With the enactment of the fifteenth amendment act, the African Americans were granted the rights to vote. This was not taken kindly by many white Americans who resorted to other forms of restrictions aimed at barring the African Americans the eligibility to vote. Some of the restrictions included the introduction of the poll tax. This was a kind of tax where an individual was expected to pay before being eligible to cast a vote. Most African Americans were not able to pay the tax and thus were locked out of the polling exercise. Another aspect that was used by the oppressors was the literacy tests. This was a legal challenge to render the fifteenth amendment Act ineffective by the opposing states. The challenge did not weigh down on the civil rights proponents but it rather reenergized and made them more committed to the cause of fighting for what they considered as the social ills and malpractices.
The activities Ku Klux Klan were reduced and the rate at which they carried out their atrocities was on the decline. This was a major score and triumph on the part of the civil rights activists and proponents. Although there was a limitation in the Ku Klux Klan activities, the Klan never ceased to exist entirely. There was one event that led to the reorganizing and formation of the second Ku Klux Klan. In the year 1915, there was the release of a film titled: the birth of a nation. In the film, the atrocities that were committed by the initial and the first Ku Klux Klan were highlighted. In the film the atrocities were glorified which was taken as an inspiration that led to the formation of the second Ku Klux Klan (Lawrence, 1959).
The human rights activists and the civil rights movement was not entirely reduced in its operations. In essence, the more the group was attacked the more resolve it chose on the main cause. The architects of the human rights groups have come to pass on but their legacy and what were their visions continues to live and be operational. One of the foremost architects of the recognition of the marginalized group and an end to the slavery was President Abraham Lincoln. At the time he was campaigning for the candidature of the presidential nomination, he raised a very emotive aspect of slavery which he promised to halt. This was to mush dismay by the democratic states in the south that relied heavily on the slaves as a source of cheap and forced labor. When he eventually won the presidential elections later on, the southern states declared their intention to secede from the union. At the same time, the frustration and anger by the slaves had reached a point where there were many escapes and joining the Native Americans in the resistance of the white rule. This led to the civil unrest in American history that has come to be called the American Civil War. The war ended with signing and defeating the southern states in their bid to secede from the union.
President Lincoln will be remembered for his decisions that led to the emancipation and the end of the American Civil War. Although he did not live long enough to ratify and implement his prescriptions, his legacy has been of great inspiration to many activists and leaders of various forums. He risked his life and his political clout for the sake of unity among the federal government and laid the foundation for the formation of right groups. Since the end of the civil war, the Americans have remained with much suspicion and disrespect for one another. This can be based on the color of the skin race or the gender of the person (Donald, 1996).
The spirit with which President Abraham Lincoln stood and defended the rights of fellow Americans that were being marginalized in the society can also be said of the late Dr. Martin Luther king junior. The difference between President Lincoln and Dr. Martin Luther king junior is that while the president based his quest on an end to slavery, Dr. King emphasized on the need for the granting and recognizing of the basic human rights. Although the amendment on the constitution had been made to accommodate and recognize the minority as legitimate citizens, their respective states still did not apply the laws to the later. There were reported claims of segregation in offering of services in public amenities. For instance there special schools that were designated for the whites only. This was never to admit any colored or any member of a marginalized group. Dr. King through his Christian ministries was able to reach a large congregation and lead to a mass movement that was opposed to the oppressions and mistreatment at the hands of the white Americans (Luther, 1958).
The rights that the African American were agitating for was the right to vote among others. Dr. King used to travel around giving sermons I church congregations and gatherings that had the majority membership of the African Americans in attendance. The struggle for the full recognition and application of the amendments still lives on to this moment. There are leaders of the right movements that have stepped in and are using the members in addressing the social imbalances like employment opportunities, fair judicial processes among other basic rights. The fight against the oppression and disregard to the rule of equal human rights will only change for better. The more communities try to suppress the movement and their spirited calls, the more energized the proponents of the rights will become. The rule of equal distribution and consideration can not be applied selectively. Human beings are logical animals and they can not be manipulated the way one wants, they will rebel and turn against you. (Ibid)
In conclusion, these two individuals fought hard for the freedom and embracement of human rights. Each one of them used his own tactics to overcome the vise of oppression and it is thus deserving to say their success was as a result of determination and the focus that they had on what they intended to achieve at the end of the struggle. Fear and inconsistency can not achieve any thing. For one to be successful, factors that enhance achievement namely determination, courage, focus among others should be the pillars for the success. | 2,077 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What was the ancient Greeks' concept of citizenship?
- Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer
Citizenship is being touted to have originated in Greece, which originated from the concept of democracy. Greek citizenship, though, was strict. It was granted by birth together with a double affirmation, one by the mother, another by the Assembly member. If the latter opposed it, the infant was killed. 451 BC saw the passing of even stricter citizenship laws, which proposed that offspring between Greek male citizens and foreign women could not become citizens, reason being that this move would help curb the numbers of the exploding population numbers.
Greek philosopher Aristotle defines citizenship as "he who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state." Indeed, the Greeks enjoyed the privilege of being governed by democracy; their government was made up of commoners, and they were allowed freedom of speech to a large extent through public speaking rights. Thus, they were able to participate in the governing of their country by creating their own legislation and judiciary. The limiting of citizenship to selected numbers further made the role of citizens more privileged, with the monopolization of land ownership, sole rights to lease land for mining and the right to defend themselves at law.
- WLv 68 years ago
There was no single concept of citizenship; in Ancient days, the Greeks were made up of hundreds of separate, diverse city-states (not all of which were in what is now modern Greece) each with their own, local customs, culture, and government (though still conscious of their common descent). As such, the Athenian definition of citizenship, would be very different from, say, Sparta's.
For the most part, you had to be an adult male (women had few rights, throughout the Ancient Greek World), and native to your city state (ie, the child of a citizen). As such, most Greeks could be said to have been highly sanguine in their view of citizenship - but, again, this is just a general principle. For instance, Athens occasionally liberalized their citizenship policy; ie, Solon allowed foreigners to gain citizenship if they relocated permanently to Athens. By contrast, Sparta was highly rigid in giving out citizenship, and remained so, throughout its history.
- 8 years ago
Every man who was native to Greece was considered a citizen. Foreigners were usually laborers or slaves, and women were usually responsible for household duties.Source(s): school | <urn:uuid:6670dae7-b5b1-49a9-a019-4615827db3fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120714172451AA2azBP | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.986071 | 499 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.22530020773410... | 1 | What was the ancient Greeks' concept of citizenship?
- Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer
Citizenship is being touted to have originated in Greece, which originated from the concept of democracy. Greek citizenship, though, was strict. It was granted by birth together with a double affirmation, one by the mother, another by the Assembly member. If the latter opposed it, the infant was killed. 451 BC saw the passing of even stricter citizenship laws, which proposed that offspring between Greek male citizens and foreign women could not become citizens, reason being that this move would help curb the numbers of the exploding population numbers.
Greek philosopher Aristotle defines citizenship as "he who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state." Indeed, the Greeks enjoyed the privilege of being governed by democracy; their government was made up of commoners, and they were allowed freedom of speech to a large extent through public speaking rights. Thus, they were able to participate in the governing of their country by creating their own legislation and judiciary. The limiting of citizenship to selected numbers further made the role of citizens more privileged, with the monopolization of land ownership, sole rights to lease land for mining and the right to defend themselves at law.
- WLv 68 years ago
There was no single concept of citizenship; in Ancient days, the Greeks were made up of hundreds of separate, diverse city-states (not all of which were in what is now modern Greece) each with their own, local customs, culture, and government (though still conscious of their common descent). As such, the Athenian definition of citizenship, would be very different from, say, Sparta's.
For the most part, you had to be an adult male (women had few rights, throughout the Ancient Greek World), and native to your city state (ie, the child of a citizen). As such, most Greeks could be said to have been highly sanguine in their view of citizenship - but, again, this is just a general principle. For instance, Athens occasionally liberalized their citizenship policy; ie, Solon allowed foreigners to gain citizenship if they relocated permanently to Athens. By contrast, Sparta was highly rigid in giving out citizenship, and remained so, throughout its history.
- 8 years ago
Every man who was native to Greece was considered a citizen. Foreigners were usually laborers or slaves, and women were usually responsible for household duties.Source(s): school | 498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australian prisoners were sent to Sandakan in 1942 to build an airstrip. At first they were treated reasonably well. Gradually, however, rations were reduced and bashings increased.
By late 1944, with Allied forces advancing toward Borneo, the Japanese decided to send about 2,000 Australian and British prisoners westward to Ranau, in Borneo’s rugged interior. Weak and sick prisoners staggered for about 260 kilometres along jungle tracks. Many died on the way, their bodies never recovered. Those unable to continue were killed; those too weak to march had been left behind in Sandakan, where all died or were killed. Only six – all Australians – out of about a thousand sent to Ranau survived the war.
The Sandakan “death march” remains the greatest single atrocity committed against Australians in war. | <urn:uuid:2622d09a-46a9-49ea-b9c9-dc11e370c77e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.awm.gov.au/visit/exhibitions/stolenyears/ww2/japan/sandakan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.987019 | 175 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0... | 4 | Australian prisoners were sent to Sandakan in 1942 to build an airstrip. At first they were treated reasonably well. Gradually, however, rations were reduced and bashings increased.
By late 1944, with Allied forces advancing toward Borneo, the Japanese decided to send about 2,000 Australian and British prisoners westward to Ranau, in Borneo’s rugged interior. Weak and sick prisoners staggered for about 260 kilometres along jungle tracks. Many died on the way, their bodies never recovered. Those unable to continue were killed; those too weak to march had been left behind in Sandakan, where all died or were killed. Only six – all Australians – out of about a thousand sent to Ranau survived the war.
The Sandakan “death march” remains the greatest single atrocity committed against Australians in war. | 182 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Portuguese are recorded as the first Europeans to reach the shores of Africa and completely explore the new world they had found.
After several readings and findings, it can be said that the Portuguese first arrived in Africa in 1413 landing in Morocco and immediately capturing the city of Ceuta and other Moroccan cities till the 1440’s. Since 1414 it took close to 30 years for the Portuguese to sail southwards and reach West Africa.
Although they had established trading contacts with West Africa through Arab middlemen, the Portuguese officially landed southwards in 1442 after reaching Senegal. They then explored further reaching Ghana, Ivory Coast and other parts of Sub Saharan Africa.
More about this
It took a few more years for the Portuguese to find themselves in Cameroon but when they did, they were immediately met by the Duala people along the coast in 1472. To date, the Duala are recorded as the first Cameroonians to gain contact with the Portuguese giving reason to their dominance over many of the ethnic communities in Cameroon. But the same people to welcome the westerners with open arms and accept their way of life are the same to give them a hard time during colonisation and help drive them out of Cameroon in the long run.
The Duala settled in the lands of what is now known as Cameroon surrounding the Wouri River where they quickly established strong trading and fishing communities. They were not the first tribe to settle in the area. They met other well-established tribes such as the Bakoko and Bassa who they drove out of the lands when they arrived. Today, many tribes speak the Duala dialect and have adapted to the Duala culture.
According to oral history, the Duala people originally come from Bakota which is now parts of Gabon and Republic of Congo. They broke away during disputes in the land and headed north reaching the Wouri river and settled there.
By the 14th century, the Duala had established themselves as traders, fishermen and slave capturers through invasions and small wars. They made slaves work on their vast plantations or sold them off to new owners in the areas of Fernando Po and São Tomé where they worked on cocoa and large-scale grain plantations. Through their dominance, the Duala were the only ethnic group that could trade in slaves.
In 1472, the Portuguese reached the Wouri areas and were welcomed by the inhabitants. The Portuguese described the Duala people as a hardworking fishing and farming community that was prosperous thanks to its industrious inhabitants. In no time, the Portuguese and the Duala established favourable trading connections.
By the 16th century, the Duala were the most powerful and dominant traders in Central-West Africa. Dutch, German and British traders had by then also established strong trading networks with the Duala people and supported their chiefs by giving them protection for possible invasion by other envious settlements.
The Duala trading businesses with the West made Cameroon a competitive land to capture by the Europeans. By the 18th century, the British had gained trading dominance with the Duala but in 1884, the Germans gained ownership of the land by colonising it until they were defeated in the World War 1.
The arrival of the Germans slowed down the trade for the Duala, but they were highly educated and smart in the trading business that they gave the Germans a hard time controlling them. Duala became an important commercial area in the whole of West and Central Africa. In 1914, the highly educated and prominent leader of the Duala people, Rudolf Manga Bel, was executed by the Germans together with other people for resisting and rebelling against German rule but this did not stop the Duala people from resisting colonisation.
In 1916, Cameroon was divided between the British and French with the French taking ownership of Duala, but the Duala people resisted being colonized and opposed the French colony. In December 1926, the Duala demanded their independence through four chiefs who sent a petition to the League of Nations.
The petition was unheard but it spurred the Duala people on to fight the French for their land and trading rights that had been stripped away from them. Again, in 1937, the French expelled the Duala from their lands and parts of the Akwa lands, but the Duala proved stubborn and stayed demanding the French give them what was rightfully theirs.
Through their education and enlightenment, the Duala were hard to control and fought for all their land and wealth that had been taken by the colonial rulers. With their influence and wealth, they supported various political parties and played very important roles in the independence of Cameroon.
Today the Duala tribe is still a very prominent and respected tribe in Cameroon with the highest rate of education and business leaders. Douala is also a name of one of Cameroon most illustrious coastal cities and the biggest city in Cameroon.
The Duala people have over the years shown dominance and are one of the few ethnic groups that gave the Europeans a hard time after being the first to welcome them into their lands. | <urn:uuid:c6a1a7c1-c4d3-46f5-aaa9-5fcd41d54f4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/the-dominant-and-resilient-duala-tribe-of-cameroon-that-fought-colonizers-after-a-warm-welcome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.984321 | 1,017 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.268168389797210... | 3 | The Portuguese are recorded as the first Europeans to reach the shores of Africa and completely explore the new world they had found.
After several readings and findings, it can be said that the Portuguese first arrived in Africa in 1413 landing in Morocco and immediately capturing the city of Ceuta and other Moroccan cities till the 1440’s. Since 1414 it took close to 30 years for the Portuguese to sail southwards and reach West Africa.
Although they had established trading contacts with West Africa through Arab middlemen, the Portuguese officially landed southwards in 1442 after reaching Senegal. They then explored further reaching Ghana, Ivory Coast and other parts of Sub Saharan Africa.
More about this
It took a few more years for the Portuguese to find themselves in Cameroon but when they did, they were immediately met by the Duala people along the coast in 1472. To date, the Duala are recorded as the first Cameroonians to gain contact with the Portuguese giving reason to their dominance over many of the ethnic communities in Cameroon. But the same people to welcome the westerners with open arms and accept their way of life are the same to give them a hard time during colonisation and help drive them out of Cameroon in the long run.
The Duala settled in the lands of what is now known as Cameroon surrounding the Wouri River where they quickly established strong trading and fishing communities. They were not the first tribe to settle in the area. They met other well-established tribes such as the Bakoko and Bassa who they drove out of the lands when they arrived. Today, many tribes speak the Duala dialect and have adapted to the Duala culture.
According to oral history, the Duala people originally come from Bakota which is now parts of Gabon and Republic of Congo. They broke away during disputes in the land and headed north reaching the Wouri river and settled there.
By the 14th century, the Duala had established themselves as traders, fishermen and slave capturers through invasions and small wars. They made slaves work on their vast plantations or sold them off to new owners in the areas of Fernando Po and São Tomé where they worked on cocoa and large-scale grain plantations. Through their dominance, the Duala were the only ethnic group that could trade in slaves.
In 1472, the Portuguese reached the Wouri areas and were welcomed by the inhabitants. The Portuguese described the Duala people as a hardworking fishing and farming community that was prosperous thanks to its industrious inhabitants. In no time, the Portuguese and the Duala established favourable trading connections.
By the 16th century, the Duala were the most powerful and dominant traders in Central-West Africa. Dutch, German and British traders had by then also established strong trading networks with the Duala people and supported their chiefs by giving them protection for possible invasion by other envious settlements.
The Duala trading businesses with the West made Cameroon a competitive land to capture by the Europeans. By the 18th century, the British had gained trading dominance with the Duala but in 1884, the Germans gained ownership of the land by colonising it until they were defeated in the World War 1.
The arrival of the Germans slowed down the trade for the Duala, but they were highly educated and smart in the trading business that they gave the Germans a hard time controlling them. Duala became an important commercial area in the whole of West and Central Africa. In 1914, the highly educated and prominent leader of the Duala people, Rudolf Manga Bel, was executed by the Germans together with other people for resisting and rebelling against German rule but this did not stop the Duala people from resisting colonisation.
In 1916, Cameroon was divided between the British and French with the French taking ownership of Duala, but the Duala people resisted being colonized and opposed the French colony. In December 1926, the Duala demanded their independence through four chiefs who sent a petition to the League of Nations.
The petition was unheard but it spurred the Duala people on to fight the French for their land and trading rights that had been stripped away from them. Again, in 1937, the French expelled the Duala from their lands and parts of the Akwa lands, but the Duala proved stubborn and stayed demanding the French give them what was rightfully theirs.
Through their education and enlightenment, the Duala were hard to control and fought for all their land and wealth that had been taken by the colonial rulers. With their influence and wealth, they supported various political parties and played very important roles in the independence of Cameroon.
Today the Duala tribe is still a very prominent and respected tribe in Cameroon with the highest rate of education and business leaders. Douala is also a name of one of Cameroon most illustrious coastal cities and the biggest city in Cameroon.
The Duala people have over the years shown dominance and are one of the few ethnic groups that gave the Europeans a hard time after being the first to welcome them into their lands. | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the 1960s interest in passenger rail travel was declining rapidly with the general public. The United Aircraft Corporation saw a potential market to develop a new train to lure patrons back to the rails (such as had been done in the 1930s with Burlington's Zephyr and Union Pacific's M-10000) and came up with the TurboTrain, a high speed gas turbine design that could zip along well over 100 mph with early tilting technology. It first hit the rails in the late 1960s with testing done in the northeast. At the same time the new streamliner was operating in the United States it was also being tried in Canada on the VIA Rail system. The train's cruising speed was quite impressive but it also showcased serious flaws, particularly with its tilting mechanism and never saw widespread use. After the creation of Amtrak the trainsets survived for nearly a decade before being removed from the property with Canada's surviving a few years longer. All were ultimately scrapped.
The UAC TurboTrain was unique for two primary reasons; its ability to tilt along with the aircraft engine that was used as a prime mover. During the 1960s railroads were becoming increasingly disinterested in operating passenger trains. By contrast, the public was far more interested in the increasingly more efficient automobile along with new interstates currently under construction at the time. With sales declining and expenses climbing the industry simply wanted out of the passenger business. However, a few efforts were put forth by various companies for a second renaissance to regain public interest in rail travel (which was also spurred by the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 in the United States as well as with Canadian National). One came from the United Aircraft Corporation which looked to develop a high speed, lightweight trainset based on tilting technology that dated back to the 1950s and developed by the Spanish company Talgo.
The UAC's design, though, would be based from work that the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway had been testing with tilting by having power cars on each end with cars in between. Since the trainsets would be semi-permanently coupled and not meant to be used in any type of interchange they used common trucks (one truck which attached to each end of the car) similar to the early streamliners (this setup is now quite common for all high speed trainsets). For power the TurboTrain utilized a turboprop aircraft engine, the PT6, modified for use in rail service, developed by the Pratt & Whitney Canada, a division of the UAC's Pratt & Whitney company based in East Hartford, Connecticut (the company remains a highly respected and reputable manufacturer of aircraft engines and other systems).
At the time the engine was actually quite new, developed only in the early 1960s. For railroad use the prime mover could produce about 400 horsepower, which one placed in each power car. The U.S. trainsets were designed with two power cars and three coaches with Canadian trainsets featured five coaches. In both countries the TurboTrain debuted in 1968 and could operate at speeds of up to 160 mph although generally they did not top 120 mph while in regular service. For a gas-turbine design the trainsets still holds the world speed record of nearly 171 mph (this was accomplished using just two power cars and a single coach), which was accomplished in December, 1967 along the Pennsylvania Railroad's main line in New Jersey, a year before the streamliner went into service. The carbody of the train was somewhat unique although rather large and bulbous for rail service.
In truth it looked quite similar to an airliner with a large lead nose, turret cab, and a body that took the shape of an aircraft's fuselage. Unfortunately, the train's tilting mechanism was a constant maintenance headache and the price tag was simply not in anyone's budget, at least for serious consideration in regular use. In the United States the federal government tested two trainsets, numbered DOT1 and DOT2, which were built by the Pullman Company during its final years constructing cars for the industry (in Canada, the trainsets were built by the Montreal Locomotive Works, an Alco subsidiary). The two sets were acquired by the New Haven Railroad during early 1968 and put into regular service between Boston and New York City
After the Penn Central merger on February 1 of that year they retained their original routing and were then acquired by Amtrak on May 1, 1971 when the national passenger carrier began services on that date. Under Amtrak ownership they were given an all white livery with blue and red pinstripes and continued to be used until 1972 when they were finally retired altogether. Interestingly, they remained on Amtrak's roster until 1980 when they were sold for scrap. The six sets used in Canada by VIA and CN survived until 1982 when they too were scrapped. Amtrak continued to experiment with various high speed train concepts during the 1970s, the most notable and successful of which was the Turboliner built by a French company that continued to see use until the early 2000s.
This was discontinued when conflicts with New York state forced the remaining
trainsets into retirement (interestingly, it was meant to be overhauled
and returned to service).
For the most part, however, Amtrak's testing during the 1970s proved rather futile. With limited funding
and a railroad network that was simply too antiquated to operate high
speed trains that were becoming common in European countries such as
France and Germany there was little chance of any such technology being
used in the United States. Today, aside from the Acela Express
trainsets, Amtrak still has no type of high speed rail service available
to the traveling public. | <urn:uuid:8e729546-5440-4756-807d-e2683ad2a03f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.american-rails.com/turbo.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.987007 | 1,146 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.04790009930729866... | 6 | By the 1960s interest in passenger rail travel was declining rapidly with the general public. The United Aircraft Corporation saw a potential market to develop a new train to lure patrons back to the rails (such as had been done in the 1930s with Burlington's Zephyr and Union Pacific's M-10000) and came up with the TurboTrain, a high speed gas turbine design that could zip along well over 100 mph with early tilting technology. It first hit the rails in the late 1960s with testing done in the northeast. At the same time the new streamliner was operating in the United States it was also being tried in Canada on the VIA Rail system. The train's cruising speed was quite impressive but it also showcased serious flaws, particularly with its tilting mechanism and never saw widespread use. After the creation of Amtrak the trainsets survived for nearly a decade before being removed from the property with Canada's surviving a few years longer. All were ultimately scrapped.
The UAC TurboTrain was unique for two primary reasons; its ability to tilt along with the aircraft engine that was used as a prime mover. During the 1960s railroads were becoming increasingly disinterested in operating passenger trains. By contrast, the public was far more interested in the increasingly more efficient automobile along with new interstates currently under construction at the time. With sales declining and expenses climbing the industry simply wanted out of the passenger business. However, a few efforts were put forth by various companies for a second renaissance to regain public interest in rail travel (which was also spurred by the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 in the United States as well as with Canadian National). One came from the United Aircraft Corporation which looked to develop a high speed, lightweight trainset based on tilting technology that dated back to the 1950s and developed by the Spanish company Talgo.
The UAC's design, though, would be based from work that the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway had been testing with tilting by having power cars on each end with cars in between. Since the trainsets would be semi-permanently coupled and not meant to be used in any type of interchange they used common trucks (one truck which attached to each end of the car) similar to the early streamliners (this setup is now quite common for all high speed trainsets). For power the TurboTrain utilized a turboprop aircraft engine, the PT6, modified for use in rail service, developed by the Pratt & Whitney Canada, a division of the UAC's Pratt & Whitney company based in East Hartford, Connecticut (the company remains a highly respected and reputable manufacturer of aircraft engines and other systems).
At the time the engine was actually quite new, developed only in the early 1960s. For railroad use the prime mover could produce about 400 horsepower, which one placed in each power car. The U.S. trainsets were designed with two power cars and three coaches with Canadian trainsets featured five coaches. In both countries the TurboTrain debuted in 1968 and could operate at speeds of up to 160 mph although generally they did not top 120 mph while in regular service. For a gas-turbine design the trainsets still holds the world speed record of nearly 171 mph (this was accomplished using just two power cars and a single coach), which was accomplished in December, 1967 along the Pennsylvania Railroad's main line in New Jersey, a year before the streamliner went into service. The carbody of the train was somewhat unique although rather large and bulbous for rail service.
In truth it looked quite similar to an airliner with a large lead nose, turret cab, and a body that took the shape of an aircraft's fuselage. Unfortunately, the train's tilting mechanism was a constant maintenance headache and the price tag was simply not in anyone's budget, at least for serious consideration in regular use. In the United States the federal government tested two trainsets, numbered DOT1 and DOT2, which were built by the Pullman Company during its final years constructing cars for the industry (in Canada, the trainsets were built by the Montreal Locomotive Works, an Alco subsidiary). The two sets were acquired by the New Haven Railroad during early 1968 and put into regular service between Boston and New York City
After the Penn Central merger on February 1 of that year they retained their original routing and were then acquired by Amtrak on May 1, 1971 when the national passenger carrier began services on that date. Under Amtrak ownership they were given an all white livery with blue and red pinstripes and continued to be used until 1972 when they were finally retired altogether. Interestingly, they remained on Amtrak's roster until 1980 when they were sold for scrap. The six sets used in Canada by VIA and CN survived until 1982 when they too were scrapped. Amtrak continued to experiment with various high speed train concepts during the 1970s, the most notable and successful of which was the Turboliner built by a French company that continued to see use until the early 2000s.
This was discontinued when conflicts with New York state forced the remaining
trainsets into retirement (interestingly, it was meant to be overhauled
and returned to service).
For the most part, however, Amtrak's testing during the 1970s proved rather futile. With limited funding
and a railroad network that was simply too antiquated to operate high
speed trains that were becoming common in European countries such as
France and Germany there was little chance of any such technology being
used in the United States. Today, aside from the Acela Express
trainsets, Amtrak still has no type of high speed rail service available
to the traveling public. | 1,233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ball from the Klerksdorp Museum16099x 04. 11. 2013 1 Reader
These perfect small spheres were found by miners at Wonderstone Silver Minerals in Ottosdal (South Africa). There were more than 200 small balls found here. Each has a diameter from 1 to 4 cm.
The spheres are made of a nickel-steel alloy that naturally does not occur naturally on Earth. According to the surrounding layers in which the objects were found, spheres are dated to more than 3 billion years.
Some spheres have a very thin shell, and if one breaks, there's something like a sponge-like material inside, but it quickly breaks into dust in the air.
The ball is held by Roelf Marx, curator of the South African Klerksdorp Museum, and is a great mystery to him. No one knows how the bike was made or where its origin is.
Some of the balls had the curator reevaluated at NASA to verify that they were created with an accuracy that can only be achieved in a stateless state.
There are witnesses who saw spheres spontaneously rotate in the showcase - including the curator himself. (Let's recall a similar case with the statue of the Egyptian god Osiris.) | <urn:uuid:2c84a624-18d7-43c9-b8ee-2630eefd344a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.suenee.cz/koule-z-klerksdorpskeho-muzea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.981458 | 251 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3117960691452026... | 1 | The ball from the Klerksdorp Museum16099x 04. 11. 2013 1 Reader
These perfect small spheres were found by miners at Wonderstone Silver Minerals in Ottosdal (South Africa). There were more than 200 small balls found here. Each has a diameter from 1 to 4 cm.
The spheres are made of a nickel-steel alloy that naturally does not occur naturally on Earth. According to the surrounding layers in which the objects were found, spheres are dated to more than 3 billion years.
Some spheres have a very thin shell, and if one breaks, there's something like a sponge-like material inside, but it quickly breaks into dust in the air.
The ball is held by Roelf Marx, curator of the South African Klerksdorp Museum, and is a great mystery to him. No one knows how the bike was made or where its origin is.
Some of the balls had the curator reevaluated at NASA to verify that they were created with an accuracy that can only be achieved in a stateless state.
There are witnesses who saw spheres spontaneously rotate in the showcase - including the curator himself. (Let's recall a similar case with the statue of the Egyptian god Osiris.) | 263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first time I came across the term ‘Gullah’, I had just started researching my Grandfather, Thomas Decker. It was roughly 12 years ago and all I knew then about Grandpa Tommy was that he was a famous writer and playwright, better known for translating Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar into our native language, Krio. I hadn’t been aware of the extent of Grandpa’s writings. I grew up with a book of his called “Tales of the Forest”, which were Sierra Leonean folktales but that was just about it.
It was one of the first search results that came up that year in 2005, after I conducted a quick search in google for ‘Thomas Decker + Krio’. The link took me to a pdf article written by Joseph Opala, archived on the website of Yale University’s Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition. The context of the article was about the connection between Sierra Leone and Gullah and Opala set out to draw linguistic similarities, using a short story written by South Carolina native, Ambrose Gonzales called “De Fox en de Crow”. I learned there, that Grandpa Tommy had developed a system for writing Krio around the 1930s, which Opala used in the article to translate the Gullah story.
After coming across the article, I wanted to know more about the Gullahs. I was stunned to learn that there was an African American community in the U.S. that had preserved much of their African heritage for over 250 years. The Gullahs primarily descend from enslaved West and Central Africans of the transatlantic slave trade. Many of them were brought into the Americas through South Carolina in the 1700s, from the “Rice Coast” of West Africa, including places like Sierra Leone, Angola, Gambia, and Senegal. The demand for these specifically skilled Africans was inextricably linked to the increase in demand for rice, which like cotton, had become a dominant commodity during the trade, particularly for South Carolina and Georgia. As the years went by plantation owners and other whites abandoned the lowlands and sea islands but many blacks stayed and continued to live isolated across the lowlands of coastal South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Florida. During the Civil War, many of these folks were some of the first to be set free in the south, and several free communities were formed. These communities continued to thrive for centuries and a creole heritage was formed with much of their African language, food, and culture still in tact.
Similarly back across the Atlantic, in Sierra Leone, during the time Gullah communities were being formed, another creole heritage was emerging, known as the Krio (Creole). While the Gullah was formed from Africans crossing the Atlantic into the Americas, Krios were formed by African Americans who had been freed and chose to go back to West Africa and form their free community there, called Freetown. They were joined by Jamaican Maroons as well as freed West and Central Africans who were liberated on the ships meant to carry them to slavery in the Americas. Making it only halfway through the middle-passage as slaves, before taken to Freetown as freemen and women, many of these ‘Liberated Africans’ were also from places like Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, and other areas in the West African region. Each group brought with them their original languages, food, and culture, ultimately mixing together with the earlier African American and Maroon setlers to form the Sierra Leone Creole people. Like the Gullah language, the Krio language was largely influenced by the various ancestral tongues of its people. Language would certainly be a key element for anyone seeking to understanding the origins of these communities.
Around the 1930s, a North Carolina native and African American, Lorenzo Dow Turner had just finished his tenure as Head of the English Department at Howard. He had set his sights towards developing the African Studies department at Fisk University, where he was also serving as Head of its English Department. He took a linguistic focus on the Gullah and delved into all aspects of the African connections to the language for the next several decades. In the mid to late 1930s he traveled to London, then Paris, and in the 1940s to Brazil. He conducted numerous interviews and learned several African languages all in the effort to uncover African linguistic influences in the Gullah language. After becoming Professor of English at the Roosevelt College in Chicago in 1946, a predominantly white college, he went on to publish his classic, “Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect”. This book became one of the most groundbreaking publications in American linguistic studies, changing the ways Academics approached African American speech. In the early 1950s, Turner decided to travel across West Africa, conducting fieldwork and interviews with some of its inhabitants, including some of its most prolific linguists.
By the late 1930s, Sierra Leonean, Thomas Decker, had already developed his own system for writing Krio. At that time there was no official orthography for the language and it was still regarded as simply an imperfect form of English. Decker, who was then a Journalist for the Sierra Leone Daily Guardian, began to challenge the idea that Krio was not a unique language, by writing several literary pieces in the language. Sierra Leone at the time had been colonized by the British since the early 19th Century and much of its elite and intellectual populace had largely conformed to British standards. He and others with similar objectives, faced a daunting task to not only having Krio recognized as an official language by the colonial British but also in convincing the native speakers themselves that their language was as unique to their identity as their heritage. In one of his pieces, “Boss Coker befo St. Peter”, written in 1939, he challenged the native speakers of the language who still regarded krio as simply a type of patois or broken English. Decker was determined to prove that the Krio language, which at this time was now filled with African words brought in by the Liberated Africans, was no longer a broken English but a language in its own right.
Throughout all these years of research, I never really drew any tangible connections between Grandpa and Gullah, beyond the mere reference to his writing system by Opala. Late last year, during a random search, I wanted to see if there were any records held in the Library of Congress or similar institutions in Maryland, of Grandpa’s writings, especially his articles in old Sierra Leonean newspapers. I found several archived issues of the Daily Guardian at the Library of Congress, and was excited during my visit there, going through some of his articles, reading his thoughts in his own words. What became a stunning discovery for me last year however, was another unique search result in Google I came across, this time having both Decker and Turner’s name in the description. Wondering what it was all about, I was completely surprised to learn that not only had Lorenzo Turner visited Sierra Leone during his fieldwork in West Africa in the 1950s, Grandpa Tommy happened to be one of the individuals he intereviewed. I sat there totally amazed at the fact that over 60 years ago, Grandpa had also come to know of the Gullahs, and from no other than Turner himself, who many have considered to be the ‘Father of Gullah Studies’.
Part of the description of the record holding at the Smithsonian collection reads:
Turner was not only able to capture the underlining social, political, and economic issues occurring in West Africa but interview one of the most influential African linguists in Sierra Leone: Thomas Leighton Decker. In interviewing Decker and other informants, Turner was able to discover and examine the linguistic components of the Krio language, a language that is today spoken by more than 90% of the population of Sierra Leone. In his field notebook, Dr. Turner compiled notes relating to syntax, morphology, and semantic structures as well as the etymology of words and phrases most commonly associated with Krio speaking people.
It was pure affirmation for me, that my interest in the Gullah did not spring from air, but I had found traces of it going back to my Grandfather, who had passed long before I was born. While I know that Grandpa was very much in tune with the English and Creole languages, as well as the plight of the ‘Negro-at-large’, I had limited his scope of thought to that of Britain and British West Africa. Little did I know that he had been way more acquainted with the African American culture than I imagined. His interest, while conversing with Turner about American American speech, must have made him even more inquisitive about not only the nature of Krio but its origins beyond the Atlantic.
Turner returned to the US after his research and continued as Chairman of the African Studies at Roosevelt College until the late 1960s. Much of his work not only helped to change the view that Gullah was simply a ‘broken English’, but the broader scope of his linguistic studies helped to foster in new insights into African American speech studies and culture for university curriculum. He later went on to publish “The Krio Language of the Sierra Leone” in 1963 and “Krio Texts: With Grammatical Notes and Translation in English” in 1965.
In 1961, Grandpa became the Chief Information Officer during the inaugural year of Sierra Leone’s Independence. He later went on to serve in the Civil Service as Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the first Sierra Leonean to serve in the position. In 1964, Grandpa translated Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar into Krio. Considered to be his most reputable work, he set out to prove that anything written in English, can be written in Krio. About 2 years later in 1966, he also translated Shakespeare’s “As You Like It” into Krio.
I don’t imagine Turner and Decker ever crossed paths again. Certainly their paths were different. One traveled the world of his literary scope, seeing and hearing in-person the many voices and cultures creolized by the transatlantic trade. The other, honing in on one of them, directed all of his faculties to defend its authenticity. Both shared a vision, that seemingly only language could clearly articulate. They defended uniqueness and originality, where so much of the black cultural identity had been reshuffled by forced migrations, displacements, and the emergence of new cultures. They set out to fill the vacuums of language, that would have been left in limbo, as just another part of us that becomes mis-characterized by others as imperfections.
Before I came across the connection between Decker and Turner last year, I had already developed a personal bond with a few members of the Gullah community over the last 10 years. I had traveled to the sea islands in South Carolina twice and marched with the Gullahs during their annual festival. I had come to learn about the story of a Sierra Leonean Mende song that survived in a Gullah family for over 2 centuries, and even had the pleasure of meeting one of the family members a few times. I purchased Turner’s book a few years ago and learned of connections other than the Krio language between the Gullah and Sierra Leone. There were Mende songs carried through generations in the Gullah community, such as the one sung by Amelia Dawley, Lavinia Quarterman, and Emma Hall. Temne names like Alfaba, Kanu, and Kaya survived centuries among native Gullahs. | <urn:uuid:9efcff4d-da75-4d4c-95a3-40e6993dc206> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fambultik.com/blog/west-africans-heritage-journey-what-language-you-speak | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.986222 | 2,413 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1925524473... | 2 | The first time I came across the term ‘Gullah’, I had just started researching my Grandfather, Thomas Decker. It was roughly 12 years ago and all I knew then about Grandpa Tommy was that he was a famous writer and playwright, better known for translating Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar into our native language, Krio. I hadn’t been aware of the extent of Grandpa’s writings. I grew up with a book of his called “Tales of the Forest”, which were Sierra Leonean folktales but that was just about it.
It was one of the first search results that came up that year in 2005, after I conducted a quick search in google for ‘Thomas Decker + Krio’. The link took me to a pdf article written by Joseph Opala, archived on the website of Yale University’s Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition. The context of the article was about the connection between Sierra Leone and Gullah and Opala set out to draw linguistic similarities, using a short story written by South Carolina native, Ambrose Gonzales called “De Fox en de Crow”. I learned there, that Grandpa Tommy had developed a system for writing Krio around the 1930s, which Opala used in the article to translate the Gullah story.
After coming across the article, I wanted to know more about the Gullahs. I was stunned to learn that there was an African American community in the U.S. that had preserved much of their African heritage for over 250 years. The Gullahs primarily descend from enslaved West and Central Africans of the transatlantic slave trade. Many of them were brought into the Americas through South Carolina in the 1700s, from the “Rice Coast” of West Africa, including places like Sierra Leone, Angola, Gambia, and Senegal. The demand for these specifically skilled Africans was inextricably linked to the increase in demand for rice, which like cotton, had become a dominant commodity during the trade, particularly for South Carolina and Georgia. As the years went by plantation owners and other whites abandoned the lowlands and sea islands but many blacks stayed and continued to live isolated across the lowlands of coastal South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Florida. During the Civil War, many of these folks were some of the first to be set free in the south, and several free communities were formed. These communities continued to thrive for centuries and a creole heritage was formed with much of their African language, food, and culture still in tact.
Similarly back across the Atlantic, in Sierra Leone, during the time Gullah communities were being formed, another creole heritage was emerging, known as the Krio (Creole). While the Gullah was formed from Africans crossing the Atlantic into the Americas, Krios were formed by African Americans who had been freed and chose to go back to West Africa and form their free community there, called Freetown. They were joined by Jamaican Maroons as well as freed West and Central Africans who were liberated on the ships meant to carry them to slavery in the Americas. Making it only halfway through the middle-passage as slaves, before taken to Freetown as freemen and women, many of these ‘Liberated Africans’ were also from places like Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, and other areas in the West African region. Each group brought with them their original languages, food, and culture, ultimately mixing together with the earlier African American and Maroon setlers to form the Sierra Leone Creole people. Like the Gullah language, the Krio language was largely influenced by the various ancestral tongues of its people. Language would certainly be a key element for anyone seeking to understanding the origins of these communities.
Around the 1930s, a North Carolina native and African American, Lorenzo Dow Turner had just finished his tenure as Head of the English Department at Howard. He had set his sights towards developing the African Studies department at Fisk University, where he was also serving as Head of its English Department. He took a linguistic focus on the Gullah and delved into all aspects of the African connections to the language for the next several decades. In the mid to late 1930s he traveled to London, then Paris, and in the 1940s to Brazil. He conducted numerous interviews and learned several African languages all in the effort to uncover African linguistic influences in the Gullah language. After becoming Professor of English at the Roosevelt College in Chicago in 1946, a predominantly white college, he went on to publish his classic, “Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect”. This book became one of the most groundbreaking publications in American linguistic studies, changing the ways Academics approached African American speech. In the early 1950s, Turner decided to travel across West Africa, conducting fieldwork and interviews with some of its inhabitants, including some of its most prolific linguists.
By the late 1930s, Sierra Leonean, Thomas Decker, had already developed his own system for writing Krio. At that time there was no official orthography for the language and it was still regarded as simply an imperfect form of English. Decker, who was then a Journalist for the Sierra Leone Daily Guardian, began to challenge the idea that Krio was not a unique language, by writing several literary pieces in the language. Sierra Leone at the time had been colonized by the British since the early 19th Century and much of its elite and intellectual populace had largely conformed to British standards. He and others with similar objectives, faced a daunting task to not only having Krio recognized as an official language by the colonial British but also in convincing the native speakers themselves that their language was as unique to their identity as their heritage. In one of his pieces, “Boss Coker befo St. Peter”, written in 1939, he challenged the native speakers of the language who still regarded krio as simply a type of patois or broken English. Decker was determined to prove that the Krio language, which at this time was now filled with African words brought in by the Liberated Africans, was no longer a broken English but a language in its own right.
Throughout all these years of research, I never really drew any tangible connections between Grandpa and Gullah, beyond the mere reference to his writing system by Opala. Late last year, during a random search, I wanted to see if there were any records held in the Library of Congress or similar institutions in Maryland, of Grandpa’s writings, especially his articles in old Sierra Leonean newspapers. I found several archived issues of the Daily Guardian at the Library of Congress, and was excited during my visit there, going through some of his articles, reading his thoughts in his own words. What became a stunning discovery for me last year however, was another unique search result in Google I came across, this time having both Decker and Turner’s name in the description. Wondering what it was all about, I was completely surprised to learn that not only had Lorenzo Turner visited Sierra Leone during his fieldwork in West Africa in the 1950s, Grandpa Tommy happened to be one of the individuals he intereviewed. I sat there totally amazed at the fact that over 60 years ago, Grandpa had also come to know of the Gullahs, and from no other than Turner himself, who many have considered to be the ‘Father of Gullah Studies’.
Part of the description of the record holding at the Smithsonian collection reads:
Turner was not only able to capture the underlining social, political, and economic issues occurring in West Africa but interview one of the most influential African linguists in Sierra Leone: Thomas Leighton Decker. In interviewing Decker and other informants, Turner was able to discover and examine the linguistic components of the Krio language, a language that is today spoken by more than 90% of the population of Sierra Leone. In his field notebook, Dr. Turner compiled notes relating to syntax, morphology, and semantic structures as well as the etymology of words and phrases most commonly associated with Krio speaking people.
It was pure affirmation for me, that my interest in the Gullah did not spring from air, but I had found traces of it going back to my Grandfather, who had passed long before I was born. While I know that Grandpa was very much in tune with the English and Creole languages, as well as the plight of the ‘Negro-at-large’, I had limited his scope of thought to that of Britain and British West Africa. Little did I know that he had been way more acquainted with the African American culture than I imagined. His interest, while conversing with Turner about American American speech, must have made him even more inquisitive about not only the nature of Krio but its origins beyond the Atlantic.
Turner returned to the US after his research and continued as Chairman of the African Studies at Roosevelt College until the late 1960s. Much of his work not only helped to change the view that Gullah was simply a ‘broken English’, but the broader scope of his linguistic studies helped to foster in new insights into African American speech studies and culture for university curriculum. He later went on to publish “The Krio Language of the Sierra Leone” in 1963 and “Krio Texts: With Grammatical Notes and Translation in English” in 1965.
In 1961, Grandpa became the Chief Information Officer during the inaugural year of Sierra Leone’s Independence. He later went on to serve in the Civil Service as Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the first Sierra Leonean to serve in the position. In 1964, Grandpa translated Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar into Krio. Considered to be his most reputable work, he set out to prove that anything written in English, can be written in Krio. About 2 years later in 1966, he also translated Shakespeare’s “As You Like It” into Krio.
I don’t imagine Turner and Decker ever crossed paths again. Certainly their paths were different. One traveled the world of his literary scope, seeing and hearing in-person the many voices and cultures creolized by the transatlantic trade. The other, honing in on one of them, directed all of his faculties to defend its authenticity. Both shared a vision, that seemingly only language could clearly articulate. They defended uniqueness and originality, where so much of the black cultural identity had been reshuffled by forced migrations, displacements, and the emergence of new cultures. They set out to fill the vacuums of language, that would have been left in limbo, as just another part of us that becomes mis-characterized by others as imperfections.
Before I came across the connection between Decker and Turner last year, I had already developed a personal bond with a few members of the Gullah community over the last 10 years. I had traveled to the sea islands in South Carolina twice and marched with the Gullahs during their annual festival. I had come to learn about the story of a Sierra Leonean Mende song that survived in a Gullah family for over 2 centuries, and even had the pleasure of meeting one of the family members a few times. I purchased Turner’s book a few years ago and learned of connections other than the Krio language between the Gullah and Sierra Leone. There were Mende songs carried through generations in the Gullah community, such as the one sung by Amelia Dawley, Lavinia Quarterman, and Emma Hall. Temne names like Alfaba, Kanu, and Kaya survived centuries among native Gullahs. | 2,432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Origins of Orleans
The history of the town of Orleans is inexorably linked to the town of Eastham, and has deep roots in the original Plymouth Colony established in 1620. For some time, the colonists there had considered moving the colony to a better location due to the “straightness and baroness” of the land at Plymouth. In 1644, serious consideration was given to moving the colony, and what was then called Nauset was a prime option. After deciding that Nauset was too small and remote, the idea was abandoned, but seven freemen and their families set out to establish a new town in that location. These freemen were Thomas Prence, Nicholas Snow, John Doane, Edward Bangs, Richard Higgins, John Smalley, and Josias Cook. With their families, the entire town consisted of 49 persons.
On March 3, 1645, the General Court of the colony granted to the Plymouth Church “or those that goe to dwell at Nosett,” the lands from the Purchaser’s bounds at Namskaket to the Herring Brook at Billingsgate. On June 7, 1651, the General Court ordered that the name of the town of Nauset be changed to Eastham. For the next 152 years, the tract of land that became Orleans existed as a portion of Eastham, eventually being referred to as the South Parish or the South Precinct.
The Incorporation of Orleans
The Town of Orleans was born in 1797. On March 1, both houses of the Massachusetts legislature passed, and on March 3 Governor Samuel Adams signed “An act to divide the town of Eastham in the County of Barnstable and to incorporate the Southerly part thereof into a town by the name of Orleans. The division of the towns resulted from long standing differences in interests and demographics, and there is evidence that the South Precinct had been operating somewhat independently since about 1717. The larger portion of the population of Eastham resided in the South Precinct, and at the time of the division, only one of the three selectmen resided in the northern portion of the town. This official was Joseph Pepper. Selectmen Hezekiah Higgins and Heman Linnell both resided in what became Orleans. At the time of the separation, the population of Eastham was about 475, while the population of Orleans was more than double that. Historical evidence suggests that both entities petitioned the state legislature in support of the separation.
The March 3 Act of Incorporation authorized Isaac Sparrow, justice of the peace of Eastham, to issue his warrant to a “principle inhabitant” of the new town for its first town meeting, and Selectman Higgins was selected. This meeting was held on March 16, where organizational issues were settled and the new town began to conduct routine business. Hezekiah Higgins and Heman Linnell from the old Eastham Board of Selectmen along with Judah Rogers, became the first Selectmen in the new town. Among the first items of business was the appointment of ten fish wardens for the protection of the town waters from encroachment by other towns. The town was also divided into three districts, with the construction of a schoolhouse in each district, the appropriation of $333.33 for support of the schools, $300 for support of the Gospel, and $366 for the support of the poor. The new town of Orleans was quickly in business for itself.
Orleans’ First Resident?
Strictly speaking, each of the nearly 1000 persons residing in Orleans at the time of incorporating act were among the first residents of Orleans. But did they have a predecessor? The historical record indicates that Governor Prence and others of the first seven families established their homesteads within the boundaries of what remained Eastham. Only Nicholas Snow, who established his homestead at Namskaket, was on the Orleans side of the division line of 1797. Nicholas Snow arrived in Plymouth on the Ann in 1623, and married Constance Hopkins, daughter of Mayflower passenger Stephen Hopkins. After relocating to Nauset/Eastham, he held the positions of surveyor, deputy, tax collector, constable, and selectman while there. He died in 1676, well before the separation, but can we claim him as our honorary first citizen?
How Did Orleans Get Its Name?
The fact that our town has a French name may seem like an oddity today, as most of the other Cape Cod towns are named after counterparts in England. However, it’s not so surprising, given the context of the times that the name selected was considered.
In 1797, pro-French sentiment was very strong in the new United States both in gratitude for French assistance during the Revolutionary War, and in admiration for the pro-liberty struggles that were occurring in France at the time. Revolutionary War patriot Isaac Snow had been captured twice by the British during the War and was sent to England where he was confined to prison. He managed to escape twice, and at one point made his way to France, where, while waiting to return to America, likely became aware of the highly popular Louis Philippe Joseph, duc d’Orleans (Duke of Orleans). At the time, Orleans was a 30 year old naval officer, cousin of the King, and one of the wealthiest men in France. He was then and remained a strong proponent for the cause of liberty. It is said that it was Isaac Snow’s suggestion that prompted the local committee and the State Legislature to name the newly incorporated town in honor of the Duke of Orleans.
Text courtesy of Orleans Historical Markers Committee, a project funded by Town of Orleans Community Preservation Funds. | <urn:uuid:7cfbbe67-7762-4886-98e7-5405342e2a7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.orleanshistoricalsociety.org/orleanshistory | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.980147 | 1,195 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.038630... | 15 | The Origins of Orleans
The history of the town of Orleans is inexorably linked to the town of Eastham, and has deep roots in the original Plymouth Colony established in 1620. For some time, the colonists there had considered moving the colony to a better location due to the “straightness and baroness” of the land at Plymouth. In 1644, serious consideration was given to moving the colony, and what was then called Nauset was a prime option. After deciding that Nauset was too small and remote, the idea was abandoned, but seven freemen and their families set out to establish a new town in that location. These freemen were Thomas Prence, Nicholas Snow, John Doane, Edward Bangs, Richard Higgins, John Smalley, and Josias Cook. With their families, the entire town consisted of 49 persons.
On March 3, 1645, the General Court of the colony granted to the Plymouth Church “or those that goe to dwell at Nosett,” the lands from the Purchaser’s bounds at Namskaket to the Herring Brook at Billingsgate. On June 7, 1651, the General Court ordered that the name of the town of Nauset be changed to Eastham. For the next 152 years, the tract of land that became Orleans existed as a portion of Eastham, eventually being referred to as the South Parish or the South Precinct.
The Incorporation of Orleans
The Town of Orleans was born in 1797. On March 1, both houses of the Massachusetts legislature passed, and on March 3 Governor Samuel Adams signed “An act to divide the town of Eastham in the County of Barnstable and to incorporate the Southerly part thereof into a town by the name of Orleans. The division of the towns resulted from long standing differences in interests and demographics, and there is evidence that the South Precinct had been operating somewhat independently since about 1717. The larger portion of the population of Eastham resided in the South Precinct, and at the time of the division, only one of the three selectmen resided in the northern portion of the town. This official was Joseph Pepper. Selectmen Hezekiah Higgins and Heman Linnell both resided in what became Orleans. At the time of the separation, the population of Eastham was about 475, while the population of Orleans was more than double that. Historical evidence suggests that both entities petitioned the state legislature in support of the separation.
The March 3 Act of Incorporation authorized Isaac Sparrow, justice of the peace of Eastham, to issue his warrant to a “principle inhabitant” of the new town for its first town meeting, and Selectman Higgins was selected. This meeting was held on March 16, where organizational issues were settled and the new town began to conduct routine business. Hezekiah Higgins and Heman Linnell from the old Eastham Board of Selectmen along with Judah Rogers, became the first Selectmen in the new town. Among the first items of business was the appointment of ten fish wardens for the protection of the town waters from encroachment by other towns. The town was also divided into three districts, with the construction of a schoolhouse in each district, the appropriation of $333.33 for support of the schools, $300 for support of the Gospel, and $366 for the support of the poor. The new town of Orleans was quickly in business for itself.
Orleans’ First Resident?
Strictly speaking, each of the nearly 1000 persons residing in Orleans at the time of incorporating act were among the first residents of Orleans. But did they have a predecessor? The historical record indicates that Governor Prence and others of the first seven families established their homesteads within the boundaries of what remained Eastham. Only Nicholas Snow, who established his homestead at Namskaket, was on the Orleans side of the division line of 1797. Nicholas Snow arrived in Plymouth on the Ann in 1623, and married Constance Hopkins, daughter of Mayflower passenger Stephen Hopkins. After relocating to Nauset/Eastham, he held the positions of surveyor, deputy, tax collector, constable, and selectman while there. He died in 1676, well before the separation, but can we claim him as our honorary first citizen?
How Did Orleans Get Its Name?
The fact that our town has a French name may seem like an oddity today, as most of the other Cape Cod towns are named after counterparts in England. However, it’s not so surprising, given the context of the times that the name selected was considered.
In 1797, pro-French sentiment was very strong in the new United States both in gratitude for French assistance during the Revolutionary War, and in admiration for the pro-liberty struggles that were occurring in France at the time. Revolutionary War patriot Isaac Snow had been captured twice by the British during the War and was sent to England where he was confined to prison. He managed to escape twice, and at one point made his way to France, where, while waiting to return to America, likely became aware of the highly popular Louis Philippe Joseph, duc d’Orleans (Duke of Orleans). At the time, Orleans was a 30 year old naval officer, cousin of the King, and one of the wealthiest men in France. He was then and remained a strong proponent for the cause of liberty. It is said that it was Isaac Snow’s suggestion that prompted the local committee and the State Legislature to name the newly incorporated town in honor of the Duke of Orleans.
Text courtesy of Orleans Historical Markers Committee, a project funded by Town of Orleans Community Preservation Funds. | 1,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ebenezer Parmelee was a native of Guilford, Connecticut. This colonial craftsman has been called “the father of Connecticut clockmaking.”
Born in Guilford on November 20, 1690, he was the son of Isaac Parmelee and Elizabeth Hyland. Isaac’s grandfather, John Parmelee was an original settler of Guilford in 1639. Elizabeth’s father, George Hyland, was a sheep farmer and builder of this house in 1660 (what is now the Hyland House Museum).
In 1719, a year after his marriage to Anna Cruttenden, Ebenezer’s parents deeded this House and their land to him for forty pounds. Ebenezer had nine children, four of them died during an epidemic in 1736.
Ebenezer learned fine carpentry from his father. In addition to doing cabinetry, he also was a boat builder and also a trader (as the town allowed him to build a wharf on the Guilford Sluice in 1741). Ebenezer’s woodworking skills are evident in the Hyland House. He is credited with updating the house in the 1720’s, with the addition of bolection mouldings and the signature balustrade front staircase which extends from the first floor to the attic.
However, he is remembered best as a clockmaker.
By 1714 Ebenezer Parmelee had two apprentices. In Connecticut Clockmakers of the Eighteenth Century, Penrose Hoopes documented his influence on other clockmakers, whom he had trained, and who worked throughout Connecticut Colony. His clock movements were made out of wood or brass. According to Hoopes, unlike most 18th century clockmakers, Parmelee also made the cases for his clocks. This is believable as he had also learned carpentry.
Until the loan of the cherry tall case clock by Kirtland H. Crump in the 1990s, the Dorothy Whitfield Historic Society had been unable to identify an extant example of Parmelee’s domestic clockmaking.
Ebenezer Parmelee is recognized as maker of the oldest tower clock in the American colonies. It was made for the Guilford Congregational Society, which built a 120 foot steeple on its second meeting house. Parmelee’s clock was installed in 1726. This clock had a hammer to strike the “great bell” which had been bought in Boston. Guilford’s town history recalls that “from the spire at nine o’clock each night Saturday, rang forth the peals of the bell to summon the good people to seek their beds.”
Whenever the clock was out of order, Ebenezer was called to fix it. So important was this task that in 1741 he was relieved from other town responsibilities – customarily assigned to each citizen – as long as he kept maintaining the tower clock. As the clock was made out of wood, dryness was a problem, and sometimes parts would have to be rebuilt.
Ebenezer Parmelee’s clock kept time on the town green until 1893. It is now on display in the Henry Whitfield Museum.
He also made a brass works clock for the Meeting House in New Haven around 1740. As told by N. Hudson Moore in The Old Clock Book, “the won, not to be done out of its money without due value received, tried the clock for two years. It proved a good time keeper and then they paid Mr. Parmilee (sic).”
Ebernezer lived in Guilford all of his life, and served as town clerk from 1771 until 1776. He died on September 1777. His tombstone is in Alderbrook Cemetary, on the same street where his craftmanship is preserved at the Hyland House. | <urn:uuid:330948f1-534a-453c-ae58-cceca87c0b30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hylandhouse.org/learn-our-story/genealogy-of-hyland-house-residents/ebenezer-parmelee-1690-1777/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.984805 | 812 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.162792801856... | 11 | Ebenezer Parmelee was a native of Guilford, Connecticut. This colonial craftsman has been called “the father of Connecticut clockmaking.”
Born in Guilford on November 20, 1690, he was the son of Isaac Parmelee and Elizabeth Hyland. Isaac’s grandfather, John Parmelee was an original settler of Guilford in 1639. Elizabeth’s father, George Hyland, was a sheep farmer and builder of this house in 1660 (what is now the Hyland House Museum).
In 1719, a year after his marriage to Anna Cruttenden, Ebenezer’s parents deeded this House and their land to him for forty pounds. Ebenezer had nine children, four of them died during an epidemic in 1736.
Ebenezer learned fine carpentry from his father. In addition to doing cabinetry, he also was a boat builder and also a trader (as the town allowed him to build a wharf on the Guilford Sluice in 1741). Ebenezer’s woodworking skills are evident in the Hyland House. He is credited with updating the house in the 1720’s, with the addition of bolection mouldings and the signature balustrade front staircase which extends from the first floor to the attic.
However, he is remembered best as a clockmaker.
By 1714 Ebenezer Parmelee had two apprentices. In Connecticut Clockmakers of the Eighteenth Century, Penrose Hoopes documented his influence on other clockmakers, whom he had trained, and who worked throughout Connecticut Colony. His clock movements were made out of wood or brass. According to Hoopes, unlike most 18th century clockmakers, Parmelee also made the cases for his clocks. This is believable as he had also learned carpentry.
Until the loan of the cherry tall case clock by Kirtland H. Crump in the 1990s, the Dorothy Whitfield Historic Society had been unable to identify an extant example of Parmelee’s domestic clockmaking.
Ebenezer Parmelee is recognized as maker of the oldest tower clock in the American colonies. It was made for the Guilford Congregational Society, which built a 120 foot steeple on its second meeting house. Parmelee’s clock was installed in 1726. This clock had a hammer to strike the “great bell” which had been bought in Boston. Guilford’s town history recalls that “from the spire at nine o’clock each night Saturday, rang forth the peals of the bell to summon the good people to seek their beds.”
Whenever the clock was out of order, Ebenezer was called to fix it. So important was this task that in 1741 he was relieved from other town responsibilities – customarily assigned to each citizen – as long as he kept maintaining the tower clock. As the clock was made out of wood, dryness was a problem, and sometimes parts would have to be rebuilt.
Ebenezer Parmelee’s clock kept time on the town green until 1893. It is now on display in the Henry Whitfield Museum.
He also made a brass works clock for the Meeting House in New Haven around 1740. As told by N. Hudson Moore in The Old Clock Book, “the won, not to be done out of its money without due value received, tried the clock for two years. It proved a good time keeper and then they paid Mr. Parmilee (sic).”
Ebernezer lived in Guilford all of his life, and served as town clerk from 1771 until 1776. He died on September 1777. His tombstone is in Alderbrook Cemetary, on the same street where his craftmanship is preserved at the Hyland House. | 818 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New History of Humanity - Astounding Scientific Discoveries
Until recently the oldest, unchallenged evidence of human hunting came from a 400,000-year-old site in Germany the evidence came from marks left by spears on horse bones - horses were clearly being speared and their flesh eaten. but new Evidence from ancient butchery site in Tanzania shows early man used complex hunting techniques to ambush and kill antelopes, gazelles, wildebeest and other large animals at least two million years ago.- The discovery -- by anthropologist Professor Henry Bunn of Wisconsin University -- pushes back the definitive date for the beginning of systematic human hunting by hundreds of thousands of years.
Two million years ago, our human ancestors were small-brained apemen previously many scientists assumed the meat they butchered and ate had been gathered from animals that had died from natural causes or had been left behind by lions, leopards and other carnivores - "We know that humans ate meat two million years ago," said Bunn, speaking at the European Society for the study of Human Evolution (ESHE). "What was not clear was the source of that meat. However, we have compared the type of prey killed by lions and leopards today with the type of prey selected by humans in those days. This has shown that men and women could not have been taking kill from other animals or eating those that had died of natural causes. They were selecting and killing what they wanted."
Once our species got a taste for meat, it was provided with a dense, protein-rich source of energy. We no longer needed to invest internal resources on huge digestive tracts that were previously required to process vegetation and fruit, which are more difficult to digest. This new, energy-rich resource was then diverted inside our bodies and used to fuel our growing brains. over the next two million years our crania grew, producing species of humans with increasingly large brains | <urn:uuid:32830f0d-2162-411c-9fef-bb162739d522> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bigbrother.co.uk/knowledge/human-history/new-history-humanity-astounding-scientific-discoveries | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.980094 | 392 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.144189685583114... | 2 | New History of Humanity - Astounding Scientific Discoveries
Until recently the oldest, unchallenged evidence of human hunting came from a 400,000-year-old site in Germany the evidence came from marks left by spears on horse bones - horses were clearly being speared and their flesh eaten. but new Evidence from ancient butchery site in Tanzania shows early man used complex hunting techniques to ambush and kill antelopes, gazelles, wildebeest and other large animals at least two million years ago.- The discovery -- by anthropologist Professor Henry Bunn of Wisconsin University -- pushes back the definitive date for the beginning of systematic human hunting by hundreds of thousands of years.
Two million years ago, our human ancestors were small-brained apemen previously many scientists assumed the meat they butchered and ate had been gathered from animals that had died from natural causes or had been left behind by lions, leopards and other carnivores - "We know that humans ate meat two million years ago," said Bunn, speaking at the European Society for the study of Human Evolution (ESHE). "What was not clear was the source of that meat. However, we have compared the type of prey killed by lions and leopards today with the type of prey selected by humans in those days. This has shown that men and women could not have been taking kill from other animals or eating those that had died of natural causes. They were selecting and killing what they wanted."
Once our species got a taste for meat, it was provided with a dense, protein-rich source of energy. We no longer needed to invest internal resources on huge digestive tracts that were previously required to process vegetation and fruit, which are more difficult to digest. This new, energy-rich resource was then diverted inside our bodies and used to fuel our growing brains. over the next two million years our crania grew, producing species of humans with increasingly large brains | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we had inputs of Music and Drama.
Today we were learning the basics of how to play the ukelele.
We learned the main 4 chords to play on a ukelele which was useful as this is what most songs are made up of which is highlighted by the song ‘4 Chords’ by the Axis of Awesome. This was a really fun lesson as we had the chance to practice the basic skills we had picked up by playing along to the song ‘Last Christmas’ by Wham. It was very useful as the ukelele is becoming a popular instrument within primary schools and something we will most likely encounter throughout our careers.
Today we continued with the other half of the class’s micro teaching of their particular children’s book.
This week it was my groups turn to deliver the lesson. The book we chose to use was ‘A squash and a squeeze’.
We read this story to the class and used the drama conventions role in the wall and thought tunnel. This was good to gain the experience of how to deliver a drama lesson and understand what would go well and what would require improvement. It was helpful in increasing my confidence in teaching drama. | <urn:uuid:b1971899-99fc-4002-bb5d-3eba33b29b98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/kathrynmairepdp/2017/01/05/session-10-291116/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.989693 | 251 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.128341421484... | 4 | Today we had inputs of Music and Drama.
Today we were learning the basics of how to play the ukelele.
We learned the main 4 chords to play on a ukelele which was useful as this is what most songs are made up of which is highlighted by the song ‘4 Chords’ by the Axis of Awesome. This was a really fun lesson as we had the chance to practice the basic skills we had picked up by playing along to the song ‘Last Christmas’ by Wham. It was very useful as the ukelele is becoming a popular instrument within primary schools and something we will most likely encounter throughout our careers.
Today we continued with the other half of the class’s micro teaching of their particular children’s book.
This week it was my groups turn to deliver the lesson. The book we chose to use was ‘A squash and a squeeze’.
We read this story to the class and used the drama conventions role in the wall and thought tunnel. This was good to gain the experience of how to deliver a drama lesson and understand what would go well and what would require improvement. It was helpful in increasing my confidence in teaching drama. | 237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Greeks loved Odysseus, but the Romans were terrified of him. The Greeks believed that Odysseus was so brave and manly and they looked up to him. In the book “The Odyssey” by Homer, Odysseus is defined as one of the greatest leader and was worshiped by a lot of people. Odysseus Good leaders need these three qualities to succeed. First, quality of a good leader is to be wise. Throughout the journey, they may face many different challenges. And the leader needs to be wise to pass through the challenges they may face. To illustrate, blind prophet, Tiresias, briefly foreshadows about his journey back home. Tiresias tells Odysseus that “Odysseus all may still reach Ithaca—bent with hardship, true—but harm them in any way, and Tiresias can see it now: his ship destroyed, his men destroyed as well. And even if Odysseus escape, he come home late and come a broken man—all shipmates lost, alone in a stranger’s ship—and he will find a world of pain at home, crude, arrogant men devouring all your goods, courting your noble wife, offering gifts to win her.” (121,253,128-131). Because Tiresias warned him, Odysseus could have been more careful about making decisions but when the he and his crew reached the island of the Sun, His crews disobeyed all warnings and he prayed to Zeus. “Father Zeus! the rest of you blissful gods who never die—you with your fatal sleep, you lulled me into disaster. Left on their own, look what a monstrous thing my crew concocted!” (12,282, 398-401) and sacrificed the cattle to Zeus. So Zeus sent down a thunderbolt that crashed the ship that Odysseus was in. Leaving Odysseus the only one alive.Next quality of a good leader in order to succeed is to be committed. The dedication to his crews and his work is really important. By committing and putting work into his crews will bond closer to one another. This will reduce conflict between the crews. Considering the fact that Odysseus was traveling in the ship with his crews for about ten years, there must have been some conflicts in between them. Also, they committing into his work, will lead him quicker to finding better solution to the challenges he faced during the journey. Last quality in order to be a good leader is a good leader needs to learn from their mistakes. A leader who is afraid of making mistakes does not succeed often than leaders who are not scared of mistakes. Even if they make mistakes they should take that as a learning experience and never make that mistake again. Some of Odysseus’s traits are brave, smart and selfish. He tries to be a good example to their crews. Odysseus Before the book even starts, Odysseus’ intelligence shows through. When he fought in the Trojan War, he mislead the Trojans to bring the wooden horse into Troy. But the Greek soldiers were hiding inside the wooden horse. This was all Odysseus’ idea. That day, Odysseus and his soldiers attacked Troy avoiding too much deaths. Odysseus won the battle. However he is brave and intelligent but he is also egotistical. He likes to take credit and wants all the attention. For example, when he and his crews were leaving the cyclops’ island, he told Polyphemus his name. That was because he wanted him to know that the great ‘Odysseus’ was the one who stabbed his eye. He is reckless. He lead him and his crews into trouble. All of Odysseus’s actions makes him a good leader. Odysseus and his crew had some tough challenges in front of them but they relied on odysseus and they overcame the challenges. But some downsides of Odysseus as a leader was, he was the one who always received credit for the crews work and if the plan went wrong odysseus would blame the crew members or the gods. Here he did not take responsibility as a leader. This action was maybe caused of fear. Because the crew relied on Odysseus so much that he probably thought making mistakes will let the whole crew down. So thinking that he could not make any mistake he blamed others. He just wanted to a good leader to his crews. In conclusion, all of Odysseus’s action and his traits make him a good leader. He is worshiped and defined as one of the greatest leaders. | <urn:uuid:420bb3e2-140e-4286-893e-821566583df0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://firstnightdanbury.org/the-reached-the-island-of-the-sun/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.986482 | 979 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.244603455066... | 1 | The Greeks loved Odysseus, but the Romans were terrified of him. The Greeks believed that Odysseus was so brave and manly and they looked up to him. In the book “The Odyssey” by Homer, Odysseus is defined as one of the greatest leader and was worshiped by a lot of people. Odysseus Good leaders need these three qualities to succeed. First, quality of a good leader is to be wise. Throughout the journey, they may face many different challenges. And the leader needs to be wise to pass through the challenges they may face. To illustrate, blind prophet, Tiresias, briefly foreshadows about his journey back home. Tiresias tells Odysseus that “Odysseus all may still reach Ithaca—bent with hardship, true—but harm them in any way, and Tiresias can see it now: his ship destroyed, his men destroyed as well. And even if Odysseus escape, he come home late and come a broken man—all shipmates lost, alone in a stranger’s ship—and he will find a world of pain at home, crude, arrogant men devouring all your goods, courting your noble wife, offering gifts to win her.” (121,253,128-131). Because Tiresias warned him, Odysseus could have been more careful about making decisions but when the he and his crew reached the island of the Sun, His crews disobeyed all warnings and he prayed to Zeus. “Father Zeus! the rest of you blissful gods who never die—you with your fatal sleep, you lulled me into disaster. Left on their own, look what a monstrous thing my crew concocted!” (12,282, 398-401) and sacrificed the cattle to Zeus. So Zeus sent down a thunderbolt that crashed the ship that Odysseus was in. Leaving Odysseus the only one alive.Next quality of a good leader in order to succeed is to be committed. The dedication to his crews and his work is really important. By committing and putting work into his crews will bond closer to one another. This will reduce conflict between the crews. Considering the fact that Odysseus was traveling in the ship with his crews for about ten years, there must have been some conflicts in between them. Also, they committing into his work, will lead him quicker to finding better solution to the challenges he faced during the journey. Last quality in order to be a good leader is a good leader needs to learn from their mistakes. A leader who is afraid of making mistakes does not succeed often than leaders who are not scared of mistakes. Even if they make mistakes they should take that as a learning experience and never make that mistake again. Some of Odysseus’s traits are brave, smart and selfish. He tries to be a good example to their crews. Odysseus Before the book even starts, Odysseus’ intelligence shows through. When he fought in the Trojan War, he mislead the Trojans to bring the wooden horse into Troy. But the Greek soldiers were hiding inside the wooden horse. This was all Odysseus’ idea. That day, Odysseus and his soldiers attacked Troy avoiding too much deaths. Odysseus won the battle. However he is brave and intelligent but he is also egotistical. He likes to take credit and wants all the attention. For example, when he and his crews were leaving the cyclops’ island, he told Polyphemus his name. That was because he wanted him to know that the great ‘Odysseus’ was the one who stabbed his eye. He is reckless. He lead him and his crews into trouble. All of Odysseus’s actions makes him a good leader. Odysseus and his crew had some tough challenges in front of them but they relied on odysseus and they overcame the challenges. But some downsides of Odysseus as a leader was, he was the one who always received credit for the crews work and if the plan went wrong odysseus would blame the crew members or the gods. Here he did not take responsibility as a leader. This action was maybe caused of fear. Because the crew relied on Odysseus so much that he probably thought making mistakes will let the whole crew down. So thinking that he could not make any mistake he blamed others. He just wanted to a good leader to his crews. In conclusion, all of Odysseus’s action and his traits make him a good leader. He is worshiped and defined as one of the greatest leaders. | 970 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Are there any limits on free speech?
It is not considered free speech if what you are saying presents a clear and present danger, like shouting "Fire!" in a crowded theater.
What is the constitution ?
Adam Winkler, professor of constitutional law at the UCLA School of Law, explains the constitution as the founding document which establishes the federal government, relationship between the branches of the government, and the relationship between the federal government and the states. It also establishes a set of individual rights that you can claim to prevent the government from doing certain things.
Why might we think that the Founding Fathers of the United States did not intend for the Second Amendment to be interpreted in its current form?
When the Constitution was written, gun ownership was not thought of as means of protection for a family. Gunpowder was very explosive so you would not want to actually store it in your home, and guns were very basic, where it would take a minute just to reload it after shooting. If someone were to break into your house at the time, you would not use a gun as first means of defence.
As times went by, however, the social norms around gun ownership have changed and the focus on self-defence have become more prevalent, to the point where the Supreme Court justices are now interpreting the second amendment in a way in which it was perhaps not intended.
Why does the Constitution play such a significant part in American politics?
Americans tend to revere the constitution and use it as a central point in political debate because the language of the constitution is vague and opens room for interpretation. Freedom of speech, equal protection of the law ...etc. Almost anything can fit in some shape of form under one of the principles in the Constitution, but we cannot be present for the original writing in order to confirm the exact original intend. | <urn:uuid:9b86227a-2ab6-42ba-b954-728a9970e9b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://smashnotes.com/p/factually-with-adam-conover/e/guns-corporations-the-constitution-w-adam-winkler | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.980524 | 370 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1970116645097732... | 1 | Are there any limits on free speech?
It is not considered free speech if what you are saying presents a clear and present danger, like shouting "Fire!" in a crowded theater.
What is the constitution ?
Adam Winkler, professor of constitutional law at the UCLA School of Law, explains the constitution as the founding document which establishes the federal government, relationship between the branches of the government, and the relationship between the federal government and the states. It also establishes a set of individual rights that you can claim to prevent the government from doing certain things.
Why might we think that the Founding Fathers of the United States did not intend for the Second Amendment to be interpreted in its current form?
When the Constitution was written, gun ownership was not thought of as means of protection for a family. Gunpowder was very explosive so you would not want to actually store it in your home, and guns were very basic, where it would take a minute just to reload it after shooting. If someone were to break into your house at the time, you would not use a gun as first means of defence.
As times went by, however, the social norms around gun ownership have changed and the focus on self-defence have become more prevalent, to the point where the Supreme Court justices are now interpreting the second amendment in a way in which it was perhaps not intended.
Why does the Constitution play such a significant part in American politics?
Americans tend to revere the constitution and use it as a central point in political debate because the language of the constitution is vague and opens room for interpretation. Freedom of speech, equal protection of the law ...etc. Almost anything can fit in some shape of form under one of the principles in the Constitution, but we cannot be present for the original writing in order to confirm the exact original intend. | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I'm doing an essay in English and this is what I have so far... I haven't gotten to the conclusion yet. Feel free to correct any grammar, spelling, or suggest any changes. Your help is greatly appreciated.
In the tragic Greek play, Antigone, written by the playwright Sophocles, the protagonist, Antigone, and the antagonist, King Creon hold opposing positions. There is a struggle between god's laws vs. man's law. Antigone believes in god's law. King Creon believes that the laws that are created by man hold a higher power then the laws of the gods. I support Antigone's position of burying her brother Polyneices because I agree that god's law is more important than man's law.
In this play, there is a struggle between King Creon and his niece, Antigone regarding the burial of Antigone's two brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices. Eteocles and Polyneices agreed to share the throne when their father died. Eteocles was to rule over Thebes in Ancient Greece for the first year and then give Polyneices a turn. But Eteocles banished Polyneices under his kingship. They battled each other. They were both killed in battle. Creon believed that Polyneices was a traitor and that only Eteocles should be honored for fighting as bravely as he did to protect his city. Antigone believed that Polyneices fought just as bravely and that they should both be honored with a proper burial. Antigone doesn't feel that it is right for one brother to be honored even though they were both killed under the same circumstances. Antigone had many valued reasons to feel the way she did.
For instance, Antigone believed that god's law should come before everything. Creon believed that everyone should listen to the laws of man but Antigone doesn't agree with this because she believes that the laws of the gods should be held above man's law at all costs. As said in the story, "The laws of the gods have been, will be, and continue to be". The laws of the gods are eternal and they will never change. Unlike man's law which can change at any given moment. For this reason, Antigone felt that what she was doing was the right thing if it meant honoring her family.
Creon thinks that Antigone is guilty for burying her brother but Antigone says, "There is no guilt in reverence for the dead". She believes that all of the dead should be honored properly. Antigone feels that everyone else agrees with her reasoning but they don't want to get themselves into trouble so they just keep quiet. Even though Creon tells her that she is all alone, she still stands up for what she believes. Antigone's position was to act out of love and loyalty to her family and also out of a concern for her brother's after life. | <urn:uuid:fea1dc8e-2411-4d7d-9425-a5a881eef657> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayforum.com/books/antigone-struggle-god-law-man-32538/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.983255 | 617 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.06442482769... | 2 | I'm doing an essay in English and this is what I have so far... I haven't gotten to the conclusion yet. Feel free to correct any grammar, spelling, or suggest any changes. Your help is greatly appreciated.
In the tragic Greek play, Antigone, written by the playwright Sophocles, the protagonist, Antigone, and the antagonist, King Creon hold opposing positions. There is a struggle between god's laws vs. man's law. Antigone believes in god's law. King Creon believes that the laws that are created by man hold a higher power then the laws of the gods. I support Antigone's position of burying her brother Polyneices because I agree that god's law is more important than man's law.
In this play, there is a struggle between King Creon and his niece, Antigone regarding the burial of Antigone's two brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices. Eteocles and Polyneices agreed to share the throne when their father died. Eteocles was to rule over Thebes in Ancient Greece for the first year and then give Polyneices a turn. But Eteocles banished Polyneices under his kingship. They battled each other. They were both killed in battle. Creon believed that Polyneices was a traitor and that only Eteocles should be honored for fighting as bravely as he did to protect his city. Antigone believed that Polyneices fought just as bravely and that they should both be honored with a proper burial. Antigone doesn't feel that it is right for one brother to be honored even though they were both killed under the same circumstances. Antigone had many valued reasons to feel the way she did.
For instance, Antigone believed that god's law should come before everything. Creon believed that everyone should listen to the laws of man but Antigone doesn't agree with this because she believes that the laws of the gods should be held above man's law at all costs. As said in the story, "The laws of the gods have been, will be, and continue to be". The laws of the gods are eternal and they will never change. Unlike man's law which can change at any given moment. For this reason, Antigone felt that what she was doing was the right thing if it meant honoring her family.
Creon thinks that Antigone is guilty for burying her brother but Antigone says, "There is no guilt in reverence for the dead". She believes that all of the dead should be honored properly. Antigone feels that everyone else agrees with her reasoning but they don't want to get themselves into trouble so they just keep quiet. Even though Creon tells her that she is all alone, she still stands up for what she believes. Antigone's position was to act out of love and loyalty to her family and also out of a concern for her brother's after life. | 616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809. Poe was a writer of poetry and short stories. He died young with relatively little literary success during his lifetime, but he became one of America’s most influential writers, central to the development of mystery and detective stories.
Poe was born in Boston, the child of actors. His father abandoned the family shortly after his birth, and his mother died of tuberculosis when Poe was 2. He was taken in by John and Frances Allan; John was a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia. The Allans gave him their family name as a middle name and raised him to adulthood, though he was never formally adopted.
The Allan family lived in England from 1815 to 1820, and Poe got his elementary education in British boarding schools. The family had been back in Virginia for several years when Poe enrolled at the University of Virginia to study languages. The University of Virginia was still a young institution, and founder Thomas Jefferson had some novel ideas, including a system that allowed students to design their own course of study.
Poe did not deal well with the lack of structure and discipline. He ran up significant gambling debts, putting a strain on his relationship with his foster father. Poe dropped out of school after a year. The tense relationship with Allan, and the news that his high school sweetheart had married, made returning to Richmond an unattractive option.
Instead, Poe went to Boston, where he enlisted in the United States Army. He published his first book of poetry anonymously, credited simply to “A Bostonian.” Only 50 copies were printed, and there was virtually no critical reaction to the book.
After two years in the Army, Poe wanted to end his 5-year enlistment early. His commanding officer would only agree to do so if Poe reconciled with John Allan. Allan was initially unsympathetic and did not respond to Poe’s letters. The evidence suggests that he may not have even informed Poe that Frances Allan was ill, because Poe did not return to Richmond until the day after Frances’s burial. After her death, John agreed to support Poe’s discharge from the Army and his enrollment as a cadet at West Point. Poe entered West Point in 1830.
Neither the familial reconciliation nor the new academic endeavor went well. Poe and Allan argued about Allan’s remarriage, and the financial burdens of supporting his several illegitimate children; the arguments grew heated enough that Allan disowned Poe. And within a year of enrolling at West Point, Poe was dismissed for gross neglect of duty for his failure to attend church, military exercises, or classes. He had apparently been popular with his fellow cadets, though; many of them chipped in to fund the publishing of another volume of poetry in 1831.
Poe set out to support himself as a writer, but it was an awkward moment in the American publishing industry. The lack of international copyright laws meant that it was more profitable for publishers to published pirated editions of British work than to pay American authors for their writing. And while it was a busy era for literary magazines, many of them died quickly, and publishers tended to pay their authors late when they paid them at all.
Poe managed to get some stories published during these years, but that didn’t provide enough money to support him. And after his 1836 marriage to his cousin, Virginia, he was even more in need of income. (Virginia was 14 when she married the 27-year-old Poe; the witness at their wedding lied about her age, saying that she was 21.)
He worked in a series of editorial jobs at various literary magazines, but had trouble holding any position for very long, often because of his drinking. He announced plans to create his own literary magazine, to be called The Stylus, but the project never came to fruition.
His only novel, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (e-book | e-audio | print), was published in 1838. It begins as a fairly straightforward adventure of life at sea, but gradually grows stranger and harder to classify. It was not well received by contemporary critics, but it appears to have been an influence on Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, and Jules Verne liked the book so much that he wrote his own sequel to it.
In 1841, Poe wrote “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” often cited as the first modern detective story. His fictional detective, C. Auguste Dupin, would appear in two more stories, and established traits that would be common in later detectives such as Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot.
His last great literary success came in 1845 when the poem “The Raven” was published. It was a national sensation, and Poe became a household name as a result. The success did not bring much financial reward, though; Poe had been paid only $9 for the poem.
Poe’s wife, Virginia, died in 1847, after several years of declining health from tuberculosis. Her illness had been difficult for Poe, and his drinking problem had gotten even worse. On October 3, 1949, Poe was found wandering the streets of Baltimore. He was delirious and not wearing his own clothes. He was taken to the hospital, where he died on October 7.
The medical records from Poe’s final days have been lost, and we don’t know exactly what happened. Some newspaper reports of his death used the phrase “congestion of the brain,” a common euphemism at the time for alcohol-related deaths. Speculation as to the actual cause of his death ranges from epilepsy to rabies. One theory suggests that he may have been taken prisoner in the form of election fraud known as “cooping,” in which people were grabbed off the street and forced to vote multiple times for the chosen candidate of the gang that had taken them prisoner. If they refused, they would be severely beaten, sometimes even killed.
Poe has frequently been used as a fictional character by authors. The London schoolboy Poe shows up in Andrew Taylor’s historical mystery The American Boy (e-book); West Point cadet Poe is involved in a murder mystery in Louis Bayard’s The Pale Blue Eye (e-book | e-audio | print). Poe turns up as a detective in mystery series by several authors—Harold Schechter’s Nevermore (e-book | print), Randall Silvis’s On Night’s Shore (e-book | print), and Karen Lee Street’s Edgar Allan Poe and the London Monster (e-book | print) are the first volumes in ongoing series; Street’s series teams Poe as a detective with his own creation, C. Auguste Dupin.
Matthew Pearl offers a solution to the mystery of Poe’s death in The Poe Shadow (e-book | e-audio | print | audio); Kim Newman imagines Poe (along with many other historical figures) as a vampire in The Bloody Red Baron (e-book | print); in Kingsley Amis’s alternate-history The Alteration (e-book | print), Poe is a minor character, a general in the army of the Republic of New England.
For Poe nonfiction, John Evangelist Walsh offers his own solution to Poe’s final days in Midnight Dreary (print); J.W. Ocker visits Poe homes and other historical sites in Poe-Land (e-book); and Kristy Robinett explains how the ghost of Poe has aided her in her work as a medium in Forevermore (e-book).
The Edgar Award, named for Poe, is given by the Mystery Writers of America to honor each year’s best mystery writing. The anthology In the Shadow of the Master (e-book | print) collects some of Poe’s mystery stories, each accompanied by an essay from a current mystery writer talking about Poe’s importance to their own writing.
We’ll continue our look at Edgar Allan Poe in Friday’s “Music Memories” post, when we look at the large assortment of musical works based on Poe’s poems and stories, or written in honor of him.
Also This Week
January 17, 1820
Anne Brontë was born. Anne’s literary reputation has long been overshadowed by her older sisters, Charlotte and Emily, but in recent decades, there has been a revival of interest in her two novels. Agnes Grey (e-book | e-audio | print) is a semi-autobiographical story of a young governess working for several families, and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (e-book | e-audio | print), now seen as one of the earliest feminist novels, is the story of the scandals and gossip surrounding a mysterious young widow.
January 13, 1970
Shonda Rhimes was born. Rhimes is a television writer and producer who has created some of the successful TV dramas of recent years, including Grey’s Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder. Her shows usually feature large ensemble casts, speedy dialogue, and lots of dramatic plot twists. In her memoir Year of Yes (e-book | e-audio | print | audio), Rhimes writes about accepting the challenge to say “yes” to the unexpected opportunities that come her way.
January 17, 1970
Genndy Tartakovsky was born. Tartakovsky is an animator who directed the movies in the Hotel Transylvania series, in which the monsters from classic horror movies visit their own resort to get away from humans. Among the shows he’s created for television is Samurai Jack (streaming | DVD), the tale of a warrior’s battle to defeat the evil demon who has taken over the world.
January 16, 1980
Lin-Manuel Miranda was born. Miranda is an actor, singer, composer, and playwright whose 2015 musical Hamilton (streaming | CD) was one of the biggest Broadway successes in years. It was such a success that it’s easy to forget that Miranda was already an established figure in musical theater; his first musical, 2008’s In the Heights (streaming), also won a Tony Award as Best Musical. A film adaptation of In the Heights is due to be released next summer.s | <urn:uuid:adec00e6-7f03-4107-a9bf-ea89baecbda5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lapl.org/collections-resources/blogs/lapl/week-remember-edgar-allan-poe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.98523 | 2,169 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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-0.0742706730961... | 1 | Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809. Poe was a writer of poetry and short stories. He died young with relatively little literary success during his lifetime, but he became one of America’s most influential writers, central to the development of mystery and detective stories.
Poe was born in Boston, the child of actors. His father abandoned the family shortly after his birth, and his mother died of tuberculosis when Poe was 2. He was taken in by John and Frances Allan; John was a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia. The Allans gave him their family name as a middle name and raised him to adulthood, though he was never formally adopted.
The Allan family lived in England from 1815 to 1820, and Poe got his elementary education in British boarding schools. The family had been back in Virginia for several years when Poe enrolled at the University of Virginia to study languages. The University of Virginia was still a young institution, and founder Thomas Jefferson had some novel ideas, including a system that allowed students to design their own course of study.
Poe did not deal well with the lack of structure and discipline. He ran up significant gambling debts, putting a strain on his relationship with his foster father. Poe dropped out of school after a year. The tense relationship with Allan, and the news that his high school sweetheart had married, made returning to Richmond an unattractive option.
Instead, Poe went to Boston, where he enlisted in the United States Army. He published his first book of poetry anonymously, credited simply to “A Bostonian.” Only 50 copies were printed, and there was virtually no critical reaction to the book.
After two years in the Army, Poe wanted to end his 5-year enlistment early. His commanding officer would only agree to do so if Poe reconciled with John Allan. Allan was initially unsympathetic and did not respond to Poe’s letters. The evidence suggests that he may not have even informed Poe that Frances Allan was ill, because Poe did not return to Richmond until the day after Frances’s burial. After her death, John agreed to support Poe’s discharge from the Army and his enrollment as a cadet at West Point. Poe entered West Point in 1830.
Neither the familial reconciliation nor the new academic endeavor went well. Poe and Allan argued about Allan’s remarriage, and the financial burdens of supporting his several illegitimate children; the arguments grew heated enough that Allan disowned Poe. And within a year of enrolling at West Point, Poe was dismissed for gross neglect of duty for his failure to attend church, military exercises, or classes. He had apparently been popular with his fellow cadets, though; many of them chipped in to fund the publishing of another volume of poetry in 1831.
Poe set out to support himself as a writer, but it was an awkward moment in the American publishing industry. The lack of international copyright laws meant that it was more profitable for publishers to published pirated editions of British work than to pay American authors for their writing. And while it was a busy era for literary magazines, many of them died quickly, and publishers tended to pay their authors late when they paid them at all.
Poe managed to get some stories published during these years, but that didn’t provide enough money to support him. And after his 1836 marriage to his cousin, Virginia, he was even more in need of income. (Virginia was 14 when she married the 27-year-old Poe; the witness at their wedding lied about her age, saying that she was 21.)
He worked in a series of editorial jobs at various literary magazines, but had trouble holding any position for very long, often because of his drinking. He announced plans to create his own literary magazine, to be called The Stylus, but the project never came to fruition.
His only novel, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (e-book | e-audio | print), was published in 1838. It begins as a fairly straightforward adventure of life at sea, but gradually grows stranger and harder to classify. It was not well received by contemporary critics, but it appears to have been an influence on Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, and Jules Verne liked the book so much that he wrote his own sequel to it.
In 1841, Poe wrote “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” often cited as the first modern detective story. His fictional detective, C. Auguste Dupin, would appear in two more stories, and established traits that would be common in later detectives such as Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot.
His last great literary success came in 1845 when the poem “The Raven” was published. It was a national sensation, and Poe became a household name as a result. The success did not bring much financial reward, though; Poe had been paid only $9 for the poem.
Poe’s wife, Virginia, died in 1847, after several years of declining health from tuberculosis. Her illness had been difficult for Poe, and his drinking problem had gotten even worse. On October 3, 1949, Poe was found wandering the streets of Baltimore. He was delirious and not wearing his own clothes. He was taken to the hospital, where he died on October 7.
The medical records from Poe’s final days have been lost, and we don’t know exactly what happened. Some newspaper reports of his death used the phrase “congestion of the brain,” a common euphemism at the time for alcohol-related deaths. Speculation as to the actual cause of his death ranges from epilepsy to rabies. One theory suggests that he may have been taken prisoner in the form of election fraud known as “cooping,” in which people were grabbed off the street and forced to vote multiple times for the chosen candidate of the gang that had taken them prisoner. If they refused, they would be severely beaten, sometimes even killed.
Poe has frequently been used as a fictional character by authors. The London schoolboy Poe shows up in Andrew Taylor’s historical mystery The American Boy (e-book); West Point cadet Poe is involved in a murder mystery in Louis Bayard’s The Pale Blue Eye (e-book | e-audio | print). Poe turns up as a detective in mystery series by several authors—Harold Schechter’s Nevermore (e-book | print), Randall Silvis’s On Night’s Shore (e-book | print), and Karen Lee Street’s Edgar Allan Poe and the London Monster (e-book | print) are the first volumes in ongoing series; Street’s series teams Poe as a detective with his own creation, C. Auguste Dupin.
Matthew Pearl offers a solution to the mystery of Poe’s death in The Poe Shadow (e-book | e-audio | print | audio); Kim Newman imagines Poe (along with many other historical figures) as a vampire in The Bloody Red Baron (e-book | print); in Kingsley Amis’s alternate-history The Alteration (e-book | print), Poe is a minor character, a general in the army of the Republic of New England.
For Poe nonfiction, John Evangelist Walsh offers his own solution to Poe’s final days in Midnight Dreary (print); J.W. Ocker visits Poe homes and other historical sites in Poe-Land (e-book); and Kristy Robinett explains how the ghost of Poe has aided her in her work as a medium in Forevermore (e-book).
The Edgar Award, named for Poe, is given by the Mystery Writers of America to honor each year’s best mystery writing. The anthology In the Shadow of the Master (e-book | print) collects some of Poe’s mystery stories, each accompanied by an essay from a current mystery writer talking about Poe’s importance to their own writing.
We’ll continue our look at Edgar Allan Poe in Friday’s “Music Memories” post, when we look at the large assortment of musical works based on Poe’s poems and stories, or written in honor of him.
Also This Week
January 17, 1820
Anne Brontë was born. Anne’s literary reputation has long been overshadowed by her older sisters, Charlotte and Emily, but in recent decades, there has been a revival of interest in her two novels. Agnes Grey (e-book | e-audio | print) is a semi-autobiographical story of a young governess working for several families, and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (e-book | e-audio | print), now seen as one of the earliest feminist novels, is the story of the scandals and gossip surrounding a mysterious young widow.
January 13, 1970
Shonda Rhimes was born. Rhimes is a television writer and producer who has created some of the successful TV dramas of recent years, including Grey’s Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder. Her shows usually feature large ensemble casts, speedy dialogue, and lots of dramatic plot twists. In her memoir Year of Yes (e-book | e-audio | print | audio), Rhimes writes about accepting the challenge to say “yes” to the unexpected opportunities that come her way.
January 17, 1970
Genndy Tartakovsky was born. Tartakovsky is an animator who directed the movies in the Hotel Transylvania series, in which the monsters from classic horror movies visit their own resort to get away from humans. Among the shows he’s created for television is Samurai Jack (streaming | DVD), the tale of a warrior’s battle to defeat the evil demon who has taken over the world.
January 16, 1980
Lin-Manuel Miranda was born. Miranda is an actor, singer, composer, and playwright whose 2015 musical Hamilton (streaming | CD) was one of the biggest Broadway successes in years. It was such a success that it’s easy to forget that Miranda was already an established figure in musical theater; his first musical, 2008’s In the Heights (streaming), also won a Tony Award as Best Musical. A film adaptation of In the Heights is due to be released next summer.s | 2,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prehistoric shark had video-game teeth
Currently on display at Chicago's Field Museum, "Sue" is the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton ever found. Although the fossilized bones were unearthed 20 years ago, scientists recently discovered the remains of a previously-unknown shark that co-existed along with the dinosaur – and the fish has been named after a classic video game.
Due to the fact that sharks have cartilaginous skeletons which don't fossilize, all that were found were approximately two dozen of the creature's tiny teeth.
Shaped like the alien spaceships from the 80s video game Galaga, these teeth were each less than one millimeter across – they were discovered by Field Museum volunteer Karen Nordquist, as she was sifting through some of the leftover sediment in which Sue's bones were found. As a result, the "new" shark has been named Galagadon nordquistae.
The freshwater fish is thought to have been only 12 to 18 inches long (305 to 457 mm), and was likely related to modern-day "carpet sharks" such as the wobbegong. It would have swum up from the sea into rivers in what is now South Dakota, during the Cretaceous period – about 67 million years ago. Its teeth (pictured above) were probably designed for crushing the shells of invertebrate prey such as snails and crayfish.
"Every species in an ecosystem plays a supporting role, keeping the whole network together," says North Carolina State University lecturer Terry Gates, lead author of a paper on the discovery. "There is no way for us to understand what changed in the ecosystem during the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous without knowing all the wonderful species that existed before."
The paper was recently published in the Journal of Paleontology. | <urn:uuid:201c66c7-744d-4e9d-be17-6058bc8137c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newatlas.com/galagadon-nordquistae-prehistoric-shark/58137/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00332.warc.gz | en | 0.984265 | 378 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.4390678107... | 7 | Prehistoric shark had video-game teeth
Currently on display at Chicago's Field Museum, "Sue" is the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton ever found. Although the fossilized bones were unearthed 20 years ago, scientists recently discovered the remains of a previously-unknown shark that co-existed along with the dinosaur – and the fish has been named after a classic video game.
Due to the fact that sharks have cartilaginous skeletons which don't fossilize, all that were found were approximately two dozen of the creature's tiny teeth.
Shaped like the alien spaceships from the 80s video game Galaga, these teeth were each less than one millimeter across – they were discovered by Field Museum volunteer Karen Nordquist, as she was sifting through some of the leftover sediment in which Sue's bones were found. As a result, the "new" shark has been named Galagadon nordquistae.
The freshwater fish is thought to have been only 12 to 18 inches long (305 to 457 mm), and was likely related to modern-day "carpet sharks" such as the wobbegong. It would have swum up from the sea into rivers in what is now South Dakota, during the Cretaceous period – about 67 million years ago. Its teeth (pictured above) were probably designed for crushing the shells of invertebrate prey such as snails and crayfish.
"Every species in an ecosystem plays a supporting role, keeping the whole network together," says North Carolina State University lecturer Terry Gates, lead author of a paper on the discovery. "There is no way for us to understand what changed in the ecosystem during the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous without knowing all the wonderful species that existed before."
The paper was recently published in the Journal of Paleontology. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Abraham Lincoln Essay
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12th, 1809 and died on April 15th, 1865. He was the 16th President of the United States of America. He served as president of the country from 1861 to 1865 and one of the leaders of the Union representing states that against slavery during the American Civil War.
He grew up in a poor family. Thus, the man was known as a self-educated person. Despite his living condition, he then became a lawyer, a state legislator in Illinois, and a House of Representatives’ one-term member.
As a family man, he was known for being an affectionate husband and father of four children.
Lincoln was in the time of the American Civil War. Hence, as a president, …show more content…
2. The division of the country: (4/3/1861)
In the 1860 presidential election, Abraham Lincoln won and became the 16th president of the United States. He, representing Republicans, opposed the idea of expanding slavery into the country’s western territories. On March 4, 1861, the day before Lincoln’s inauguration, seven slave states formed the “Confederacy” or the “South” (four more states joined after the Civil War was triggered). The anti-slave states that remained were known as the "Union" or the "North".
3. The American Civil War (1861-1865)
In the spring of 1861, the tension between the “North” and the “South” grew bigger and exploded into the American Civil War. Four more southern states joined in the Confederate after the war was triggered. The war lasted for 4 years and brought back nothing but a huge damage to the country in term of people and | <urn:uuid:a8977b1d-17f4-4f72-b3af-0c926e65ed7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/abraham-lincoln/FKJFKS335J | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.987124 | 372 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.403304219... | 1 | Abraham Lincoln Essay
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12th, 1809 and died on April 15th, 1865. He was the 16th President of the United States of America. He served as president of the country from 1861 to 1865 and one of the leaders of the Union representing states that against slavery during the American Civil War.
He grew up in a poor family. Thus, the man was known as a self-educated person. Despite his living condition, he then became a lawyer, a state legislator in Illinois, and a House of Representatives’ one-term member.
As a family man, he was known for being an affectionate husband and father of four children.
Lincoln was in the time of the American Civil War. Hence, as a president, …show more content…
2. The division of the country: (4/3/1861)
In the 1860 presidential election, Abraham Lincoln won and became the 16th president of the United States. He, representing Republicans, opposed the idea of expanding slavery into the country’s western territories. On March 4, 1861, the day before Lincoln’s inauguration, seven slave states formed the “Confederacy” or the “South” (four more states joined after the Civil War was triggered). The anti-slave states that remained were known as the "Union" or the "North".
3. The American Civil War (1861-1865)
In the spring of 1861, the tension between the “North” and the “South” grew bigger and exploded into the American Civil War. Four more southern states joined in the Confederate after the war was triggered. The war lasted for 4 years and brought back nothing but a huge damage to the country in term of people and | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The development of a caring learning environment does not just magically occur after the first week of school. Creating a successful classroom community involves the teacher's careful planning of curriculum that incorporates cummunity building into the daily lesson plans. Therefore I will give students as many opportunities as possible to form positive relationships with each other. In an English classroom, I believe it is especially important that there is a level of trust and respect among students and teachers in order for everyone to freely participate in thoughtful discussion. As often as possible, I would have students form small groups, and write funny or interesting things about themselves to share with each other. I would also invite students to express their thoughts on a subject within a roundtable or “fishbowl” discussion format, in which they would be able to learn more about their peers’ thoughts and feelings towards different ideas.
Furthermore, I would encourage students to share their thoughts in various writing prompts and journal entries. I think it is important for students to collaborate as often as possible in order for them to grow comfortable speaking within their groups, and then in whole class discussions as well. Students may feel reluctant if they are not frequently given an opportunity to gain confidence in their ability to speak their minds in front of their peers, much less the teacher. I also think it is important for students to have some degree of autonomy in the classroom. For example, they could be involved in creating a list of classroom rules or guidelines. This would give students a sense of responsibility, while holding themselves accountable for the rules they felt were important to the classroom. | <urn:uuid:d5be99a5-b8d8-4ad2-b89e-3390f85d27dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hunter-cuny.digication.com/rob_garniers_teaching_portfolio/Developing_a_Caring_Learning_Environment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00337.warc.gz | en | 0.98473 | 316 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4033391773700... | 4 | The development of a caring learning environment does not just magically occur after the first week of school. Creating a successful classroom community involves the teacher's careful planning of curriculum that incorporates cummunity building into the daily lesson plans. Therefore I will give students as many opportunities as possible to form positive relationships with each other. In an English classroom, I believe it is especially important that there is a level of trust and respect among students and teachers in order for everyone to freely participate in thoughtful discussion. As often as possible, I would have students form small groups, and write funny or interesting things about themselves to share with each other. I would also invite students to express their thoughts on a subject within a roundtable or “fishbowl” discussion format, in which they would be able to learn more about their peers’ thoughts and feelings towards different ideas.
Furthermore, I would encourage students to share their thoughts in various writing prompts and journal entries. I think it is important for students to collaborate as often as possible in order for them to grow comfortable speaking within their groups, and then in whole class discussions as well. Students may feel reluctant if they are not frequently given an opportunity to gain confidence in their ability to speak their minds in front of their peers, much less the teacher. I also think it is important for students to have some degree of autonomy in the classroom. For example, they could be involved in creating a list of classroom rules or guidelines. This would give students a sense of responsibility, while holding themselves accountable for the rules they felt were important to the classroom. | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presentation Paper: Plato
Plato is one of the world’s best-known and most widely studied philosophers and intellectuals throughout history. Although very little is actually known about his life, which has forced scholars to construct most of his biography; with the help of his writings and the writings of other great philosophers and intellects. This has created a lot of controversy throughout the academic community, and scholars still debate whether all of Plato’s works are authentic. They also debate what order his major works were written, and if Plato was writing before the execution of Socrates 399 B.C.E. () On the other hand, most agree that Plato’s major works can be divided into three distinct groups, Socratic Dialogues, Middle Period and Later Dialogues. A large majority of scholars also agree that Plato’s earliest works are the most reliable and accurate recordings of Socrates teachings.
It is widely accepted amongst scholars that Plato was born between 428-427 B.C.E, to an aristocratic family that lived in Athens for generations. Although his father, Ariston, was not an overly wealthy man or of high status. (Mason 4) Plato’s birth name was Aristocles, and that Plato derived from Platon, a nickname he gained which roughly translates into “the broad.” It is believed that this nickname comes from either his wide shoulders, his wide range of styles, or possibly from the size of his four head. (Ritchie 3) He had two brothers, Glaucon and Adeimantus, and a sister, Potone. Plato was of the youngest of three children. He uses his brothers as characters in three of his dialogues. (Ritchie 2) Plato’s father, Ariston, died when he was just a young boy. His mother, Pericitione, remarried a man named Pyrilampes. She had a child with her new husband, Antiphon, who also appeared as a character in one of Plato’s dialogues. (Press 14) Plato would have received an education typical of boys in his social class. This would likely consisted of first poetry and music, both subjects were thought to be character building rather than career preparation. (Press 14) Aristotle, a student of Plato’s, writes that when Plato was a young man he studied under Cratylus, who was a student of Heracleitus, famous for the study of cosmology which is based on the idea of the universe being made of fire. (Taylor 2) Plato was in the Athens military from 409 BC to 404 BC, during the Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta between 431 BC and 404 BC. After the war, Plato decided he no longer wanted to be in the military and would pursue a political career. (Mason 4) He joined the Oligarchy of the 30 tyrants in Athens in 404 BC. Plato would quickly leave the organization due to their violent acts. Due to the political unsuitability of Athens, Plato was unsure if he wanted a career in politics, and with the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C. (Ritchie 15) Plato had completely given up on Athens politics. After the execution of Socrates, Plato, along with other friends of Socrates left Athens to travel for the next 12 years. During this time Plato traveled to Egypt, Sicily and Italy, studying a wide variety of topics, such as, the works of other scholars, geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. (Mason 5)
Plato returned to Athens in roughly 387 BC, settling on land that used to be owned by Academos. There he built what many referred to as The Academy. (Taylor 6) The Academy was an institution Plato founded to devote research and thought to philosophy and the sciences. Plato’s Academy was unlike any other institution of its kind. There was no formal organization, anyone who could participate and be self-supporting could attend. () At Plato’s Academy there was no regular lectures, seminars, nor public readings. The Academy was not like a typical academic institution in which the teachers pass on information to the students, rather teachers make suggestions and guide students to make their own decisions. By doing this Plato is… | <urn:uuid:36f30834-b090-42ef-8188-a64ff372ff1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Plato-Presentation-Paper-588607.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.986823 | 879 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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Plato is one of the world’s best-known and most widely studied philosophers and intellectuals throughout history. Although very little is actually known about his life, which has forced scholars to construct most of his biography; with the help of his writings and the writings of other great philosophers and intellects. This has created a lot of controversy throughout the academic community, and scholars still debate whether all of Plato’s works are authentic. They also debate what order his major works were written, and if Plato was writing before the execution of Socrates 399 B.C.E. () On the other hand, most agree that Plato’s major works can be divided into three distinct groups, Socratic Dialogues, Middle Period and Later Dialogues. A large majority of scholars also agree that Plato’s earliest works are the most reliable and accurate recordings of Socrates teachings.
It is widely accepted amongst scholars that Plato was born between 428-427 B.C.E, to an aristocratic family that lived in Athens for generations. Although his father, Ariston, was not an overly wealthy man or of high status. (Mason 4) Plato’s birth name was Aristocles, and that Plato derived from Platon, a nickname he gained which roughly translates into “the broad.” It is believed that this nickname comes from either his wide shoulders, his wide range of styles, or possibly from the size of his four head. (Ritchie 3) He had two brothers, Glaucon and Adeimantus, and a sister, Potone. Plato was of the youngest of three children. He uses his brothers as characters in three of his dialogues. (Ritchie 2) Plato’s father, Ariston, died when he was just a young boy. His mother, Pericitione, remarried a man named Pyrilampes. She had a child with her new husband, Antiphon, who also appeared as a character in one of Plato’s dialogues. (Press 14) Plato would have received an education typical of boys in his social class. This would likely consisted of first poetry and music, both subjects were thought to be character building rather than career preparation. (Press 14) Aristotle, a student of Plato’s, writes that when Plato was a young man he studied under Cratylus, who was a student of Heracleitus, famous for the study of cosmology which is based on the idea of the universe being made of fire. (Taylor 2) Plato was in the Athens military from 409 BC to 404 BC, during the Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta between 431 BC and 404 BC. After the war, Plato decided he no longer wanted to be in the military and would pursue a political career. (Mason 4) He joined the Oligarchy of the 30 tyrants in Athens in 404 BC. Plato would quickly leave the organization due to their violent acts. Due to the political unsuitability of Athens, Plato was unsure if he wanted a career in politics, and with the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C. (Ritchie 15) Plato had completely given up on Athens politics. After the execution of Socrates, Plato, along with other friends of Socrates left Athens to travel for the next 12 years. During this time Plato traveled to Egypt, Sicily and Italy, studying a wide variety of topics, such as, the works of other scholars, geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. (Mason 5)
Plato returned to Athens in roughly 387 BC, settling on land that used to be owned by Academos. There he built what many referred to as The Academy. (Taylor 6) The Academy was an institution Plato founded to devote research and thought to philosophy and the sciences. Plato’s Academy was unlike any other institution of its kind. There was no formal organization, anyone who could participate and be self-supporting could attend. () At Plato’s Academy there was no regular lectures, seminars, nor public readings. The Academy was not like a typical academic institution in which the teachers pass on information to the students, rather teachers make suggestions and guide students to make their own decisions. By doing this Plato is… | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These daguerreotypes from the 1840s and '50s — newly restored in vivid color — capture a generation of Americans that lived through the Revolutionary War and the execution of Marie Antoinette.
The first photograph ever taken — a blur of gray shapes captured in 1826 or 1827 — doesn't resemble the photography we know today. In fact, modern photography wouldn't come into focus until around the 1840s.
It likely took the creator of the first photograph, Nicéphore Niépce, at least a few hours and perhaps several days of exposure to capture his image. Taken from a window in Burgundy, France, the image was immortalized on a pewter plate coated in bitumen that was diluted in lavender oil.
The process was called "heliography," but the method took on a more efficient form in 1838 when Niépce's partner, Louis Daguerre, took the oldest known photograph of a person.
The product, naturally dubbed a "daguerreotype," was presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1839.
The daguerreotype quickly became the most popular form of photography. As the method was refined and advanced, it only required people to sit still for about a minute to capture their portrait, thought sometimes children would be bound and restrained in order to keep them from moving while their image was being captured.
The process was nonetheless rather involved compared to today's standards of photography. First, a sheet of silver-plated metal had to be polished and made reflective. That sheet was treated with fumes that rendered it light-sensitive, transferred to a camera using a light-proof box, and finally, it was exposed to light.
An image would then be left on the surface of the metal — a direct-positive image, not a negative like in modern film photography — which would be treated with hot mercury and fixed with a salt solution. The result was a remarkably detailed image in black, white, and gray.
The method was used to capture landscapes and and portraits, as moving images would turn out blurry. The daguerreotype became the foundation for the printing process throughout the latter half of the 19th century, and remained immensely popular even after Kodak released the first commercially available celluloid film in 1889.
The photographs in the gallery above are all daguerreotypes from the 1840s and '50s, when the method was most popular. Daguerreotypes were also used by one of the earliest photographers in American history, Mathew Brady, known for his startling images of the American Civil War.
Because photography in the 19th century was so involved, the art form was mostly reserved for professionals. It also wasn't cheap to get a portrait. In 1842, a daguerreotype could go for anywhere from $81 to $195 by today's standards. Thus, many of the people in the gallery above were likely of considerable means.
But perhaps most notable about these portraits is that they are of arguably the oldest generation of people ever to be immortalized on film. Some of the older faces in the gallery could have been born in the late 1700s, rendering these portraits the first visual record of themselves that they had; it was the first time they could look at their own faces without looking into a mirror.
The colorization process has been rendered significantly more efficient since digitization. Matt Loughrey, who colorized these portraits, uses a computer program that recognizes the relationship between greyscale hues and their corresponding colors. He corresponds with libraries and museums for original and high-quality scans of photographs; high-quality scans with clear resolution are integral to rendering an accurate colorization
Among his favorite periods to colorize is the American Civil War because it's "a very storyful era," he says. Indeed, on the faces of those pictured above are the stories of two wars on American soil, the agita of everyday life before the turn of the century, and the recognizable glimpse of excitement for having one's photo taken for the first time.
Next up, check out these fantastic colorized photos of New York City from 100 years ago. Then, explore the mugshots of 33 of the most recognizable criminals — in vivid color. | <urn:uuid:4e721df9-445e-4487-9adc-218d9aa4ea12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://allthatsinteresting.com/colorized-1840s-portraits | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.981847 | 874 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4126848578453... | 11 | These daguerreotypes from the 1840s and '50s — newly restored in vivid color — capture a generation of Americans that lived through the Revolutionary War and the execution of Marie Antoinette.
The first photograph ever taken — a blur of gray shapes captured in 1826 or 1827 — doesn't resemble the photography we know today. In fact, modern photography wouldn't come into focus until around the 1840s.
It likely took the creator of the first photograph, Nicéphore Niépce, at least a few hours and perhaps several days of exposure to capture his image. Taken from a window in Burgundy, France, the image was immortalized on a pewter plate coated in bitumen that was diluted in lavender oil.
The process was called "heliography," but the method took on a more efficient form in 1838 when Niépce's partner, Louis Daguerre, took the oldest known photograph of a person.
The product, naturally dubbed a "daguerreotype," was presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1839.
The daguerreotype quickly became the most popular form of photography. As the method was refined and advanced, it only required people to sit still for about a minute to capture their portrait, thought sometimes children would be bound and restrained in order to keep them from moving while their image was being captured.
The process was nonetheless rather involved compared to today's standards of photography. First, a sheet of silver-plated metal had to be polished and made reflective. That sheet was treated with fumes that rendered it light-sensitive, transferred to a camera using a light-proof box, and finally, it was exposed to light.
An image would then be left on the surface of the metal — a direct-positive image, not a negative like in modern film photography — which would be treated with hot mercury and fixed with a salt solution. The result was a remarkably detailed image in black, white, and gray.
The method was used to capture landscapes and and portraits, as moving images would turn out blurry. The daguerreotype became the foundation for the printing process throughout the latter half of the 19th century, and remained immensely popular even after Kodak released the first commercially available celluloid film in 1889.
The photographs in the gallery above are all daguerreotypes from the 1840s and '50s, when the method was most popular. Daguerreotypes were also used by one of the earliest photographers in American history, Mathew Brady, known for his startling images of the American Civil War.
Because photography in the 19th century was so involved, the art form was mostly reserved for professionals. It also wasn't cheap to get a portrait. In 1842, a daguerreotype could go for anywhere from $81 to $195 by today's standards. Thus, many of the people in the gallery above were likely of considerable means.
But perhaps most notable about these portraits is that they are of arguably the oldest generation of people ever to be immortalized on film. Some of the older faces in the gallery could have been born in the late 1700s, rendering these portraits the first visual record of themselves that they had; it was the first time they could look at their own faces without looking into a mirror.
The colorization process has been rendered significantly more efficient since digitization. Matt Loughrey, who colorized these portraits, uses a computer program that recognizes the relationship between greyscale hues and their corresponding colors. He corresponds with libraries and museums for original and high-quality scans of photographs; high-quality scans with clear resolution are integral to rendering an accurate colorization
Among his favorite periods to colorize is the American Civil War because it's "a very storyful era," he says. Indeed, on the faces of those pictured above are the stories of two wars on American soil, the agita of everyday life before the turn of the century, and the recognizable glimpse of excitement for having one's photo taken for the first time.
Next up, check out these fantastic colorized photos of New York City from 100 years ago. Then, explore the mugshots of 33 of the most recognizable criminals — in vivid color. | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the settlement of the colonies now composing the United States, and the settlement of a legislature in each of them, that legislature, in some cases, finding that the enacting a complete code of laws which should reach every transaction needing legislation, would be far beyond their time and abilities, adopted, by an express act of their own, the laws of England as they stood at that date, comprehending the common law, statutes to that period, and the chancery law. In other cases, instead of adopting them by an express statute of their own, they considered themselves as having brought with them, and been, even on their passage, under the constant obligation of the laws of the mother country, and on their arrival they continued to practice them without any act of adoption, which practice or usage is evidence that there was an adoption by general consent. In the case of Connecticut, they did not adopt the common law of England at all as their basis, but declared by an act of their own, that the law of God, as it stood revealed in the Old and New Testaments, should be the basis of their laws, to be subject to such alterations as they should make. In all the cases where the common law, or laws of England, were adopted either expressly or tacitly, the legislatures held of course, and exercised the power of making additions and alterations. As the different States were settled at very different periods, and the adoption for each State was the laws of England as they stood at the moment of the adoption by the State, it is evident that the system as adopted in 1607 by Virginia, was one thing, as by Pennsylvania was another thing, as by Georgia, in 1759, was still a different one. And when to this is added the very diversified modifications of the adopted code, produced by the subsequent laws passed by the legislatures of the different States, the system of common law in force in any one State on the 24th of September, 1789, when Congress assumed the jurisdiction given them by the Constitution, was very different from the systems in force at the same moment in the several other States: that in all of these the common law was in force by virtue of the adoption of the State, express or tacit, and that it was not in force in Connecticut, because they had never adopted it. | <urn:uuid:b706a1a5-a2db-494f-8061-c4a1613d682c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.latterdaysaintwatchtower.com/home/united-states-adopted-common-law-as-its-law | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.988757 | 471 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.1113785952... | 14 | On the settlement of the colonies now composing the United States, and the settlement of a legislature in each of them, that legislature, in some cases, finding that the enacting a complete code of laws which should reach every transaction needing legislation, would be far beyond their time and abilities, adopted, by an express act of their own, the laws of England as they stood at that date, comprehending the common law, statutes to that period, and the chancery law. In other cases, instead of adopting them by an express statute of their own, they considered themselves as having brought with them, and been, even on their passage, under the constant obligation of the laws of the mother country, and on their arrival they continued to practice them without any act of adoption, which practice or usage is evidence that there was an adoption by general consent. In the case of Connecticut, they did not adopt the common law of England at all as their basis, but declared by an act of their own, that the law of God, as it stood revealed in the Old and New Testaments, should be the basis of their laws, to be subject to such alterations as they should make. In all the cases where the common law, or laws of England, were adopted either expressly or tacitly, the legislatures held of course, and exercised the power of making additions and alterations. As the different States were settled at very different periods, and the adoption for each State was the laws of England as they stood at the moment of the adoption by the State, it is evident that the system as adopted in 1607 by Virginia, was one thing, as by Pennsylvania was another thing, as by Georgia, in 1759, was still a different one. And when to this is added the very diversified modifications of the adopted code, produced by the subsequent laws passed by the legislatures of the different States, the system of common law in force in any one State on the 24th of September, 1789, when Congress assumed the jurisdiction given them by the Constitution, was very different from the systems in force at the same moment in the several other States: that in all of these the common law was in force by virtue of the adoption of the State, express or tacit, and that it was not in force in Connecticut, because they had never adopted it. | 485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His life was cut short when, in a fit of youthful passion, and while his contemporaries were doing everything in their power to avoid it, he signed up to fight in the Franco-Prussian war and was tragically killed in action on his first campaign at the age of twenty-eight. Although he left us with some remarkable and accomplished works, many scholars believe that the true tragedy of his early death was the phenomenal promise his paintings showed, sadly, never to be realised.
Bazille and the Impressionists
Frederic moved to Paris in 1862 to attend medical school in order to appease his parents' request that he have a proper career, but painting was his passion. Initially inspired by an exhibit of Delacroix's work with its vivid colours and expressive brushwork, Bazille new that he would be a painter and he sought out like minds and teachers from the moment he entered Paris. While studying with Charles Glyere, Frederic met and befriended fellow rebel painters, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley who had all been similarly inspired by Delacroix's new style.
The group worked together and found that they shared views on what art is and should be. They believed in portraying the realistic beauty of life and landscape through colour and light, and together that developed new and inspiring techniques of application and composition. They were to become known as the Impressionists, and their movement was to change the art world forever. The financial support that Frederic received from his parents to attend his medical studies proved very useful as most of his new friends were living hand-to-mouth.
Bazille became the defacto banker for their artistic endeavours and frequently and gladly shared his studio space with his fellow artists. Although Frederic never actually exhibited his work as an impressionist as their first exhibit of 1874 came after his death, he is still considered one of the founding members of the movement.
Style and Techniques
Bazille could, in fact be termed a pre-impressionist or realist. His works were most generally of mundane subjects and landscapes, but his use of light and his fascination with the way light illuminated human skin made his everyday compositions sing with a realism that was unsurpassed in his day. The impressionist style of painting in the open air was fully embraced by Frederic. Artists had long gone into nature to make sketches for their paintings to be finished in their studios, but Bazille and his fellow painters would execute their works from start to finish en plein air following in the very worthy footsteps of Eugene Boudin and J.M.W. Turner.
Frederic's works are known to have a darker and perhaps more realistic palette than that of his fellow impressionists; his figures had a more defined construction and his lines and markings are altogether crisper. However, it is widely thought that given time, Bazille's work would have come to resemble the more traditional impressionist work in its freedom of expression and may indeed have surpassed many. His work showed an honesty and a naiveté that was not obvious in his more famous contemporaries of the time.
Certainly, Frederic's skill was most apparent in his depiction of nudes, particularly the male body. The male nude was a largely overlooked subject matter among Bazille's contemporaries, and so he developed quite a name for himself with these works such as Fisherman with a Net, 1868 and Summer Scene, 1869. They are a masterclass in form and the use of light to express muscle and sinew. Although they were, at the time, considered quite vulgar, they are without doubt some of Bazille's best work.
Still Life with Fish and Other Important Works
Bazille packed a great deal into his short life. At only twenty-three years old he had created one of his most famous and accomplished works, The Pink Dress, 1864. It depicts the artist's cousin sitting facing a view of a village in the distance. Frederic skilfully used the Barbizon technique to draw the viewer's gaze to the brightly lit village in the distance, making the figure in the foreground almost incidental. The technique is used in a very eloquent way showing a great deal of sophistication for an artist so young.
The first of his paintings to be shown, two years later, at the Salon de Paris were Girl at the Piano 1866 and the very excellent Still Life with Fish, 1866. In the latter, the apparent banality of the subject matter notwithstanding, Frederic's use of colour to depict light and form is exceptional making it one of his best and most famous works.
Perhaps the best known of all Bazille's paintings is The Family Reunion, 1867-1868. The work depicts a gathering at his home in Montpellier. There are ten figures in all making up the composition, with the light dappling through the trees above. It is a classic Bazille painting as he was fascinated by the human form in nature. As a result of his detailing it is effectively a composition of ten portraits, each meticulously etched in light. Even in his young years, Frederic was challenging Monet in both style and technique. The painting was accepted by the Salon de Paris Jury for exhibition in 1868 much to the artist's delight. Today it can be found in the Musee d’Orsay in Paris and it is well worth seeking out.
The Legacy of Bazille
Frederic's Legacy to the art world is more subtle than most. While he certainly left us with a great body of work to view and admire, it is perhaps his influence and support of his now very famous friends that we are most grateful for. During his brief but shining life, he ensured that the likes of Monet and Renoir had a place to work and hone their craft. His generosity meant that impressionism had a place to grow and expand, leaving us with masters who have inspired millions the world over. It is interesting to compare the works of Bazille's contemporaries at his age; most of them, Sisley and Cezanne for example, had very shaking beginnings; Sisley's Lane Near a Small Town 1864 is sombre and dark and not at all like the vibrant masterpieces for which he became known, and Cezanne's The Abduction 1867 is crude when compared with his more accomplished later works. Followers of the impressionists should also study the likes of Gustave Caillebotte, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro.
Frederic's works, in contrast, shows great promise at an early stage. If he had been allowed to mature into his skills, there is no telling how far he could have gone. Perhaps if he had not met such an untimely end on the battle field we would be calling him the father of impressionism today, instead of his great friend, Monet. Nonetheless, Bazille's work has seen quite a renaissance of late, with the Musee d'Osray hosting an extensive exhibit of his work in 2017 to great acclaim calling it The Youth of Impressionism. His work is key in letting us see the progression of the movement as most other impressionists of the time reused their youthful canvases and we are mostly left with examples of what they became, not what they were. In Bazille we will always find the honesty and exuberance of youth. | <urn:uuid:72575cd7-7206-4f3e-be7d-2b905e79597c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fredericbazille.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.987393 | 1,522 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4639409780502... | 7 | His life was cut short when, in a fit of youthful passion, and while his contemporaries were doing everything in their power to avoid it, he signed up to fight in the Franco-Prussian war and was tragically killed in action on his first campaign at the age of twenty-eight. Although he left us with some remarkable and accomplished works, many scholars believe that the true tragedy of his early death was the phenomenal promise his paintings showed, sadly, never to be realised.
Bazille and the Impressionists
Frederic moved to Paris in 1862 to attend medical school in order to appease his parents' request that he have a proper career, but painting was his passion. Initially inspired by an exhibit of Delacroix's work with its vivid colours and expressive brushwork, Bazille new that he would be a painter and he sought out like minds and teachers from the moment he entered Paris. While studying with Charles Glyere, Frederic met and befriended fellow rebel painters, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley who had all been similarly inspired by Delacroix's new style.
The group worked together and found that they shared views on what art is and should be. They believed in portraying the realistic beauty of life and landscape through colour and light, and together that developed new and inspiring techniques of application and composition. They were to become known as the Impressionists, and their movement was to change the art world forever. The financial support that Frederic received from his parents to attend his medical studies proved very useful as most of his new friends were living hand-to-mouth.
Bazille became the defacto banker for their artistic endeavours and frequently and gladly shared his studio space with his fellow artists. Although Frederic never actually exhibited his work as an impressionist as their first exhibit of 1874 came after his death, he is still considered one of the founding members of the movement.
Style and Techniques
Bazille could, in fact be termed a pre-impressionist or realist. His works were most generally of mundane subjects and landscapes, but his use of light and his fascination with the way light illuminated human skin made his everyday compositions sing with a realism that was unsurpassed in his day. The impressionist style of painting in the open air was fully embraced by Frederic. Artists had long gone into nature to make sketches for their paintings to be finished in their studios, but Bazille and his fellow painters would execute their works from start to finish en plein air following in the very worthy footsteps of Eugene Boudin and J.M.W. Turner.
Frederic's works are known to have a darker and perhaps more realistic palette than that of his fellow impressionists; his figures had a more defined construction and his lines and markings are altogether crisper. However, it is widely thought that given time, Bazille's work would have come to resemble the more traditional impressionist work in its freedom of expression and may indeed have surpassed many. His work showed an honesty and a naiveté that was not obvious in his more famous contemporaries of the time.
Certainly, Frederic's skill was most apparent in his depiction of nudes, particularly the male body. The male nude was a largely overlooked subject matter among Bazille's contemporaries, and so he developed quite a name for himself with these works such as Fisherman with a Net, 1868 and Summer Scene, 1869. They are a masterclass in form and the use of light to express muscle and sinew. Although they were, at the time, considered quite vulgar, they are without doubt some of Bazille's best work.
Still Life with Fish and Other Important Works
Bazille packed a great deal into his short life. At only twenty-three years old he had created one of his most famous and accomplished works, The Pink Dress, 1864. It depicts the artist's cousin sitting facing a view of a village in the distance. Frederic skilfully used the Barbizon technique to draw the viewer's gaze to the brightly lit village in the distance, making the figure in the foreground almost incidental. The technique is used in a very eloquent way showing a great deal of sophistication for an artist so young.
The first of his paintings to be shown, two years later, at the Salon de Paris were Girl at the Piano 1866 and the very excellent Still Life with Fish, 1866. In the latter, the apparent banality of the subject matter notwithstanding, Frederic's use of colour to depict light and form is exceptional making it one of his best and most famous works.
Perhaps the best known of all Bazille's paintings is The Family Reunion, 1867-1868. The work depicts a gathering at his home in Montpellier. There are ten figures in all making up the composition, with the light dappling through the trees above. It is a classic Bazille painting as he was fascinated by the human form in nature. As a result of his detailing it is effectively a composition of ten portraits, each meticulously etched in light. Even in his young years, Frederic was challenging Monet in both style and technique. The painting was accepted by the Salon de Paris Jury for exhibition in 1868 much to the artist's delight. Today it can be found in the Musee d’Orsay in Paris and it is well worth seeking out.
The Legacy of Bazille
Frederic's Legacy to the art world is more subtle than most. While he certainly left us with a great body of work to view and admire, it is perhaps his influence and support of his now very famous friends that we are most grateful for. During his brief but shining life, he ensured that the likes of Monet and Renoir had a place to work and hone their craft. His generosity meant that impressionism had a place to grow and expand, leaving us with masters who have inspired millions the world over. It is interesting to compare the works of Bazille's contemporaries at his age; most of them, Sisley and Cezanne for example, had very shaking beginnings; Sisley's Lane Near a Small Town 1864 is sombre and dark and not at all like the vibrant masterpieces for which he became known, and Cezanne's The Abduction 1867 is crude when compared with his more accomplished later works. Followers of the impressionists should also study the likes of Gustave Caillebotte, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro.
Frederic's works, in contrast, shows great promise at an early stage. If he had been allowed to mature into his skills, there is no telling how far he could have gone. Perhaps if he had not met such an untimely end on the battle field we would be calling him the father of impressionism today, instead of his great friend, Monet. Nonetheless, Bazille's work has seen quite a renaissance of late, with the Musee d'Osray hosting an extensive exhibit of his work in 2017 to great acclaim calling it The Youth of Impressionism. His work is key in letting us see the progression of the movement as most other impressionists of the time reused their youthful canvases and we are mostly left with examples of what they became, not what they were. In Bazille we will always find the honesty and exuberance of youth. | 1,544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andrew Garnerin Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
André-Jacques Garnerin is famous for his invention of the first ever modern parachute to take off. In 1797, he leaped 3000 feet using a parachute he had invented. His brave act made him the first word’s first parachutist to flaw such a height successfully using a parachute.
Andrew Garnerin was born in Paris, France on 31st January 1769. He conceived his idea of using air resistance balloon to slow down an individual ascending from a high altitude.
His imprisonment came after he was captured by the British army and handed over to Austrians. He later spent three years as a prisoner of war at Buda, Hungary.
Andrew Garnerin began his ballooning activities at a young age. Together with his brother, they were students of Jacques Charles, the ballooning pioneer professor. Between 1766 and 1849, the two were involved in hot air balloon fights. Garnerin ballooning activities eventually lead to his appointment as the France Official Aeronaut.
He first created umbrella-shaped devices to compete with the force of gravity. His first successful parachute came on 22nd October 1797.
The parachute was frameless and was a white canvas with approximately 7m diameter, without a rigid frame. After climbing 3200 feet, Garnerin climbed into the balloon basket before wildly ascending down.
His soft descending power failed mainly due to the failure to include an air vent at the prototype top. He, however, escaped the scare unhurt.
His brave act earned him recognition as the first modern parachutist in the world. After the first trial Garnerin himself ready for his next project. He announced that his net trail would involve a woman passenger. The announcement, however, did not go well with the authorities.
The police, however, issued an injunction against the second balloon ascent trial. The decision was later overturned by the minister of Internal Security hence allowing Garnerin the woman to go on with the act.
Through a local daily, he announced on the day of the duo parachute trial. On 8th July 1798, a vast a crowd turned up to witness the ascent. Garnerin and the woman took several rounds to honor the huge crowd that had turned before boarding the basket balloon.
The parachute moved for 30 km before landing at Goussainville without a hitch.
Ascending in England
Holding the position of an official French Aeronaut, Garnerin and his wife visited England on 5th July 1802. He made his first ascent in the English soil with Edward Hawke Locker. The duo traveled 24 km before landing in Chingford.
When the war between England and France began, Garnerin was forced to return to his country. Using his Air Balloon, he traveled 245 miles to France via Germany.
Andrew Garnerin was married to Jeanne Geneviève, his former student. In most of his ballooning activities, his older brother Jean-Baptiste-Olivier Garnerin and his wife accompanied him.
On 18th August 1823, Andrew Garnerin died during a balloon construction. A wooden beam hit him in his garage.
Andrew Garnerin is recognised for his first parachute jump. | <urn:uuid:77c5e4cc-5674-47bc-9281-a689514f256a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/andrew-garnerin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.983665 | 671 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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Died On :
Birth Place :
André-Jacques Garnerin is famous for his invention of the first ever modern parachute to take off. In 1797, he leaped 3000 feet using a parachute he had invented. His brave act made him the first word’s first parachutist to flaw such a height successfully using a parachute.
Andrew Garnerin was born in Paris, France on 31st January 1769. He conceived his idea of using air resistance balloon to slow down an individual ascending from a high altitude.
His imprisonment came after he was captured by the British army and handed over to Austrians. He later spent three years as a prisoner of war at Buda, Hungary.
Andrew Garnerin began his ballooning activities at a young age. Together with his brother, they were students of Jacques Charles, the ballooning pioneer professor. Between 1766 and 1849, the two were involved in hot air balloon fights. Garnerin ballooning activities eventually lead to his appointment as the France Official Aeronaut.
He first created umbrella-shaped devices to compete with the force of gravity. His first successful parachute came on 22nd October 1797.
The parachute was frameless and was a white canvas with approximately 7m diameter, without a rigid frame. After climbing 3200 feet, Garnerin climbed into the balloon basket before wildly ascending down.
His soft descending power failed mainly due to the failure to include an air vent at the prototype top. He, however, escaped the scare unhurt.
His brave act earned him recognition as the first modern parachutist in the world. After the first trial Garnerin himself ready for his next project. He announced that his net trail would involve a woman passenger. The announcement, however, did not go well with the authorities.
The police, however, issued an injunction against the second balloon ascent trial. The decision was later overturned by the minister of Internal Security hence allowing Garnerin the woman to go on with the act.
Through a local daily, he announced on the day of the duo parachute trial. On 8th July 1798, a vast a crowd turned up to witness the ascent. Garnerin and the woman took several rounds to honor the huge crowd that had turned before boarding the basket balloon.
The parachute moved for 30 km before landing at Goussainville without a hitch.
Ascending in England
Holding the position of an official French Aeronaut, Garnerin and his wife visited England on 5th July 1802. He made his first ascent in the English soil with Edward Hawke Locker. The duo traveled 24 km before landing in Chingford.
When the war between England and France began, Garnerin was forced to return to his country. Using his Air Balloon, he traveled 245 miles to France via Germany.
Andrew Garnerin was married to Jeanne Geneviève, his former student. In most of his ballooning activities, his older brother Jean-Baptiste-Olivier Garnerin and his wife accompanied him.
On 18th August 1823, Andrew Garnerin died during a balloon construction. A wooden beam hit him in his garage.
Andrew Garnerin is recognised for his first parachute jump. | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1937, Their Eyes Were Watching God was published and reviewed by both black and white critics. Black critics received the book differently than white critics did and the book wasn’t liked much by the black community. Many Black critics think that Hurston oversimplified black people’s character. On the contrary, White critics loved it for being an old-fashioned novel of black culture. In Their Eyes Were Watching God, Zora Neale Hurston uses symbols and diction to inform of Janie’s “grand adventures”.Zora Neale Hurston was born in Eatonville, Florida, claiming in her autobiography that she was born January 7th, 1903. Eatonville was the first all-black incorporated town in the nation and her father was the mayor so she didn’t have to worry about racial discrimination. At a young age she was a maid for many white families. Luckily one of her employers sent her to get an education which led her to becoming one of the most captivating writers in America. She started her studies at Morgan Academy, and later went to Barnard College, Howard University, and Columbia University. In 1921, Hurston released her first story and gained much respect from the Harlem Renaissance for her rich writings. Zora Neale Hurston was also able to go on trips to Florida to gather folklore because of Mrs. Rufus Osgood Mason, a patron who helped her with all the funds. After a couple years she published Mules And Men, a novel that gave her mass recognition and a winning ticket to study more folklore in the West Indies. She also wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God, a novel that had a relationship based on her romance with a younger man. Sadly, the book fell between the cracks and was forgotten about until years later.Symbols are a big part and are frequently used all throughout the chapters in Their Eyes Were Watching God. One of the many symbols was the head rag, Jody forced her to put up her hair and wear a head rag over it because he didn’t want men to stare at her. The head rag represented oppression, Jody wanted everyone to know she was under his control and possession. The narrator says,”This business of the head-rag irked her endlessly. But Jody was set on it. Her hair was NOT going to show…” Jody’s very jealous and predominant of Janie (Hurston 55). Another symbol in the novel was the hurricane that hit in the Everglades. It symbolized the strong forces of nature and God, reminding the people that social stratification is feeble and that we are human before class. The narrator says,”The wind came back with triple fury, and put out the light for the last time…their eyes straining against crude walls and their souls asking if He meant to measure their puny might against His.” this shows that they finally realized their power is nothing compared to God’s power (Hurston 160). One other symbol was when Janie and Tea Cake started playing checkers together outside the store. This symbolizes equality for women, Janie was always below her two past husbands, she was more of an object to them rather than a human being. The narrator says,”He(Tea Cake) set it (the checkers) up and began to show her and she found herself glowing inside. Somebody wanted her to play. Someone thought it was natural for her to play.” this shows that Tea Cake treats both men and women equally, he thinks women are as smart as men and they can do the same things men do.The way Zora Neale Hurston structured her novel was one way she used stylistic element. Through the chapters, the structure is in chronological order because Janie is telling her story to Pheoby, starting from the beginning. Janie starts her story by saying,”Ah know exactly what Ah got to tell yuh, but it’s hard to know where to start at.” she ends up beginning when she was a young girl living with her grandma (Hurston 8). Hurston also uses diction in the novel to make the characters come to life and have it seem like the reader is in the book with them. Diction gives a better understanding on how people would talk during this time. Janie says,” Ah don’t mean to bother wid tellin’ ’em nothin’, Pheoby.’Tain’t worth the trouble. You can tell ’em what I say if you wants to.”Hurston is using low diction to make the characters more casual (Hurston 6). Imagery was one other stylistic element that Hurston used. The use of imagery helps picture the characters and settings in the novel. The narrator says,”The men noticed her firm buttocks like she had grape fruits in her hip pockets…” this is showing that even though Janie has aged, she is still shown as sexually attractive in the reader’s mind (Hurston 2). Zora Neale Hurston’s wide variety of stylistic elements helped her novel stand out more compared to others. The majority of this novel was about finding love and happiness even after two broken marriages. In Sheila Hibbens critique, she writes about how Tea Cake was different from Mr. Killicks and Jody, how he showed her true love. Sheila said,”she didn’t get it when she ran off with Joe Starks and got to be the mayor’s wife…” she’s saying that Janie didn’t get the same feelings that she got for Tea Cake when she was with Joe (Hibben 330). Janie was happy with Joe for a little bit, but the love faded away. Sheila also said,”Janie did not get her sweetness when her Grandma married her to Mister Killicks with his sixty acres of West Florida land, and his sagging belly…” he was too old for Janie and all he did was make her work so she had no feelings towards him (Hibben 329). In Sheila’s critique she stated,” He handed her the keys to the kingdom, and their life together(what there was of it) was rapture and fun and tenderness and understanding – the perfect relationship of man and women…” I agree with this because Janie was at her happiest with Tea Cake (Hibben 330). Janie finally feels true love, freedom and happiness with Tea Cake. Their Eyes Were Watching God is a great novel to this day, despite the book’s age. It teaches about the culture and language of the characters, and Janie’s rough journey. Janie finally found her horizon after all the time it took to get there. Their Eyes Were Watching God is one of the most original and unique novels to ever learn about in school. All throughout the chapters you learn about black culture and the dialect that they would share with each other on a day to day basis. This novel is studied in high school and college classes because of its many striking metaphors, dialect, and folklore. The novel is considered a classic because it’s still being used in schools after being published for a long time. There is so much to gain from this novel, it gives off a new sense of hope for the future to whoever reads it. | <urn:uuid:98fa1e90-8e3d-49ea-83b3-5e73ae26ef99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://caveconspringfield.com/in-old-fashioned-novel-of-black-culture-in-their/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.982606 | 1,531 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.211182311... | 4 | In 1937, Their Eyes Were Watching God was published and reviewed by both black and white critics. Black critics received the book differently than white critics did and the book wasn’t liked much by the black community. Many Black critics think that Hurston oversimplified black people’s character. On the contrary, White critics loved it for being an old-fashioned novel of black culture. In Their Eyes Were Watching God, Zora Neale Hurston uses symbols and diction to inform of Janie’s “grand adventures”.Zora Neale Hurston was born in Eatonville, Florida, claiming in her autobiography that she was born January 7th, 1903. Eatonville was the first all-black incorporated town in the nation and her father was the mayor so she didn’t have to worry about racial discrimination. At a young age she was a maid for many white families. Luckily one of her employers sent her to get an education which led her to becoming one of the most captivating writers in America. She started her studies at Morgan Academy, and later went to Barnard College, Howard University, and Columbia University. In 1921, Hurston released her first story and gained much respect from the Harlem Renaissance for her rich writings. Zora Neale Hurston was also able to go on trips to Florida to gather folklore because of Mrs. Rufus Osgood Mason, a patron who helped her with all the funds. After a couple years she published Mules And Men, a novel that gave her mass recognition and a winning ticket to study more folklore in the West Indies. She also wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God, a novel that had a relationship based on her romance with a younger man. Sadly, the book fell between the cracks and was forgotten about until years later.Symbols are a big part and are frequently used all throughout the chapters in Their Eyes Were Watching God. One of the many symbols was the head rag, Jody forced her to put up her hair and wear a head rag over it because he didn’t want men to stare at her. The head rag represented oppression, Jody wanted everyone to know she was under his control and possession. The narrator says,”This business of the head-rag irked her endlessly. But Jody was set on it. Her hair was NOT going to show…” Jody’s very jealous and predominant of Janie (Hurston 55). Another symbol in the novel was the hurricane that hit in the Everglades. It symbolized the strong forces of nature and God, reminding the people that social stratification is feeble and that we are human before class. The narrator says,”The wind came back with triple fury, and put out the light for the last time…their eyes straining against crude walls and their souls asking if He meant to measure their puny might against His.” this shows that they finally realized their power is nothing compared to God’s power (Hurston 160). One other symbol was when Janie and Tea Cake started playing checkers together outside the store. This symbolizes equality for women, Janie was always below her two past husbands, she was more of an object to them rather than a human being. The narrator says,”He(Tea Cake) set it (the checkers) up and began to show her and she found herself glowing inside. Somebody wanted her to play. Someone thought it was natural for her to play.” this shows that Tea Cake treats both men and women equally, he thinks women are as smart as men and they can do the same things men do.The way Zora Neale Hurston structured her novel was one way she used stylistic element. Through the chapters, the structure is in chronological order because Janie is telling her story to Pheoby, starting from the beginning. Janie starts her story by saying,”Ah know exactly what Ah got to tell yuh, but it’s hard to know where to start at.” she ends up beginning when she was a young girl living with her grandma (Hurston 8). Hurston also uses diction in the novel to make the characters come to life and have it seem like the reader is in the book with them. Diction gives a better understanding on how people would talk during this time. Janie says,” Ah don’t mean to bother wid tellin’ ’em nothin’, Pheoby.’Tain’t worth the trouble. You can tell ’em what I say if you wants to.”Hurston is using low diction to make the characters more casual (Hurston 6). Imagery was one other stylistic element that Hurston used. The use of imagery helps picture the characters and settings in the novel. The narrator says,”The men noticed her firm buttocks like she had grape fruits in her hip pockets…” this is showing that even though Janie has aged, she is still shown as sexually attractive in the reader’s mind (Hurston 2). Zora Neale Hurston’s wide variety of stylistic elements helped her novel stand out more compared to others. The majority of this novel was about finding love and happiness even after two broken marriages. In Sheila Hibbens critique, she writes about how Tea Cake was different from Mr. Killicks and Jody, how he showed her true love. Sheila said,”she didn’t get it when she ran off with Joe Starks and got to be the mayor’s wife…” she’s saying that Janie didn’t get the same feelings that she got for Tea Cake when she was with Joe (Hibben 330). Janie was happy with Joe for a little bit, but the love faded away. Sheila also said,”Janie did not get her sweetness when her Grandma married her to Mister Killicks with his sixty acres of West Florida land, and his sagging belly…” he was too old for Janie and all he did was make her work so she had no feelings towards him (Hibben 329). In Sheila’s critique she stated,” He handed her the keys to the kingdom, and their life together(what there was of it) was rapture and fun and tenderness and understanding – the perfect relationship of man and women…” I agree with this because Janie was at her happiest with Tea Cake (Hibben 330). Janie finally feels true love, freedom and happiness with Tea Cake. Their Eyes Were Watching God is a great novel to this day, despite the book’s age. It teaches about the culture and language of the characters, and Janie’s rough journey. Janie finally found her horizon after all the time it took to get there. Their Eyes Were Watching God is one of the most original and unique novels to ever learn about in school. All throughout the chapters you learn about black culture and the dialect that they would share with each other on a day to day basis. This novel is studied in high school and college classes because of its many striking metaphors, dialect, and folklore. The novel is considered a classic because it’s still being used in schools after being published for a long time. There is so much to gain from this novel, it gives off a new sense of hope for the future to whoever reads it. | 1,474 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philosopher, Writer (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western thought.
Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. He died in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.
Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato’s life has been constructed by scholars through his writings and the writings of contemporaries and classical historians. Traditional history estimates Plato’s birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars, tracing later events in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato’s father, Ariston, descended from the kings of Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman Solon.
“All the gold which is under or upon the earth is not enough to give in exchange for virtue.”
Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather, Aristocles, following the tradition of the naming the eldest son after the grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence of this, or that Plato was the eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that “Plato” was a nickname, referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is record that the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.
As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught by some of Athens’ finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as well as Parmenides. These probably helped develop the foundation for Plato’s study of metaphysics (the study of nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).
Plato’s father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is believed to have had two full brothers, one sister and a half brother, though it is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often, members of Plato’s family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of Plato’s pride in his family lineage.
“Wise men speak because they have something to say; Fools because they have to say something.”
As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his course in life. One was meeting the great Greek philosopher Socrates. Socrates’s methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato so much that he soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between 409 and 404 B.C.E. The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two of Plato’s relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new government, part of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens. After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured him on this idea and he turned to a life of study and philosophy.
After Socrates’s death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region, studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in Egypt. During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three distinct periods.
Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview
The first, or early, period occurs during Plato’s travels (399-387 B.C.E.). The Apology of Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates’s death. Other texts in this time period include Protagoras, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues, Plato attempts to convey Socrates’s philosophy and teachings.
In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice, courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings.
“Human behavior flows from three main sources; desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at his own early metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our senses is deceptive and changeable.
Founding the Academy
Sometime around 385 B.C.E., Plato founded a school of learning, known as the Academy, which he presided over until his death. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park named for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until 529 C.E.., when it was closed by Roman Emperor Justinian I, who feared it was a source of paganism and a threat to Christianity. Over its years of operation, the Academy’s curriculum included astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.
“We are twice armed if we fight with faith.”
In 367 B.C.E., Plato was invited by Dion, a friend and disciple, to be the personal tutor of his nephew, Dionysius II, the new ruler of Syracuse (Sicily). Dion believed that Dionysius showed promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under “house arrest.” Eventually, Plato returned to Athens and his Academy. One of his more promising students there was Aristotle, who would take his mentor’s teachings in new directions.
Plato’s final years were spent at the Academy and with his writing. The circumstances surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348 B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep.
Plato’s impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his homeland of Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics, science and nature, morals and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in education have proven to be essential for understanding the entire universe. His work on the use of reason to develop a more fair and just society that is focused on the equality of individuals established the foundation for modern democracy. | <urn:uuid:001e729b-a2e5-446e-b9e1-824f14e67ed6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.holisticmuses.eu/2017/02/27/plato/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.981432 | 1,597 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.4426770210... | 1 | Philosopher, Writer (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western thought.
Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. He died in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.
Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato’s life has been constructed by scholars through his writings and the writings of contemporaries and classical historians. Traditional history estimates Plato’s birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars, tracing later events in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato’s father, Ariston, descended from the kings of Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman Solon.
“All the gold which is under or upon the earth is not enough to give in exchange for virtue.”
Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather, Aristocles, following the tradition of the naming the eldest son after the grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence of this, or that Plato was the eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that “Plato” was a nickname, referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is record that the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.
As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught by some of Athens’ finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as well as Parmenides. These probably helped develop the foundation for Plato’s study of metaphysics (the study of nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).
Plato’s father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is believed to have had two full brothers, one sister and a half brother, though it is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often, members of Plato’s family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of Plato’s pride in his family lineage.
“Wise men speak because they have something to say; Fools because they have to say something.”
As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his course in life. One was meeting the great Greek philosopher Socrates. Socrates’s methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato so much that he soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between 409 and 404 B.C.E. The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two of Plato’s relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new government, part of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens. After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured him on this idea and he turned to a life of study and philosophy.
After Socrates’s death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region, studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in Egypt. During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three distinct periods.
Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview
The first, or early, period occurs during Plato’s travels (399-387 B.C.E.). The Apology of Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates’s death. Other texts in this time period include Protagoras, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues, Plato attempts to convey Socrates’s philosophy and teachings.
In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice, courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings.
“Human behavior flows from three main sources; desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at his own early metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our senses is deceptive and changeable.
Founding the Academy
Sometime around 385 B.C.E., Plato founded a school of learning, known as the Academy, which he presided over until his death. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park named for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until 529 C.E.., when it was closed by Roman Emperor Justinian I, who feared it was a source of paganism and a threat to Christianity. Over its years of operation, the Academy’s curriculum included astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.
“We are twice armed if we fight with faith.”
In 367 B.C.E., Plato was invited by Dion, a friend and disciple, to be the personal tutor of his nephew, Dionysius II, the new ruler of Syracuse (Sicily). Dion believed that Dionysius showed promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under “house arrest.” Eventually, Plato returned to Athens and his Academy. One of his more promising students there was Aristotle, who would take his mentor’s teachings in new directions.
Plato’s final years were spent at the Academy and with his writing. The circumstances surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348 B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep.
Plato’s impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his homeland of Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics, science and nature, morals and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in education have proven to be essential for understanding the entire universe. His work on the use of reason to develop a more fair and just society that is focused on the equality of individuals established the foundation for modern democracy. | 1,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Watergate Scandal was one of the biggest scandals to rock the US. It occurred in the 1970s and changed the way the general public perceived politicians.
The Watergate scandal was a United States political scandal which took place in the 1970?s. It was as a result of the break-in to the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. This led to the indictment of several of Nixon's advisors and the resignation of the President of the United States, Richard Nixon, on the 9th of August, 1974.
On June 16, 1972, a security guard at the Watergate Hotel in Washington , D.C. , found a piece of tape on the lock of the door that led to the National Democratic Headquarters. This foiled break-in attempt at the Watergate scandal was part of a larger campaign by Nixon supporters to tarnish the reputation of Democratic candidates and the Democratic Party. Democratic candidates were harassed, subject to negative campaign ads, and on two separate occasions the National Democratic Headquarters were broken into.
As soon as the attempted break-in at Watergate Hotel scandal became know, president Richard Nixon ordered the entire affair covered up. It became clear that the Nixon presidency had been involved in serious manipulation and abuses of power for years. Millions of dollars coming from Nixon supporters were used to pay for the cover-up in an attempt to hide the truth from Congress and the American people.
The investigation would introduce the American people to such people as John Ehrlichman and Bob Haldeman. Ehrlichman was the President and Chief of the Domestic Council and Haldeman was the Chief of Staff. Both would be fired in a desperate attempt to save the presidency.
The investigation would ask two questions which would forever live in political infamy.The questions were, "What did the president know?" and "When did he know it?"
The investigation into Watergate scandal Summary revealed that Nixon knew about the break-in from the beginning and that he was involved in the cover-up as it progressed.
In the early stages of the Watergate scandal almost of the media reported the break-in as a minor story with little national significance. This was until two young reporters, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward who were working for the Washington Post began to dig deeper into the mystery.
Aided by an informant identified as Deep Throat, Woodward and Bernstein uncovered one of the significant stories of the twentieth century. They became the catalyst in forcing… | <urn:uuid:60d19bb3-c14e-4c99-b6b9-1a746f372d88> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/u-s-History-541534.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982706 | 500 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.011395387351512909,... | 1 | The Watergate Scandal was one of the biggest scandals to rock the US. It occurred in the 1970s and changed the way the general public perceived politicians.
The Watergate scandal was a United States political scandal which took place in the 1970?s. It was as a result of the break-in to the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. This led to the indictment of several of Nixon's advisors and the resignation of the President of the United States, Richard Nixon, on the 9th of August, 1974.
On June 16, 1972, a security guard at the Watergate Hotel in Washington , D.C. , found a piece of tape on the lock of the door that led to the National Democratic Headquarters. This foiled break-in attempt at the Watergate scandal was part of a larger campaign by Nixon supporters to tarnish the reputation of Democratic candidates and the Democratic Party. Democratic candidates were harassed, subject to negative campaign ads, and on two separate occasions the National Democratic Headquarters were broken into.
As soon as the attempted break-in at Watergate Hotel scandal became know, president Richard Nixon ordered the entire affair covered up. It became clear that the Nixon presidency had been involved in serious manipulation and abuses of power for years. Millions of dollars coming from Nixon supporters were used to pay for the cover-up in an attempt to hide the truth from Congress and the American people.
The investigation would introduce the American people to such people as John Ehrlichman and Bob Haldeman. Ehrlichman was the President and Chief of the Domestic Council and Haldeman was the Chief of Staff. Both would be fired in a desperate attempt to save the presidency.
The investigation would ask two questions which would forever live in political infamy.The questions were, "What did the president know?" and "When did he know it?"
The investigation into Watergate scandal Summary revealed that Nixon knew about the break-in from the beginning and that he was involved in the cover-up as it progressed.
In the early stages of the Watergate scandal almost of the media reported the break-in as a minor story with little national significance. This was until two young reporters, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward who were working for the Washington Post began to dig deeper into the mystery.
Aided by an informant identified as Deep Throat, Woodward and Bernstein uncovered one of the significant stories of the twentieth century. They became the catalyst in forcing… | 508 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It has long been assumed, even among the experts, that male bumblebees are less intelligent than their female counterparts. The males are known simply as “male bumblebees” while the female bumblebees are known as the “worker bees,” and these roles are tightly regulated within a bee colony. Since the worker bees have more responsibilities to the colony than male bees, it has been assumed that the worker bees must have developed greater neural activity necessary to the varied tasks that they perform day in and day out. However, a recent study conducted at Queen Mary University of London shows that male bees can be just as smart as the female worker bees.
The study demonstrated that male bees were just as quick as worker bees at learning which flowers contain food and which ones don't after each type of bee was trained by experts to find the flowers with food. Also, male bees and worker bees are on equal footing when it comes to recognizing color, which bees depend on constantly to differentiate objects in the environment. Unlike worker bees, the behavior of male bees does not seem to extend beyond seeking out sex, which is why the male bee has always been considered a relative dimwit next to the responsible and productive worker bees. This study is the first to suggest that this way of thinking may not be correct.
Do you think that the two pieces of evidence used in this study to demonstrate that male bees are just as smart as female bees is conclusive? Or do questions still remain and are further studies still necessary before determining the relative intelligence level of male and female bees? | <urn:uuid:888ed34e-ec23-4be2-8730-9196c30fb239> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.azpest.com/bug-blog/study-finds-male-bees-are-just-as-intelligent-as-female-bees/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.988091 | 317 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.1475013494491577... | 4 | It has long been assumed, even among the experts, that male bumblebees are less intelligent than their female counterparts. The males are known simply as “male bumblebees” while the female bumblebees are known as the “worker bees,” and these roles are tightly regulated within a bee colony. Since the worker bees have more responsibilities to the colony than male bees, it has been assumed that the worker bees must have developed greater neural activity necessary to the varied tasks that they perform day in and day out. However, a recent study conducted at Queen Mary University of London shows that male bees can be just as smart as the female worker bees.
The study demonstrated that male bees were just as quick as worker bees at learning which flowers contain food and which ones don't after each type of bee was trained by experts to find the flowers with food. Also, male bees and worker bees are on equal footing when it comes to recognizing color, which bees depend on constantly to differentiate objects in the environment. Unlike worker bees, the behavior of male bees does not seem to extend beyond seeking out sex, which is why the male bee has always been considered a relative dimwit next to the responsible and productive worker bees. This study is the first to suggest that this way of thinking may not be correct.
Do you think that the two pieces of evidence used in this study to demonstrate that male bees are just as smart as female bees is conclusive? Or do questions still remain and are further studies still necessary before determining the relative intelligence level of male and female bees? | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first plane in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Their plane looked quite different than the ones you fly today. It was made of wood and cloth, and there were no seats inside a cabin—the pilot, who was the only person on the plane, had to lie flat on the wing, completely out in the open! Luckily, that plane didn't fly very high or far. Today, most planes are made out of metal, and passengers sit safely inside an enclosed cabin. Planes usually fly about seven miles high in the sky, and the biggest ones can reach halfway around the world! But despite the differences between the first plane and today's modern ones, they both use the same science to fly. Here's how they work. | <urn:uuid:57301e36-064b-4555-a8ad-f53c90840d14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/how-do-planes-fly/?fbclid=IwAR2GYI3lOOH_r-tmAB3OV_1qk_P402i8It4FEPSSlPmpvj4nc08URBgcdQM | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.980693 | 157 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.33711859583854675,... | 1 | In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first plane in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Their plane looked quite different than the ones you fly today. It was made of wood and cloth, and there were no seats inside a cabin—the pilot, who was the only person on the plane, had to lie flat on the wing, completely out in the open! Luckily, that plane didn't fly very high or far. Today, most planes are made out of metal, and passengers sit safely inside an enclosed cabin. Planes usually fly about seven miles high in the sky, and the biggest ones can reach halfway around the world! But despite the differences between the first plane and today's modern ones, they both use the same science to fly. Here's how they work. | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Civil War Fractional Currency
The situation grew so bad that that ordinary postage stamps were used in place of coins. The problem with the use of postage stamps was that they quickly became dirty, worn, and they stuck together. Of course the Post Office was quite happy to see an increase in the sale of stamps, especially since it didn’t have to process any additional mail. However, the Post Office refused to redeem any damaged stamps which had been used as currency or money.
A newspaper called the Evening Post commented on July 25, 1862:
“There is a good deal of complaint here today against the semi-official statement in the newspapers recently respecting the use of postage stamps as currency. The announcement recently dictated by the Postmaster General is that the Post Office will neither redeem nor exchange postage stamps issued by it, nor will it promise to acknowledge its stamps if soiled by use.”
The newspaper criticized the Post Office’s policy, noting that a large proportion of the stamps sold for use as money were of the five, 10, and 24-cent denominations. The newspaper complained that if the stamps were not redeemable, they were “worthless” to their holders. The government’s solution was to issue small-denomination, ungummed notes utilizing stamp designs.
This stamp-like currency was called Postage Stamp Currency, the first examples were issued in August 1862. In 1863, the Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase asked for a new series of notes that became known as Fractional Currency. These were more colorful and were printed on both sides, which made them much harder to counterfeit. This Fractional Currency was used until silver coins returned to circulation in the 1870s. Acts of 1875 and 1876 provided for the redemption of the Fractional Currency.
The Assistant Treasurers of the United States were authorized upon the presentation at their respective offices for redemption of the Fractional Currency of the United States in sums of $5 or multiples thereof, assorted by denominations and in amounts not to exceed $100, to issue thereon a like amount of silver coin of the denominations of 10, 20, and 25 cents.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | <urn:uuid:5f2be04c-7686-4e0b-be2b-a79b554c3513> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art174404.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.981332 | 503 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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The situation grew so bad that that ordinary postage stamps were used in place of coins. The problem with the use of postage stamps was that they quickly became dirty, worn, and they stuck together. Of course the Post Office was quite happy to see an increase in the sale of stamps, especially since it didn’t have to process any additional mail. However, the Post Office refused to redeem any damaged stamps which had been used as currency or money.
A newspaper called the Evening Post commented on July 25, 1862:
“There is a good deal of complaint here today against the semi-official statement in the newspapers recently respecting the use of postage stamps as currency. The announcement recently dictated by the Postmaster General is that the Post Office will neither redeem nor exchange postage stamps issued by it, nor will it promise to acknowledge its stamps if soiled by use.”
The newspaper criticized the Post Office’s policy, noting that a large proportion of the stamps sold for use as money were of the five, 10, and 24-cent denominations. The newspaper complained that if the stamps were not redeemable, they were “worthless” to their holders. The government’s solution was to issue small-denomination, ungummed notes utilizing stamp designs.
This stamp-like currency was called Postage Stamp Currency, the first examples were issued in August 1862. In 1863, the Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase asked for a new series of notes that became known as Fractional Currency. These were more colorful and were printed on both sides, which made them much harder to counterfeit. This Fractional Currency was used until silver coins returned to circulation in the 1870s. Acts of 1875 and 1876 provided for the redemption of the Fractional Currency.
The Assistant Treasurers of the United States were authorized upon the presentation at their respective offices for redemption of the Fractional Currency of the United States in sums of $5 or multiples thereof, assorted by denominations and in amounts not to exceed $100, to issue thereon a like amount of silver coin of the denominations of 10, 20, and 25 cents.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This memorial commemorates Raoul Wallenberg, a Swedish diplomat who saved the lives of thousands of Hungarian Jews.
Raoul Wallenberg was born in 1912. During the Second World War, he was a Swedish diplomat in Budapest, Hungary. Between July and December 1944, he could save the lives of tens of thousands Jews by giving them a dipomatic status and house them in diplomatic buildings.
On 17 January 1945 he was arrested by the Soviets after they captured Budapest. They said he died in March. Later investigation find out he was shot as prisioner in 1947.
After the war, Raoul Wallenberg has been honored numerous times. The Yad Vashem-institute designated him one of the "Righteous Among the Nations".
Do you have more information about this location? Inform us! | <urn:uuid:4648eb09-5ac5-4c24-a47c-9fd8c471c7b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tracesofwar.com/sights/8949/Memorial-Raoul-Wallenberg-Stockholm.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.981403 | 162 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.553081810474395... | 4 | This memorial commemorates Raoul Wallenberg, a Swedish diplomat who saved the lives of thousands of Hungarian Jews.
Raoul Wallenberg was born in 1912. During the Second World War, he was a Swedish diplomat in Budapest, Hungary. Between July and December 1944, he could save the lives of tens of thousands Jews by giving them a dipomatic status and house them in diplomatic buildings.
On 17 January 1945 he was arrested by the Soviets after they captured Budapest. They said he died in March. Later investigation find out he was shot as prisioner in 1947.
After the war, Raoul Wallenberg has been honored numerous times. The Yad Vashem-institute designated him one of the "Righteous Among the Nations".
Do you have more information about this location? Inform us! | 176 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were also philosophers who were struggling to understand the world and how one comes to know God. Heracleitus (540 B.C.) was a philosopher who tried to explain the world in which we all live. He believed that there was a principle called “The logos” which was like human reason and gave order to the world. Philo of Alexandria (15 B.C. – A.D. 50) was a Jewish philosopher, who believed that the logos existed between God and the universe. It had created everything that we see, touch, and know. It helped us to know and think about the existence of God. The logos was the glue of the universe. He believed that God worked through the logos to give order to the world. Does this sound rather philosophical? The answer is yes, but they were looking to understand the existence of our universe and themselves.
Just as Luke wrote his gospel in order to help a single person named Theophilus, the Apostle John wanted to help an entire group of people believe that Jesus is God (John 20:31). So he started his gospel with something they already knew. He used their Greek word logos in order to introduce them to Jesus. He is going to introduce them and us to someone who is beyond our understanding. He is beyond us . . .
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. John 1:1 (NASB)
Word Was in the Beginning
Just like Luke, John starts at the beginning. While Luke started with the reason for writing his gospel, John starts at the real beginning, before anything was in existence – except for the logos.
The Greek word for “was” in John 1:1 is in the imperfect tense. That means there was continuous repetitive action in the past. It was the Word or logos that was existing before there was a beginning – before the beginning began. That is the logos was not created. It was always existing. If we could go back in time we would always find the logos already existing.
Word Was With God
The logos was also with God. The philosophers of his day would probably not have agreed with this statement. They viewed the logos as a force. But John says that the logos is not a force. There was a relationship between the logos and God when he says, “with.” They were not distant. The logos was with God. There was a personal relationship between them. So, the logos existed before there was a beginning, and the logos was with God.
Word Was God
Next we are told that the logos was God. This logos is not the philosopher’s divine reason or some creative force, but God Himself. The actual Greek text reads differently than our English Bibles. The word order is reversed. Here is the Greek text,
. . . kai theos en ho logos.
A literal translation of this Greek phrase would be “and God was the Word.” The Greek language indicates the subject when the definite article, ho, precedes the subject. The Greek word logos means “Word”. Therefore, ho logos (the Word) is the subject and theos (God) is the predicate since it does not have a definite article before it. It is an error to translate this phrase as “the Word was a god” by arguing that the definite article does not appear before theos. It is also an error to insert an indefinite article since there is no indefinite article in the Greek.
It should be noted that the predicate confers on “the Word” the same substance, nature, or essence as the theos. That is, the Word has all of the attributes of God. Or put another way, the logos is just like theos (God) in every way. The very character of the logos is that of God. The logos is God. There is not one God and the logos. The logos IS God. That is, there is God the Father and God the logos (Word) – Jesus Christ.
How can the logos be with God and be God? That is one of the great mysteries of God. Would we not expect God to be very different from us? The message is that God is not like us. John tells us that this is true. God is a mystery. The scriptures teach that God is the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. James 2:19 says that God is one. Since scripture is always accurate, we must believe that God is one and yet exists in three persons. We call this a trinity.
The philosophers also believed that the logos created the world and John gives them good news. This logos that they have been desiring to understand not only existed before the beginning, not only was with God and was God, but created everything.
He was in the beginning with God. All things came into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has come into being. John 1:2-3 (NASB)
Did you see the “He”? The logos is not an it, a thing, a force, but a “He.” The logos is a being, but He was not created either. He was not a super-human, an angel, or “a god” as some teach.
Now the Holy Spirit makes two very important comments. First, everything that has ever come into being has come into being through the logos. If something came into existence, He created it. If the logos was created, then that would imply the logos had to create itself. That is not possible. Nothing can create itself. Second, we are told that only the logos created anything. That means that no one else did any creating. There is only one Creator and the Creator is the logos.
In Him Was Life
And just in case anyone is comfortable with an incorrect conclusion about who the logos is, John adds this,
In Him was life, and the life was the Light of men. John 1:4 (NASB)
The logos was not created. He has always been alive. He has always been alive because He has life in Himself. Wow, now that is an awesome thought. Have you ever seen a woman give birth to a baby? Have you ever heard a baby cry after leaving its mother’s womb? Some say that the child gains human life on that day, but that is not true. The baby actually has been alive for nine months. It is helpless! It was smaller than the eye can see. But it is an amazing fact that nothing creates itself or anything else before it comes into existence. The logos was not created, because He is the only Creator. He did not need to be created, because He has always been. He does not need to eat, drink, or breathe air. He has life in Himself.
That is an awesome definition of God. God is one who has life in Himself. He is self-sustaining, life-sustaining, and creates things out of nothing.
One of the great joys about God is that He is a mystery. Sometimes we have a low view of God. We think that God is like us (Psalm 50:21). How can God be god if He was like us? But He is not like us. We have no idea where He came from. We will never understand Him completely. We have no clue how anything started. How can a being be life-sustaining? How can any being create something out of nothing? How can a being speak and things appear? How can a being control the forces of the universe? How can a being be God and also be the logos? The answer is simple. He is beyond us . . . His name is Jesus!
What are you going to do with Him? | <urn:uuid:8aa5aa57-dea8-4da7-afeb-b5dd8836a3d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.neverthirsty.org/bible-studies/life-of-christ-before-jesus-physical-birth-a-d-29/the-word/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.986874 | 1,621 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.03233446925878... | 10 | There were also philosophers who were struggling to understand the world and how one comes to know God. Heracleitus (540 B.C.) was a philosopher who tried to explain the world in which we all live. He believed that there was a principle called “The logos” which was like human reason and gave order to the world. Philo of Alexandria (15 B.C. – A.D. 50) was a Jewish philosopher, who believed that the logos existed between God and the universe. It had created everything that we see, touch, and know. It helped us to know and think about the existence of God. The logos was the glue of the universe. He believed that God worked through the logos to give order to the world. Does this sound rather philosophical? The answer is yes, but they were looking to understand the existence of our universe and themselves.
Just as Luke wrote his gospel in order to help a single person named Theophilus, the Apostle John wanted to help an entire group of people believe that Jesus is God (John 20:31). So he started his gospel with something they already knew. He used their Greek word logos in order to introduce them to Jesus. He is going to introduce them and us to someone who is beyond our understanding. He is beyond us . . .
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. John 1:1 (NASB)
Word Was in the Beginning
Just like Luke, John starts at the beginning. While Luke started with the reason for writing his gospel, John starts at the real beginning, before anything was in existence – except for the logos.
The Greek word for “was” in John 1:1 is in the imperfect tense. That means there was continuous repetitive action in the past. It was the Word or logos that was existing before there was a beginning – before the beginning began. That is the logos was not created. It was always existing. If we could go back in time we would always find the logos already existing.
Word Was With God
The logos was also with God. The philosophers of his day would probably not have agreed with this statement. They viewed the logos as a force. But John says that the logos is not a force. There was a relationship between the logos and God when he says, “with.” They were not distant. The logos was with God. There was a personal relationship between them. So, the logos existed before there was a beginning, and the logos was with God.
Word Was God
Next we are told that the logos was God. This logos is not the philosopher’s divine reason or some creative force, but God Himself. The actual Greek text reads differently than our English Bibles. The word order is reversed. Here is the Greek text,
. . . kai theos en ho logos.
A literal translation of this Greek phrase would be “and God was the Word.” The Greek language indicates the subject when the definite article, ho, precedes the subject. The Greek word logos means “Word”. Therefore, ho logos (the Word) is the subject and theos (God) is the predicate since it does not have a definite article before it. It is an error to translate this phrase as “the Word was a god” by arguing that the definite article does not appear before theos. It is also an error to insert an indefinite article since there is no indefinite article in the Greek.
It should be noted that the predicate confers on “the Word” the same substance, nature, or essence as the theos. That is, the Word has all of the attributes of God. Or put another way, the logos is just like theos (God) in every way. The very character of the logos is that of God. The logos is God. There is not one God and the logos. The logos IS God. That is, there is God the Father and God the logos (Word) – Jesus Christ.
How can the logos be with God and be God? That is one of the great mysteries of God. Would we not expect God to be very different from us? The message is that God is not like us. John tells us that this is true. God is a mystery. The scriptures teach that God is the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. James 2:19 says that God is one. Since scripture is always accurate, we must believe that God is one and yet exists in three persons. We call this a trinity.
The philosophers also believed that the logos created the world and John gives them good news. This logos that they have been desiring to understand not only existed before the beginning, not only was with God and was God, but created everything.
He was in the beginning with God. All things came into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has come into being. John 1:2-3 (NASB)
Did you see the “He”? The logos is not an it, a thing, a force, but a “He.” The logos is a being, but He was not created either. He was not a super-human, an angel, or “a god” as some teach.
Now the Holy Spirit makes two very important comments. First, everything that has ever come into being has come into being through the logos. If something came into existence, He created it. If the logos was created, then that would imply the logos had to create itself. That is not possible. Nothing can create itself. Second, we are told that only the logos created anything. That means that no one else did any creating. There is only one Creator and the Creator is the logos.
In Him Was Life
And just in case anyone is comfortable with an incorrect conclusion about who the logos is, John adds this,
In Him was life, and the life was the Light of men. John 1:4 (NASB)
The logos was not created. He has always been alive. He has always been alive because He has life in Himself. Wow, now that is an awesome thought. Have you ever seen a woman give birth to a baby? Have you ever heard a baby cry after leaving its mother’s womb? Some say that the child gains human life on that day, but that is not true. The baby actually has been alive for nine months. It is helpless! It was smaller than the eye can see. But it is an amazing fact that nothing creates itself or anything else before it comes into existence. The logos was not created, because He is the only Creator. He did not need to be created, because He has always been. He does not need to eat, drink, or breathe air. He has life in Himself.
That is an awesome definition of God. God is one who has life in Himself. He is self-sustaining, life-sustaining, and creates things out of nothing.
One of the great joys about God is that He is a mystery. Sometimes we have a low view of God. We think that God is like us (Psalm 50:21). How can God be god if He was like us? But He is not like us. We have no idea where He came from. We will never understand Him completely. We have no clue how anything started. How can a being be life-sustaining? How can any being create something out of nothing? How can a being speak and things appear? How can a being control the forces of the universe? How can a being be God and also be the logos? The answer is simple. He is beyond us . . . His name is Jesus!
What are you going to do with Him? | 1,581 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Erik Haraldsson (885 — 954), nicknamed Eric Bloodaxe was a 10th-century Norwegian ruler. He is thought to have had short-lived terms as King of Norway and twice as King of Northumbria (c. 947–948 and 952–954).
Erik Bloodaxe (“Blodyxa”) was the oldest son of Harald (c.860 — c. 940), the first king to claim sovereignty over all Norway, who ruled his country as a fair and powerful king for over 50 years. He was the greatest king in Norwegian history, respected as the father of his people and a dominant figure of the Viking Era.
The Icelandic sagas say that Harald Fairhair had 20 sons but his kingdom was rather limited and it was not sufficient to provide a legacy for so many sons.
However, many of the details of Harald’s reign are cloaked in mythology and folklore and strikingly, also Erik’s historical records are rather obscure and legendary depictions in the kings’ sagas clearly differ, where Eric takes part in the sagas of his father Harald Fairhair and his younger half-brother Haakon the Good.
It is said that Erik secured his importance by gradually killing all his brothers. These actions probably gave him his nickname “Bloodaxe” and in one of the Latin texts dated to 1200s, Erik is called «fratris interfector» — brother killer.
Erik’s reign in Norway was apparently hard and unpopular, and his royal power was challenged by his one surviving, younger half-brother Hakan, who is said to have grown up in England at King Aethelstan’s Court.
Hakan sailed to Norway to claim their inheritance, and Erik fled to England, where he was occupied with raids in Scotland and around the Irish Sea. Ancient tales say, he was welcomed by Athelstan because of the friendship between his father, Harald Fairhair and Athelstan, who appointed him ruler of the Viking kingdom of Jorvik Northumbria.
However, the English and Irish sources – disagree.
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and various Irish chronicles, Erik became King of Northumbria (c. 947- 94), that is, several years after the death of Athelstan, but a later chronicle of William of Malmesbury mentions diplomatic relations between Athelstan and Harald Fairhair that fit with the fairy tale tradition.
Erik was briefly mentioned in several contemporary or near contemporary sources; there is also his depiction on a coin issued in his name in York, but available historical data about this Viking warrior is very scant.
He is mentioned in ancient Norwegian stories and Icelandic sagas, which identify Eric of Northumbria as a son of the Norwegian king Harald (I) Fairhair and in a number of fairy tales, often with his wife Gunhild, portrayed as an evil witch. Ancient sagas use his nickname: «Blodyxa» (Bloodaxe) and describe him as a typical, violent Viking warrior.
Both the English and Icelandic sources say that Erik was killed in a battle. According to these sources, Erik was accompanied on this occasion by the five kings from the Hebrides and the two earls of Orkney.
Later sources tell us that Erik was killed in an ambush on the desolate Stainmore, on the border of Cumbria, County Durham and North Yorkshire.
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer
Copyright © AncientPages.com All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of AncientPages.com | <urn:uuid:aeee7951-3c19-4fe7-bd73-548a954525f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=9105 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.982555 | 770 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0661314353... | 5 | Erik Haraldsson (885 — 954), nicknamed Eric Bloodaxe was a 10th-century Norwegian ruler. He is thought to have had short-lived terms as King of Norway and twice as King of Northumbria (c. 947–948 and 952–954).
Erik Bloodaxe (“Blodyxa”) was the oldest son of Harald (c.860 — c. 940), the first king to claim sovereignty over all Norway, who ruled his country as a fair and powerful king for over 50 years. He was the greatest king in Norwegian history, respected as the father of his people and a dominant figure of the Viking Era.
The Icelandic sagas say that Harald Fairhair had 20 sons but his kingdom was rather limited and it was not sufficient to provide a legacy for so many sons.
However, many of the details of Harald’s reign are cloaked in mythology and folklore and strikingly, also Erik’s historical records are rather obscure and legendary depictions in the kings’ sagas clearly differ, where Eric takes part in the sagas of his father Harald Fairhair and his younger half-brother Haakon the Good.
It is said that Erik secured his importance by gradually killing all his brothers. These actions probably gave him his nickname “Bloodaxe” and in one of the Latin texts dated to 1200s, Erik is called «fratris interfector» — brother killer.
Erik’s reign in Norway was apparently hard and unpopular, and his royal power was challenged by his one surviving, younger half-brother Hakan, who is said to have grown up in England at King Aethelstan’s Court.
Hakan sailed to Norway to claim their inheritance, and Erik fled to England, where he was occupied with raids in Scotland and around the Irish Sea. Ancient tales say, he was welcomed by Athelstan because of the friendship between his father, Harald Fairhair and Athelstan, who appointed him ruler of the Viking kingdom of Jorvik Northumbria.
However, the English and Irish sources – disagree.
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and various Irish chronicles, Erik became King of Northumbria (c. 947- 94), that is, several years after the death of Athelstan, but a later chronicle of William of Malmesbury mentions diplomatic relations between Athelstan and Harald Fairhair that fit with the fairy tale tradition.
Erik was briefly mentioned in several contemporary or near contemporary sources; there is also his depiction on a coin issued in his name in York, but available historical data about this Viking warrior is very scant.
He is mentioned in ancient Norwegian stories and Icelandic sagas, which identify Eric of Northumbria as a son of the Norwegian king Harald (I) Fairhair and in a number of fairy tales, often with his wife Gunhild, portrayed as an evil witch. Ancient sagas use his nickname: «Blodyxa» (Bloodaxe) and describe him as a typical, violent Viking warrior.
Both the English and Icelandic sources say that Erik was killed in a battle. According to these sources, Erik was accompanied on this occasion by the five kings from the Hebrides and the two earls of Orkney.
Later sources tell us that Erik was killed in an ambush on the desolate Stainmore, on the border of Cumbria, County Durham and North Yorkshire.
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer
Copyright © AncientPages.com All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of AncientPages.com | 772 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Manure : In the 16th and 17th centuries before the invention of commercial fertilizers, everything had to be transported by ship, so large shipments of manure were quite common.
It was shipped dry because in dry form it weighed a lot less than when wet, but once water (at sea) hit it, not only did it become heavier, but the process of fermentation began again, of which a by-product is methane gas (of course). As the stuff was stored below decks in bundles you can see what could (and did) happen: methane began to build up below decks and the first time someone came below at night with a lantern, BOOOOM!
Several ships were destroyed in this manner before it was determined just what was happening.
After that, the bundles of manure were always stamped with the instruction “stow high in transit” on them, which meant the sailors had to stow it high enough off the lower decks so that any water that came into the hold would not touch this volatile cargo and start the production of methane.
Thus evolved the term “S.H.I.T” (Stow High In Transit) which has come down through the centuries and is in use to this very day.
You probably did not know the true history of this word.
Neither did I.
I always thought it was a golf term. | <urn:uuid:4cbe104a-f982-4a15-8b5f-ab4ac6465ed8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://huntingnut.com/index.php?file=viewtopic&name=Forums&p=81486 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.987569 | 284 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1497133523... | 2 | Manure : In the 16th and 17th centuries before the invention of commercial fertilizers, everything had to be transported by ship, so large shipments of manure were quite common.
It was shipped dry because in dry form it weighed a lot less than when wet, but once water (at sea) hit it, not only did it become heavier, but the process of fermentation began again, of which a by-product is methane gas (of course). As the stuff was stored below decks in bundles you can see what could (and did) happen: methane began to build up below decks and the first time someone came below at night with a lantern, BOOOOM!
Several ships were destroyed in this manner before it was determined just what was happening.
After that, the bundles of manure were always stamped with the instruction “stow high in transit” on them, which meant the sailors had to stow it high enough off the lower decks so that any water that came into the hold would not touch this volatile cargo and start the production of methane.
Thus evolved the term “S.H.I.T” (Stow High In Transit) which has come down through the centuries and is in use to this very day.
You probably did not know the true history of this word.
Neither did I.
I always thought it was a golf term. | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Provided by Prince William County Schools (PWCS)
Do you know the difference between xylem and phloem? Meghann Ruleman’s fourth-graders at Swans Creek Elementary School do! Her students got excited about science and learned about plant life by playing games. They also performed experiments that helped them understand the biology behind roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
The students played a form of the game Simon Says in class. They reviewed the parts of a plant, learned about the difference between vascular and nonvascular plants, and demonstrated how xylem, a type of vascular tissue in plants, works. By reaching down to their feet and then standing up to make an X with their bodies, they depicted xylem travelling from a plant’s roots to its leaves bringing water. For phloem, the other vascular transport system, the students demonstrated how food flows down from a plant’s leaves above to the rest of the plant by bringing their hands above their heads and dropping them down to their feet.
Building off these activities, the class conducted an experiment to find out which color food dye absorbed best through the xylem in the celery, making observations over several days.
“On the last day, we pulled apart the celery and you could see the xylem tubes were completely the color of the food dye. The students really got that the xylem is a tube by seeing how it pulled the water up and being able to see the tube filled with colored food dye,” said Ruleman. “Then, we finished by eating some fresh celery so they could again see the xylem tubes as they were eating it.“ | <urn:uuid:652ce1ec-5ac5-40da-b746-a266a87da260> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://princewilliamliving.com/simon-says-identify-your-vascular-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.981832 | 354 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.0257824324071... | 3 | Provided by Prince William County Schools (PWCS)
Do you know the difference between xylem and phloem? Meghann Ruleman’s fourth-graders at Swans Creek Elementary School do! Her students got excited about science and learned about plant life by playing games. They also performed experiments that helped them understand the biology behind roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
The students played a form of the game Simon Says in class. They reviewed the parts of a plant, learned about the difference between vascular and nonvascular plants, and demonstrated how xylem, a type of vascular tissue in plants, works. By reaching down to their feet and then standing up to make an X with their bodies, they depicted xylem travelling from a plant’s roots to its leaves bringing water. For phloem, the other vascular transport system, the students demonstrated how food flows down from a plant’s leaves above to the rest of the plant by bringing their hands above their heads and dropping them down to their feet.
Building off these activities, the class conducted an experiment to find out which color food dye absorbed best through the xylem in the celery, making observations over several days.
“On the last day, we pulled apart the celery and you could see the xylem tubes were completely the color of the food dye. The students really got that the xylem is a tube by seeing how it pulled the water up and being able to see the tube filled with colored food dye,” said Ruleman. “Then, we finished by eating some fresh celery so they could again see the xylem tubes as they were eating it.“ | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Houston Astro’s first baseman Yuli Gurriel hit a home run against Dodgers pitcher Yu Darvish in game three of the World Series, he did something that shocked many people around the world. After circling the bases he quickly returned to the Astro’s dugout, put his fingers on his face, lifted the corners of his eyes, and made a “slated eye” gesture that is known as an offensive gesture towards people of Asian descent.
Gurriel, however, didn’t stop there.
While lifting the corner of his eyes, he also said the word “chinito,” which is also considered offensive towards people of Asian descent.
For many around the world, it was one of the first examples of Latinos discriminating against people of Asian descent. For others, it was an example of the anti-Asian sentiments that already exist in many parts of Latin America.
Gurriel’s gestures have been interpreted in different ways, but unbeknownst to many, his home country of Cuba has a long history of Chinese immigration dating back to the 18th century when Chinese laborers were often shipped to the Caribbean island as slaves or indentured servants.
On the island, like in other parts of Latin America, Cubans of Asian descent were often discriminated against for their cultural practices and language differences.
Gurriel’s actions were entirely offensive and reveal that Latinos can also be capable of acting in racist ways towards other marginalized groups.
Check out the video below to learn more about the history of Chinese immigration in Cuba. | <urn:uuid:209c79ad-6932-4f06-97f3-bd95a55f6eff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://badhombres.wearemitu.com/street-culture/houston-astros-racist-taunt-and-cubas-history-of-chinese-laborers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.984332 | 324 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.1006832867... | 1 | When Houston Astro’s first baseman Yuli Gurriel hit a home run against Dodgers pitcher Yu Darvish in game three of the World Series, he did something that shocked many people around the world. After circling the bases he quickly returned to the Astro’s dugout, put his fingers on his face, lifted the corners of his eyes, and made a “slated eye” gesture that is known as an offensive gesture towards people of Asian descent.
Gurriel, however, didn’t stop there.
While lifting the corner of his eyes, he also said the word “chinito,” which is also considered offensive towards people of Asian descent.
For many around the world, it was one of the first examples of Latinos discriminating against people of Asian descent. For others, it was an example of the anti-Asian sentiments that already exist in many parts of Latin America.
Gurriel’s gestures have been interpreted in different ways, but unbeknownst to many, his home country of Cuba has a long history of Chinese immigration dating back to the 18th century when Chinese laborers were often shipped to the Caribbean island as slaves or indentured servants.
On the island, like in other parts of Latin America, Cubans of Asian descent were often discriminated against for their cultural practices and language differences.
Gurriel’s actions were entirely offensive and reveal that Latinos can also be capable of acting in racist ways towards other marginalized groups.
Check out the video below to learn more about the history of Chinese immigration in Cuba. | 309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Yahdunlim (or Yakhdunlim) was the name of two different kings in Upper Mesopotamia: one of Mari during the 19th century BC and one of Karkemish during the 18th century BC. The former, of Amorite origin, became king after the death of his father Iagitlim. Yahdunlim built Mari up to become one of the major powers of the region. He led a successful campaign to the coast of the Mediterranean. His kingdom was threatened by incursions from various nomad tribes, such as the Canaanites, but he was able to subjugate them and force them to pay tribute. After having established internal peace, he built a temple to the god Shamash.
Elsewhere, Shamshi-Adad I had made himself King of Assyria, and Yahdunlim received pleas for help from kings threatened by Shamshi-Adad's expansionist plans. But before Yahdunlim could move against Shamshi-Adad, he was assassinated by his own servants. In the chaos that followed, Shamshi-Adad occupied Mari. Zimrilim, Iakhdunlim's son and heir, was forced to flee to Aleppo, where he would remain as an exile until Shamshi-Adad's death.
|This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help by expanding it.| | <urn:uuid:6abdf306-2fce-4f7c-98d1-04a1b3be1110> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.theinfolist.com/php/SummaryGet.php?FindGo=Yahdun-Lim | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.985786 | 287 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.0041679400... | 1 | Yahdunlim (or Yakhdunlim) was the name of two different kings in Upper Mesopotamia: one of Mari during the 19th century BC and one of Karkemish during the 18th century BC. The former, of Amorite origin, became king after the death of his father Iagitlim. Yahdunlim built Mari up to become one of the major powers of the region. He led a successful campaign to the coast of the Mediterranean. His kingdom was threatened by incursions from various nomad tribes, such as the Canaanites, but he was able to subjugate them and force them to pay tribute. After having established internal peace, he built a temple to the god Shamash.
Elsewhere, Shamshi-Adad I had made himself King of Assyria, and Yahdunlim received pleas for help from kings threatened by Shamshi-Adad's expansionist plans. But before Yahdunlim could move against Shamshi-Adad, he was assassinated by his own servants. In the chaos that followed, Shamshi-Adad occupied Mari. Zimrilim, Iakhdunlim's son and heir, was forced to flee to Aleppo, where he would remain as an exile until Shamshi-Adad's death.
|This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help by expanding it.| | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Remember, remember the 5th of November, gunpowder, treason and plot...
Will you be celebrating Bonfire Night? Or, to give it its rightful name, Guy Fawkes Night? You probably know that this is when Guy Fawkes (who seemed to prefer the name Guido) was caught red handed underneath the Houses of Parliament in 1605, the House of Lords to be precise, guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder which he and his conspirators intended to use to blow up Parliament. In doing so they hoped that they would kill the King, James I. But did you know that there was an Act of Parliament passed in 1606 - The Observance of 5th November Act 1605, also known as the "Thanksgiving Act"? The Bill was drafted and introduced on 23 January 1605/06 (in those days the first day of the year was in March so January was still in 1605 - but that's another story) and called for a public annual thanksgiving for the failure of the plot. It required church ministers to hold a special service of thanksgiving annually on 5th November during which the text of the act was to be read out loud. Everyone was required to attend and to remain orderly throughout the service. People across London lit bonfires to celebrate the fact that the King had survived the attempt on his life and soon "Gunpowder Treason Day", as it was known, became a state commemoration.
After Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, English Catholics who had been persecuted under her rule had hoped that her successor, James I, would be more tolerant of their religion as he had a Catholic mother. Unfortunately, this wasn't the case and 13 young men decided that violent action was the answer. Today these conspirators would be known as extremists, or terrorists.
As the group worked on the plot, it became clear that innocent people would be hurt or killed in the attack, including some people who even fought for more rights for Catholics and some of the plotters started having second thoughts. It is said that one of the group members sent an anonymous letter to his friend, Lord Monteagle, warning him to stay away from Parliament on November 5th. The warning letter reached the King, who made plans to stop the conspirators. Guy Fawkes, who was in the cellar of parliament with the 36 barrels of gunpowder when the authorities stormed it in the early hours of November 5th, was caught, tortured and executed. The other conspirators were also soon caught and suffered the same fate, with the exception of Francis Tresham who became ill and died in prison.
Several smaller plots had been discovered in the years prior to 1605 and a number of the plotters were already known to the authorities so it seems unlikely that they would have been able to store 36 barrels of gunpowder in the cellar of parliament without anyone noticing and the warning letter is today believed to have been fabricated by the King's officials. It is believed that they already knew about the plot because one of the plotters, Francis Tresham, had informed them of the key points. So historians think the letter was written by the King's officials to explain how he found out about the plot and stopped it. The wording of the letter was quite vague so as to give the officials room to falsify confessions and support their own anti-Catholic agenda. There are two notable things that support this theory : firstly, the letter was unsigned. None of the conspirators seems to have known about the letter and it is reasonable to assume that any one of them might have tried to save themselves from torture and death if they could claim to have written it but none of them did. Secondly, the letter was very vague and said nothing about the details of the plan but still the King and his men knew when and where to catch the plotters and stop the explosion.
The Gunpowder Plot struck a very profound chord with the people of England. In fact, even today, the reigning monarch only enters Parliament once a year, on the State Opening of Parliament. Prior to the Opening, and according to custom, the Yeomen of the Guard search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster and the Queen and Parliament still observe this tradition.
The Observance of 5th November Act 1605 was repealed in 1859, however, it is still a very common custom in the UK to celebrate Guy Fawkes Night. People hold house parties, set off fireworks, light bonfires and burn an effigy of Guy. And, of course, there is lots of party food. Some councils also arrange public displays.
If you are having friends around for a bonfire party, why not put some fire in their bellies with a box of chilli chocolate cupcakes?
I am offering a box of 12 chilli chocolate cupcakes for only £24.00 per box!
That's a massive 50p off each scrummy cupcake!
Yes, I know, it's another crazy deal from me so make the most of it
while you can!
Designs may vary from the picture shown. Minimum order of 12 cupcakes
Last date for orders is Friday 2nd November
Contact me here, to place your order, email firstname.lastname@example.org or private message the Facebook page.
Most importantly folks, please, please, PLEASE remember to keep all your pets indoors as this can be a very scary time for them and don't forget to check your bonfire for hedgehogs before you light it.
Stay safe everyone, have a great time and make sure you follow the fireworks code.
Remember, remember, the 5th of November
Gunpowder, treason and plot
I see no reason why gunpowder, treason
Should ever be forgot!
And don't forget that you can also order your celebration cakes too! Christmas is coming and I am currently taking orders. There is a limited number of slots available so get in quick to avoid disappointment. Use the contact details above for your Christmas orders too!
Sharing the cake love!
By subscribing or contacting us you consent to receiving emails from Julia's Cake & Eat It! | <urn:uuid:83498dd9-207d-4cfe-9b38-fb744b2b3298> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.juliascakeandeatit.co.uk/single-post/2018/10/17/Remember-Remember | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.983496 | 1,253 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4101069867... | 1 | Remember, remember the 5th of November, gunpowder, treason and plot...
Will you be celebrating Bonfire Night? Or, to give it its rightful name, Guy Fawkes Night? You probably know that this is when Guy Fawkes (who seemed to prefer the name Guido) was caught red handed underneath the Houses of Parliament in 1605, the House of Lords to be precise, guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder which he and his conspirators intended to use to blow up Parliament. In doing so they hoped that they would kill the King, James I. But did you know that there was an Act of Parliament passed in 1606 - The Observance of 5th November Act 1605, also known as the "Thanksgiving Act"? The Bill was drafted and introduced on 23 January 1605/06 (in those days the first day of the year was in March so January was still in 1605 - but that's another story) and called for a public annual thanksgiving for the failure of the plot. It required church ministers to hold a special service of thanksgiving annually on 5th November during which the text of the act was to be read out loud. Everyone was required to attend and to remain orderly throughout the service. People across London lit bonfires to celebrate the fact that the King had survived the attempt on his life and soon "Gunpowder Treason Day", as it was known, became a state commemoration.
After Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, English Catholics who had been persecuted under her rule had hoped that her successor, James I, would be more tolerant of their religion as he had a Catholic mother. Unfortunately, this wasn't the case and 13 young men decided that violent action was the answer. Today these conspirators would be known as extremists, or terrorists.
As the group worked on the plot, it became clear that innocent people would be hurt or killed in the attack, including some people who even fought for more rights for Catholics and some of the plotters started having second thoughts. It is said that one of the group members sent an anonymous letter to his friend, Lord Monteagle, warning him to stay away from Parliament on November 5th. The warning letter reached the King, who made plans to stop the conspirators. Guy Fawkes, who was in the cellar of parliament with the 36 barrels of gunpowder when the authorities stormed it in the early hours of November 5th, was caught, tortured and executed. The other conspirators were also soon caught and suffered the same fate, with the exception of Francis Tresham who became ill and died in prison.
Several smaller plots had been discovered in the years prior to 1605 and a number of the plotters were already known to the authorities so it seems unlikely that they would have been able to store 36 barrels of gunpowder in the cellar of parliament without anyone noticing and the warning letter is today believed to have been fabricated by the King's officials. It is believed that they already knew about the plot because one of the plotters, Francis Tresham, had informed them of the key points. So historians think the letter was written by the King's officials to explain how he found out about the plot and stopped it. The wording of the letter was quite vague so as to give the officials room to falsify confessions and support their own anti-Catholic agenda. There are two notable things that support this theory : firstly, the letter was unsigned. None of the conspirators seems to have known about the letter and it is reasonable to assume that any one of them might have tried to save themselves from torture and death if they could claim to have written it but none of them did. Secondly, the letter was very vague and said nothing about the details of the plan but still the King and his men knew when and where to catch the plotters and stop the explosion.
The Gunpowder Plot struck a very profound chord with the people of England. In fact, even today, the reigning monarch only enters Parliament once a year, on the State Opening of Parliament. Prior to the Opening, and according to custom, the Yeomen of the Guard search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster and the Queen and Parliament still observe this tradition.
The Observance of 5th November Act 1605 was repealed in 1859, however, it is still a very common custom in the UK to celebrate Guy Fawkes Night. People hold house parties, set off fireworks, light bonfires and burn an effigy of Guy. And, of course, there is lots of party food. Some councils also arrange public displays.
If you are having friends around for a bonfire party, why not put some fire in their bellies with a box of chilli chocolate cupcakes?
I am offering a box of 12 chilli chocolate cupcakes for only £24.00 per box!
That's a massive 50p off each scrummy cupcake!
Yes, I know, it's another crazy deal from me so make the most of it
while you can!
Designs may vary from the picture shown. Minimum order of 12 cupcakes
Last date for orders is Friday 2nd November
Contact me here, to place your order, email firstname.lastname@example.org or private message the Facebook page.
Most importantly folks, please, please, PLEASE remember to keep all your pets indoors as this can be a very scary time for them and don't forget to check your bonfire for hedgehogs before you light it.
Stay safe everyone, have a great time and make sure you follow the fireworks code.
Remember, remember, the 5th of November
Gunpowder, treason and plot
I see no reason why gunpowder, treason
Should ever be forgot!
And don't forget that you can also order your celebration cakes too! Christmas is coming and I am currently taking orders. There is a limited number of slots available so get in quick to avoid disappointment. Use the contact details above for your Christmas orders too!
Sharing the cake love!
By subscribing or contacting us you consent to receiving emails from Julia's Cake & Eat It! | 1,294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Called the “father of American psychology”, William James was one of the most influential thinkers of the last century. His influence spanned generations through many of his students at Harvard University, where he spent the majority of his academic career.
Feminist Gertrude Stein, author W.E.B Du Bois, philosopher George Santayana and President Theodore Roosevelt were among some of his students who later became equally influential. Educated abroad and fluent in German and French, he was also the godson of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
This is one of the last great works from a seminal figure in the history of American philosophy and psychology.
This book is included in the bookshelf because James’ opinions as a educational psychologist, regarding child development remain relevant today in that James had a great deal of respect for the intellect of children. He recommended that children be taught kinesthetically, through objects and movement. According to him, the link between instincts, or emotions, and actions provided the best foundation for instruction. Many of his theories were ahead of their time. | <urn:uuid:6c3fffd9-2a7a-4ecf-83f3-fa081ee42a2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://motherhoodinpointoffact.com/wphs-custom-tax/william-james-writings-1902-1910-the-varieties-of-religious-experience-pragmatism-a-pluralistic-universe-the-meaning-of-truth-some-problems-of-philosophy-essays-library-of-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.984665 | 222 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | Called the “father of American psychology”, William James was one of the most influential thinkers of the last century. His influence spanned generations through many of his students at Harvard University, where he spent the majority of his academic career.
Feminist Gertrude Stein, author W.E.B Du Bois, philosopher George Santayana and President Theodore Roosevelt were among some of his students who later became equally influential. Educated abroad and fluent in German and French, he was also the godson of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
This is one of the last great works from a seminal figure in the history of American philosophy and psychology.
This book is included in the bookshelf because James’ opinions as a educational psychologist, regarding child development remain relevant today in that James had a great deal of respect for the intellect of children. He recommended that children be taught kinesthetically, through objects and movement. According to him, the link between instincts, or emotions, and actions provided the best foundation for instruction. Many of his theories were ahead of their time. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marcus Aurelius, who became emperor of Rome in A.D. 161, had a lifelong interest in philosophy*. Two important works commemorating his life have lasted to the present. One is a triumphal column, a monument erected in Rome to celebrate his military victories. Carved scenes showing events from his campaigns cover the column. The other is his deeply personal and philosophical diary, now known as the Meditations. The two works present a startling contrast. The column depicts a powerful ruler who defended the empire against invasion. The diary reveals a thoughtful individual who pondered the meaning of human life.
Raised by his grandfather, who was a friend and relative of the emperor Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius studied with some of the most celebrated teachers of his day. Early in his education, he began to show an interest in philosophy. He was fluent in both Greek and Latin, as were most educated Romans of his day. When Marcus was in his late teens, Hadrian’s adopted son Antoninus Pius adopted Marcus. Antoninus Pius became emperor in A.D. 137 and in the years that followed, Marcus received official powers in the Roman government, indicating that he would be the next emperor.
* philosophy study of ideas, including science
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or empire
* co-emperor emperor who shares office with another emperor
* plague highly contagious, widespread, and often fatal disease
The Ruler. In A.D. 161, Antoninus died, and Marcus Aurelius prepared to take his place. He decided that he would share the imperial* title and power with his adopted brother, Lucius Verus, and quickly arranged for Lucius to become co-emperor*. This was the first time that the Roman Empire had two rulers.
The brothers faced considerable unrest on the empire’s frontiers— in Europe, Britain, and Asia Minor. Before long, the Roman army suppressed the British and Asian threats (although the soldiers returning from Asia brought with them an epidemic of the plague*). However, Germanic tribes of northern Europe succeeded in crossing the Alps into Italy. This, the worst crisis for Rome in more than 200 years, was also the first of the challenges that eventually would destroy the Western Roman Empire.
Lucius Verus died in A.D. 169 during the war against the northern tribes. Marcus Aurelius and his generals, however, were able to drive most of the Germans out of Italy and back across the Danube River. One strategy that Marcus used was to invite certain tribes to settle on undeveloped land in the empire. This divided some Germanic forces, making it easier to defeat the others.
The emperor’s military troubles did not end here, though. Africans invaded Spain, and tribes from Hungary invaded Greece. One of the most powerful Roman generals joined a rebel group and had himself declared emperor. But Marcus Aurelius survived these challenges—the army fought off the invasions and the rebellion failed. He then faced the problem of choosing his successor. During the Roman Empire, the position of emperor did not pass automatically to the emperor’s son. The Roman Senate had to grant power to the next ruler. Four years before his death, Marcus Aurelius made his own son Commodus co-emperor, ensuring an orderly succession*.
The Philosopher. The surviving manuscript of Marcus’s diary, written in Greek, is simply titled “Notes to Himself,” although today the work is commonly known as Meditations. Historians believe that he wrote the diary late in his life, some of it during his celebrated German campaigns. Yet his words are humble, resigned, and accepting. He was clearly influenced by Stoicism, a philosophy that promoted acceptance of whatever life brought. The Stoics believed the spirit (or mind) was divine, while the body led to corruption. Therefore, they thought they should concern themselves only with things they could control—their own thoughts and feelings. Marcus and some of the Stoics were particularly concerned with ethics, the principles of doing what is right and just in relation to others. Acting justly was especially important because they believed all human beings belonged to one universal spirit, to which they would return after death. In his diary, Marcus takes comfort in the idea that life is short, and that death will reunite him with the rest of the universe.
In the first section of his diary, Marcus notes what he has learned from various teachers and family members. In later sections, he examines questions about life and individual responsibility. In one passage, Marcus describes how difficult he finds waking up in the morning. He reminds himself that every creature—from an ant, to a spider, to a human being— was made by the creator to do some particular work. Therefore, he should rise and do the work he is meant to do. Marcus’s writings reveal the sensitive nature of a man who was one of the most powerful rulers of the ancient world. (See also Barbarians; Colonies, Roman; Rome, History of.)
* succession transmission of authority on the death of one ruler to the next | <urn:uuid:acf193c8-b31d-4887-9cca-55a24bf922ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/56.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.98391 | 1,045 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.3677413463... | 5 | Marcus Aurelius, who became emperor of Rome in A.D. 161, had a lifelong interest in philosophy*. Two important works commemorating his life have lasted to the present. One is a triumphal column, a monument erected in Rome to celebrate his military victories. Carved scenes showing events from his campaigns cover the column. The other is his deeply personal and philosophical diary, now known as the Meditations. The two works present a startling contrast. The column depicts a powerful ruler who defended the empire against invasion. The diary reveals a thoughtful individual who pondered the meaning of human life.
Raised by his grandfather, who was a friend and relative of the emperor Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius studied with some of the most celebrated teachers of his day. Early in his education, he began to show an interest in philosophy. He was fluent in both Greek and Latin, as were most educated Romans of his day. When Marcus was in his late teens, Hadrian’s adopted son Antoninus Pius adopted Marcus. Antoninus Pius became emperor in A.D. 137 and in the years that followed, Marcus received official powers in the Roman government, indicating that he would be the next emperor.
* philosophy study of ideas, including science
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or empire
* co-emperor emperor who shares office with another emperor
* plague highly contagious, widespread, and often fatal disease
The Ruler. In A.D. 161, Antoninus died, and Marcus Aurelius prepared to take his place. He decided that he would share the imperial* title and power with his adopted brother, Lucius Verus, and quickly arranged for Lucius to become co-emperor*. This was the first time that the Roman Empire had two rulers.
The brothers faced considerable unrest on the empire’s frontiers— in Europe, Britain, and Asia Minor. Before long, the Roman army suppressed the British and Asian threats (although the soldiers returning from Asia brought with them an epidemic of the plague*). However, Germanic tribes of northern Europe succeeded in crossing the Alps into Italy. This, the worst crisis for Rome in more than 200 years, was also the first of the challenges that eventually would destroy the Western Roman Empire.
Lucius Verus died in A.D. 169 during the war against the northern tribes. Marcus Aurelius and his generals, however, were able to drive most of the Germans out of Italy and back across the Danube River. One strategy that Marcus used was to invite certain tribes to settle on undeveloped land in the empire. This divided some Germanic forces, making it easier to defeat the others.
The emperor’s military troubles did not end here, though. Africans invaded Spain, and tribes from Hungary invaded Greece. One of the most powerful Roman generals joined a rebel group and had himself declared emperor. But Marcus Aurelius survived these challenges—the army fought off the invasions and the rebellion failed. He then faced the problem of choosing his successor. During the Roman Empire, the position of emperor did not pass automatically to the emperor’s son. The Roman Senate had to grant power to the next ruler. Four years before his death, Marcus Aurelius made his own son Commodus co-emperor, ensuring an orderly succession*.
The Philosopher. The surviving manuscript of Marcus’s diary, written in Greek, is simply titled “Notes to Himself,” although today the work is commonly known as Meditations. Historians believe that he wrote the diary late in his life, some of it during his celebrated German campaigns. Yet his words are humble, resigned, and accepting. He was clearly influenced by Stoicism, a philosophy that promoted acceptance of whatever life brought. The Stoics believed the spirit (or mind) was divine, while the body led to corruption. Therefore, they thought they should concern themselves only with things they could control—their own thoughts and feelings. Marcus and some of the Stoics were particularly concerned with ethics, the principles of doing what is right and just in relation to others. Acting justly was especially important because they believed all human beings belonged to one universal spirit, to which they would return after death. In his diary, Marcus takes comfort in the idea that life is short, and that death will reunite him with the rest of the universe.
In the first section of his diary, Marcus notes what he has learned from various teachers and family members. In later sections, he examines questions about life and individual responsibility. In one passage, Marcus describes how difficult he finds waking up in the morning. He reminds himself that every creature—from an ant, to a spider, to a human being— was made by the creator to do some particular work. Therefore, he should rise and do the work he is meant to do. Marcus’s writings reveal the sensitive nature of a man who was one of the most powerful rulers of the ancient world. (See also Barbarians; Colonies, Roman; Rome, History of.)
* succession transmission of authority on the death of one ruler to the next | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Potsdam Conference was a meeting of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States in Potsdam, Germany from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Clement Attlee), the President of the United States (Harry S. Truman) and the leader of the USSR (Joseph Stalin) met to talk about Germany on July 1945 and were going to discuss what should happen to it now that the Second World War was over.
The first conference was held at Yalta, but the allies did not agree on anything very important. However, a lot had happened since the Yalta Conference. Firstly, the USA had a new president named Harry Truman. He was much tougher on Communism than the previous president, Roosevelt, had been. This was a problem for Stalin. Also, Churchill had been voted out and was replaced by Clement Attlee. Stalin saw himself as far more experienced than these new leaders. Stalin also caused trouble, as some of what the allies agreed on at Yalta was that Poland should have a neutral government. Stalin had killed the neutral government leaders and replaced them with ones that would listen to him. This meant that there were a lot of problems at Potsdam.
The allies talked about and agreed that:
- Germany would be temporarily split into four pieces (occupation zones), one occupied by France, one by the USSR, one by the USA and one by Britain.
- A large piece of eastern Germany would become Polish, and Germans expelled.
- Nazi criminals would be judged and sentenced.
- Germany to be demilitarised.
The allies talked about but did not agree on:
- How to separate Germany
- How much money Germany should pay to the winners of the war
- How Stalin was treating Poland
- How much land Poland should have | <urn:uuid:d16d6729-29ea-4951-b9b4-493aaac74047> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Conference | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.989728 | 377 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | The Potsdam Conference was a meeting of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States in Potsdam, Germany from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Clement Attlee), the President of the United States (Harry S. Truman) and the leader of the USSR (Joseph Stalin) met to talk about Germany on July 1945 and were going to discuss what should happen to it now that the Second World War was over.
The first conference was held at Yalta, but the allies did not agree on anything very important. However, a lot had happened since the Yalta Conference. Firstly, the USA had a new president named Harry Truman. He was much tougher on Communism than the previous president, Roosevelt, had been. This was a problem for Stalin. Also, Churchill had been voted out and was replaced by Clement Attlee. Stalin saw himself as far more experienced than these new leaders. Stalin also caused trouble, as some of what the allies agreed on at Yalta was that Poland should have a neutral government. Stalin had killed the neutral government leaders and replaced them with ones that would listen to him. This meant that there were a lot of problems at Potsdam.
The allies talked about and agreed that:
- Germany would be temporarily split into four pieces (occupation zones), one occupied by France, one by the USSR, one by the USA and one by Britain.
- A large piece of eastern Germany would become Polish, and Germans expelled.
- Nazi criminals would be judged and sentenced.
- Germany to be demilitarised.
The allies talked about but did not agree on:
- How to separate Germany
- How much money Germany should pay to the winners of the war
- How Stalin was treating Poland
- How much land Poland should have | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout history, people who were born male were granted more power and a better place in society. Males were considered the stronger sex and the women were only meant for bearing children and being housewives. Around 1950s women started getting more important roles, some of them started working but still, a large amount was still bound with stereotypes. Nowadays, men and women are considered equals and there even are women who are more successful than their husbands.
This problem’s roots go back to ancient times.
According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, the primary function of women was to carry on the family tree, and “tending the family hearth”. “The reproduction of children, especially sons”, was the main purpose of women, and all of the men’s social activities were “off-limits to her”. From Aristotle’s point of view, “it is only men who are complete human beings and can hope for ultimate fulfillment; the best a woman can hope for is to become a man”.
However, Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, thought differently about women. Plato believed that women had a significant role to play in society, and he thought “women were necessary for society to run smoothly”. According to Plato, even though he believed that females were required to function in a working society, he continued to hold the position that women were nowhere close to equal to men. On the other hand, Plato realized that “men may have been stronger than women physically but women had strengths that were far superior in other areas”. For example, he believed that “women are naturally maternal and these maternal skills made them better caretakers for children”.
Here, even though Plato thought women were a necessary part of the society. Their role still was carrying children.
As a complete opposite of Greece, in Scandinavia women and men were practically equal. If there was no male relative, the woman could become the head of the household. Women had the same power as men. There were even shield-maidens, Viking fierce female warriors who stayed virgins and dedicated themselves to battles.
Around a half-century ago, women’s rights started raising. More women started getting educated, more started working and we came to the world we are in now. Now, women and men have equal rights. And even if the male breadwinner stereotype is still alive, many women earn more than their husbands. | <urn:uuid:fbf36ad6-5773-40fe-aa7f-79ffa47ea733> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nazeliterpetrosyan.wordpress.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.989834 | 508 | 4.375 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Throughout history, people who were born male were granted more power and a better place in society. Males were considered the stronger sex and the women were only meant for bearing children and being housewives. Around 1950s women started getting more important roles, some of them started working but still, a large amount was still bound with stereotypes. Nowadays, men and women are considered equals and there even are women who are more successful than their husbands.
This problem’s roots go back to ancient times.
According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, the primary function of women was to carry on the family tree, and “tending the family hearth”. “The reproduction of children, especially sons”, was the main purpose of women, and all of the men’s social activities were “off-limits to her”. From Aristotle’s point of view, “it is only men who are complete human beings and can hope for ultimate fulfillment; the best a woman can hope for is to become a man”.
However, Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, thought differently about women. Plato believed that women had a significant role to play in society, and he thought “women were necessary for society to run smoothly”. According to Plato, even though he believed that females were required to function in a working society, he continued to hold the position that women were nowhere close to equal to men. On the other hand, Plato realized that “men may have been stronger than women physically but women had strengths that were far superior in other areas”. For example, he believed that “women are naturally maternal and these maternal skills made them better caretakers for children”.
Here, even though Plato thought women were a necessary part of the society. Their role still was carrying children.
As a complete opposite of Greece, in Scandinavia women and men were practically equal. If there was no male relative, the woman could become the head of the household. Women had the same power as men. There were even shield-maidens, Viking fierce female warriors who stayed virgins and dedicated themselves to battles.
Around a half-century ago, women’s rights started raising. More women started getting educated, more started working and we came to the world we are in now. Now, women and men have equal rights. And even if the male breadwinner stereotype is still alive, many women earn more than their husbands. | 476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dogs helped humans hunt 11,500 years ago: Study
People began to live alongside dogs and may also have used them for hunting as early as 11,500 years ago in what is now northeast Jordan, according to a study.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and University College London in the UK suggest that the introduction of dogs as hunting aids may explain the dramatic increase of hares and other small prey in the archaeological remains at the site.
Dogs were domesticated by humans as early as 14,000 years ago in the Near East, but whether this was accidental or on purpose is so far not clear.
The study, published in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, suggests that humans valued the tracking and hunting abilities of early dogs more than previously known.
The research on animal bones from the 11,500 year old settlement Shubayqa 6 in northeast Jordan not only suggests that dogs were present in this region at the start of the Neolithic period, but that humans and dogs likely hunted animals together.
"The study of the large assemblage of animal bones from Shubayqa 6 revealed a large proportion of bones with unmistakable signs of having passed through the digestive tract of another animal; these bones are so large that they cannot have been swallowed by humans, but must have been digested by dogs," said Lisa Yeomans from the University of Copenhagen.
"The dogs were not kept at the fringes of the settlement, but must have been closely integrated into all aspects of day-to-day life and allowed to freely roam around the settlement, feeding on discarded bones and defecating in and around the site," Yeomans said.
When researchers sifted through the analysed data, they also noted a curious increase in the number of hares at the time that dogs appeared at Shubayqa 6.
Hares were hunted for their meat, but Shubayqa 6's inhabitants also used the hare bones to make beads. The team thinks that it is likely that the appearance of dogs and the increase in hares are related.
"The use of dogs for hunting smaller, fast prey such as hares and foxes, perhaps driving them into enclosures, could provide an explanation that is in line with the evidence we have gathered.
"The long history of dog use, to hunt both small as well as larger prey, in the region is well known, and it would be strange not to consider hunting aided by dogs as a likely explanation for the sudden abundance of smaller prey in the archaeological record," said Yeomans.
"The shift may also be associated with a change in hunting technique from a method, such as netting, that saw an unselective portion of the hare population captured, to a selective method of hunting in which individual animals were targeted. This could have been achieved by dogs," she said.
(This story has not been edited by Devdiscourse staff and is auto-generated from a syndicated feed.)
Download The Devdiscourse News App for Latest News. | <urn:uuid:077f95f3-dd4d-4678-a7d5-9da7872acf0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/international/323684-dogs-helped-humans-hunt-11500-years-ago-study | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.982577 | 623 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.186527401208877... | 1 | Dogs helped humans hunt 11,500 years ago: Study
People began to live alongside dogs and may also have used them for hunting as early as 11,500 years ago in what is now northeast Jordan, according to a study.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and University College London in the UK suggest that the introduction of dogs as hunting aids may explain the dramatic increase of hares and other small prey in the archaeological remains at the site.
Dogs were domesticated by humans as early as 14,000 years ago in the Near East, but whether this was accidental or on purpose is so far not clear.
The study, published in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, suggests that humans valued the tracking and hunting abilities of early dogs more than previously known.
The research on animal bones from the 11,500 year old settlement Shubayqa 6 in northeast Jordan not only suggests that dogs were present in this region at the start of the Neolithic period, but that humans and dogs likely hunted animals together.
"The study of the large assemblage of animal bones from Shubayqa 6 revealed a large proportion of bones with unmistakable signs of having passed through the digestive tract of another animal; these bones are so large that they cannot have been swallowed by humans, but must have been digested by dogs," said Lisa Yeomans from the University of Copenhagen.
"The dogs were not kept at the fringes of the settlement, but must have been closely integrated into all aspects of day-to-day life and allowed to freely roam around the settlement, feeding on discarded bones and defecating in and around the site," Yeomans said.
When researchers sifted through the analysed data, they also noted a curious increase in the number of hares at the time that dogs appeared at Shubayqa 6.
Hares were hunted for their meat, but Shubayqa 6's inhabitants also used the hare bones to make beads. The team thinks that it is likely that the appearance of dogs and the increase in hares are related.
"The use of dogs for hunting smaller, fast prey such as hares and foxes, perhaps driving them into enclosures, could provide an explanation that is in line with the evidence we have gathered.
"The long history of dog use, to hunt both small as well as larger prey, in the region is well known, and it would be strange not to consider hunting aided by dogs as a likely explanation for the sudden abundance of smaller prey in the archaeological record," said Yeomans.
"The shift may also be associated with a change in hunting technique from a method, such as netting, that saw an unselective portion of the hare population captured, to a selective method of hunting in which individual animals were targeted. This could have been achieved by dogs," she said.
(This story has not been edited by Devdiscourse staff and is auto-generated from a syndicated feed.)
Download The Devdiscourse News App for Latest News. | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 6th grade social studies, we have been studying Ancient India. Before Christmas break, we were learning about the geography of India and how it affected the early settlements there. Students were asked to also create their own ideal place to settle based on all that we have learned so far in regards to people choosing to settle in various parts of the world. When we returned on Monday, students became archaeologists and studied artifacts from the city of Mohenjodaro. They analyzed these artifacts and made decisions about what they taught them about daily life then. They then checked their ideas to those of archaeologists in our textbook. They just finished creating a magazine cover to summarize all that they learned about Mohenjodaro. We are now moving on to studying some world religions, specifically Hinduism and Buddhism.
Before we left for Christmas break seventh grade students were asked to write about how the Crusades affected the lives of Christians, Muslims, and Jews. This was a significant assignment as it was a 5 paragraph essay breaking down the impact on all of these people. Students were asked to create an outline with Mrs. Zentmyer and spent several weeks reading and researching the Crusades in class.
This past week we have moved on to learning about West Africa. We completed a lesson on early societies in West Africa and students had to determine which factor was the most significant to the development of societies there. They also learned about the importance of salt in this region.
This week we will continue our study of West Africa and learn about Ghana and the importance of trade.
In 8th grade, we have been focusing on the new republic of the United States. Students have learned about George Washington and his experience as our first president. This past week students looked closely at the differing views of Hamilton and Jefferson and learned about the first establishment of political parties, Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans. They broke down the different views of these two gentlemen and had a brief debate on their views. They also looked at some primary sources, specifically letters that Hamilton and Jefferson had written to Washington. They were asked to gain greater insight into their personalities based on the letters they had written. They started to learn about John Adams’s presidency and will be moving on to that of Thomas Jefferson’s. They will continue to look at these gentlemen as we delve deeper into foreign policy. We will also have a guest speaker, Mr. Limberg, on Thursday to prepare us for our trip to the courthouse and to address some questions students had about their rights
Social Studies Wishlist
As I am building up the Social Studies classroom, I decided to make a list of some things that would be nice to have as resources for our classes. I started an Amazon Wishlist. Thanks so much for taking the time to check it out. | <urn:uuid:cc77bc72-b8d9-4fdd-94bf-f8fcd95001ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stellamarisacademy.org/mssocial-studies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.984127 | 564 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.5340116024... | 3 | In 6th grade social studies, we have been studying Ancient India. Before Christmas break, we were learning about the geography of India and how it affected the early settlements there. Students were asked to also create their own ideal place to settle based on all that we have learned so far in regards to people choosing to settle in various parts of the world. When we returned on Monday, students became archaeologists and studied artifacts from the city of Mohenjodaro. They analyzed these artifacts and made decisions about what they taught them about daily life then. They then checked their ideas to those of archaeologists in our textbook. They just finished creating a magazine cover to summarize all that they learned about Mohenjodaro. We are now moving on to studying some world religions, specifically Hinduism and Buddhism.
Before we left for Christmas break seventh grade students were asked to write about how the Crusades affected the lives of Christians, Muslims, and Jews. This was a significant assignment as it was a 5 paragraph essay breaking down the impact on all of these people. Students were asked to create an outline with Mrs. Zentmyer and spent several weeks reading and researching the Crusades in class.
This past week we have moved on to learning about West Africa. We completed a lesson on early societies in West Africa and students had to determine which factor was the most significant to the development of societies there. They also learned about the importance of salt in this region.
This week we will continue our study of West Africa and learn about Ghana and the importance of trade.
In 8th grade, we have been focusing on the new republic of the United States. Students have learned about George Washington and his experience as our first president. This past week students looked closely at the differing views of Hamilton and Jefferson and learned about the first establishment of political parties, Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans. They broke down the different views of these two gentlemen and had a brief debate on their views. They also looked at some primary sources, specifically letters that Hamilton and Jefferson had written to Washington. They were asked to gain greater insight into their personalities based on the letters they had written. They started to learn about John Adams’s presidency and will be moving on to that of Thomas Jefferson’s. They will continue to look at these gentlemen as we delve deeper into foreign policy. We will also have a guest speaker, Mr. Limberg, on Thursday to prepare us for our trip to the courthouse and to address some questions students had about their rights
Social Studies Wishlist
As I am building up the Social Studies classroom, I decided to make a list of some things that would be nice to have as resources for our classes. I started an Amazon Wishlist. Thanks so much for taking the time to check it out. | 559 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Grand Canyon became a National Park this day
One of the world’s most beautiful natural wonders was designated a National Park by the US Congress on this day in 1919.
The formation of the Grand Canyon National Park is thought by many to be one of the earliest successes of the environmental conservation movement - without this status it's possible that a dam might have been constructed along the course of the Colorado River.
The breath taking mile deep gorge of the Grand Canyon, with its stunning striations of colour, was formed as the Colorado River eroded through the uplifted Colorado Plateau.
A vodka and orange liqueur based Grand Cosmopolitan doesn't look quite as marvellous as the Grand Canyon at sunset but its lovely red colour does go some way in that direction.
The Titanic's sister ship was launched today
Until about April 1912, it seemed like a great idea to belong to the same family of ships as the famous "wonder ship" Titanic. After that, however, some rapid design changes were in order. So it was only on 26th February 1914, that the second and last of Titanic's sister ships, the Britannic, was finally launched.
Before the owners had even finished fitting out the ship, however, the First World War broke out. Rather than transporting emigrants and the super-rich between London and New York, Britannic was turned over to carrying wounded soldiers.
She managed five trips more than the Titanic. On her sixth, while off the coast of Greece, an explosion hit - and, amazingly, she sank even more quickly than Titanic, in under an hour. Thanks to lifeboats, though, almost everyone on board survived - over a thousand people were saved. One of the more famous? Violet Jessop. A stewardess, she had survived the Titanic sinking - and survived the Britannic by jumping from a lifeboat that was about to be sucked into the ship's propellers. We are toasting her with a Violet Affinity. | <urn:uuid:b8e08d94-1b77-4115-bf52-bf90180d170c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.diffordsguide.com/on-this-day/february/26 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.985171 | 404 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0822922438383102... | 1 | The Grand Canyon became a National Park this day
One of the world’s most beautiful natural wonders was designated a National Park by the US Congress on this day in 1919.
The formation of the Grand Canyon National Park is thought by many to be one of the earliest successes of the environmental conservation movement - without this status it's possible that a dam might have been constructed along the course of the Colorado River.
The breath taking mile deep gorge of the Grand Canyon, with its stunning striations of colour, was formed as the Colorado River eroded through the uplifted Colorado Plateau.
A vodka and orange liqueur based Grand Cosmopolitan doesn't look quite as marvellous as the Grand Canyon at sunset but its lovely red colour does go some way in that direction.
The Titanic's sister ship was launched today
Until about April 1912, it seemed like a great idea to belong to the same family of ships as the famous "wonder ship" Titanic. After that, however, some rapid design changes were in order. So it was only on 26th February 1914, that the second and last of Titanic's sister ships, the Britannic, was finally launched.
Before the owners had even finished fitting out the ship, however, the First World War broke out. Rather than transporting emigrants and the super-rich between London and New York, Britannic was turned over to carrying wounded soldiers.
She managed five trips more than the Titanic. On her sixth, while off the coast of Greece, an explosion hit - and, amazingly, she sank even more quickly than Titanic, in under an hour. Thanks to lifeboats, though, almost everyone on board survived - over a thousand people were saved. One of the more famous? Violet Jessop. A stewardess, she had survived the Titanic sinking - and survived the Britannic by jumping from a lifeboat that was about to be sucked into the ship's propellers. We are toasting her with a Violet Affinity. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ralph Ellison’s short story, "Battle Royal", is symbolic in many different ways.
In one way it is symbolic of the African Americans’ struggle for equality throughout our nation’s history. The various hardships that the narrator must endure, in his quest to deliver his speech, are representative of the many hardships that the blacks went through in their fight for equality.
The narrator in Ellison’s short story suffers much. He is considered to be one of the brighter youths in his black community. The young man is given the opportunity to give a speech to some of the more prestigious white individuals. The harsh treatment that he is dealt in order to perform his task is quite symbolic. It represents the many hardships that the African American people endured while they fought to be treated equally in the United States. He expects to give his speech in a positive and normal environment. What faces him is something that he never would have imagined. The harsh conditions that the boys competing in the battle royal must face are phenomenal. At first the boys are ushered into a room where a nude woman is dancing. The white men yell at the boys for looking and not looking at the woman. It is as if they are showing them all of the good things being white can bring, and then saying that they aren’t good enough for it since they were black. Next the boys must compete in the battle royal. Blindly the boys savagely beat one another. This is symbolic of the African Americans’ fight for equality. It represents the struggle they endured, to be accepted as equals with our society’s white population, upon the abolition of slavery. Blindly, our nation’s black population fought, not always knowing what for, just as the boys in this story fought. The segregation of schools, restaurants, and other public facilities were issues that were fiercely fought over.
These battles are directly represented by the barbarous fighting by 10 boys in a ring, being witnessed by whites in high social standing. Totally engrossed by the fighting these men yelled cruel things and became frenzied. This is representative of the how our nation’s white population treated African Americans for many years. Often they took a stance of authority, feeling superior to the black minorities. This belief is portrayed by the men’s angered actions toward the boys.
The electrified rug is another important... | <urn:uuid:43e1a287-961d-4a30-8db9-ea21b51166c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/symbolism-in-battle-royal-by-ralph-ellison | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.980669 | 486 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.10205758363008... | 1 | Ralph Ellison’s short story, "Battle Royal", is symbolic in many different ways.
In one way it is symbolic of the African Americans’ struggle for equality throughout our nation’s history. The various hardships that the narrator must endure, in his quest to deliver his speech, are representative of the many hardships that the blacks went through in their fight for equality.
The narrator in Ellison’s short story suffers much. He is considered to be one of the brighter youths in his black community. The young man is given the opportunity to give a speech to some of the more prestigious white individuals. The harsh treatment that he is dealt in order to perform his task is quite symbolic. It represents the many hardships that the African American people endured while they fought to be treated equally in the United States. He expects to give his speech in a positive and normal environment. What faces him is something that he never would have imagined. The harsh conditions that the boys competing in the battle royal must face are phenomenal. At first the boys are ushered into a room where a nude woman is dancing. The white men yell at the boys for looking and not looking at the woman. It is as if they are showing them all of the good things being white can bring, and then saying that they aren’t good enough for it since they were black. Next the boys must compete in the battle royal. Blindly the boys savagely beat one another. This is symbolic of the African Americans’ fight for equality. It represents the struggle they endured, to be accepted as equals with our society’s white population, upon the abolition of slavery. Blindly, our nation’s black population fought, not always knowing what for, just as the boys in this story fought. The segregation of schools, restaurants, and other public facilities were issues that were fiercely fought over.
These battles are directly represented by the barbarous fighting by 10 boys in a ring, being witnessed by whites in high social standing. Totally engrossed by the fighting these men yelled cruel things and became frenzied. This is representative of the how our nation’s white population treated African Americans for many years. Often they took a stance of authority, feeling superior to the black minorities. This belief is portrayed by the men’s angered actions toward the boys.
The electrified rug is another important... | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Here are some common theories about what happened to Jesus’ body right before they found the empty tomb, and why they are wrong:
- The disciples could not have stolen it.
The type of guard posted on Jesus’ grave was a Praetorian Guard, which consisted of four hardened soldiers. During each of the four watches of the night, one would keep watch while the other three slept. Their discipline was so strict that falling asleep on duty was punishable by death. The offending soldier was stripped, tied to a stake, and his clothes were used to start a fire to burn him alive. If it could not be determined who had fallen asleep (if for example, the guards tried to conceal the identity of the offender), one of the soldiers was chosen by lot and executed. So the guards were well motivated not to let anything happen to the body.
The disciples were Galileans, easily recognizable as such by their accents. The disciples were terrified of the authorities after the crucifixion; most likely they were afraid that they would be crucified as Jesus’ accomplices.
Even if the disciples had been brave enough to attempt stealing the body, the guards would have stopped them. Even if the guards had cooperated for some reason, the disciples’ efforts would have been very conspicuous, because the stretch of time between the crucifixion and the resurrection was occupied by the Sabbath. Just the effort of moving the stone would have been a violation of the Sabbath and would have made them subject to arrest—just the sort of thing they were most eager to avoid.
What is truly noteworthy about the guards is that they fled the tomb and immediately went to the Jewish authorities rather than their own commanders. The only explanation is that something extraordinary had happened, and they needed the Jewish authorities’ cooperation to avoid punishment.
- Jesus could not have survived the crucifixion.
In crucifixion, the victim hangs by his arms against the cross, making it necessary for him to pull up the weight of his entire body by his outstretched arms in order to inhale. Gradually, the victim becomes exhausted by the effort. In addition, the chest muscles are pulled from the rib cage, making it increasingly more difficult to breathe. Finally, the tortured victim succumbs to exhaustion and passes out. Without conscious, strenuous effort, it is impossible to breathe, and the victim dies of suffocation.
There are records of people being taken down alive from crosses, but only the freshly crucified survived, and then only for a few hours.
The night before the crucifixion, Jesus did not sleep. He spent the first part of the night in prayer, and the rest of it being tried in various places, which required Him to walk from place to place. Finally, He was beaten and whipped and made to carry His own cross, which had to be quite heavy if it was large enough to hold Him. In fact, He was so exhausted that He couldn’t carry the cross the whole way. Then He was nailed to the cross. The cross was lifted with Him on it and dropped into a hole in the ground. The force of the impact would have been painful and injurious. He survived six hours on the cross.
The Romans determined that He was dead and permitted Him to be taken down for burial. He was wrapped tightly in grave clothes.
Finally Jesus was buried in a cold, dank tomb that was sealed with a boulder and guarded by soldiers who would suffer the death penalty for abandoning their post. He lay there from Friday evening until Sunday morning without food, water, heat, or assistance to untie his hands, or to unravel the bandages.
There is no way that Jesus could have survived. But even if He did manage to survive, He could not have left the tomb. Tombs were not designed to be exited from the inside. The rock that sealed it was too heavy for the women to move it even if they pooled their efforts; if Jesus had survived, He could scarcely have had the strength to move it unassisted, even if it were possible to move it from the inside.
- The Sanhedrin did not steal it.
The Sanhedrin knew of Jesus’ saying that He would be resurrected and went to a lot of trouble to have the tomb guarded to forestall any theft of the body that would give rise to resurrection rumors. If they had stolen the body, they would have exhibited it to end the Christian movement in its infancy; which was, after all, the whole point of engineering the crucifixion in the first place. After the resurrection, the Christian movement grew even faster than before the crucifixion, yet the Sanhedrin did not parade the body around publicly. The only explanation is that they didn’t know where it was.
- The women could not have stolen it.
The women could not move the stone that sealed Jesus in. Since they had no access to the body, they could not have stolen it.
- Joseph of Arimathea could not have moved the body.
Joseph buried Jesus hastily in his own tomb to honor Jesus and to assure that His body was buried before the onset of the Sabbath at sundown. It is entirely possible that he would want to move the body to free the tomb for its originally intended occupant. However, there was no time. The burial took place right at the start of the Sabbath. The work of moving the body was not possible until sunrise on Sunday. According to the gospel accounts, the women left while it was still dark and arrived at the tomb at dawn and found it empty. Joseph would have needed about a half-dozen assistants to move the stone and transfer the body and much more time than was available. In addition, he would have had to overcome the guard on the tomb.
Joseph was a member of the Sanhedrin. When the resurrection rumors started flying, they could have taken legal action against him for the true location of the body. There is no evidence of any conflict between Joseph and the rest of the Sanhedrin.
- The disciples were surprised by the resurrection.
The disciples did not believe the resurrection until they had evidence for it. When the women returned from the grave site, the men thought they were hysterical. They investigated the tomb themselves. Thomas refused to believe the others until he saw Jesus. The disciples on the road to Emmaus heard of the resurrection reports and disbelieved them until they met Jesus. These reactions are entirely normal and believable.
The resurrection accounts are difficult to harmonize; something we should expect from a startling factual occurrence. If the whole thing was a fiction, the disciples would have gotten their story straight before they went around accusing the authorities.
The disciples, who were demoralized, afraid for their lives, and ready to call it quits, suddenly became bold and unafraid of even the worst penalties, and the authorities could not refute what the disciples said.
- The authorities were at a loss how to react.
The authorities did not produce a body. They seemed to be unable to answer even the most inflammatory public statements made by the disciples. The worst they did was that they arrested some of them, instructed them to stop preaching their message, and released them.
- Christianity began in Jerusalem.
All of the events took place in public in Jerusalem. Jesus had been in public conflict with the authorities for a week, He was arrested at night, but in the presence of a large number of people. His trial before Pilate took place with a large, unsympathetic mob outside that demanded His execution. He was paraded through town under guard and bearing a large cross. He was executed in public with a large crowd in attendance. He died in front of witnesses and government authorities who certified His death. He was buried in a nearby tomb owned by a prominent and wealthy citizen; it must have been easily recognizable. Jesus remained in the tomb for a longer period of time than any person had survived crucifixion under better circumstances.
The last place we should expect the story of His resurrection to be accepted would be in the very town where He had been executed. Under normal circumstances, we should expect His disciples to withdraw from Jerusalem, regroup, and proclaim His resurrection from some other place. Yet Christianity started with great success in a city where any curious person could walk over and examine Jesus’ tomb! | <urn:uuid:cd613af8-133a-4a6c-bb24-72b45a71162b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kencollins.com/holydays/holy-06u.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.989051 | 1,704 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.369425147771835... | 4 | Here are some common theories about what happened to Jesus’ body right before they found the empty tomb, and why they are wrong:
- The disciples could not have stolen it.
The type of guard posted on Jesus’ grave was a Praetorian Guard, which consisted of four hardened soldiers. During each of the four watches of the night, one would keep watch while the other three slept. Their discipline was so strict that falling asleep on duty was punishable by death. The offending soldier was stripped, tied to a stake, and his clothes were used to start a fire to burn him alive. If it could not be determined who had fallen asleep (if for example, the guards tried to conceal the identity of the offender), one of the soldiers was chosen by lot and executed. So the guards were well motivated not to let anything happen to the body.
The disciples were Galileans, easily recognizable as such by their accents. The disciples were terrified of the authorities after the crucifixion; most likely they were afraid that they would be crucified as Jesus’ accomplices.
Even if the disciples had been brave enough to attempt stealing the body, the guards would have stopped them. Even if the guards had cooperated for some reason, the disciples’ efforts would have been very conspicuous, because the stretch of time between the crucifixion and the resurrection was occupied by the Sabbath. Just the effort of moving the stone would have been a violation of the Sabbath and would have made them subject to arrest—just the sort of thing they were most eager to avoid.
What is truly noteworthy about the guards is that they fled the tomb and immediately went to the Jewish authorities rather than their own commanders. The only explanation is that something extraordinary had happened, and they needed the Jewish authorities’ cooperation to avoid punishment.
- Jesus could not have survived the crucifixion.
In crucifixion, the victim hangs by his arms against the cross, making it necessary for him to pull up the weight of his entire body by his outstretched arms in order to inhale. Gradually, the victim becomes exhausted by the effort. In addition, the chest muscles are pulled from the rib cage, making it increasingly more difficult to breathe. Finally, the tortured victim succumbs to exhaustion and passes out. Without conscious, strenuous effort, it is impossible to breathe, and the victim dies of suffocation.
There are records of people being taken down alive from crosses, but only the freshly crucified survived, and then only for a few hours.
The night before the crucifixion, Jesus did not sleep. He spent the first part of the night in prayer, and the rest of it being tried in various places, which required Him to walk from place to place. Finally, He was beaten and whipped and made to carry His own cross, which had to be quite heavy if it was large enough to hold Him. In fact, He was so exhausted that He couldn’t carry the cross the whole way. Then He was nailed to the cross. The cross was lifted with Him on it and dropped into a hole in the ground. The force of the impact would have been painful and injurious. He survived six hours on the cross.
The Romans determined that He was dead and permitted Him to be taken down for burial. He was wrapped tightly in grave clothes.
Finally Jesus was buried in a cold, dank tomb that was sealed with a boulder and guarded by soldiers who would suffer the death penalty for abandoning their post. He lay there from Friday evening until Sunday morning without food, water, heat, or assistance to untie his hands, or to unravel the bandages.
There is no way that Jesus could have survived. But even if He did manage to survive, He could not have left the tomb. Tombs were not designed to be exited from the inside. The rock that sealed it was too heavy for the women to move it even if they pooled their efforts; if Jesus had survived, He could scarcely have had the strength to move it unassisted, even if it were possible to move it from the inside.
- The Sanhedrin did not steal it.
The Sanhedrin knew of Jesus’ saying that He would be resurrected and went to a lot of trouble to have the tomb guarded to forestall any theft of the body that would give rise to resurrection rumors. If they had stolen the body, they would have exhibited it to end the Christian movement in its infancy; which was, after all, the whole point of engineering the crucifixion in the first place. After the resurrection, the Christian movement grew even faster than before the crucifixion, yet the Sanhedrin did not parade the body around publicly. The only explanation is that they didn’t know where it was.
- The women could not have stolen it.
The women could not move the stone that sealed Jesus in. Since they had no access to the body, they could not have stolen it.
- Joseph of Arimathea could not have moved the body.
Joseph buried Jesus hastily in his own tomb to honor Jesus and to assure that His body was buried before the onset of the Sabbath at sundown. It is entirely possible that he would want to move the body to free the tomb for its originally intended occupant. However, there was no time. The burial took place right at the start of the Sabbath. The work of moving the body was not possible until sunrise on Sunday. According to the gospel accounts, the women left while it was still dark and arrived at the tomb at dawn and found it empty. Joseph would have needed about a half-dozen assistants to move the stone and transfer the body and much more time than was available. In addition, he would have had to overcome the guard on the tomb.
Joseph was a member of the Sanhedrin. When the resurrection rumors started flying, they could have taken legal action against him for the true location of the body. There is no evidence of any conflict between Joseph and the rest of the Sanhedrin.
- The disciples were surprised by the resurrection.
The disciples did not believe the resurrection until they had evidence for it. When the women returned from the grave site, the men thought they were hysterical. They investigated the tomb themselves. Thomas refused to believe the others until he saw Jesus. The disciples on the road to Emmaus heard of the resurrection reports and disbelieved them until they met Jesus. These reactions are entirely normal and believable.
The resurrection accounts are difficult to harmonize; something we should expect from a startling factual occurrence. If the whole thing was a fiction, the disciples would have gotten their story straight before they went around accusing the authorities.
The disciples, who were demoralized, afraid for their lives, and ready to call it quits, suddenly became bold and unafraid of even the worst penalties, and the authorities could not refute what the disciples said.
- The authorities were at a loss how to react.
The authorities did not produce a body. They seemed to be unable to answer even the most inflammatory public statements made by the disciples. The worst they did was that they arrested some of them, instructed them to stop preaching their message, and released them.
- Christianity began in Jerusalem.
All of the events took place in public in Jerusalem. Jesus had been in public conflict with the authorities for a week, He was arrested at night, but in the presence of a large number of people. His trial before Pilate took place with a large, unsympathetic mob outside that demanded His execution. He was paraded through town under guard and bearing a large cross. He was executed in public with a large crowd in attendance. He died in front of witnesses and government authorities who certified His death. He was buried in a nearby tomb owned by a prominent and wealthy citizen; it must have been easily recognizable. Jesus remained in the tomb for a longer period of time than any person had survived crucifixion under better circumstances.
The last place we should expect the story of His resurrection to be accepted would be in the very town where He had been executed. Under normal circumstances, we should expect His disciples to withdraw from Jerusalem, regroup, and proclaim His resurrection from some other place. Yet Christianity started with great success in a city where any curious person could walk over and examine Jesus’ tomb! | 1,680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edgar Allan Poe is considered a major figure when it comes to literature; mostly through his poems, short stories, and various works of fiction. His works depict artistic imagination especially when it comes to the rationality of man (Szabo & Crisan 1). The theme of otherness in literature can be viewed as the aspect of being different from what is considered normal. Normal, in this case, put into view certain expectations or rather aspects that do not deviate from the social norm. Otherness, in the works by Edgar Allan Poe, is illustrated by the gothic style integrated in most of his works. He is known for developing gothic fictions in literature (Sun 94). The analysis puts into view the theme of otherness with respect to the literary works, William Wilson and The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe.
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William Wilson by Poe depicts the otherness theme through the character of the main protagonist, Wilson. William Wilson is different from the normal expectations of man’s behavior through his dual nature. He abides by both reality and illusion, especially after his institutionalization. While institutionalized, Wilson develops an alter ego, which he identifies using his own name, which subjects him to schizophrenic experiences (Kao 2). He becomes confined in the institution through which the allusions limit him from understanding his surroundings. The illusions associated with the development of the alter ego challenge him to struggle to acquire free will. However, as the story progresses, it becomes clear that Wilson is not confined or controlled by the institution but rather by his own mind (Kao 2). The academy, as per his case, becomes the external force that oppresses his free will. Being the perceived external force, Wilson focuses to overwhelm it in his pursuit for free will. Wilson states, “at an age when few children have abandoned their leading-strings, [he] was left to the guidance of [his] own will, and became, in all but name, the master of [his] own actions” (Poe) to illustrate the victimization imposed on him by the academy. The mental pursuit of his free will is illustrated by the statement, “The next morning I began a hurried journey away from Oxford University. I ran, but I could not escape. I went from city to city, and in each one Wilson appeared.” From his description, the institution is endless and entails complex divisions. Besides the academy’s complex nature, Wilson also views his free will to be limited by the teacher who imposes complex rules in the entire institution (Kao 3). The teacher is positioned at various levels that include being the school’s administrator, a pastor apart from the teacher. Wilson exhibits fear when he views the teacher both in school and in church. It is important to note that his mental deterioration commences immediately after he becomes part of the institution as his experience is different when compared to pre-school life. However, through the struggle to acquire freedom from the academy and the teacher, the mental struggle results in his self-destruction. At the end of the story, he states, “And, in my death— see by this face, which is your own, how wholly, how completely, you have killed — yourself!” (Poe). The statement does not possibly imply an actual death but may also signify Wilson’s complete mental incapacitation (Kao 5). Therefore, through the mental struggle between reality and illusion Poe illustrates the theme of otherness through Wilson’s character.
Otherness, in The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe is illustrated by the madness of the narrator. The story is narrated using the first person which makes it easier for the reader to comprehend the protagonist’s elusive thoughts. His dark thoughts differ from the norm especially since he appears to be disturbed by illogical elements (Amir 596). His awkward behaviour is illustrated with his claim that he is of sound mind rather than mad, the idea that he is disturbed by a sound that keeps elevating. On his stance that he was not mentally incapacitated, he perceives that his sickness developed his senses, thought-processes and emotions including a strong hearing ability. He states, “The disease had sharpened my senses –not destroyed –not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute,” (Poe 1). It is from his assumed “strong” senses that he is pushed to believe that one of the eyes of the old man has to be eliminated. He perceives that he had no problem with the old man apart from his eye. He states, “Whenever it fell upon me, my blood ran cold; and so by degrees –very gradually –I made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever.” In other words, it is his indifferent senses that push him to commit murder. It is from the statement that the reader ascertains that the narrator is mentally incapacitated (Amir 597). Also, the narrator appears to be thrilled about how he managed to carry out the murder; an aspect that deviates from the societal norm when it comes to valuing life. He states, “Oh, you would have laughed to see how cunningly I thrust it in!” Apart from the eye, he believes that the sounds that he keeps on hearing emanate from the old man’s heart. This happens on the last day of his attempt to kill the old man when he hears the heartbeat with the view that the sound from it keeps on elevating. Furthermore, he believes that the sound could be heard by the neighbours. To put an end to the sound, he pounces at the old man and kills him. When police arrived at his home after receiving a call from the neighbour about some disturbance emanating from his house, he calmly takes the police around the house. However, he begins to hear the sound again. He attempts to ignore it by moving his chair but is unable to control it. By then, he becomes convinced that the police are aware of his deed and thus confesses about his crime. He states, “Villains!” I shrieked, “dissemble no more! I admit the deed! –tear up the planks! here, here! –It is the beating of his hideous heart!” (Poe). The most possible assumption is that the narrator is struggling with guilt and attempting to justify his actions using illusions (Amir 598). Otherness, in this case, is illustrated by his state of mind whereby he fails to distinguish between reality and illusions.
As mentioned earlier, the analysis puts into view the theme of otherness with respect to the literary works, William Wilson and The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe. Otherness is perceived as an aspect of being different from what is considered as normal Otherness, in William Wilson, is illustrated by the mental struggle between reality and illusion by the protagonist which later leads to his self-destruction. Otherness in The Tell-Tale Heart is illustrated by the narrator’s state of mind which eventually results in his evil deed and self-destruction.
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0.2170999050140380... | 2 | Edgar Allan Poe is considered a major figure when it comes to literature; mostly through his poems, short stories, and various works of fiction. His works depict artistic imagination especially when it comes to the rationality of man (Szabo & Crisan 1). The theme of otherness in literature can be viewed as the aspect of being different from what is considered normal. Normal, in this case, put into view certain expectations or rather aspects that do not deviate from the social norm. Otherness, in the works by Edgar Allan Poe, is illustrated by the gothic style integrated in most of his works. He is known for developing gothic fictions in literature (Sun 94). The analysis puts into view the theme of otherness with respect to the literary works, William Wilson and The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
William Wilson by Poe depicts the otherness theme through the character of the main protagonist, Wilson. William Wilson is different from the normal expectations of man’s behavior through his dual nature. He abides by both reality and illusion, especially after his institutionalization. While institutionalized, Wilson develops an alter ego, which he identifies using his own name, which subjects him to schizophrenic experiences (Kao 2). He becomes confined in the institution through which the allusions limit him from understanding his surroundings. The illusions associated with the development of the alter ego challenge him to struggle to acquire free will. However, as the story progresses, it becomes clear that Wilson is not confined or controlled by the institution but rather by his own mind (Kao 2). The academy, as per his case, becomes the external force that oppresses his free will. Being the perceived external force, Wilson focuses to overwhelm it in his pursuit for free will. Wilson states, “at an age when few children have abandoned their leading-strings, [he] was left to the guidance of [his] own will, and became, in all but name, the master of [his] own actions” (Poe) to illustrate the victimization imposed on him by the academy. The mental pursuit of his free will is illustrated by the statement, “The next morning I began a hurried journey away from Oxford University. I ran, but I could not escape. I went from city to city, and in each one Wilson appeared.” From his description, the institution is endless and entails complex divisions. Besides the academy’s complex nature, Wilson also views his free will to be limited by the teacher who imposes complex rules in the entire institution (Kao 3). The teacher is positioned at various levels that include being the school’s administrator, a pastor apart from the teacher. Wilson exhibits fear when he views the teacher both in school and in church. It is important to note that his mental deterioration commences immediately after he becomes part of the institution as his experience is different when compared to pre-school life. However, through the struggle to acquire freedom from the academy and the teacher, the mental struggle results in his self-destruction. At the end of the story, he states, “And, in my death— see by this face, which is your own, how wholly, how completely, you have killed — yourself!” (Poe). The statement does not possibly imply an actual death but may also signify Wilson’s complete mental incapacitation (Kao 5). Therefore, through the mental struggle between reality and illusion Poe illustrates the theme of otherness through Wilson’s character.
Otherness, in The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe is illustrated by the madness of the narrator. The story is narrated using the first person which makes it easier for the reader to comprehend the protagonist’s elusive thoughts. His dark thoughts differ from the norm especially since he appears to be disturbed by illogical elements (Amir 596). His awkward behaviour is illustrated with his claim that he is of sound mind rather than mad, the idea that he is disturbed by a sound that keeps elevating. On his stance that he was not mentally incapacitated, he perceives that his sickness developed his senses, thought-processes and emotions including a strong hearing ability. He states, “The disease had sharpened my senses –not destroyed –not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute,” (Poe 1). It is from his assumed “strong” senses that he is pushed to believe that one of the eyes of the old man has to be eliminated. He perceives that he had no problem with the old man apart from his eye. He states, “Whenever it fell upon me, my blood ran cold; and so by degrees –very gradually –I made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever.” In other words, it is his indifferent senses that push him to commit murder. It is from the statement that the reader ascertains that the narrator is mentally incapacitated (Amir 597). Also, the narrator appears to be thrilled about how he managed to carry out the murder; an aspect that deviates from the societal norm when it comes to valuing life. He states, “Oh, you would have laughed to see how cunningly I thrust it in!” Apart from the eye, he believes that the sounds that he keeps on hearing emanate from the old man’s heart. This happens on the last day of his attempt to kill the old man when he hears the heartbeat with the view that the sound from it keeps on elevating. Furthermore, he believes that the sound could be heard by the neighbours. To put an end to the sound, he pounces at the old man and kills him. When police arrived at his home after receiving a call from the neighbour about some disturbance emanating from his house, he calmly takes the police around the house. However, he begins to hear the sound again. He attempts to ignore it by moving his chair but is unable to control it. By then, he becomes convinced that the police are aware of his deed and thus confesses about his crime. He states, “Villains!” I shrieked, “dissemble no more! I admit the deed! –tear up the planks! here, here! –It is the beating of his hideous heart!” (Poe). The most possible assumption is that the narrator is struggling with guilt and attempting to justify his actions using illusions (Amir 598). Otherness, in this case, is illustrated by his state of mind whereby he fails to distinguish between reality and illusions.
As mentioned earlier, the analysis puts into view the theme of otherness with respect to the literary works, William Wilson and The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe. Otherness is perceived as an aspect of being different from what is considered as normal Otherness, in William Wilson, is illustrated by the mental struggle between reality and illusion by the protagonist which later leads to his self-destruction. Otherness in The Tell-Tale Heart is illustrated by the narrator’s state of mind which eventually results in his evil deed and self-destruction.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
Your essay sample has been sent.
Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | 1,550 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Haydn piece of music to study
1 of the pieces to build a dance towards
Follow-up Work for main piece
The main things are to:
Listen to the piece a LOT. This can be just a few minutes here and there, coming into class, as a break between activities etc. They need to really know everything that happens in it off by heart!
Revise the story in any way you can. We are working on sending you time stamps for the recordings to help you with this but they are taking a surprisingly long time to do. We will have them with you next week.
Try to start thinking about ways that the children can move or put actions to their stories. We will be working with them on this but if you have already started this process that would be very helpful.
Creative writing task: write out the story so far. We would like to put a written version of each story in the program that everyone in the audience will be able to read, so you could pick the best one for that as an incentive for them!
Tableau/ freeze frames for each bit of the story. Divide them up into groups and get them to choose a freeze frame for each bit of the story. They could portray the characters or the scene or the emotions. Just anything to get them as freed up and engaged as possible with looking silly is ideal!
Check out any Dalcroze games on youtube. They are really useful for getting children to use movement to represent music.
Get creative! You know better than us what your class is capable of, and we would love to see what they can come up with!
Follow-up work for Art
This piece is called Valencia by Caroline Shaw. (on a side note she won the Pulitzer prize for another piece of music for choir called Partita which is awesome! Here is a link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDVMtnaB28E. It's long but you could even just play them a few minutes of it because they won't have heard anything like it before!)
Back on topic, we want the children to be as creative as possible with these artworks. I would recommend listening to the music a couple of times with their sketches, and letting them think about what they might want to do for their piece of art. This is also something that ks1 can get involved with as well.
We want them to represent the music as much as possible - I loved all of the abstract shape stuff they were doing. I would try to gently steer them away from doing pictures of actual things, but if they really want to then that’s fine. The best pieces of art that most clearly resemble the music will be chosen to be exhibited at Sterts, and we would like all of the artwork to be part of the final concert.
Things to consider:
Medium: any medium is fine! Paint, 3D models, glitter, textures, craft stuff all very much welcomed!
This is only one part of the whole piece. We will be playing the other part in the next session. They are welcome to do two separate pieces of artwork that are unrelated, but if they want to link them up, that can also be an option (eg a very long piece of art that is stuck together).
Links to recordings
Haydn Movement 4: | <urn:uuid:c98ea683-84d2-4bbb-bc87-517b1424a8f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lerryn-cornwall.co.uk/florian-project-2019-2020/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.980888 | 688 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2363060563802... | 8 | Haydn piece of music to study
1 of the pieces to build a dance towards
Follow-up Work for main piece
The main things are to:
Listen to the piece a LOT. This can be just a few minutes here and there, coming into class, as a break between activities etc. They need to really know everything that happens in it off by heart!
Revise the story in any way you can. We are working on sending you time stamps for the recordings to help you with this but they are taking a surprisingly long time to do. We will have them with you next week.
Try to start thinking about ways that the children can move or put actions to their stories. We will be working with them on this but if you have already started this process that would be very helpful.
Creative writing task: write out the story so far. We would like to put a written version of each story in the program that everyone in the audience will be able to read, so you could pick the best one for that as an incentive for them!
Tableau/ freeze frames for each bit of the story. Divide them up into groups and get them to choose a freeze frame for each bit of the story. They could portray the characters or the scene or the emotions. Just anything to get them as freed up and engaged as possible with looking silly is ideal!
Check out any Dalcroze games on youtube. They are really useful for getting children to use movement to represent music.
Get creative! You know better than us what your class is capable of, and we would love to see what they can come up with!
Follow-up work for Art
This piece is called Valencia by Caroline Shaw. (on a side note she won the Pulitzer prize for another piece of music for choir called Partita which is awesome! Here is a link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDVMtnaB28E. It's long but you could even just play them a few minutes of it because they won't have heard anything like it before!)
Back on topic, we want the children to be as creative as possible with these artworks. I would recommend listening to the music a couple of times with their sketches, and letting them think about what they might want to do for their piece of art. This is also something that ks1 can get involved with as well.
We want them to represent the music as much as possible - I loved all of the abstract shape stuff they were doing. I would try to gently steer them away from doing pictures of actual things, but if they really want to then that’s fine. The best pieces of art that most clearly resemble the music will be chosen to be exhibited at Sterts, and we would like all of the artwork to be part of the final concert.
Things to consider:
Medium: any medium is fine! Paint, 3D models, glitter, textures, craft stuff all very much welcomed!
This is only one part of the whole piece. We will be playing the other part in the next session. They are welcome to do two separate pieces of artwork that are unrelated, but if they want to link them up, that can also be an option (eg a very long piece of art that is stuck together).
Links to recordings
Haydn Movement 4: | 667 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Warships during the age of sail carried a surprisingly large number of children. It was perfectly normal for the five to six hundred compliment of a ship of the line to include fifty or more ship’s boys. They appear in the muster books as either officer’s servant or as ordinary seamen. Admiralty regulations for Royal Navy ships stated that they should be at least thirteen years old, unless they were sons accompanying their fathers, in which case the limit was eleven. But like many such rules it was frequently flaunted, with children as young as eight going to sea.
Sending children away at such a young age may seem barbaric to a modern reader but the navy was only reflecting common practice ashore. The working life for most 18th century children would have started by being apprenticed into a trade at a similar age. In some ways the provision made for children afloat was much better. A ship’s boy enjoyed a diet that was unimaginable ashore, including six pounds of meat per week, and the crew of all the larger warships included a schoolmaster to provide some education to those expected to progress.
Ship’s boys were considered by the navy as an essential reserve of future manpower in training. Many performed the duties of a servant and attended to the needs of their officer while learning from them the ways of the sea. They were also expected to take their place amongst the sailors working the ship, where they could acquire practical seamanship. In particular they would go aloft with the topmen. This was dangerous work, but it was believed that the feats of balance and agility required to handle sail, often in rough weather, could only be learnt by starting young.
There were several duties aboard ship that were only assigned to boys. Weighing anchor was a tough job that required the manpower of almost everyone aboard. The anchor cable of a warship was a big hemp rope, typically twenty-two inches thick, which was too inflexible to be wound around any winch. So a lighter rope that could be turned around the ship’s capstan was used to drag it aboard. The two ropes were ‘nipped’ together using short lengths of rope that had to be detached, taken forward, and reattached as the cable came aboard. As all the adult men were busy turning the capstan, this job was given to the youngsters; hence the naval slang for a ship’s boy was a ‘Nipper’.
In combat the boys took on the role of Powder Monkeys. Just as with weighing anchor, there was a similar division of responsibility when the guns were in action. A naval cannon, such as the thirty-two pounders carried on the lower deck of most Royal Navy ships of the line, weighed over two and a half tons. Running out a battery of such colossal pieces again required most of the adult manpower aboard. For reasons of safety, gunpowder charges were never stored with the guns, but were kept in a safe, copper lined room beneath the waterline called the magazine. A new charge was only issued once the previous charge had been fired. The role of running between the magazine and the guns, carrying these bags of gunpowder, was given to the boys. This could be dangerous work in action, as a single spark might ignite the charge they carried, killing or maiming the child holding it at the time.
Ship’s boys came to the sea by a variety of routes. Many were the sons or relatives of men already serving in the navy. Others were sent into the navy as a way of social improvement. Manning the fleet was a continual issue for the Royal Navy in the 18th century, while at the same time many British cities were plagued by street urchins who were often orphans. A possible solution to both problems occurred in 1756 to a philanthropist called Jonas Hanway. He learnt that Captain Lord Henry Paulet of the Barfleur had, at his own expense, taken a number of street children into his ship. Hanway extended this idea by setting up a charity called the Marine Society. Boys taken on by the society had to be genuine volunteers and in a good state of health. They were housed in a boarding house in London, taught to read, write, count and given some basic sea training before being apprenticed into the navy. Once they were adults they could choose to stay in the navy, join the merchant service, or leave the sea altogether to pursue some other career. Between 1756 and 1862 over ten thousand boys passed through the Marine Society in this way.
Surprising as it is to find young children in the dangerous, adult world of a warship, it was the norm throughout the age of sail. Most of the great 18th century admirals joined their first ships as children. Nelson and Howe both started at thirteen, Rodney was fourteen while Hawke was a relatively senior fifteen-year old when he went to sea. | <urn:uuid:1833d807-7a3d-499e-bc1b-04aae6c56369> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.philipkallan.com/single-post/2019/02/25/Nippers-and-Powder-Monkeys | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.990648 | 1,010 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.3872187435626... | 3 | Warships during the age of sail carried a surprisingly large number of children. It was perfectly normal for the five to six hundred compliment of a ship of the line to include fifty or more ship’s boys. They appear in the muster books as either officer’s servant or as ordinary seamen. Admiralty regulations for Royal Navy ships stated that they should be at least thirteen years old, unless they were sons accompanying their fathers, in which case the limit was eleven. But like many such rules it was frequently flaunted, with children as young as eight going to sea.
Sending children away at such a young age may seem barbaric to a modern reader but the navy was only reflecting common practice ashore. The working life for most 18th century children would have started by being apprenticed into a trade at a similar age. In some ways the provision made for children afloat was much better. A ship’s boy enjoyed a diet that was unimaginable ashore, including six pounds of meat per week, and the crew of all the larger warships included a schoolmaster to provide some education to those expected to progress.
Ship’s boys were considered by the navy as an essential reserve of future manpower in training. Many performed the duties of a servant and attended to the needs of their officer while learning from them the ways of the sea. They were also expected to take their place amongst the sailors working the ship, where they could acquire practical seamanship. In particular they would go aloft with the topmen. This was dangerous work, but it was believed that the feats of balance and agility required to handle sail, often in rough weather, could only be learnt by starting young.
There were several duties aboard ship that were only assigned to boys. Weighing anchor was a tough job that required the manpower of almost everyone aboard. The anchor cable of a warship was a big hemp rope, typically twenty-two inches thick, which was too inflexible to be wound around any winch. So a lighter rope that could be turned around the ship’s capstan was used to drag it aboard. The two ropes were ‘nipped’ together using short lengths of rope that had to be detached, taken forward, and reattached as the cable came aboard. As all the adult men were busy turning the capstan, this job was given to the youngsters; hence the naval slang for a ship’s boy was a ‘Nipper’.
In combat the boys took on the role of Powder Monkeys. Just as with weighing anchor, there was a similar division of responsibility when the guns were in action. A naval cannon, such as the thirty-two pounders carried on the lower deck of most Royal Navy ships of the line, weighed over two and a half tons. Running out a battery of such colossal pieces again required most of the adult manpower aboard. For reasons of safety, gunpowder charges were never stored with the guns, but were kept in a safe, copper lined room beneath the waterline called the magazine. A new charge was only issued once the previous charge had been fired. The role of running between the magazine and the guns, carrying these bags of gunpowder, was given to the boys. This could be dangerous work in action, as a single spark might ignite the charge they carried, killing or maiming the child holding it at the time.
Ship’s boys came to the sea by a variety of routes. Many were the sons or relatives of men already serving in the navy. Others were sent into the navy as a way of social improvement. Manning the fleet was a continual issue for the Royal Navy in the 18th century, while at the same time many British cities were plagued by street urchins who were often orphans. A possible solution to both problems occurred in 1756 to a philanthropist called Jonas Hanway. He learnt that Captain Lord Henry Paulet of the Barfleur had, at his own expense, taken a number of street children into his ship. Hanway extended this idea by setting up a charity called the Marine Society. Boys taken on by the society had to be genuine volunteers and in a good state of health. They were housed in a boarding house in London, taught to read, write, count and given some basic sea training before being apprenticed into the navy. Once they were adults they could choose to stay in the navy, join the merchant service, or leave the sea altogether to pursue some other career. Between 1756 and 1862 over ten thousand boys passed through the Marine Society in this way.
Surprising as it is to find young children in the dangerous, adult world of a warship, it was the norm throughout the age of sail. Most of the great 18th century admirals joined their first ships as children. Nelson and Howe both started at thirteen, Rodney was fourteen while Hawke was a relatively senior fifteen-year old when he went to sea. | 1,004 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Labor union is mainly an organization of employees and also the unemployed who have come together so as to form an umbrella body which will deal with issues concerning their payments, the conditions and nature of work place and also the duration of working. The labor union is mainly composed of the workers themselves, experts, retirees and the jobless. The sole objective of the union is mainly to ensure that there is an improved and favorable working condition for its members.
The labor union has done a lot for its working class members. Since its formation almost three hundred years ago, the union has undergone numerous transformations so as to adopt and handle the real problems of the moment. Such problems are mainly instigated by political influence and also economical problems. The first thing that the trade union has done to benefit the working class is the introduction of the benefits to workers. During the initial years of its formation, the labor union introduced insurance scheme where by the members was protected against sickness, joblessness, retirement and also gathering for funeral services (Viscusi, 1980).
Labor union has also benefited its members by providing them with professional training. This training is majorly aimed at equipping the union members with enough skills so as to increase their chances of acquiring better jobs and also to enable them climb the ladder quite easily. This then will mean an increased salary for them thus improving their living conditions. The training also involves providing legal advice to the members on issues like employment rights and how to go by whenever these rights are violated by their employers. Infact the labor union usually represent its members in court in order to ensure that their cases are dealt with correctly in reference to their rights as stipulated by the labor laws. This has helped many employees to overcome cases such as harassment, discrimination and also underpayment.
Labor union has also ensured that each and every one of its members receives better pay commensurate to what he/she has delivered. The union does this by representing their members in negotiating with the employers regarding issues like salaries and also the nature and conditions of work. In other cases, labor union can call for strikes whenever matters concerning their well being are not handled well. Such matters may be things such as their demand for a pay increase, poor working conditions, and lack of recognition or delay in handling of their cases. By paralyzing most of the activities in various firms and organizations, their employers can speedily handle their cases and a solution to a problem can be reached quickly rather than later. This then easience the handling and solving of cases for the union members.
Labor union has also developed laws that are of much important in handling of cases related to its members. They do this by formulating laws, and then they seek for support from the public and also from politicians. They sometimes support politicians who are on their side to higher offices. Such politicians when they are in office will ensure that the proposed bill concerning the labor union are discussed and passed into law.
The labor union has done a lot in improving the conditions of the working class citizens. Over the years, the union has formulated legislative laws whereby each and every member is protected against poor working conditions, poor remuneration, safety at the work place and also ensured rules governing the poor working conditions and instant firing and promotion of workers are followed All these has been documented and many more are still to be documented. Workers are now very much comfortable and they can all say ‘Thank You’ to the labor union. | <urn:uuid:f55fab80-18cd-4713-8317-dd85393323ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-labor-union/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.986483 | 695 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.04016148... | 2 | Labor union is mainly an organization of employees and also the unemployed who have come together so as to form an umbrella body which will deal with issues concerning their payments, the conditions and nature of work place and also the duration of working. The labor union is mainly composed of the workers themselves, experts, retirees and the jobless. The sole objective of the union is mainly to ensure that there is an improved and favorable working condition for its members.
The labor union has done a lot for its working class members. Since its formation almost three hundred years ago, the union has undergone numerous transformations so as to adopt and handle the real problems of the moment. Such problems are mainly instigated by political influence and also economical problems. The first thing that the trade union has done to benefit the working class is the introduction of the benefits to workers. During the initial years of its formation, the labor union introduced insurance scheme where by the members was protected against sickness, joblessness, retirement and also gathering for funeral services (Viscusi, 1980).
Labor union has also benefited its members by providing them with professional training. This training is majorly aimed at equipping the union members with enough skills so as to increase their chances of acquiring better jobs and also to enable them climb the ladder quite easily. This then will mean an increased salary for them thus improving their living conditions. The training also involves providing legal advice to the members on issues like employment rights and how to go by whenever these rights are violated by their employers. Infact the labor union usually represent its members in court in order to ensure that their cases are dealt with correctly in reference to their rights as stipulated by the labor laws. This has helped many employees to overcome cases such as harassment, discrimination and also underpayment.
Labor union has also ensured that each and every one of its members receives better pay commensurate to what he/she has delivered. The union does this by representing their members in negotiating with the employers regarding issues like salaries and also the nature and conditions of work. In other cases, labor union can call for strikes whenever matters concerning their well being are not handled well. Such matters may be things such as their demand for a pay increase, poor working conditions, and lack of recognition or delay in handling of their cases. By paralyzing most of the activities in various firms and organizations, their employers can speedily handle their cases and a solution to a problem can be reached quickly rather than later. This then easience the handling and solving of cases for the union members.
Labor union has also developed laws that are of much important in handling of cases related to its members. They do this by formulating laws, and then they seek for support from the public and also from politicians. They sometimes support politicians who are on their side to higher offices. Such politicians when they are in office will ensure that the proposed bill concerning the labor union are discussed and passed into law.
The labor union has done a lot in improving the conditions of the working class citizens. Over the years, the union has formulated legislative laws whereby each and every member is protected against poor working conditions, poor remuneration, safety at the work place and also ensured rules governing the poor working conditions and instant firing and promotion of workers are followed All these has been documented and many more are still to be documented. Workers are now very much comfortable and they can all say ‘Thank You’ to the labor union. | 691 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anglicanism and he was expelled for his religious views. He was sent to a
Protestant college is France, so he could complete his studies. At 23 he became a Quaker and he wrote a track called “Sandy
Foundations Shaken” which attacked the doctrines of the trinity and for this he was imprisoned in the Tower of London and during his imprisonment he wrote his greatest masterpiece, “No Cross, No Crown”.
He wrote numbers of books throughout his life about hid Quaker faith. One of the things William Penn is best known for his being proprietor of the colony of Pennsylvania. In 1681, Penn and 11 other
Quakers brought the proprietary rights to East New Jersey. Penn’s father was owed a debt from King Charles II so Penn persuaded King Charles II to grant him a vast province on the west bank of Delaware River and named it Pennsylvania. That means Penn’s Wood, after his father. Penn set out to implement a democratic system with all types of freedoms and rights too. Thomas Jefferson called William Penn “The greatest lawgiver the world has produced.” Penn wanted to design a penal system that not only punished but reformed prisoners. He wanted public education to be available for all children. He hoped that Pennsylvania would become a profitable venture for himself and his family but the colony never turned a profit for Penn and at the time of death in 1718 he died penniless.
William Penn also respected and wanted peace with the Indians. It is believed he singed a treaty in 1682… | <urn:uuid:209935a2-9d4a-4b7a-863c-b2e7d70e3147> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/William-Pen-556962.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.988678 | 322 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.133049413561820... | 1 | Anglicanism and he was expelled for his religious views. He was sent to a
Protestant college is France, so he could complete his studies. At 23 he became a Quaker and he wrote a track called “Sandy
Foundations Shaken” which attacked the doctrines of the trinity and for this he was imprisoned in the Tower of London and during his imprisonment he wrote his greatest masterpiece, “No Cross, No Crown”.
He wrote numbers of books throughout his life about hid Quaker faith. One of the things William Penn is best known for his being proprietor of the colony of Pennsylvania. In 1681, Penn and 11 other
Quakers brought the proprietary rights to East New Jersey. Penn’s father was owed a debt from King Charles II so Penn persuaded King Charles II to grant him a vast province on the west bank of Delaware River and named it Pennsylvania. That means Penn’s Wood, after his father. Penn set out to implement a democratic system with all types of freedoms and rights too. Thomas Jefferson called William Penn “The greatest lawgiver the world has produced.” Penn wanted to design a penal system that not only punished but reformed prisoners. He wanted public education to be available for all children. He hoped that Pennsylvania would become a profitable venture for himself and his family but the colony never turned a profit for Penn and at the time of death in 1718 he died penniless.
William Penn also respected and wanted peace with the Indians. It is believed he singed a treaty in 1682… | 322 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is World War II? the break down of it? (world war two)?
how did it impact australia and the world?
how did world war two break out?
who was involved?
how did the conflict end?
any sites i can get information from?
- 1 decade agoFavorite Answer
1941 was a fine time to be an American. Cars were curvy, movies in black and white, cigarettes were not considered bad for you, and war was simply thought of as a battle of good and evil. The good times came to a stop when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the year ended with a shrill shock of "infamy" and death. This event brought Americans into World War Two.
World War Two was fought in two major places, the Pacific and in Europe. The war in Europe began when the German Army invaded Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939. The Japanese became allies with Germany in the war and began military aggression, creating a war front in the Pacific. The European conflict ended six years later, when General Alfred Jodl signed the official surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945. Winston Churchill immediately announced that this day would be a national holiday known as Victory in Europe (VE) Day. Later, the war ended with Victory over Japan (VJ) on September 2, 1945 when Douglas McArthur accepted Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay.
World War II affected Arizona in many ways. There were military bases established, such as Davis-Monthan, Luke Field, Williams Field, and others that helped sustain the war effort in the Pacific. "All Arizona became an armed camp between 1940 -1946", writes Dean Smith in Arizona Goes To War. Williams Field was established, named in honor of Charles Linton Williams, an Arizona-born pilot. In January 1948 Williams Field was designated as Williams Air Force Base (WAFB). This base became the best place to train pilots, graduating more student pilots and instructors than any other base in the country. In fact, many of the soldiers stationed in these places made a life in Arizona and became Arizonians. The war also brought other nationalities to Arizona such as Britain, Austria, China and some other nations. Native Americans from Arizona participated in the war as well, some as code talkers. Ninety-nine percent of Native Americans registered with selective service by 1942. This was the largest ethnic group to make a per capita contribution to wartime service.
Prisoner of War (POW) camps were established, and brought many people to Arizona as well. On June 1, 1945 there were 16,844 POWs reported in 18 POW camps in Arizona. Two of the major camps were in Florence and one in Papago Park. Many POWs felt fortunate to be in Arizona rather than in the trenches of war. Japanese Americans have few good memories of WWII because of the racism they experienced during that time. The Japanese Americans were expelled from certain states because they were considered a threat to America because their loyalty was in question. Japanese internment camps were established in several states, two main camps located in Arizona. One of these camps was the Gila River Internment Camp, located on the Gila River Indian Reservation. Despite their traumatic experience, the camp residents contributed to the war effort. Their contributions ranged from cooperating with government orders, helping make the camps self-sufficient as possible, and working in war-related industries established within the camps, to joining the armed services and women's auxiliary corps when possible.
Americans were all affected by the war on the home front. Everyone was urged to conserve metal and cloth to make things like uniforms and bombshells for the war. The federal government also compelled Americans to cut back on foodstuffs and consumer goods. People needed ration cards to purchase items such as gasoline, coffee, sugar, and meat. Many Americans were frustrated by this concept because for the first time in years they had money to spend but there was little available for purchase.
World War II changed the way women were viewed in the workforce and in the military. Because of the shortage of men due to the war, women were thrust into the workforce in which inevitably changed their roles in the workplace forever. Over 6 million women took jobs for the first time during WWII, a 57 percent rise in working women. They began working in blue collar jobs, previously available only to men. As many as 2 million women entered defense plants making airplane frames, engines, propellers, parachutes, gas masks, and electrical equipment. These women worked long hours only to go home and cook and clean for their family. The American media nicknamed these women "Rosie the Riveter". The war also had jobs available to women to work in the war itself. These women played an active role in the war in journalism, and some were secret agents.
Although women's lives were changing on the home front, they were also changing in the military as well. More than 350,000 women served during the war, most of them nurses or doing clerical and support work. There were five major branches that women served in, including SPARS, WAVES, WASPS, WAACs, and WACs. The SPARS, (Semper Paratus "Always Prepared") were the women coast guard, created in November of 1942. Accepted on the same basis as male reservists, they served in a variety of ways to release men for the front lines. The WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) were women that served in the Navy and Marines. The WAVES were formed on July 30, 1942 and as many as 100,000 women served as WAVES throughout the remainder of the war. In the WASPS, Women's Air force Service Pilots, women flew planes just as the men did. Unlike other military occupations for women, WASPS had to have a pilot's license, and volunteer for a six month training program. There were so many women applying for the air force, that many were not accommodated. In 1944 the WASPS were disbanded and it was not until 1977 that 1074 WASPS achieved veteran status.
The WAACS (Women's Army Auxiliary Corps) were established on May 15, 1942. Although they were part of the military they only gained partial military status, which enabled them to receive the same legal protection and benefits as men. On July 1, 1943, Congress abolished the WAAC and in turn formed the WAC (Women's Army Corp), which granted women the same pay and rank titles as male reservists. These women served in many positions that normally men would do. One example of service is the story of the late Solange (Sally) M. Cloutier Grambley of Massachusetts. Mrs. Grambley enlisted in the Women's Auxiliary Army Corp on September 1, 1943. She was discharged at Camp Beale, CA on November 19, 1945 as a ranking Sergeant in the US Army Air Force. While she served as a WAAC at Williams Air Force Base she serviced AT 6 and BT-13 aircraft, drove an F-2 fuel truck driver, and operated special equipment as a Corporal. She received the Good Conduct Metal, American Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, and WAAC Service Ribbon. Mrs. Grambley's story reveals how valuable women were to the military during WWII, with their extreme dedication and duty to the United States of America.
World War II transformed women's roles in the workplace and society, but for many it did not last forever. After the war had come to an end, many women left industrial work and military service and readjusted back to home life. With the men returning home to their jobs, the need for women's labor diminished, and without turning back, "Rosie the Riveter" became an icon in history. The women who served in WWII, whether it be on the home front or in the military, should always be remembered as valuable participants in the United States victory.
There's an overview from http://eportg.cgc.maricopa.edu/published/h/is/hist...
In short from me:
1. Germany invaded Poland which the Allies had a Mutual Defence treaty with and therefore were forced into going to war to defend Poland.
2. The Main participants were, on the Allies; Britain, France, USA and later Russia. On the Axis Powers there was Nazi Germany, Facist Italy, Communist Russia to begin with, and Imperial Japan.
3. He key people on the Allies were the 'Big Three'; Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill.
4. 22nd June France Falls to the German Blitzkrieg.
7th December Japan attacks US Naval Base of Pearl Harbour bringing the USA into the war.
German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th and Germany itself surrendered on May 7.
Hope that helps. :]
- NoemiveraLv 44 years ago
Germany wasn't in World War II alone. She had two major allies, Italy and Japan. It is likely Hitler was expecting both to dilute the threat to Germany presented by the other side, which was pretty much limited to the British Commonwealth and a few other countries prior to the Pearl Harbor attack. Hitler likely overreached in attacking the Soviet Union, and certainly overreached by declaring war on the United States after the Pearl Harbor attack and resulting U.S. Declaration of War. At the time of the attack on the Soviets, which came in mid-Summer 1941, Britain had been more or less reduced to defending its homeland from attack and presented little immediate danger to Germany. It did carry out bombing attacks throughout Europe, but on a much smaller scale than would come later. Simply speaking, Germany had a problem with resources, particularly petroleum. It was industrially strong, though not as strong as the U.S. but fighter planes and bombers are of little value if you can't put gas in them. In the end Germany could not match the quantities of allied forces and arms directed against it. It's own forces were high quality, but irreplaceable.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
That's much too complex to answer here...Wikipedia would be a good place to get information about the war.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
This will give you the highlights in simple form.. http://newfreebooks.com Click on "Web Research" and look for history... compressed timeline
That will give you the whole thing in a nutshell.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- rnwallace07Lv 71 decade ago
Besides the website, you can always go to your local library. You can find books on all the areas of which you asked. Unless you are very, very, very young, it is hard for me to believe you don't know how WWII ended. | <urn:uuid:93eaccf1-7fae-4b53-817e-f2db675cd337> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080528045433AAjST47 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.983721 | 2,236 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.644522786140... | 1 | What is World War II? the break down of it? (world war two)?
how did it impact australia and the world?
how did world war two break out?
who was involved?
how did the conflict end?
any sites i can get information from?
- 1 decade agoFavorite Answer
1941 was a fine time to be an American. Cars were curvy, movies in black and white, cigarettes were not considered bad for you, and war was simply thought of as a battle of good and evil. The good times came to a stop when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the year ended with a shrill shock of "infamy" and death. This event brought Americans into World War Two.
World War Two was fought in two major places, the Pacific and in Europe. The war in Europe began when the German Army invaded Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939. The Japanese became allies with Germany in the war and began military aggression, creating a war front in the Pacific. The European conflict ended six years later, when General Alfred Jodl signed the official surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945. Winston Churchill immediately announced that this day would be a national holiday known as Victory in Europe (VE) Day. Later, the war ended with Victory over Japan (VJ) on September 2, 1945 when Douglas McArthur accepted Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay.
World War II affected Arizona in many ways. There were military bases established, such as Davis-Monthan, Luke Field, Williams Field, and others that helped sustain the war effort in the Pacific. "All Arizona became an armed camp between 1940 -1946", writes Dean Smith in Arizona Goes To War. Williams Field was established, named in honor of Charles Linton Williams, an Arizona-born pilot. In January 1948 Williams Field was designated as Williams Air Force Base (WAFB). This base became the best place to train pilots, graduating more student pilots and instructors than any other base in the country. In fact, many of the soldiers stationed in these places made a life in Arizona and became Arizonians. The war also brought other nationalities to Arizona such as Britain, Austria, China and some other nations. Native Americans from Arizona participated in the war as well, some as code talkers. Ninety-nine percent of Native Americans registered with selective service by 1942. This was the largest ethnic group to make a per capita contribution to wartime service.
Prisoner of War (POW) camps were established, and brought many people to Arizona as well. On June 1, 1945 there were 16,844 POWs reported in 18 POW camps in Arizona. Two of the major camps were in Florence and one in Papago Park. Many POWs felt fortunate to be in Arizona rather than in the trenches of war. Japanese Americans have few good memories of WWII because of the racism they experienced during that time. The Japanese Americans were expelled from certain states because they were considered a threat to America because their loyalty was in question. Japanese internment camps were established in several states, two main camps located in Arizona. One of these camps was the Gila River Internment Camp, located on the Gila River Indian Reservation. Despite their traumatic experience, the camp residents contributed to the war effort. Their contributions ranged from cooperating with government orders, helping make the camps self-sufficient as possible, and working in war-related industries established within the camps, to joining the armed services and women's auxiliary corps when possible.
Americans were all affected by the war on the home front. Everyone was urged to conserve metal and cloth to make things like uniforms and bombshells for the war. The federal government also compelled Americans to cut back on foodstuffs and consumer goods. People needed ration cards to purchase items such as gasoline, coffee, sugar, and meat. Many Americans were frustrated by this concept because for the first time in years they had money to spend but there was little available for purchase.
World War II changed the way women were viewed in the workforce and in the military. Because of the shortage of men due to the war, women were thrust into the workforce in which inevitably changed their roles in the workplace forever. Over 6 million women took jobs for the first time during WWII, a 57 percent rise in working women. They began working in blue collar jobs, previously available only to men. As many as 2 million women entered defense plants making airplane frames, engines, propellers, parachutes, gas masks, and electrical equipment. These women worked long hours only to go home and cook and clean for their family. The American media nicknamed these women "Rosie the Riveter". The war also had jobs available to women to work in the war itself. These women played an active role in the war in journalism, and some were secret agents.
Although women's lives were changing on the home front, they were also changing in the military as well. More than 350,000 women served during the war, most of them nurses or doing clerical and support work. There were five major branches that women served in, including SPARS, WAVES, WASPS, WAACs, and WACs. The SPARS, (Semper Paratus "Always Prepared") were the women coast guard, created in November of 1942. Accepted on the same basis as male reservists, they served in a variety of ways to release men for the front lines. The WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) were women that served in the Navy and Marines. The WAVES were formed on July 30, 1942 and as many as 100,000 women served as WAVES throughout the remainder of the war. In the WASPS, Women's Air force Service Pilots, women flew planes just as the men did. Unlike other military occupations for women, WASPS had to have a pilot's license, and volunteer for a six month training program. There were so many women applying for the air force, that many were not accommodated. In 1944 the WASPS were disbanded and it was not until 1977 that 1074 WASPS achieved veteran status.
The WAACS (Women's Army Auxiliary Corps) were established on May 15, 1942. Although they were part of the military they only gained partial military status, which enabled them to receive the same legal protection and benefits as men. On July 1, 1943, Congress abolished the WAAC and in turn formed the WAC (Women's Army Corp), which granted women the same pay and rank titles as male reservists. These women served in many positions that normally men would do. One example of service is the story of the late Solange (Sally) M. Cloutier Grambley of Massachusetts. Mrs. Grambley enlisted in the Women's Auxiliary Army Corp on September 1, 1943. She was discharged at Camp Beale, CA on November 19, 1945 as a ranking Sergeant in the US Army Air Force. While she served as a WAAC at Williams Air Force Base she serviced AT 6 and BT-13 aircraft, drove an F-2 fuel truck driver, and operated special equipment as a Corporal. She received the Good Conduct Metal, American Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, and WAAC Service Ribbon. Mrs. Grambley's story reveals how valuable women were to the military during WWII, with their extreme dedication and duty to the United States of America.
World War II transformed women's roles in the workplace and society, but for many it did not last forever. After the war had come to an end, many women left industrial work and military service and readjusted back to home life. With the men returning home to their jobs, the need for women's labor diminished, and without turning back, "Rosie the Riveter" became an icon in history. The women who served in WWII, whether it be on the home front or in the military, should always be remembered as valuable participants in the United States victory.
There's an overview from http://eportg.cgc.maricopa.edu/published/h/is/hist...
In short from me:
1. Germany invaded Poland which the Allies had a Mutual Defence treaty with and therefore were forced into going to war to defend Poland.
2. The Main participants were, on the Allies; Britain, France, USA and later Russia. On the Axis Powers there was Nazi Germany, Facist Italy, Communist Russia to begin with, and Imperial Japan.
3. He key people on the Allies were the 'Big Three'; Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill.
4. 22nd June France Falls to the German Blitzkrieg.
7th December Japan attacks US Naval Base of Pearl Harbour bringing the USA into the war.
German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th and Germany itself surrendered on May 7.
Hope that helps. :]
- NoemiveraLv 44 years ago
Germany wasn't in World War II alone. She had two major allies, Italy and Japan. It is likely Hitler was expecting both to dilute the threat to Germany presented by the other side, which was pretty much limited to the British Commonwealth and a few other countries prior to the Pearl Harbor attack. Hitler likely overreached in attacking the Soviet Union, and certainly overreached by declaring war on the United States after the Pearl Harbor attack and resulting U.S. Declaration of War. At the time of the attack on the Soviets, which came in mid-Summer 1941, Britain had been more or less reduced to defending its homeland from attack and presented little immediate danger to Germany. It did carry out bombing attacks throughout Europe, but on a much smaller scale than would come later. Simply speaking, Germany had a problem with resources, particularly petroleum. It was industrially strong, though not as strong as the U.S. but fighter planes and bombers are of little value if you can't put gas in them. In the end Germany could not match the quantities of allied forces and arms directed against it. It's own forces were high quality, but irreplaceable.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
That's much too complex to answer here...Wikipedia would be a good place to get information about the war.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
This will give you the highlights in simple form.. http://newfreebooks.com Click on "Web Research" and look for history... compressed timeline
That will give you the whole thing in a nutshell.
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- rnwallace07Lv 71 decade ago
Besides the website, you can always go to your local library. You can find books on all the areas of which you asked. Unless you are very, very, very young, it is hard for me to believe you don't know how WWII ended. | 2,306 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This strategic importance meant it would be the scene of fierce combat as both sides wanted to have it. The Battle of Maryang-san 1st and 2nd battle The Korean War the frontline had been consolidated with fortifications, and there was not much movement. Rather like World War One, strategic objectives would be hills or specific areas of land, rather than sweeping objectives or pushes.
By September 1950, Australian and Canadian forces, as part of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade left the area, and were replaced by the British 29th Infantry Brigade Group, then followed by the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade in April 1951. The 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade was the last to arrive and reinforce the area. The units were then all formed into the 1st Commonwealth Division. In October 1951, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) had made efforts to attack and take the hill at the First Battle of Maryang-san. PVA forces were pushed back and defeated by Australian forces.
In the second battle, the PVA first launched a large scale bombardment of the area, including rockets, on the night of 5 November. The barrage lasted 15 hours. The barrage was then followed up by a human wave attack of massed PVA troops, and the British were overrun. Some troops established a fighting withdrawal, and PVA troops captured the hill, taking British prisoners.
The hill was defended by 400 British troops, but attacked by three battalions. Private Bill Speakman KOSB was awarded Britain's Victoria Cross at this battle for his bravery.Speakman had been conveying a supply of grenades to the British troops, on the left hand side of the hill. When the PVA attacked, Speakman took it on his own initiative to gather 6 men, and then began throwing grenades at the PVA. He engaged the enemy with grenades and guns, making repeated charges against them in different directions.
When the men ran out of grenades, they began throwing bottles and metal tea pots from the kitchen supply. This gave time for his unit to withdraw. Even while wounded in the leg, he continued to charge at the PVA. Create your brand with Auctiva's. Attention Sellers - Get Templates Image Hosting, Scheduling at Auctiva.
The item "WW2 & Korean War medals Pte Smart KOSB Victoria Cross action late Highland LI" is in sale since Friday, December 20, 2019. This item is in the category "Collectables\Militaria\1946-1960". The seller is "theonlineauctionsale" and is located in England. This item can be shipped worldwide. | <urn:uuid:c61d1a92-04e6-4b7c-8f56-2ca98e9b63ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://koreanwarcollectibles.net/ww2-korean-war-medals-pte-smart-kosb-victoria-cross-action-late-highland-li.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.980629 | 535 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.5615470409393... | 3 | This strategic importance meant it would be the scene of fierce combat as both sides wanted to have it. The Battle of Maryang-san 1st and 2nd battle The Korean War the frontline had been consolidated with fortifications, and there was not much movement. Rather like World War One, strategic objectives would be hills or specific areas of land, rather than sweeping objectives or pushes.
By September 1950, Australian and Canadian forces, as part of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade left the area, and were replaced by the British 29th Infantry Brigade Group, then followed by the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade in April 1951. The 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade was the last to arrive and reinforce the area. The units were then all formed into the 1st Commonwealth Division. In October 1951, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) had made efforts to attack and take the hill at the First Battle of Maryang-san. PVA forces were pushed back and defeated by Australian forces.
In the second battle, the PVA first launched a large scale bombardment of the area, including rockets, on the night of 5 November. The barrage lasted 15 hours. The barrage was then followed up by a human wave attack of massed PVA troops, and the British were overrun. Some troops established a fighting withdrawal, and PVA troops captured the hill, taking British prisoners.
The hill was defended by 400 British troops, but attacked by three battalions. Private Bill Speakman KOSB was awarded Britain's Victoria Cross at this battle for his bravery.Speakman had been conveying a supply of grenades to the British troops, on the left hand side of the hill. When the PVA attacked, Speakman took it on his own initiative to gather 6 men, and then began throwing grenades at the PVA. He engaged the enemy with grenades and guns, making repeated charges against them in different directions.
When the men ran out of grenades, they began throwing bottles and metal tea pots from the kitchen supply. This gave time for his unit to withdraw. Even while wounded in the leg, he continued to charge at the PVA. Create your brand with Auctiva's. Attention Sellers - Get Templates Image Hosting, Scheduling at Auctiva.
The item "WW2 & Korean War medals Pte Smart KOSB Victoria Cross action late Highland LI" is in sale since Friday, December 20, 2019. This item is in the category "Collectables\Militaria\1946-1960". The seller is "theonlineauctionsale" and is located in England. This item can be shipped worldwide. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
North Atlantic Treaty
The North Atlantic Treaty is the treaty that founded NATO. It was signed in Washington, DC on April 4, 1949. The original twelve nations that signed it and thus became the founding members of NATO were the following:
Later the following nations joined:
When Germany was reunified in 1990, the country as a whole became a member of NATO.
The key section of the treaty was Article V which says that each member state has to consider an armed attack against one state to be an armed attack against all states. The treaty was created with an armed attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind, but the mutual self-defense clause was never used during the Cold War. It was used for the first time in 2001 when the September 11, 2001 attacks against the World Trade Center and The Pentagon had taken place.
In the United States, the treaty was approved by the Senate in a vote of 82 to 13 on July 21, 1949.
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0.4004678726196... | 2 | North Atlantic Treaty
The North Atlantic Treaty is the treaty that founded NATO. It was signed in Washington, DC on April 4, 1949. The original twelve nations that signed it and thus became the founding members of NATO were the following:
Later the following nations joined:
When Germany was reunified in 1990, the country as a whole became a member of NATO.
The key section of the treaty was Article V which says that each member state has to consider an armed attack against one state to be an armed attack against all states. The treaty was created with an armed attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind, but the mutual self-defense clause was never used during the Cold War. It was used for the first time in 2001 when the September 11, 2001 attacks against the World Trade Center and The Pentagon had taken place.
In the United States, the treaty was approved by the Senate in a vote of 82 to 13 on July 21, 1949.
|Wikisource has original writing related to this article:| | 232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born on 12 February 1809, in a one-room log cabin in Hardin County of Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, is regarded as one of the greatest heroes of America for his role as the savior of the Union and the emancipator of slaves.
Abraham was the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, who moved to Indiana in 1830, as Thomas lost his property in legal disputes. Consequently, Abraham’s formal schooling was disrupted time and again, as he had to work to support his family. He was only nine years old, when he untimely lost her mother on 5 October 1818 and Thomas married Sara ‘Sally’ Bush Johnston, a widow with three children on 2 December 1819. However, Abraham became close to his stepmother and always referred to her as his ‘angel mother’. He grew up as a tall and strong teenager, accepted the customary practice of helping the family and used to give his father all the earnings from work outside the home until age 21. As the Lincoln family moved to Macon County in southern Illinois in 1830, Abraham got a job working on a river flatboat hauling freight down the Mississippi River to New Orleans.
Though he was deprived of formal school education, Abraham was an avid reader and was largely self educated. During his early years he used to read and reread Aesop’s Fables, Robinson Crusoe, the King James Bible and others. As he grew up, his thirst for knowledge increased and he devoured the ‘Life of Washington’ by Mason Locke Weems, the ‘Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin’ and the likes. During their stay in Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father, partly because his lack of education and when the family was again preparing to move to a new home in Coles County, Abraham left home and moved to New Salem.
In 1832 Lincoln partnered with Denton Offutt to bought a general store on credit in New Salem, but as the business struggled, he sold his share, served as a postmaster and then as a surveyor. Meanwhile, he became interested in local politics, aspired to be elected in the General Assembly, but lost in the election. In 1832, he was enlisted as a volunteer in the Black Hawk War and was elected captain of his company. After that, he returned to his election campaign again and became successful in his second attempt, winning election to the Illinois state legislature in 1834, as a supporter of the Whig Party and ultimately, he served four successive terms in the House of Representatives.
Abraham Lincoln, the self taught man, taught himself law and passed the bar examination in 1836. During the next year, he moved to Springfield and worked there as a lawyer for the next two years. Soon he earned a reputation as ‘Honest Abe’, serving clients ranging from individual residents of small towns to national railroad lines.
In December 1839, he met Mary Todd, a Kentucky belle with many suitors and one of the daughters of a wealthy slave-owner. They were engaged in 1840 and married on 4 November 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.
Lincoln was elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term as the lone Whig from Illinois. In collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua Giddings, he jointly wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation to the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. However, as the bill failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters, he abandoned it.
He also challenged the statement of President James Polk that Mexico had started the war by shedding American blood upon American soil and voted to condemn Polk. At the same time, he campaigned for the nomination and election of the war hero Zachary Taylor. As Taylor succeeded at the polls, Lincoln expected to be named commissioner of the general land office as a reward for his campaign services, but was bitterly disappointed when the administration offered him the post of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory, which is a far away territory and a Democratic stronghold. As acceptance of the offer would inevitably ruin his legal and political career in Illinois, he declined the offer and promising not to seek reelection, returned to Springfield in 1849 at the age of 40 and resumed his law practice.
However, when the Kansas-Nebraska Act, advocated by Senator Douglas narrowly passed Congress in 1854, it alarmed many Northerners, who sincerely wanted to prevent the spread of slavery into the territories, since the act declared that the voters of each territory had the right to decide the status of slavery within the territory. This acted as the catalyst of Lincoln’s return to political life, when on 16 October 1854 he appeared before a huge crowd and delivered his ‘Peoria Speech’. He denounced the system of slavery and its extension and specifically termed it as a violation of the basic tenets of the Declaration of Independence.
As the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue, Lincoln knew that his party is almost ruined. To continue his fight, he joined the new Republican Party, formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery. Though he had campaigned unsuccessfully for the election to the Senate in 1855, he ran for the Senate again in 1858.
Douglas was up for re-election in 1858 and Lincoln, after accepting the nomination, delivered his famous ‘house divided’ speech, in which he quoted from the Gospels to illustrate his belief that government cannot permanently endure half slave and half free. His speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion. Though he lost the Senate election, his performance made him reputed nationally. His importance rose higher after he delivered another rousing speech to a group of powerful Republicans at Cooper Union in New York City in early 1860.
On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Senator William H Seward of New York and other powerful contenders. On the other hand, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. However, delegates from eleven slave states disagreed with the decision and selected incumbent Vice President John C Breckinridge as their candidate. Another group formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee as their candidate. Basically, Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.
As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches. He relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party, who produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials, focusing on the party platform, and Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty.
Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States on 6 November 1860, the first Republican president of the country. However, no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states. With Breckenridge and Bell splitting the vote in the South, Lincoln’s victory was entirely due to his support in the North and states like California and Oregon in the west. But, his victory in the Electoral College was decisive, as he had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123.
The election of an antislavery northerner as the 16th president of the United States, alarmed many southern states and they planned to leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession on 20 December 1860, followed by Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Before Lincoln took the office, six of these states seceded from the Union, declared sovereignty, formed the Confederate States of America and adopted a constitution. On 9 February 1861, Jefferson Davis was selected as the provisional President of Confederation.
Though attempts at compromise followed, the failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. As no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms by March 1861, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could never be tolerated.
In the month of April, in compliance with the request of Fort Sumter's commander, Major Robert Anderson, Lincoln ordered a fleet of Union ships to supply provisions to South Carolina’s Fort Sumter. However, on 12 April 1861, the Confederate forces fired on both the fort and the Union fleet, which signaled the beginning of the Civil War. After that and following the absolute defeat of the Union force at the First Battle of Bull Run in Prince William County in Virginia, just north of the city of Manassas on 21 July 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George McClellan as the general-in-chief.
However, his slow progress frustrated Lincoln and after McClellan offered unsolicited political advice, Lincoln removed him in March 1862 and appointed Republican John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north and thus protecting Washington from counter attack. However, Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the month of August 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington.
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Within two days of McClellan's return to command, a huge force under command of General Robert E Lee crossed the Potomac River into Maryland. The ensuing Battle of Antietam, fought on 17 September 1862, was the bloodiest day in United States history, with a combined tally of 22,717 dead, wounded, or missing. In the battle, the Confederate troops had withdrawn from the battlefield and abandoned their invasion, making it a Union strategic victory. However, only due to McClellan’s reluctance to pursue the enemy force, the Confederate Army could retreat safely to Virginia. Lincoln was very much annoyed at it and finally removed McClellan from the command after the midterm election of 1862, replacing him with Republican Ambrose Burnside.
Nevertheless, it was a sufficiently significant victory to give Lincoln the confidence to announce his famous Emancipation Proclamation on 22 September1862, effective from 1 January 1863.This famous decree applied only to those parts of the country, that were under Confederate control, neither to the loyal slave states nor to the federally occupied areas of the Confederacy. However, the proclamation brought freedom during the war to fewer than 200,000 slaves.
Though the proclamation was a death blow at the gigantic evil of slavery, Lincoln felt that a constitutional amendment is required to terminate and prohibit the inhuman system forever, since the proclamation had no provision to erase the risk of re-enslavement and confirm the liberty of the slaves. Lincoln therefore increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. An amendment to the constitution was brought to Congress by December 1863, but this first attempt failed, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. But, after a House debate, the second attempt passed on January 31, 1865 and went out to the states for ratification and with ratification, it became the 13th amendment of the constitution on 6 December 1865, outlawing slavery. Unfortunately, Lincoln did not live to rejoice in its ultimate adoption.
The tide of the war finally turned in favour of the Union in July 1863, with the two important Union victories at Vicksburg-Mississippi and Gettysburg-Pennsylvania, though General George Meade missed the golden opportunity to deliver a final blow to Lee’s army at Gettysburg. However, as Sherman marched triumphantly northward through the Carolinas, Lee had to surrender to General Ulysses S.Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia on 9th April 1865,in one of the last battles of the American Civil War.
At the dedication ceremony for the new national cemetery at Gettysburg in November 1863, Lincoln delivered a brief speech, which became the most famous speech of Lincoln’s presidency and one of the most widely quoted speeches in history. In just 272 words, and three minutes, he defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that slavery would end, the future of democracy would be assured and government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Lincoln had to face a tough reelection battle in 1864, against the Democratic nominee, the former Union General George McClellan. But, he was reelected with a large popular majority (55 percent) over his Democratic opponent. In his second inaugural address, delivered on 4th March 1865, Lincoln emphasized the need to reconstruct the South, rebuild the Union and bind up the nation’s wounds, with malice toward none and with charity for all.
With the fall of Petersburg and Richmond, and Lee’s ultimate surrender to General Grant at Appomattox on 9th April, Washington became crazy with jubilation. On the evening of 10 April 1865 a huge crowd of some 3,000 people gathered outside the White House, to whom Abraham Lincoln delivered his last public address, earnestly persuading his audience to welcome the southern states back into the fold. Unfortunately, he would not live to help carry out his vision of Reconstruction.
Five days after Lee's surrender, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on 14 April 1865, while attending a play at Ford’s Theatre. Booth was an actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland. After attending Lincoln’s speech on 11 April 1865, when he promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth planned to assassinate Lincoln and General Grant at the theater. He crept up from behind and fired at the back of Lincoln's head and escaped. Lincoln was immediately attended by doctors and was taken to Peterson House, across the street. He remained in coma for nine hours, as the external and internal hemorrhaging continued throughout the night and died in the morning of 15 April at the age of 56.
Booth was located in Virginia 11 days later. As he refused to surrender, he was shot by Union forces on April 26 and died two hours later.
The late President lay in state, first in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The funeral train, Lincoln special, left Washington, DC on April 21 at 12:30 pm and traveled 1,654 miles (2,662 km) never exceeding 20 mph to reach the final destination at Springfield on May 3. It stopped in several principal cities and state capitals en route, where ceremonies and processions were held with the caskets, attended by hundreds and thousands of mourners.
Though Lincoln was born in Kentucky, grew up in Indiana, and served the nation from Washington, he was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery, Springfield in Illinois, as he always maintained that Springfield is his hometown. The site of the Lincoln Tomb consists of a 117 feet (36 m) tall granite obelisk, surrounded by several bronze statues of Lincoln, along with soldiers and sailors. Upon completion of the memorial in 1874, Lincoln's mortal remains were interred in a marble casket in the center of a chamber known as the burial room or catacombs.
Much later, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC was dedicated to him on May 30, 1922.
Lincoln deserves his reputation as the Great Emancipator. However, he was also a very intelligent war leader, who carried the nation safely through the four-year struggle that brought freedom in its train. His faithfulness, honesty, resolution, insight, sense of humour and courage made him a historical hero. Lincoln was very much attached to the Bible and knew it well. He also was fond of Shakespeare, liked the works of John Stuart Mill and enjoyed the poems of Lord Byron and Robert Burns. He is considered by many as a martyr. As he was assassinated on Good Friday, the day of crucifixion, it is said that, Jesus Christ died for the world and Abraham Lincoln died for his country. | <urn:uuid:6d7e102b-ef38-4827-9719-21c760c4ecf4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tutorialathome.in/history/abraham-lincoln-united-states-rulers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.982006 | 3,330 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.214786559... | 7 | Born on 12 February 1809, in a one-room log cabin in Hardin County of Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, is regarded as one of the greatest heroes of America for his role as the savior of the Union and the emancipator of slaves.
Abraham was the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, who moved to Indiana in 1830, as Thomas lost his property in legal disputes. Consequently, Abraham’s formal schooling was disrupted time and again, as he had to work to support his family. He was only nine years old, when he untimely lost her mother on 5 October 1818 and Thomas married Sara ‘Sally’ Bush Johnston, a widow with three children on 2 December 1819. However, Abraham became close to his stepmother and always referred to her as his ‘angel mother’. He grew up as a tall and strong teenager, accepted the customary practice of helping the family and used to give his father all the earnings from work outside the home until age 21. As the Lincoln family moved to Macon County in southern Illinois in 1830, Abraham got a job working on a river flatboat hauling freight down the Mississippi River to New Orleans.
Though he was deprived of formal school education, Abraham was an avid reader and was largely self educated. During his early years he used to read and reread Aesop’s Fables, Robinson Crusoe, the King James Bible and others. As he grew up, his thirst for knowledge increased and he devoured the ‘Life of Washington’ by Mason Locke Weems, the ‘Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin’ and the likes. During their stay in Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father, partly because his lack of education and when the family was again preparing to move to a new home in Coles County, Abraham left home and moved to New Salem.
In 1832 Lincoln partnered with Denton Offutt to bought a general store on credit in New Salem, but as the business struggled, he sold his share, served as a postmaster and then as a surveyor. Meanwhile, he became interested in local politics, aspired to be elected in the General Assembly, but lost in the election. In 1832, he was enlisted as a volunteer in the Black Hawk War and was elected captain of his company. After that, he returned to his election campaign again and became successful in his second attempt, winning election to the Illinois state legislature in 1834, as a supporter of the Whig Party and ultimately, he served four successive terms in the House of Representatives.
Abraham Lincoln, the self taught man, taught himself law and passed the bar examination in 1836. During the next year, he moved to Springfield and worked there as a lawyer for the next two years. Soon he earned a reputation as ‘Honest Abe’, serving clients ranging from individual residents of small towns to national railroad lines.
In December 1839, he met Mary Todd, a Kentucky belle with many suitors and one of the daughters of a wealthy slave-owner. They were engaged in 1840 and married on 4 November 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.
Lincoln was elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term as the lone Whig from Illinois. In collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua Giddings, he jointly wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation to the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. However, as the bill failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters, he abandoned it.
He also challenged the statement of President James Polk that Mexico had started the war by shedding American blood upon American soil and voted to condemn Polk. At the same time, he campaigned for the nomination and election of the war hero Zachary Taylor. As Taylor succeeded at the polls, Lincoln expected to be named commissioner of the general land office as a reward for his campaign services, but was bitterly disappointed when the administration offered him the post of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory, which is a far away territory and a Democratic stronghold. As acceptance of the offer would inevitably ruin his legal and political career in Illinois, he declined the offer and promising not to seek reelection, returned to Springfield in 1849 at the age of 40 and resumed his law practice.
However, when the Kansas-Nebraska Act, advocated by Senator Douglas narrowly passed Congress in 1854, it alarmed many Northerners, who sincerely wanted to prevent the spread of slavery into the territories, since the act declared that the voters of each territory had the right to decide the status of slavery within the territory. This acted as the catalyst of Lincoln’s return to political life, when on 16 October 1854 he appeared before a huge crowd and delivered his ‘Peoria Speech’. He denounced the system of slavery and its extension and specifically termed it as a violation of the basic tenets of the Declaration of Independence.
As the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue, Lincoln knew that his party is almost ruined. To continue his fight, he joined the new Republican Party, formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery. Though he had campaigned unsuccessfully for the election to the Senate in 1855, he ran for the Senate again in 1858.
Douglas was up for re-election in 1858 and Lincoln, after accepting the nomination, delivered his famous ‘house divided’ speech, in which he quoted from the Gospels to illustrate his belief that government cannot permanently endure half slave and half free. His speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion. Though he lost the Senate election, his performance made him reputed nationally. His importance rose higher after he delivered another rousing speech to a group of powerful Republicans at Cooper Union in New York City in early 1860.
On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Senator William H Seward of New York and other powerful contenders. On the other hand, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. However, delegates from eleven slave states disagreed with the decision and selected incumbent Vice President John C Breckinridge as their candidate. Another group formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee as their candidate. Basically, Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.
As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches. He relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party, who produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials, focusing on the party platform, and Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty.
Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States on 6 November 1860, the first Republican president of the country. However, no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states. With Breckenridge and Bell splitting the vote in the South, Lincoln’s victory was entirely due to his support in the North and states like California and Oregon in the west. But, his victory in the Electoral College was decisive, as he had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123.
The election of an antislavery northerner as the 16th president of the United States, alarmed many southern states and they planned to leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession on 20 December 1860, followed by Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Before Lincoln took the office, six of these states seceded from the Union, declared sovereignty, formed the Confederate States of America and adopted a constitution. On 9 February 1861, Jefferson Davis was selected as the provisional President of Confederation.
Though attempts at compromise followed, the failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. As no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms by March 1861, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could never be tolerated.
In the month of April, in compliance with the request of Fort Sumter's commander, Major Robert Anderson, Lincoln ordered a fleet of Union ships to supply provisions to South Carolina’s Fort Sumter. However, on 12 April 1861, the Confederate forces fired on both the fort and the Union fleet, which signaled the beginning of the Civil War. After that and following the absolute defeat of the Union force at the First Battle of Bull Run in Prince William County in Virginia, just north of the city of Manassas on 21 July 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George McClellan as the general-in-chief.
However, his slow progress frustrated Lincoln and after McClellan offered unsolicited political advice, Lincoln removed him in March 1862 and appointed Republican John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north and thus protecting Washington from counter attack. However, Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the month of August 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington.
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Within two days of McClellan's return to command, a huge force under command of General Robert E Lee crossed the Potomac River into Maryland. The ensuing Battle of Antietam, fought on 17 September 1862, was the bloodiest day in United States history, with a combined tally of 22,717 dead, wounded, or missing. In the battle, the Confederate troops had withdrawn from the battlefield and abandoned their invasion, making it a Union strategic victory. However, only due to McClellan’s reluctance to pursue the enemy force, the Confederate Army could retreat safely to Virginia. Lincoln was very much annoyed at it and finally removed McClellan from the command after the midterm election of 1862, replacing him with Republican Ambrose Burnside.
Nevertheless, it was a sufficiently significant victory to give Lincoln the confidence to announce his famous Emancipation Proclamation on 22 September1862, effective from 1 January 1863.This famous decree applied only to those parts of the country, that were under Confederate control, neither to the loyal slave states nor to the federally occupied areas of the Confederacy. However, the proclamation brought freedom during the war to fewer than 200,000 slaves.
Though the proclamation was a death blow at the gigantic evil of slavery, Lincoln felt that a constitutional amendment is required to terminate and prohibit the inhuman system forever, since the proclamation had no provision to erase the risk of re-enslavement and confirm the liberty of the slaves. Lincoln therefore increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. An amendment to the constitution was brought to Congress by December 1863, but this first attempt failed, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. But, after a House debate, the second attempt passed on January 31, 1865 and went out to the states for ratification and with ratification, it became the 13th amendment of the constitution on 6 December 1865, outlawing slavery. Unfortunately, Lincoln did not live to rejoice in its ultimate adoption.
The tide of the war finally turned in favour of the Union in July 1863, with the two important Union victories at Vicksburg-Mississippi and Gettysburg-Pennsylvania, though General George Meade missed the golden opportunity to deliver a final blow to Lee’s army at Gettysburg. However, as Sherman marched triumphantly northward through the Carolinas, Lee had to surrender to General Ulysses S.Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia on 9th April 1865,in one of the last battles of the American Civil War.
At the dedication ceremony for the new national cemetery at Gettysburg in November 1863, Lincoln delivered a brief speech, which became the most famous speech of Lincoln’s presidency and one of the most widely quoted speeches in history. In just 272 words, and three minutes, he defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that slavery would end, the future of democracy would be assured and government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Lincoln had to face a tough reelection battle in 1864, against the Democratic nominee, the former Union General George McClellan. But, he was reelected with a large popular majority (55 percent) over his Democratic opponent. In his second inaugural address, delivered on 4th March 1865, Lincoln emphasized the need to reconstruct the South, rebuild the Union and bind up the nation’s wounds, with malice toward none and with charity for all.
With the fall of Petersburg and Richmond, and Lee’s ultimate surrender to General Grant at Appomattox on 9th April, Washington became crazy with jubilation. On the evening of 10 April 1865 a huge crowd of some 3,000 people gathered outside the White House, to whom Abraham Lincoln delivered his last public address, earnestly persuading his audience to welcome the southern states back into the fold. Unfortunately, he would not live to help carry out his vision of Reconstruction.
Five days after Lee's surrender, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on 14 April 1865, while attending a play at Ford’s Theatre. Booth was an actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland. After attending Lincoln’s speech on 11 April 1865, when he promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth planned to assassinate Lincoln and General Grant at the theater. He crept up from behind and fired at the back of Lincoln's head and escaped. Lincoln was immediately attended by doctors and was taken to Peterson House, across the street. He remained in coma for nine hours, as the external and internal hemorrhaging continued throughout the night and died in the morning of 15 April at the age of 56.
Booth was located in Virginia 11 days later. As he refused to surrender, he was shot by Union forces on April 26 and died two hours later.
The late President lay in state, first in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The funeral train, Lincoln special, left Washington, DC on April 21 at 12:30 pm and traveled 1,654 miles (2,662 km) never exceeding 20 mph to reach the final destination at Springfield on May 3. It stopped in several principal cities and state capitals en route, where ceremonies and processions were held with the caskets, attended by hundreds and thousands of mourners.
Though Lincoln was born in Kentucky, grew up in Indiana, and served the nation from Washington, he was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery, Springfield in Illinois, as he always maintained that Springfield is his hometown. The site of the Lincoln Tomb consists of a 117 feet (36 m) tall granite obelisk, surrounded by several bronze statues of Lincoln, along with soldiers and sailors. Upon completion of the memorial in 1874, Lincoln's mortal remains were interred in a marble casket in the center of a chamber known as the burial room or catacombs.
Much later, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC was dedicated to him on May 30, 1922.
Lincoln deserves his reputation as the Great Emancipator. However, he was also a very intelligent war leader, who carried the nation safely through the four-year struggle that brought freedom in its train. His faithfulness, honesty, resolution, insight, sense of humour and courage made him a historical hero. Lincoln was very much attached to the Bible and knew it well. He also was fond of Shakespeare, liked the works of John Stuart Mill and enjoyed the poems of Lord Byron and Robert Burns. He is considered by many as a martyr. As he was assassinated on Good Friday, the day of crucifixion, it is said that, Jesus Christ died for the world and Abraham Lincoln died for his country. | 3,552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leon Trotsky was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian October Revolution, second only to Vladimir Lenin. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War. He was also among the first members of the Politburo.After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party and deported from the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, Trotsky also opposed Stalin's peace agreements with Adolf Hitler in the 1930s. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, and was eventually assassinated in Mexico by Ramón Mercader, a Soviet agent. Trotsky's ideas form the basis of Trotskyism, a term coined as early as 1905 by his opponents in order to separate it from Marxism. Trotsky's ideas remain a major school of Marxist thought that is opposed to the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who were never rehabilitated by the Soviet administration. | <urn:uuid:c8060a6f-c748-4d25-972b-f005430a294b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookmate.com/authors/riUzpsZT | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.984795 | 260 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4073967039... | 2 | Leon Trotsky was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian October Revolution, second only to Vladimir Lenin. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War. He was also among the first members of the Politburo.After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party and deported from the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, Trotsky also opposed Stalin's peace agreements with Adolf Hitler in the 1930s. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, and was eventually assassinated in Mexico by Ramón Mercader, a Soviet agent. Trotsky's ideas form the basis of Trotskyism, a term coined as early as 1905 by his opponents in order to separate it from Marxism. Trotsky's ideas remain a major school of Marxist thought that is opposed to the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who were never rehabilitated by the Soviet administration. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reconstruction in the United States was the process of readmitting the Confederate south back into the Union after they seceded. It occurred in the period after the Civil War and lasted from 1863 to 1877.
Lincoln has just been elected President! He plans to set all of us slaves free!
Lincoln is in the process of putting together a 10% plan which will allow southern states back into the Union.
Our beloved Lincoln died and Andrew Johnson is to take his place. He is making sure us slaves are freed by putting into place the 13th Amendment. No other rights will be granted to us former slaves, though.
Johnson's Reconstruction involved requiring the southern states to swear allegiance to the Union, pay war debts, and ratify the 13th Amendment.
The Freedman's Bureau was put into place by Congress as a way to help former slaves and poor whites after the war. It's goal was to assist freed slaves and poor whites in obtaining land, education, and jobs.
The Black Codes were a series of laws put into place by the southern states.
They required every one of us former slaves to sign a labor contract for one year with a white employer. If we didn't we would be fined. They wanted to make as little change from slavery to freedom as possible.
Radical Republican's Reconstruction
The Radical Republican's divided the south into five military groups, required the states to ratify the 14th Amendment which would grant citizenship to everyone born in the US, and set into place the 15th Amendment which granted every male citizen in the US the right to vote.
The Freedman's Bureau successfully fed millions of people, built hospitals to provide medical aid, negotiated labor contracts, and settled labor disputes for former slaves. However, the Freedman's Bureau brought lots of hatred from some whites and created conflicts.
The Radical Republican's are granting African American men the right to vote! I'm so glad they're going against what President Johnson wants. | <urn:uuid:bdb5d632-75b2-48b4-a91d-3bbbf225268d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/jennajohns/reconstruction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.98187 | 404 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.32092925906... | 2 | Reconstruction in the United States was the process of readmitting the Confederate south back into the Union after they seceded. It occurred in the period after the Civil War and lasted from 1863 to 1877.
Lincoln has just been elected President! He plans to set all of us slaves free!
Lincoln is in the process of putting together a 10% plan which will allow southern states back into the Union.
Our beloved Lincoln died and Andrew Johnson is to take his place. He is making sure us slaves are freed by putting into place the 13th Amendment. No other rights will be granted to us former slaves, though.
Johnson's Reconstruction involved requiring the southern states to swear allegiance to the Union, pay war debts, and ratify the 13th Amendment.
The Freedman's Bureau was put into place by Congress as a way to help former slaves and poor whites after the war. It's goal was to assist freed slaves and poor whites in obtaining land, education, and jobs.
The Black Codes were a series of laws put into place by the southern states.
They required every one of us former slaves to sign a labor contract for one year with a white employer. If we didn't we would be fined. They wanted to make as little change from slavery to freedom as possible.
Radical Republican's Reconstruction
The Radical Republican's divided the south into five military groups, required the states to ratify the 14th Amendment which would grant citizenship to everyone born in the US, and set into place the 15th Amendment which granted every male citizen in the US the right to vote.
The Freedman's Bureau successfully fed millions of people, built hospitals to provide medical aid, negotiated labor contracts, and settled labor disputes for former slaves. However, the Freedman's Bureau brought lots of hatred from some whites and created conflicts.
The Radical Republican's are granting African American men the right to vote! I'm so glad they're going against what President Johnson wants. | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Armin Wegner, a German soldier and medic, was sent to the Ottoman Empire during World War I, while the two countries were allies. Wegner was stationed along the Baghdad Railway in Syria and Mesopotamia, where he witnessed the deportations and mass killings of Armenians, subsequently known as the Armenian Genocide. He wrote several books describing his eyewitness accounts.
Contrary to the Ottoman prohibition of taking pictures during the Armenian Genocide, Wegner took hundreds of rare photographs and smuggled them into Germany. At the Ottoman government’s request, he was arrested and some of his photographs were destroyed. He succeeded, however, in hiding many other negatives in his belt. In 1919, Wegner sent a letter to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the Peace Conference, advocating for an independent Armenia. In 1921, Wegner testified at the trial of Soghomon Tehlirian who was accused of assassinating in Berlin Talaat Pasha, the Turkish mastermind of the Armenian Genocide. Tehlirian was found not guilty by the German court and released from jail. Along with his wife, Wegner visited the Soviet Union and Soviet Armenia in 1927-28. In 1968, he was invited to Soviet Armenia by the Catholicos of All Armenians and awarded the Order of St. Gregory the Illuminator. Wegner died in Rome in 1978 at the age of 91. Some of his ashes are buried in Armenia.
Wegner’s illustrious counterpart was Franz Werfel, a Jewish-Austrian novelist, playwright, and poet. He was well-known for his novel, “The Forty Days of Musa Dagh,” which described the Armenian resistance to the Ottoman troops during the Genocide.
Werfel visited the Middle East twice in 1925 and 1929. While in Damascus, Syria, he encountered Armenian children, survivors of the Genocide, who were in destitute condition, which inspired him to write ‘The Forty Days of Musa Dagh.’ The world famous novel was published in Germany in 1933. Werfel lectured throughout Germany about the Armenian Genocide, as a result of which he was accused of spreading anti-Turkish propaganda. The Nazi newspaper ‘Das Schwarze’ denounced him for carrying out propaganda against “alleged Turkish horrors perpetrated against the Armenians.” The same German newspaper, suggesting a link between Armenians and Jews, condemned “America’s Armenian Jews for promoting in the U.S.A. the sale of Werfel’s book.” His books were burned by the Nazis. He was forced to flee and eventually settled in Los Angeles where he died in 1945. His body was reburied in Vienna in 1975.
Interestingly, these two distinguished pro-Armenian writers clashed with each other when Armin Wegner wrote a lengthy letter on December 14, 1932, asking Franz Werfel not to write his novel, ‘The Forty Days of Musa Dagh,” because he was in the midst of writing his own four-volume book on Armenians. Werfel responded to Wegner with a short letter on December 23, 1932, explaining that their planned books did not conflict with each other, as they were about different aspects of the Armenian Genocide. I would like to thank Zaven Khatchaturian, President of Armin T. Wegner Society of USA, who translated both letters from German into English. The German original of both letters are kept at the Shiller-Nationalmuseum und Deutsches Literaturarchiv, Marbach/Neckar, Germany. Here are excerpts from these two historic letters:
Wegner wrote from his home in Berlin to Werfel in Vienna: “When I returned to Berlin from Meran, a few days ago, after a long and serious illness, the first thing my friends told me, and what I read in the newspaper soon after, was: Franz Werfel is writing a novel about the downfall of the Armenian people. I saw, in the eyes of my friends, that they were afraid to upset me with this news, which they didn’t want to keep from me.
You must know dear comrade and master that I myself have been writing a voluminous novel about the fate of the Armenian people. I am surprised that you have not heard of it through my numerous publications, if not otherwise, by my letter to the Prussian Academy of the Arts, Department of Poetry. In the fall of 1930, I set out in more detail the project of my Armenian novel. This letter became the reason that the Academy gave me more support for my work on it. Or, perhaps, because of my writings on Armenia, and the well-known fact, in literary circles, that I was involved with the development of the fate of the Armenian people, inspired you to turn to this huge thing on your own way.
You can justifiably reply that history is the field of every man and artist, and that no one can deny them the opportunity to choose the area for his artistic work that appeals to them and entices them. However, you will understand that the message of your plan filled me with a certain anxiety, when you hear the lifelong attachment of fate between me and the demise of the Armenian people as a human and artistic experience.
It may happen, and it has repeatedly occurred, that two poets simultaneously and independently of each other (or even knowingly) grab the same substance. It happened recently – two dramatists almost concurrently, wrote a play about the Panama Canal (likewise two writers wrote the play The Captain of Köpenick). Such is the misfortune of the one who comes later, even if he is perhaps the stronger artist, and, as a result, the success of his creation suffers. In such a case, it is one work among other of the artist’s works, which he may or may not give up easily. However, sooner or later he must cope with the flop. In my case it is the work of my life.
(To be continued…) | <urn:uuid:ba1b49c6-5ce9-4c82-a4bc-5aff92f6fc1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://armenianweekly.com/2019/09/02/armin-wegner-asked-franz-werfel-not-to-write-his-40-days-of-musa-dagh-part-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.982104 | 1,263 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3914783000946... | 1 | Armin Wegner, a German soldier and medic, was sent to the Ottoman Empire during World War I, while the two countries were allies. Wegner was stationed along the Baghdad Railway in Syria and Mesopotamia, where he witnessed the deportations and mass killings of Armenians, subsequently known as the Armenian Genocide. He wrote several books describing his eyewitness accounts.
Contrary to the Ottoman prohibition of taking pictures during the Armenian Genocide, Wegner took hundreds of rare photographs and smuggled them into Germany. At the Ottoman government’s request, he was arrested and some of his photographs were destroyed. He succeeded, however, in hiding many other negatives in his belt. In 1919, Wegner sent a letter to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the Peace Conference, advocating for an independent Armenia. In 1921, Wegner testified at the trial of Soghomon Tehlirian who was accused of assassinating in Berlin Talaat Pasha, the Turkish mastermind of the Armenian Genocide. Tehlirian was found not guilty by the German court and released from jail. Along with his wife, Wegner visited the Soviet Union and Soviet Armenia in 1927-28. In 1968, he was invited to Soviet Armenia by the Catholicos of All Armenians and awarded the Order of St. Gregory the Illuminator. Wegner died in Rome in 1978 at the age of 91. Some of his ashes are buried in Armenia.
Wegner’s illustrious counterpart was Franz Werfel, a Jewish-Austrian novelist, playwright, and poet. He was well-known for his novel, “The Forty Days of Musa Dagh,” which described the Armenian resistance to the Ottoman troops during the Genocide.
Werfel visited the Middle East twice in 1925 and 1929. While in Damascus, Syria, he encountered Armenian children, survivors of the Genocide, who were in destitute condition, which inspired him to write ‘The Forty Days of Musa Dagh.’ The world famous novel was published in Germany in 1933. Werfel lectured throughout Germany about the Armenian Genocide, as a result of which he was accused of spreading anti-Turkish propaganda. The Nazi newspaper ‘Das Schwarze’ denounced him for carrying out propaganda against “alleged Turkish horrors perpetrated against the Armenians.” The same German newspaper, suggesting a link between Armenians and Jews, condemned “America’s Armenian Jews for promoting in the U.S.A. the sale of Werfel’s book.” His books were burned by the Nazis. He was forced to flee and eventually settled in Los Angeles where he died in 1945. His body was reburied in Vienna in 1975.
Interestingly, these two distinguished pro-Armenian writers clashed with each other when Armin Wegner wrote a lengthy letter on December 14, 1932, asking Franz Werfel not to write his novel, ‘The Forty Days of Musa Dagh,” because he was in the midst of writing his own four-volume book on Armenians. Werfel responded to Wegner with a short letter on December 23, 1932, explaining that their planned books did not conflict with each other, as they were about different aspects of the Armenian Genocide. I would like to thank Zaven Khatchaturian, President of Armin T. Wegner Society of USA, who translated both letters from German into English. The German original of both letters are kept at the Shiller-Nationalmuseum und Deutsches Literaturarchiv, Marbach/Neckar, Germany. Here are excerpts from these two historic letters:
Wegner wrote from his home in Berlin to Werfel in Vienna: “When I returned to Berlin from Meran, a few days ago, after a long and serious illness, the first thing my friends told me, and what I read in the newspaper soon after, was: Franz Werfel is writing a novel about the downfall of the Armenian people. I saw, in the eyes of my friends, that they were afraid to upset me with this news, which they didn’t want to keep from me.
You must know dear comrade and master that I myself have been writing a voluminous novel about the fate of the Armenian people. I am surprised that you have not heard of it through my numerous publications, if not otherwise, by my letter to the Prussian Academy of the Arts, Department of Poetry. In the fall of 1930, I set out in more detail the project of my Armenian novel. This letter became the reason that the Academy gave me more support for my work on it. Or, perhaps, because of my writings on Armenia, and the well-known fact, in literary circles, that I was involved with the development of the fate of the Armenian people, inspired you to turn to this huge thing on your own way.
You can justifiably reply that history is the field of every man and artist, and that no one can deny them the opportunity to choose the area for his artistic work that appeals to them and entices them. However, you will understand that the message of your plan filled me with a certain anxiety, when you hear the lifelong attachment of fate between me and the demise of the Armenian people as a human and artistic experience.
It may happen, and it has repeatedly occurred, that two poets simultaneously and independently of each other (or even knowingly) grab the same substance. It happened recently – two dramatists almost concurrently, wrote a play about the Panama Canal (likewise two writers wrote the play The Captain of Köpenick). Such is the misfortune of the one who comes later, even if he is perhaps the stronger artist, and, as a result, the success of his creation suffers. In such a case, it is one work among other of the artist’s works, which he may or may not give up easily. However, sooner or later he must cope with the flop. In my case it is the work of my life.
(To be continued…) | 1,265 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: Colleen vonVorys-Norton
Elizabeth was born a slave in Virginia and at the age of four was the maid to a new born. After many years of moving around, she ended up marrying a white man who used to be her Master. After he died, the estate owner claimed that she was to be a slave once more and the only way to gain freedom for her and her son was through payment. With some help, she was able to leave and head to Washington D.C. where she quickly became the dressmaker for Mrs. Jefferson Davis. At this point in time, the south was beginning the process of succeeding. Having Elizabeth be working so closely with Mrs. Davis gave her access to the domestic life of the Confederate President. Mrs. Davis spoke frequently to Elizabeth about their future and remarked that “you had better go South with me; I will take good care of you. Besides, when the war breaks out, the colored people will suffer in the North. The Northern people will look upon them as the cause of the war, and I fear, in their exasperation, will be inclined to treat you harshly” (71). Knowing better than to head back to the south, Elizabeth stayed in D.C. with the desire to work as a dressmaker for the first lady.
This became a reality when she was recommended for the position by another lady. This lead her to have a unique look at the private life of the Lincolns. The most notable of these was what she observed after Willie died at a young age. She was in the room with the President when he saw Willie and “great sobs choked his utterance. He buried his head in his hands, and his tall frame was convulsed with emotion… His grief unnerved him, and made him a weak, passive child” (103). This complexity bring much more light on the man that the President was. He was more than just a strong man who lead his country unflinchingly through war. Elizabeth’s story serves as a reminder that he was just an ordinary man who was able to do extraordinary things.
Elizabeth was also there for the assignation of the President as well. Only a few days before, Mrs. Lincoln remarked “Yes, yes, Mr. Lincoln’s life is always exposed. Ah, no one knows what it is to live in constant dread of some fearful tragedy. The President has been warned so often, that I tremble for him on every public occasion. I have a presentiment that he will meet with a sudden and violent end. I pray God to protect my beloved husband from the hands of the assassin” (178). Having this only come days before the assignation is a telling sign of how confident that the President was in him not being hurt. At that time, Presidents did not believe that they could be hurt.
Elizabeth’s story holds so much valuable information on the domestic life of the Lincoln family. Even though she began her life as a slave woman, she was able to rise to such heights and become close friends with Mary Lincoln. | <urn:uuid:3610dd0b-84c0-4ae0-89c4-abd20730d3f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://americanstudiesmediacultureprogram.wordpress.com/2017/10/13/elizabeth-keckley-and-a-look-into-the-private-life-of-the-lincolns/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.989298 | 639 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.2599635720252991... | 4 | By: Colleen vonVorys-Norton
Elizabeth was born a slave in Virginia and at the age of four was the maid to a new born. After many years of moving around, she ended up marrying a white man who used to be her Master. After he died, the estate owner claimed that she was to be a slave once more and the only way to gain freedom for her and her son was through payment. With some help, she was able to leave and head to Washington D.C. where she quickly became the dressmaker for Mrs. Jefferson Davis. At this point in time, the south was beginning the process of succeeding. Having Elizabeth be working so closely with Mrs. Davis gave her access to the domestic life of the Confederate President. Mrs. Davis spoke frequently to Elizabeth about their future and remarked that “you had better go South with me; I will take good care of you. Besides, when the war breaks out, the colored people will suffer in the North. The Northern people will look upon them as the cause of the war, and I fear, in their exasperation, will be inclined to treat you harshly” (71). Knowing better than to head back to the south, Elizabeth stayed in D.C. with the desire to work as a dressmaker for the first lady.
This became a reality when she was recommended for the position by another lady. This lead her to have a unique look at the private life of the Lincolns. The most notable of these was what she observed after Willie died at a young age. She was in the room with the President when he saw Willie and “great sobs choked his utterance. He buried his head in his hands, and his tall frame was convulsed with emotion… His grief unnerved him, and made him a weak, passive child” (103). This complexity bring much more light on the man that the President was. He was more than just a strong man who lead his country unflinchingly through war. Elizabeth’s story serves as a reminder that he was just an ordinary man who was able to do extraordinary things.
Elizabeth was also there for the assignation of the President as well. Only a few days before, Mrs. Lincoln remarked “Yes, yes, Mr. Lincoln’s life is always exposed. Ah, no one knows what it is to live in constant dread of some fearful tragedy. The President has been warned so often, that I tremble for him on every public occasion. I have a presentiment that he will meet with a sudden and violent end. I pray God to protect my beloved husband from the hands of the assassin” (178). Having this only come days before the assignation is a telling sign of how confident that the President was in him not being hurt. At that time, Presidents did not believe that they could be hurt.
Elizabeth’s story holds so much valuable information on the domestic life of the Lincoln family. Even though she began her life as a slave woman, she was able to rise to such heights and become close friends with Mary Lincoln. | 627 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pablo Picasso is not during the occupation of Paris in World War II, he left the French capital. Although known for his revolutionary ideas, Picasso was already so celebrated that even the Nazis were not too bothered. On one occasion, the Gestapo officer visited Picasso’s studio. On one wall he saw the “Guernica” – the painter did in 1937 as a reminder of the suffering of the Spanish Civil War. The painting was created after the German bombing of the town in the Basque Country when they killed the elderly, women and children (men were at the front). – You did this? – the German officer. – I’m not replied Picasso – you! Otherwise, at the express wish of Picasso, painting was not allowed to return to Spain as long as it is not established democracy. The famous picture was the Museum of Modern Art in New York, to 1981. , six years after Franco’s death was returned to Spain. Today is the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in Madrid. | <urn:uuid:af08d1d3-755a-4368-8b7c-1e1521c34955> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virily.com/culture/guernica/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.981273 | 222 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.774845778942108... | 3 | Pablo Picasso is not during the occupation of Paris in World War II, he left the French capital. Although known for his revolutionary ideas, Picasso was already so celebrated that even the Nazis were not too bothered. On one occasion, the Gestapo officer visited Picasso’s studio. On one wall he saw the “Guernica” – the painter did in 1937 as a reminder of the suffering of the Spanish Civil War. The painting was created after the German bombing of the town in the Basque Country when they killed the elderly, women and children (men were at the front). – You did this? – the German officer. – I’m not replied Picasso – you! Otherwise, at the express wish of Picasso, painting was not allowed to return to Spain as long as it is not established democracy. The famous picture was the Museum of Modern Art in New York, to 1981. , six years after Franco’s death was returned to Spain. Today is the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in Madrid. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Presidential Salaries: How Much Have U.S. Presidents Earned Through the Years?
Ever dreamt of being a president of the United States? If yes, how much do you think you would earn being the leader of the world’s most powerful country?
What if you had been a president a hundred years back, would you have made the same? Would you have made more or less?
There are very few positions in the world, if any, that compare to being the president of the United States.
The job comes with very tough decision making, extremely long hours, constant travel, and a lot of public and media scrutiny.
With all this, it is not surprising that being the president comes with a hefty paycheck. However, those who run for presidency don’t do it for the salary.
If anything, many of those who run for presidency have already made lots of money elsewhere, and therefore, the presidential salary is not very significant to them.
Still, the presidential salary is quite a huge sum for the ordinary person.
If you are wondering how much a president makes, stick with me. In this article, we’ll look at how much the current president, Mr. Donald Trump, makes for being president, as well as what all the other presidents before him earned during their days in office.
But before we learn how much the president earns, let’s first understand a few things about the presidential salary.
WHO DETERMINES THE PRESIDENTIAL SALARY?
The salary of the United States president is set by the Congress.
The Congress also holds the responsibility of reviewing and increasing the president’s salary.
This means that the president himself cannot increase his or her salary. But being the most powerful person in the country, can’t the president just influence the Congress to increase his salary?
Well, the authors of the constitution probably envisioned such a scenario, and to prevent this, the United States Constitution, under Article II Section 1, states that a president’s salary cannot be increased or reduced during the president’s current term of office.
This means that, even if a president somehow influenced the Congress to raise his salary, he would have to wait till after the next election to start enjoying the higher salary (there is no guarantee he would still be president).
Not only does this prevent the president from influencing the raising of his own salary, it also makes it impossible for Congress to influence or coerce a sitting president by altering – either increasing or decreasing – his salary.
WHAT DOES THE CURRENT PRESIDENT EARN?
Donald Trump, the current president of the United States earns a salary of $400,000 per year.
In addition, the president also receives a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 non-taxable travel account, and a $19,000 entertainment account.
The president’s salary has not always been $400,000. The $400,000 salary only became effective in January 2001.
The increase came as part of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, which the 106th Congress passed during its closing days.
Among the incentives for raising the presidential salary was the fact that with the steadily rising common cost of living, the salaries of several other federal officials were constantly being increased, and some federal officials were set to earn more than the president if nothing was done.
Therefore, the 106th Congress decided to double the president’s salary. Since the changes took effect on January 2001, President George W. Bush, who took office the same year, was the first president to earn a $400,000 salary.
Since the change became effective, the presidents who have earned the $400,000 salary are George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and the current president Donald Trump.
HOW MUCH DID PRESIDENTS EARN BEFORE?
The previous section makes it clear that United States presidents have not always earned a $400,000 salary. So, how much did they earn before?
Well, before the 2001 change, the president’s salary has been increased on four more occasions. Below are some of the other times the presidential salary was increased.
The concept of the United States of America ruled by a president was introduced with the adoption of the US constitution in 1789. Under the newly adopted constitution, the salary of the president was set at $25,000.
It would be another 8 decades before the Congress would raise the president’s salary. George Washington, one of the founding fathers, and the first president elected under the US constitution, also became the first president to earn the $25,000 salary.
In 1873, 84 years after the first US president took office, the Congress decided to raise the president’s salary.
Starting with Ulysses S Grant’s second term in office, the salary of the president was doubled from $25,000 to $50,000. After this, the presidential salary would remain unchanged for over three more decades.
After 36 years, Congress once again made amendments to Article II Section 1 of the US constitution and increased the salary of the president to $75,000.
These changes took effect in 1909, just as William Howard Taft came into office. It would be another four decades before this salary was reviewed again.
In 1949, the presidential salary was once again increased, this time by 33 percent, taking the new presidential salary to $100,000. The new changes took effect just as Harry Truman was beginning his second term. This made Truman the first ever American president to earn a six figure salary.
The $100,000 salary would remain effective for the next 20 years. Aside from Harry S. Truman, the other presidents who took home the $100,000 salary are Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson.
In 1969, just as President Richard Nixon was taking office, the Congress once again decided to double the presidential salary from $100,000 to $200,000, making Richard Nixon the first president to pocket a $200,000 annual salary.
This salary would remain in effect for slightly over 30 years. Aside from Richard Nixon, the other presidents who received the $200,000 salary include Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton.
In 2001, the president’s salary was eventually increased from $200,000 to $400,000, which is what US presidents earn to this day.
IS THAT ALL THAT PRESIDENTS MAKE?
While the $400,000 figure enough to put American presidents in the top 1 percent of the highest income earners, it is just the basic salary US presidents earn for holding the position of president.
Aside from this basic salary, there are other financial benefits that come with being the president. These include:
A Dedicated Medical Team
The president of the United States has an official physician, who is also the director of the White House Medical Unit.
The role of the White House Medical Unit is to provide the president with comprehensive medical care as well as worldwide emergency action response. This is not only limited to the president, but to his family as well.
The White House Medical Unit maintains an on-site clinic at the White House and is manned by 3 to 5 military physicians, as well as a team of nurses, medics, and medical assistants.
The Director of the White House Medical Unit and some members of his staff are available to the president around the clock, whether he is at the White House or traveling on official business.
Annual Expense Account
Starting in 1949, the US Congress decided that the president should also be entitled to a $50,000 annual expense account that they could use for miscellaneous expenses. The tax status of this account has changed severally.
At the moment, the account is non-taxable. In most cases, the funds in the annual expense account have been used to cover the costs of meetings that do not fall within the budgets of governmental departments.
Sometimes, the funds in the annual expense account do not get used or are only partially used, in which case they are given back to the treasury.
Who said that you cannot have some little fun just because you are president of the most powerful country in the world? The president of the United States is entitled to a $19,000 entertainment. This entertainment account started during president Richard Nixon’s term in office. Initially, the entertainment account started at $12,000, but was later increased to the current $19,000. It’s good to note that these funds are not used to cater for official functions, since the State Department covers the cost of these. In addition, any performers at the White House usually do it for free.
The US government wants to make sure that the president and the first family feel at home at the White House, and therefore when a new president is elected, the president and his family are given $100,000 to redecorate the White House to their liking.
However, the president is free to reject this money if they so wish. For instance, when former president Obama took office, he did not take the redecoration allowance. Instead, the Obamas opted to use their own funds to redecorate the White House.
When Donald Trump took office in 2016, he reportedly spent $1.75 million to redecorate the White House and buy new furniture and wall coverings, though it is not clear whether the cost was footed by the tax payers or from his own personal accounts.
DO PRESIDENTS EARN ANYTHING AFTER THEY LEAVE OFFICE?
The financial perks of being president of the United States do not come to an end once one leaves office.
Even after retirement, former presidents continue receiving several benefits. Some of these include:
Under the Former Presidents Act, former presidents are entitled to a lifetime taxable pension. According to the Act, this pension should be equal to the annual basic pay for the heads of executive federal departments, such as Cabinet Secretaries.
This amount is usually determined by Congress. At the moment, the presidential pension stands at $210,700 per year. The former president starts earning the pension the minute they officially leave office.
In addition, the widows of former presidents are also entitled to an annual lifetime pension of $20,000, though they are free to waive that right if they so choose.
Initially, there was some confusion as to whether presidents who resigned were also entitled to the pension.
To clear the air, the Justice Department in 1974 ruled that the right to lifetime pension as well as all other benefits that former presidents are entitled to also applies to presidents who resign from office before the official expiry of their terms in office.
However, a president is not entitled to these benefits if they are removed from office through impeachment.
In May 2015, a bill known as the Presidential Allowance Modernization Act was introduced to Congress by Jason Chaffetz, the representative for Utah.
This bill sought to delink the presidential pension from the salaries of Cabinet Secretaries and limit it (the presidential pension) to $200,000 per year.
In addition, this bill also sought to reduce the presidential pension by $1 for every dollar over $400,000 that a former president earned every year from all sources.
For instance, under this bill, former president Bill Clinton would not be entitled to any government pension in 2014, since he made close to $10 million from book royalties and speaking fees within that year.
In January 2016, Senator Chaffetz bill was passed by the house, and later in June 2016, it was also passed by the Senate.
However, in July 2016, President Obama vetoed the bill, claiming that it would impose oppressive and unreasonable burdens on former presidents.
After leaving office, former presidents are also given funds to help facilitate and cushion their transition to private life.
These funds, which are allocated by Congress, are used to cater for expenses such as office space, communication services, staff compensation, printing and postage, and so on.
The transition expenses will vary from president to president. For example, when leaving office, former president George W. Bush and his vice president Dan Quayle were given a transition expenses account totaling to $1.5 million.
Aside from the transition expenses, which are applicable for the first six months after leaving office, the former president also continues to receive funds for an office staff. For the first 30 months after leaving office, the funds for this purpose are capped at $150,000 per year.
After the first 30 months are over, the funds allocated to former presidents for staff compensation should not exceed $96,000 per year, according to the Former President’s Act. Any staff costs exceeding $96,000 per year must be paid from the former president’s personal accounts.
Lifetime Protection and Medical Attention
Even after leaving office, former presidents and their spouses are entitled to receive lifetime protection from the Secret Service.
If a former president passes on, their surviving spouses will continue receiving protection from the Secret Service until they remarry.
If the former first family had children, the children are also entitled to protection until they reach the age of 16.
While former presidents and their dependents are entitled to protection, they are also free to decline the protection if they so wish, according to legislation enacted in 1984.
In addition to protection by the Secret Service, former presidents as well as their spouses, minor children and widows will continue receiving lifetime treatment in military hospitals.
However, the former presidents and their dependents are still free to enroll in private health plans if they so wish, though the costs of these will not be covered by the state.
In 1968, a law was enacted that requires the General Services Administration (GSA) to provide former presidents with funds to cover travel, business and related expenses for the former president and no more than two of his or her staff members.
It’s is good to note that this money does not cover travel for leisure. In order for the former president to be compensated for travel expenses, he or she must show that the travel was on official business in their capacity as a former president of the United States.
Other Sources of Income
Aside from the money availed to them by the government, former presidents also have other sources of income which are related to their status as a former president of the United States.
By far, the greatest source of income for former presidents comes from books deals, tours, and speaking gigs.
For instance, after leaving office, former president Bill Clinton made close to $15 million in advance for the book “My Life.” Aside from what he got from the book, he also earned over $75 million from speaking gigs.
Right after leaving the White House in 2001, Bill Clinton is said to have been paid $125,000 for a speech gig by the Greater Washington Association of Executives, which is a standard price for a speech from a former president.
After leaving office, former president George W. Bush wrote the book “Decision Points” and made $7 million for the first 1.5 million copies.
According to estimates by the Center for Public Integrity, George Bush has also brought in about $15 million from giving speeches since he stepped from office. Former president Jimmy Carter also wrote 14 books after leaving office.
Before becoming president, Barack Obama wrote a book “Dreams of My Father”. Initially, the book did not bring in a significant income, but the sales kept rising as he rose higher in politics, and when he ran for president, the book started flying off the shelves.
According to the New York Times, the former president and his wife Michelle Obama stand to make anywhere between $20 million and $40 million in post-presidency book contracts.
PRESIDENTS WHO DID NOT TAKE A SALARY
Despite the presidential salary putting presidents among the top 1 percent highest income earners in the country, and despite it being a constitutional requirement to take the presidential salary, some presidents were not so keen about taking their salaries, opting instead to donate their salaries to charity.
So far, there are four presidents who did not take their salaries. They are:
Donald J. Trump: Before taking office, current president Donald Trump was already wildly wealthy. By the time he took office, he was worth $3.1 billion, according to Forbes, which was actually a decline from his $4.5 billion net worth in 2015.
During his presidential campaign, Trump announced that he would only take a $1 salary since the constitution required him to take a salary. After taking office, he followed his words and has donated his $400,000 annual salary to various governmental departments.
John F. Kennedy: Just like Trump, J. F. Kennedy was a very wealthy man when he took office in 1961. He came from a wealthy family worth over $1 billion at the time. Therefore, he did not really need the presidential salary to get by.
During his term in office, he donated his $100,000 salary to various charities, though he kept the $50,000 annual expense account. Kennedy had also donated all his salary for all the 14 years he served in Congress.
Herbert Hoover: When he took office in 1913, Hoover was worth about $4 million, which was quite a huge amount at the time (about $103 million today). Therefore, when he took office, he donated part of his $75,000 salary to various charities, while the rest he gave to his staff.
George Washington: The first US president was also quite wealthy before becoming president. During his days as a military commander, he had declined taking a salary, claiming that service to the nation was enough for him.
When he took office, he did not want to take a salary, but since the constitution required him to take it, he took the $25,000 salary and donated it.
Being president of the United States is a demanding position, but fortunately, it comes with an equally impressive salary of $400,000 per year.
As we have seen, however, the presidential salary has not always been this high.
It started at $25,000 in 1789 and has been raised five times before reaching the current $400,000.
With the rising cost of living and the constantly increasing salaries of other federal officials, will Congress once again increase the president’s salary?
We can only wait and see.
Every Employee is Always Searching for Ways to Improve Their Salary — Here’s an Expert Take on How …
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-0... | 1 | The History of Presidential Salaries: How Much Have U.S. Presidents Earned Through the Years?
Ever dreamt of being a president of the United States? If yes, how much do you think you would earn being the leader of the world’s most powerful country?
What if you had been a president a hundred years back, would you have made the same? Would you have made more or less?
There are very few positions in the world, if any, that compare to being the president of the United States.
The job comes with very tough decision making, extremely long hours, constant travel, and a lot of public and media scrutiny.
With all this, it is not surprising that being the president comes with a hefty paycheck. However, those who run for presidency don’t do it for the salary.
If anything, many of those who run for presidency have already made lots of money elsewhere, and therefore, the presidential salary is not very significant to them.
Still, the presidential salary is quite a huge sum for the ordinary person.
If you are wondering how much a president makes, stick with me. In this article, we’ll look at how much the current president, Mr. Donald Trump, makes for being president, as well as what all the other presidents before him earned during their days in office.
But before we learn how much the president earns, let’s first understand a few things about the presidential salary.
WHO DETERMINES THE PRESIDENTIAL SALARY?
The salary of the United States president is set by the Congress.
The Congress also holds the responsibility of reviewing and increasing the president’s salary.
This means that the president himself cannot increase his or her salary. But being the most powerful person in the country, can’t the president just influence the Congress to increase his salary?
Well, the authors of the constitution probably envisioned such a scenario, and to prevent this, the United States Constitution, under Article II Section 1, states that a president’s salary cannot be increased or reduced during the president’s current term of office.
This means that, even if a president somehow influenced the Congress to raise his salary, he would have to wait till after the next election to start enjoying the higher salary (there is no guarantee he would still be president).
Not only does this prevent the president from influencing the raising of his own salary, it also makes it impossible for Congress to influence or coerce a sitting president by altering – either increasing or decreasing – his salary.
WHAT DOES THE CURRENT PRESIDENT EARN?
Donald Trump, the current president of the United States earns a salary of $400,000 per year.
In addition, the president also receives a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 non-taxable travel account, and a $19,000 entertainment account.
The president’s salary has not always been $400,000. The $400,000 salary only became effective in January 2001.
The increase came as part of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, which the 106th Congress passed during its closing days.
Among the incentives for raising the presidential salary was the fact that with the steadily rising common cost of living, the salaries of several other federal officials were constantly being increased, and some federal officials were set to earn more than the president if nothing was done.
Therefore, the 106th Congress decided to double the president’s salary. Since the changes took effect on January 2001, President George W. Bush, who took office the same year, was the first president to earn a $400,000 salary.
Since the change became effective, the presidents who have earned the $400,000 salary are George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and the current president Donald Trump.
HOW MUCH DID PRESIDENTS EARN BEFORE?
The previous section makes it clear that United States presidents have not always earned a $400,000 salary. So, how much did they earn before?
Well, before the 2001 change, the president’s salary has been increased on four more occasions. Below are some of the other times the presidential salary was increased.
The concept of the United States of America ruled by a president was introduced with the adoption of the US constitution in 1789. Under the newly adopted constitution, the salary of the president was set at $25,000.
It would be another 8 decades before the Congress would raise the president’s salary. George Washington, one of the founding fathers, and the first president elected under the US constitution, also became the first president to earn the $25,000 salary.
In 1873, 84 years after the first US president took office, the Congress decided to raise the president’s salary.
Starting with Ulysses S Grant’s second term in office, the salary of the president was doubled from $25,000 to $50,000. After this, the presidential salary would remain unchanged for over three more decades.
After 36 years, Congress once again made amendments to Article II Section 1 of the US constitution and increased the salary of the president to $75,000.
These changes took effect in 1909, just as William Howard Taft came into office. It would be another four decades before this salary was reviewed again.
In 1949, the presidential salary was once again increased, this time by 33 percent, taking the new presidential salary to $100,000. The new changes took effect just as Harry Truman was beginning his second term. This made Truman the first ever American president to earn a six figure salary.
The $100,000 salary would remain effective for the next 20 years. Aside from Harry S. Truman, the other presidents who took home the $100,000 salary are Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson.
In 1969, just as President Richard Nixon was taking office, the Congress once again decided to double the presidential salary from $100,000 to $200,000, making Richard Nixon the first president to pocket a $200,000 annual salary.
This salary would remain in effect for slightly over 30 years. Aside from Richard Nixon, the other presidents who received the $200,000 salary include Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton.
In 2001, the president’s salary was eventually increased from $200,000 to $400,000, which is what US presidents earn to this day.
IS THAT ALL THAT PRESIDENTS MAKE?
While the $400,000 figure enough to put American presidents in the top 1 percent of the highest income earners, it is just the basic salary US presidents earn for holding the position of president.
Aside from this basic salary, there are other financial benefits that come with being the president. These include:
A Dedicated Medical Team
The president of the United States has an official physician, who is also the director of the White House Medical Unit.
The role of the White House Medical Unit is to provide the president with comprehensive medical care as well as worldwide emergency action response. This is not only limited to the president, but to his family as well.
The White House Medical Unit maintains an on-site clinic at the White House and is manned by 3 to 5 military physicians, as well as a team of nurses, medics, and medical assistants.
The Director of the White House Medical Unit and some members of his staff are available to the president around the clock, whether he is at the White House or traveling on official business.
Annual Expense Account
Starting in 1949, the US Congress decided that the president should also be entitled to a $50,000 annual expense account that they could use for miscellaneous expenses. The tax status of this account has changed severally.
At the moment, the account is non-taxable. In most cases, the funds in the annual expense account have been used to cover the costs of meetings that do not fall within the budgets of governmental departments.
Sometimes, the funds in the annual expense account do not get used or are only partially used, in which case they are given back to the treasury.
Who said that you cannot have some little fun just because you are president of the most powerful country in the world? The president of the United States is entitled to a $19,000 entertainment. This entertainment account started during president Richard Nixon’s term in office. Initially, the entertainment account started at $12,000, but was later increased to the current $19,000. It’s good to note that these funds are not used to cater for official functions, since the State Department covers the cost of these. In addition, any performers at the White House usually do it for free.
The US government wants to make sure that the president and the first family feel at home at the White House, and therefore when a new president is elected, the president and his family are given $100,000 to redecorate the White House to their liking.
However, the president is free to reject this money if they so wish. For instance, when former president Obama took office, he did not take the redecoration allowance. Instead, the Obamas opted to use their own funds to redecorate the White House.
When Donald Trump took office in 2016, he reportedly spent $1.75 million to redecorate the White House and buy new furniture and wall coverings, though it is not clear whether the cost was footed by the tax payers or from his own personal accounts.
DO PRESIDENTS EARN ANYTHING AFTER THEY LEAVE OFFICE?
The financial perks of being president of the United States do not come to an end once one leaves office.
Even after retirement, former presidents continue receiving several benefits. Some of these include:
Under the Former Presidents Act, former presidents are entitled to a lifetime taxable pension. According to the Act, this pension should be equal to the annual basic pay for the heads of executive federal departments, such as Cabinet Secretaries.
This amount is usually determined by Congress. At the moment, the presidential pension stands at $210,700 per year. The former president starts earning the pension the minute they officially leave office.
In addition, the widows of former presidents are also entitled to an annual lifetime pension of $20,000, though they are free to waive that right if they so choose.
Initially, there was some confusion as to whether presidents who resigned were also entitled to the pension.
To clear the air, the Justice Department in 1974 ruled that the right to lifetime pension as well as all other benefits that former presidents are entitled to also applies to presidents who resign from office before the official expiry of their terms in office.
However, a president is not entitled to these benefits if they are removed from office through impeachment.
In May 2015, a bill known as the Presidential Allowance Modernization Act was introduced to Congress by Jason Chaffetz, the representative for Utah.
This bill sought to delink the presidential pension from the salaries of Cabinet Secretaries and limit it (the presidential pension) to $200,000 per year.
In addition, this bill also sought to reduce the presidential pension by $1 for every dollar over $400,000 that a former president earned every year from all sources.
For instance, under this bill, former president Bill Clinton would not be entitled to any government pension in 2014, since he made close to $10 million from book royalties and speaking fees within that year.
In January 2016, Senator Chaffetz bill was passed by the house, and later in June 2016, it was also passed by the Senate.
However, in July 2016, President Obama vetoed the bill, claiming that it would impose oppressive and unreasonable burdens on former presidents.
After leaving office, former presidents are also given funds to help facilitate and cushion their transition to private life.
These funds, which are allocated by Congress, are used to cater for expenses such as office space, communication services, staff compensation, printing and postage, and so on.
The transition expenses will vary from president to president. For example, when leaving office, former president George W. Bush and his vice president Dan Quayle were given a transition expenses account totaling to $1.5 million.
Aside from the transition expenses, which are applicable for the first six months after leaving office, the former president also continues to receive funds for an office staff. For the first 30 months after leaving office, the funds for this purpose are capped at $150,000 per year.
After the first 30 months are over, the funds allocated to former presidents for staff compensation should not exceed $96,000 per year, according to the Former President’s Act. Any staff costs exceeding $96,000 per year must be paid from the former president’s personal accounts.
Lifetime Protection and Medical Attention
Even after leaving office, former presidents and their spouses are entitled to receive lifetime protection from the Secret Service.
If a former president passes on, their surviving spouses will continue receiving protection from the Secret Service until they remarry.
If the former first family had children, the children are also entitled to protection until they reach the age of 16.
While former presidents and their dependents are entitled to protection, they are also free to decline the protection if they so wish, according to legislation enacted in 1984.
In addition to protection by the Secret Service, former presidents as well as their spouses, minor children and widows will continue receiving lifetime treatment in military hospitals.
However, the former presidents and their dependents are still free to enroll in private health plans if they so wish, though the costs of these will not be covered by the state.
In 1968, a law was enacted that requires the General Services Administration (GSA) to provide former presidents with funds to cover travel, business and related expenses for the former president and no more than two of his or her staff members.
It’s is good to note that this money does not cover travel for leisure. In order for the former president to be compensated for travel expenses, he or she must show that the travel was on official business in their capacity as a former president of the United States.
Other Sources of Income
Aside from the money availed to them by the government, former presidents also have other sources of income which are related to their status as a former president of the United States.
By far, the greatest source of income for former presidents comes from books deals, tours, and speaking gigs.
For instance, after leaving office, former president Bill Clinton made close to $15 million in advance for the book “My Life.” Aside from what he got from the book, he also earned over $75 million from speaking gigs.
Right after leaving the White House in 2001, Bill Clinton is said to have been paid $125,000 for a speech gig by the Greater Washington Association of Executives, which is a standard price for a speech from a former president.
After leaving office, former president George W. Bush wrote the book “Decision Points” and made $7 million for the first 1.5 million copies.
According to estimates by the Center for Public Integrity, George Bush has also brought in about $15 million from giving speeches since he stepped from office. Former president Jimmy Carter also wrote 14 books after leaving office.
Before becoming president, Barack Obama wrote a book “Dreams of My Father”. Initially, the book did not bring in a significant income, but the sales kept rising as he rose higher in politics, and when he ran for president, the book started flying off the shelves.
According to the New York Times, the former president and his wife Michelle Obama stand to make anywhere between $20 million and $40 million in post-presidency book contracts.
PRESIDENTS WHO DID NOT TAKE A SALARY
Despite the presidential salary putting presidents among the top 1 percent highest income earners in the country, and despite it being a constitutional requirement to take the presidential salary, some presidents were not so keen about taking their salaries, opting instead to donate their salaries to charity.
So far, there are four presidents who did not take their salaries. They are:
Donald J. Trump: Before taking office, current president Donald Trump was already wildly wealthy. By the time he took office, he was worth $3.1 billion, according to Forbes, which was actually a decline from his $4.5 billion net worth in 2015.
During his presidential campaign, Trump announced that he would only take a $1 salary since the constitution required him to take a salary. After taking office, he followed his words and has donated his $400,000 annual salary to various governmental departments.
John F. Kennedy: Just like Trump, J. F. Kennedy was a very wealthy man when he took office in 1961. He came from a wealthy family worth over $1 billion at the time. Therefore, he did not really need the presidential salary to get by.
During his term in office, he donated his $100,000 salary to various charities, though he kept the $50,000 annual expense account. Kennedy had also donated all his salary for all the 14 years he served in Congress.
Herbert Hoover: When he took office in 1913, Hoover was worth about $4 million, which was quite a huge amount at the time (about $103 million today). Therefore, when he took office, he donated part of his $75,000 salary to various charities, while the rest he gave to his staff.
George Washington: The first US president was also quite wealthy before becoming president. During his days as a military commander, he had declined taking a salary, claiming that service to the nation was enough for him.
When he took office, he did not want to take a salary, but since the constitution required him to take it, he took the $25,000 salary and donated it.
Being president of the United States is a demanding position, but fortunately, it comes with an equally impressive salary of $400,000 per year.
As we have seen, however, the presidential salary has not always been this high.
It started at $25,000 in 1789 and has been raised five times before reaching the current $400,000.
With the rising cost of living and the constantly increasing salaries of other federal officials, will Congress once again increase the president’s salary?
We can only wait and see.
Every Employee is Always Searching for Ways to Improve Their Salary — Here’s an Expert Take on How …
Have you heard of a Pornography Historian? Yeah, you heard right and if you are reading this … | 4,005 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Patrick’s Day recently took place, and many, Irish or not, wear green, maybe have a green beer, and wear shamrock pins. All of this tends to miss the real impact of St. Patrick on the history of the world.
In the late fourth century after the time of Christ, the then-known world was ostensibly Christian. Near the edge of the Roman empire, in northeastern England, there lived a Roman citizen of the British Isle named Patrick, who was 16 years old.
He was born into an aristocratic Christian family. His grandfather was a priest, yet Patrick’s own family was only marginally practicing the faith. Patrick was himself a bit of a rebel who by his own admission, lived on the wild side.
Sometime during that year, a band of Celtic raiders sailed from Ireland and conducted pillaging escapades in that part of England. The Irish were famous for plying the slave trade, and in these raids, they captured and carted off people to serve the chieftains of that island. Patrick was captured and taken against his will. Ireland was outside of the realm of Roman control.
Once in Ireland, Patrick was sold to a tribal chieftain, who promptly put Patrick to work herding cattle in the hills. It was lonely and dangerous work. Alone with his thoughts, Patrick began to pray to the God he had previously ignored.
Patrick began to identify this presence with the Triune God he had learned about as a child. Without any outside help, Patrick was becoming a devout Christian and his captors began to notice a change in him.
After six years in captivity, he received a vision one night in a dream where a voice said to him, “You are going home. Look! Your ship is ready.” He awakened the next morning, and, escaping his captors, negotiated his way on board a ship bound for France, and eventually made it back home to England.
Soon after, Patrick had another vision. In this dream, he heard the voice of those who were beside the forest which is near the western sea (back in Ireland), and they were crying as if with one voice: "We beg you, holy youth, that you shall come and shall walk again among us."
Patrick interpreted this dream as a “Macedonian call” much like the apostle Paul had experienced. Patrick believed that he was being called to go back and “walk among” the very people who had enslaved him. He would now be the captor, capturing these people with the good news of Jesus Christ. So, he studied for the priesthood and got permission to go back to Ireland.
Church officials knew little about the people there other than that they weren’t Roman. But while they knew little about the Irish Celts, Patrick did know them and knew them well. He had survived in that violent and superstitious culture, knew the common language and had in his own soul a burning desire to bring these people a new hope and a new future.
Arriving at a tribal settlement, Patrick would engage the chieftain in conversation, hoping for a conversion or at least for his permission to camp nearby. He would then meet with the people, engage them in conversation and look for those who were receptive. They would pray for sick people, counsel those who needed it and mediate conflicts.
In this way, he found God and revealed God in the plainest of circumstances. He spoke using stories and parables that engaged the Celtic imagination and connection to nature. Patrick encouraged the people to ask questions and express their hopes and fears. After a community of faith emerged, Patrick would move on, leaving behind a priest to nurture the fledgling community. About 700 churches and monastic communities were planted by Patrick in this way.
On this St. Patrick’s Day, we celebrate someone who was willing to use a tragic and unfair circumstance in his life as a springboard to make a difference among the very people who had enslaved him.
— Rather than run away from conflict or opposition, Patrick moved toward it.
— Rather than buy into fear and say, “Well, they’re a lost cause,” he instead grew to love the outsiders and gave his life over to them.
— His tenacity, dedication to gracious hospitality and devotion to Christ serve as a model for all of us who call ourselves Christians.
If you are a Christian, you are a missionary who, like Patrick, is called to “walk among” the people of your community, offering them hospitality, friendship and the good news of Jesus Christ.
This kind of missionary work can transform a community and even the world. Do that and we can say with conviction that we may not be Irish, but we can follow the example of the Irish saint named Patrick. | <urn:uuid:d88aaf53-1e7f-4a30-8f4a-b8752f61a13d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.journalstandard.com/news/20190424/from-pulpit-impact-of-st-patrick | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.988431 | 994 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3537838459014... | 2 | St. Patrick’s Day recently took place, and many, Irish or not, wear green, maybe have a green beer, and wear shamrock pins. All of this tends to miss the real impact of St. Patrick on the history of the world.
In the late fourth century after the time of Christ, the then-known world was ostensibly Christian. Near the edge of the Roman empire, in northeastern England, there lived a Roman citizen of the British Isle named Patrick, who was 16 years old.
He was born into an aristocratic Christian family. His grandfather was a priest, yet Patrick’s own family was only marginally practicing the faith. Patrick was himself a bit of a rebel who by his own admission, lived on the wild side.
Sometime during that year, a band of Celtic raiders sailed from Ireland and conducted pillaging escapades in that part of England. The Irish were famous for plying the slave trade, and in these raids, they captured and carted off people to serve the chieftains of that island. Patrick was captured and taken against his will. Ireland was outside of the realm of Roman control.
Once in Ireland, Patrick was sold to a tribal chieftain, who promptly put Patrick to work herding cattle in the hills. It was lonely and dangerous work. Alone with his thoughts, Patrick began to pray to the God he had previously ignored.
Patrick began to identify this presence with the Triune God he had learned about as a child. Without any outside help, Patrick was becoming a devout Christian and his captors began to notice a change in him.
After six years in captivity, he received a vision one night in a dream where a voice said to him, “You are going home. Look! Your ship is ready.” He awakened the next morning, and, escaping his captors, negotiated his way on board a ship bound for France, and eventually made it back home to England.
Soon after, Patrick had another vision. In this dream, he heard the voice of those who were beside the forest which is near the western sea (back in Ireland), and they were crying as if with one voice: "We beg you, holy youth, that you shall come and shall walk again among us."
Patrick interpreted this dream as a “Macedonian call” much like the apostle Paul had experienced. Patrick believed that he was being called to go back and “walk among” the very people who had enslaved him. He would now be the captor, capturing these people with the good news of Jesus Christ. So, he studied for the priesthood and got permission to go back to Ireland.
Church officials knew little about the people there other than that they weren’t Roman. But while they knew little about the Irish Celts, Patrick did know them and knew them well. He had survived in that violent and superstitious culture, knew the common language and had in his own soul a burning desire to bring these people a new hope and a new future.
Arriving at a tribal settlement, Patrick would engage the chieftain in conversation, hoping for a conversion or at least for his permission to camp nearby. He would then meet with the people, engage them in conversation and look for those who were receptive. They would pray for sick people, counsel those who needed it and mediate conflicts.
In this way, he found God and revealed God in the plainest of circumstances. He spoke using stories and parables that engaged the Celtic imagination and connection to nature. Patrick encouraged the people to ask questions and express their hopes and fears. After a community of faith emerged, Patrick would move on, leaving behind a priest to nurture the fledgling community. About 700 churches and monastic communities were planted by Patrick in this way.
On this St. Patrick’s Day, we celebrate someone who was willing to use a tragic and unfair circumstance in his life as a springboard to make a difference among the very people who had enslaved him.
— Rather than run away from conflict or opposition, Patrick moved toward it.
— Rather than buy into fear and say, “Well, they’re a lost cause,” he instead grew to love the outsiders and gave his life over to them.
— His tenacity, dedication to gracious hospitality and devotion to Christ serve as a model for all of us who call ourselves Christians.
If you are a Christian, you are a missionary who, like Patrick, is called to “walk among” the people of your community, offering them hospitality, friendship and the good news of Jesus Christ.
This kind of missionary work can transform a community and even the world. Do that and we can say with conviction that we may not be Irish, but we can follow the example of the Irish saint named Patrick. | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dorothea Dix was born in Maine in 1802. Her father was Methodist minister who spent a lot of time on the road, leaving Dorothea at home with her mother and three younger siblings. While she wasn’t alone, the care for her siblings often fell to her as her mother struggled with debilitating depression. Her father also had his struggles with depression and alcoholism, leading to a lonely and challenging childhood.
It’s likely growing up with two parents dealing with mental illness led Dorothea to be the advocate she became. Not only did she see the effects of the diseases, she saw it in people she loved and who, despite their challenges, loved her. It was her father who taught her to read and write and started her lifelong passion for education.
At age 12, her wealthy grandmother in Boston brought her to live there, and soon Dorothea was putting her love of learning to good use. She started schools all around the area and began teaching as a teenager. In the 1820s, she struggled with poor health and often had to take breaks from her schools, until finally the last was closed in 1836.
It was this year that would begin to define the last 50 years of her life.
A trip to Europe opened her eyes to the current standards for the treatment of the mentally ill. At the time, so little was understood about diseases in the brain which caused heavy stigmatization of these people. Most illnesses were simply labeled as ‘insanity,’ and those diagnosed were typically housed in prisons.
Upon her return to the United States, she began touring every facility she could to document the current conditions for prisoners. She even taught at East Cambridge Prison where she fought for improved treatment. She took her substantial findings to the Massachusetts legislature and demanded something be done.
Shocked by what they heard, those in charge were moved to begin work on a state mental hospital. She then turned her attention to other states like Rhode Island and New York.
In 1861, one week after the Civil War began, Dorothea began serving as a nurse in the Union Army. She was appointed to oversee all nurses in the Union as the Superintendent of Army Nurses. At the time, she was the first woman to be given this much power by the federal government.
It was her responsibility to organize and outfit all the Union Army nurses, and by the reports of many, she set extremely high standards. Most respected her, but she wasn’t particularly well liked. Louisa May Alcott, author of Little Women, worked under her during the War and echoed those sentiments.
Even though her methods weren’t always well-received, they were effective. Her group of women helped grow the role of nurses, both in war and the medical field. The male doctors frowned upon having female nurses, but she continued to fight for more training and opportunities for her women nurses.
Dorothea also gained respect throughout the war because she would treat soldiers from both the Union and Confederate armies.
When the war ended, she continued traveling and working toward reform for the mentally ill. Her work included transforming old hospitals into ones dedicated to these patients and building entirely new ones. In 1887, she passed at the age of 85 in one of the hospitals she established. | <urn:uuid:d69a15e9-4413-49d9-a250-541fc745d3f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gswnyblog.com/2019/03/06/dorothea-dix-womens-history-month-day-6/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.990993 | 675 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.1509411782026291... | 11 | Dorothea Dix was born in Maine in 1802. Her father was Methodist minister who spent a lot of time on the road, leaving Dorothea at home with her mother and three younger siblings. While she wasn’t alone, the care for her siblings often fell to her as her mother struggled with debilitating depression. Her father also had his struggles with depression and alcoholism, leading to a lonely and challenging childhood.
It’s likely growing up with two parents dealing with mental illness led Dorothea to be the advocate she became. Not only did she see the effects of the diseases, she saw it in people she loved and who, despite their challenges, loved her. It was her father who taught her to read and write and started her lifelong passion for education.
At age 12, her wealthy grandmother in Boston brought her to live there, and soon Dorothea was putting her love of learning to good use. She started schools all around the area and began teaching as a teenager. In the 1820s, she struggled with poor health and often had to take breaks from her schools, until finally the last was closed in 1836.
It was this year that would begin to define the last 50 years of her life.
A trip to Europe opened her eyes to the current standards for the treatment of the mentally ill. At the time, so little was understood about diseases in the brain which caused heavy stigmatization of these people. Most illnesses were simply labeled as ‘insanity,’ and those diagnosed were typically housed in prisons.
Upon her return to the United States, she began touring every facility she could to document the current conditions for prisoners. She even taught at East Cambridge Prison where she fought for improved treatment. She took her substantial findings to the Massachusetts legislature and demanded something be done.
Shocked by what they heard, those in charge were moved to begin work on a state mental hospital. She then turned her attention to other states like Rhode Island and New York.
In 1861, one week after the Civil War began, Dorothea began serving as a nurse in the Union Army. She was appointed to oversee all nurses in the Union as the Superintendent of Army Nurses. At the time, she was the first woman to be given this much power by the federal government.
It was her responsibility to organize and outfit all the Union Army nurses, and by the reports of many, she set extremely high standards. Most respected her, but she wasn’t particularly well liked. Louisa May Alcott, author of Little Women, worked under her during the War and echoed those sentiments.
Even though her methods weren’t always well-received, they were effective. Her group of women helped grow the role of nurses, both in war and the medical field. The male doctors frowned upon having female nurses, but she continued to fight for more training and opportunities for her women nurses.
Dorothea also gained respect throughout the war because she would treat soldiers from both the Union and Confederate armies.
When the war ended, she continued traveling and working toward reform for the mentally ill. Her work included transforming old hospitals into ones dedicated to these patients and building entirely new ones. In 1887, she passed at the age of 85 in one of the hospitals she established. | 679 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife Sophie were assassinated in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. The fallout from this faraway event would ultimately claim the lives of 18,000 New Zealanders and lead to the wounding of 41,000. Places thousands of miles from home with exotic-sounding names such as Gallipoli, Passchendaele and the Somme etched themselves in national memory during the First World War.
The war took approximately 100,000 New Zealanders overseas, many for the first time. Some anticipated a great adventure but found the reality very different. Being so far from home made these New Zealanders very aware of who they were and where they were from. In battle, they were able to compare themselves with men from other nations. Out of this, many have argued, came a sense of a separate identity, and many New Zealand soldiers began to refer to themselves as ‘Kiwis’.
Ormond Burton, a decorated veteran of Gallipoli and the Western Front, summed up a popular and enduring view of the significance of the war on New Zealand society, stating ‘somewhere between the landing at Anzac and the end of the battle of the Somme, New Zealand very definitely became a nation’ . | <urn:uuid:9896a1aa-4391-4e3a-9c64-efd26622b0f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medalsrus.co.nz/2017/02/04/first-world-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.983795 | 277 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.4086425304... | 2 | On 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife Sophie were assassinated in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. The fallout from this faraway event would ultimately claim the lives of 18,000 New Zealanders and lead to the wounding of 41,000. Places thousands of miles from home with exotic-sounding names such as Gallipoli, Passchendaele and the Somme etched themselves in national memory during the First World War.
The war took approximately 100,000 New Zealanders overseas, many for the first time. Some anticipated a great adventure but found the reality very different. Being so far from home made these New Zealanders very aware of who they were and where they were from. In battle, they were able to compare themselves with men from other nations. Out of this, many have argued, came a sense of a separate identity, and many New Zealand soldiers began to refer to themselves as ‘Kiwis’.
Ormond Burton, a decorated veteran of Gallipoli and the Western Front, summed up a popular and enduring view of the significance of the war on New Zealand society, stating ‘somewhere between the landing at Anzac and the end of the battle of the Somme, New Zealand very definitely became a nation’ . | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Crowds gathered in anticipation as the day's event began to unfold. Church steeples, housetops, and every high point in Boston hosted men, women, and children of all ages wanting to watch the battle and their future. Leaders reviewed their troops as they presented them with words of encouragement and support. Untrained and carrying their own muskets, these simple colonists didn't even have uniforms, yet they were unified in something much more important: the desire and determination to be free. As they watched the enemy arrive on shore, Colonel William Prescott considered their minimal ammunition and instructed them, "Don't shoot until you see the whites of their eyes." (See )
Dressed in fresh, clean red coats, the enemy formed their lines to approach the fortification and attack. Well-supplied and trained, they were convinced of an easy victory. By 3 o'clock in the afternoon, they began making their way up the hill, anticipating a defensive attack that was not coming. Therefore, many began wondering if there would even be a battle at all. When the British reached within 45 yards of the fortification, the occupants opened fire with such precision the Red Coats soon retreated so as not to lose all their men. Moans and wails from the wounded in the field filled the air as they regrouped for a second attack. Meanwhile, bombardments from batteries and ships continued their barrage of artillery fire on the redoubt.
To divert attention, the 600 wooden buildings in Charlestown, just south of Breed's Hill, were set ablaze by the British, but the colonists were not deterred. The second attack produced the same outcome as the first as the colonists proved to be a formidable opponent, yet their ammunition was running extremely low. Despite the constant raining of artillery along with the destruction of Charlestown, they held their position for an anticipated third strike. This time the British hesitated, fearing they may not have enough willing and able men yet hope returned with the arrival of 1,000 fresh troops. As the colonists' firepower dwindled, the Red Coats reached the redoubt and engaged in hand-to-hand combat, attacking the colonists with bayonets. Without equal weaponry, the Americans were forced to begin retreating as they continued to defend the hill with the butts of their guns.
During the chaos, Britain's Major John Pitcairn mounted the redoubt wall, insisted the colonists surrender, and declared, "The day is ours!" For a moment the men stood and stared in disbelief, convinced all had been lost. With quick action, Peter Salem raised his musket and fired. Pitcairn fell into the arms of his son, William, who cried, "I have lost my father." Distraught, William carried his father away as troops helped. Salem's shot not only fatally wounded the beloved commander, it also severally affected the morale of the Red Coats. Their fight diminished, which allowed the colonists to escape what could have been a brutal and deadly defeat. They retreated with the casualties they could save, as the British began to capture many fatally wounded prisoners. Pitcairn was removed to Boston where he died.
Peter Salem, the battle's hero, was born into slavery in 1750 in Framingham, Massachusetts, and celebrated his birthday on October 1. He was originally owned by Jeremiah Belknap, yet it is believed he was bought by Major Lawson Buckminster in early 1775. Blacks, both free and slave, were barred from military service since the late 1600’s due to fears of a slave insurrection. However, as men were needed, free blacks were allowed to enlist. Therefore, Buckminster freed Salem, who immediately became a minuteman in Captain Simon Edgel's company. In addition to Bunker Hill, he fought in the Battle of Lexington and Concord as well as Saratoga and Stony Point. (see and )
In efforts to hinder the Americans, Virginia Governor Lord Dunmore declared that any slave who fought for the British would win their freedom. Being the British crown forced slavery on the colonies, refusing to let them abolish it, this only further convinced the Americans how tyrannical King George III was. (see ) Therefore, General George Washington allowed all blacks to enlist, both free and enslaved. (see )
Salem could have easily taken up arms for the British or not engaged at all. However, he understood the bigger battle and valiantly fought for America. His shot not only saved hundreds of lives that day, it likely affected the whole war as the British lost an important military leader. In addition, the colonists escaped total annihilation, giving them much needed confidence. Discharged on March 1, 1780, from the regular army, Salem remained a member of the Framingham Militia until the close of the war. In September 1783, Salem married Katy Benson, yet the childless marriage dissolved after 1790. He lived in Leicester as a free man, working for himself as a cane weaver, until his death on August 16, 1816. He was buried in the Old Burying Ground in Framingham, where the town erected a monument at his grave in 1882.
After performing an impressive defense, the colonists received the majority of their casualties in the Battle of Bunker Hill during their evacuation. Among them was Dr. Joseph Warren, who sustained a fatal head wound from a musket ball. This was an equally devastating loss for the Patriots as Pitcairn was for the British.
Born June 11, 1741, Joseph Warren entered Harvard at age 14 and was practicing medicine in Boston by age 22 as the city's youngest, as well as one of its most prominent, doctors. Leaders in the Patriots’ cause, such as Samuel Adams, John Adams and his son John Quincy, and John Hancock, sought Joseph's services. Likewise, Loyalists and British officials, including General Thomas Gage and his wife Margaret, as well as Governor Thomas Hutchinson's children, were patients of Warren. When 10-year-old Christopher Snider was shot and killed on February 22, 1770, which helped lead to the Boston Massacre, Warren performed the autopsy. (see ) Some surmise his position allowed him to spy on British activity, which he reported to his fellow Sons Of Liberty Patriots.
Three days before the battle, the Massachusetts Provisional Congress appointed Warren a major general over the states' forces. Despite his military and patriotic leadership thus far, Warren declined to take command believing there were more qualified officers. Instead, he borrowed a musket and joined the troops, which included 19-year-old Henry Knox (see ) and Daniel Shays (see ), in the redoubt to defend the hill as a volunteer with the rank of private.
Following the Intolerable Acts in 1774, Warren drafting a set of resolutions declaring "no obedience is due" to the Acts. (see ) Representatives from all Suffolk County towns agreed on Warren's "Suffolk Resolves," which proposed boycotting British goods and mustering local militias for battle. Warren turned to his fellow Patriot Paul Revere to make the 5-day trip to Philadelphia and deliver the Suffolk Resolves to the Continental Congress, who overwhelmingly endorsed them despite Gov. Hutchinson declaring them "undoubtedly treasonable.”
On April 18, 1775, Warren again called on Revere as well as William Dawes to travel by land and sea for their famous midnight run to warn the militias of the Red Coats’ arrival. A third Patriot and free black man, Wentworth Cheswell, rode north to arouse militiamen there. (see ) Pitcairn led the Red Coats into Lexington and despite commanding his men not to fire until fired upon, it is believed the shot that rang out to begin the historic revolution came from within Pitcairn's troops. (See )
Soon after, Warren authorized Captain Benedict Arnold to gather a militia and attack the British Fort Ticonderoga in northeast New York. (see ) Henry Knox led an expedition to the fort in December of 1775 to retrieve the munitions still in the fort, which Washington used to drive the British out of Boston. (see ) Even after his death, Warren’s efforts helped the Americans win the war.
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill, the British buried the dead, including the Patriots left on the battlefield. Warren was placed in a shallow grave along side a fallen farmer until the Red Coats left Boston on March 17, 1776. Bodies were then exhumed for proper burial elsewhere, yet they were severely decayed. An amateur dentist, Revere had fashioned a false tooth for Warren, which he recognized and used to identify Warren's remains. His body was moved several times before it was placed in Forest Hills Cemetery in 1855, where he rests today.
Marrying Elizabeth Hooten in 1764, they had four children before her death in 1772. He was engaged to Mercy Scollay at the time he was killed. Warren had just turned 34 by less than a week when he died at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. Had he not been killed, some believe his importance and involvement in the Revolution would have overshadowed even Washington. Instead, his untimely death buried his notability as well. Regardless, his friends greatly mourned.
In Philadelphia for the Continental Congress, John Adams was aware of the impending attack in Boston. He instructed his wife Abigail, to take the children and head to safer territory even though they lived over 10 miles south of Boston. Instead, she took her eldest son, John Quincy, to the top of Penn's Hill near their home in Braintree. They watched as the smoke from Charlestown fill the air and the bursting bombs lite up the sky. The following day, Abigail penned a letter to her husband, informing him of the battle, that Charleston now lay in ashes, and the heartbreaking death of their beloved friend and physician.
Colonel John Trumbull, who witnessed the battle and later became a prominent artist, depicted the pivotal events in his painting, “The Death Of General Warren At the Battle Of Bunker’s Hill” (1796). A colonial soldier holds the dying Warren while deflecting a bayonet attack, as the Red Coats catch the wounded Pitcairn. On the right of the painting is a black man, somewhat hiding behind Thomas Grosvenor, holding a musket. For 200 years it has been accepted this man represents Salem, especially since that’s who Trumbull said it was. Nevertheless, progressive professors are rewriting history, arguing it is Grosvenor's slave so as to continue their assault on our forefathers as evil racists. However, they have no problem robbing Peter Salem, a heroic black man, of his rightful honors and place in history to further their agenda.
Another black man stands in the crowd of soldiers on the left of the flags as Trumbull wanted to honor the several African-Americans who fought in the battle, which some say could represent Salem. Yet this led more progressives to question the legitimacy that Salem fired the critical shot that mortally wounded Pitcairn. However, historical documents written at the time by witnesses overwhelmingly affirm Salem as the “hero of the battle”. In fact, Salem received 14 military commendations for his actions that day and was presented to General Washington as "the man who shot Pitcairn" by his superiors. The painting was Trumbull's first Revolutionary War piece and now hangs in the Capital's Rotunda in Washington D.C.
On the 50th Anniversary of the battle in 1825, respected Revolutionary General Marquis de Lafayette returned from France to lay the cornerstone for the Bunker Hill monument. While there, he gathered some dirt from the hill, which his son later sprinkled on his grave in Paris as he wanted to be buried under the free soil of America. (see )
Despite the colonists losing the first major battle of the American Revolution, it proved to be a victory for them. Over 3,000 well-prepared soldiers met a force of less than 2,600 undisciplined, untrained, ordinary citizen militiamen, and were given the fight of their lives. The colonists had no formal military training, uniforms, or even government weapons. They arrived in their meager clothing, carrying their own muskets, and little ammunition. Regardless, they had one goal, one united purpose: Freedom from their oppressive government.
When the smoke settled, 226 Red Coats lay dead with 828 wounded. It was the highest casualty count for the British for any single conflict during the entire war, as well as the Revolution's bloodiest battle. For the Patriots, 115 lost their lives, with another 20 of the 30 POWs dying in captivity. Only 305 were wounded. Britain's General Henry Clinton commented in his diary, "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America."
Liberty, sometimes when we face what seems to be insurmountable odds, we give up too easily, determining the effort is greater than the reward, thus often deciding to not even engage at all. We should never be afraid of defeat as it is a part of life. Warren could have stayed out of the fight and continued on as a vital contributor to the Sons of Liberty and the Revolution. Yet to him, the cause was greater than he was and he sacrificed his life for it. Considering his actions up until the battle, it is unlikely he would have changed anything if he could do it again.
Likewise, Salem could have been bitter, holding a grudge, and not giveing his all to the cause. Instead, he fought bravely and courageously, saving countless lives with one critical shot.
The Patriots temporarily lost the Charlestown Peninsula, yet the fight they gave proved to them, the British, and the American people they had the ability to win and the confidence to continue on with the Revolution. Therefore, they pushed forward and won a war against the best military force at the time. This is the American Spirit that established this country and still runs through the veins of most of our citizens. It is the ethos that these letters are meant to instill in you and others as we once again fight for America, liberty, and freedom. Warren and Salem will never be forgotten if their spirit lives on in you.
That’s my 2 cents.
June 17, 2019
Following Lexington and Concord, the Red Coats surrounded Boston with their navy dominating the waters, but did not control land access. When the colonists learned of their plan to attack the northern Charlestown Peninsula to secure Boston Harbor, militias from primarily Massachusetts, and supported by New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assembled to defend the peninsula. Among the men were two very different soldiers. One had social and military standing and everything to lose. The other was a former slave, freed so he could fight for a country that still enslaved his people. Together, they exemplify the American Spirit and illustrated why America won her independence despite the odds stacked highly against them.
Arriving on the peninsula around midnight the night before, the men immediately and quietly began constructing a redoubt. While it is called the Battle of Bunker Hill, the redoubt, or fortification, was built and the actual fight occurred on Breed's Hill. Their presence was not spotted until daybreak, upon which the enemy tried unsuccessfully to thwart their efforts with constant cannon fire. Finishing about noontime, the exhausted and hungry soldiers took their places behind their protective barrier, ready to fight for their liberty.
DEFINING THE AMERICAN SPIRIT | <urn:uuid:701d1dba-1c72-497c-94ba-70abb9012b23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.thefactspaper.com/liberatingletters/2019/defining-the-american-spirit.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.981514 | 3,205 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.0893471... | 2 | Crowds gathered in anticipation as the day's event began to unfold. Church steeples, housetops, and every high point in Boston hosted men, women, and children of all ages wanting to watch the battle and their future. Leaders reviewed their troops as they presented them with words of encouragement and support. Untrained and carrying their own muskets, these simple colonists didn't even have uniforms, yet they were unified in something much more important: the desire and determination to be free. As they watched the enemy arrive on shore, Colonel William Prescott considered their minimal ammunition and instructed them, "Don't shoot until you see the whites of their eyes." (See )
Dressed in fresh, clean red coats, the enemy formed their lines to approach the fortification and attack. Well-supplied and trained, they were convinced of an easy victory. By 3 o'clock in the afternoon, they began making their way up the hill, anticipating a defensive attack that was not coming. Therefore, many began wondering if there would even be a battle at all. When the British reached within 45 yards of the fortification, the occupants opened fire with such precision the Red Coats soon retreated so as not to lose all their men. Moans and wails from the wounded in the field filled the air as they regrouped for a second attack. Meanwhile, bombardments from batteries and ships continued their barrage of artillery fire on the redoubt.
To divert attention, the 600 wooden buildings in Charlestown, just south of Breed's Hill, were set ablaze by the British, but the colonists were not deterred. The second attack produced the same outcome as the first as the colonists proved to be a formidable opponent, yet their ammunition was running extremely low. Despite the constant raining of artillery along with the destruction of Charlestown, they held their position for an anticipated third strike. This time the British hesitated, fearing they may not have enough willing and able men yet hope returned with the arrival of 1,000 fresh troops. As the colonists' firepower dwindled, the Red Coats reached the redoubt and engaged in hand-to-hand combat, attacking the colonists with bayonets. Without equal weaponry, the Americans were forced to begin retreating as they continued to defend the hill with the butts of their guns.
During the chaos, Britain's Major John Pitcairn mounted the redoubt wall, insisted the colonists surrender, and declared, "The day is ours!" For a moment the men stood and stared in disbelief, convinced all had been lost. With quick action, Peter Salem raised his musket and fired. Pitcairn fell into the arms of his son, William, who cried, "I have lost my father." Distraught, William carried his father away as troops helped. Salem's shot not only fatally wounded the beloved commander, it also severally affected the morale of the Red Coats. Their fight diminished, which allowed the colonists to escape what could have been a brutal and deadly defeat. They retreated with the casualties they could save, as the British began to capture many fatally wounded prisoners. Pitcairn was removed to Boston where he died.
Peter Salem, the battle's hero, was born into slavery in 1750 in Framingham, Massachusetts, and celebrated his birthday on October 1. He was originally owned by Jeremiah Belknap, yet it is believed he was bought by Major Lawson Buckminster in early 1775. Blacks, both free and slave, were barred from military service since the late 1600’s due to fears of a slave insurrection. However, as men were needed, free blacks were allowed to enlist. Therefore, Buckminster freed Salem, who immediately became a minuteman in Captain Simon Edgel's company. In addition to Bunker Hill, he fought in the Battle of Lexington and Concord as well as Saratoga and Stony Point. (see and )
In efforts to hinder the Americans, Virginia Governor Lord Dunmore declared that any slave who fought for the British would win their freedom. Being the British crown forced slavery on the colonies, refusing to let them abolish it, this only further convinced the Americans how tyrannical King George III was. (see ) Therefore, General George Washington allowed all blacks to enlist, both free and enslaved. (see )
Salem could have easily taken up arms for the British or not engaged at all. However, he understood the bigger battle and valiantly fought for America. His shot not only saved hundreds of lives that day, it likely affected the whole war as the British lost an important military leader. In addition, the colonists escaped total annihilation, giving them much needed confidence. Discharged on March 1, 1780, from the regular army, Salem remained a member of the Framingham Militia until the close of the war. In September 1783, Salem married Katy Benson, yet the childless marriage dissolved after 1790. He lived in Leicester as a free man, working for himself as a cane weaver, until his death on August 16, 1816. He was buried in the Old Burying Ground in Framingham, where the town erected a monument at his grave in 1882.
After performing an impressive defense, the colonists received the majority of their casualties in the Battle of Bunker Hill during their evacuation. Among them was Dr. Joseph Warren, who sustained a fatal head wound from a musket ball. This was an equally devastating loss for the Patriots as Pitcairn was for the British.
Born June 11, 1741, Joseph Warren entered Harvard at age 14 and was practicing medicine in Boston by age 22 as the city's youngest, as well as one of its most prominent, doctors. Leaders in the Patriots’ cause, such as Samuel Adams, John Adams and his son John Quincy, and John Hancock, sought Joseph's services. Likewise, Loyalists and British officials, including General Thomas Gage and his wife Margaret, as well as Governor Thomas Hutchinson's children, were patients of Warren. When 10-year-old Christopher Snider was shot and killed on February 22, 1770, which helped lead to the Boston Massacre, Warren performed the autopsy. (see ) Some surmise his position allowed him to spy on British activity, which he reported to his fellow Sons Of Liberty Patriots.
Three days before the battle, the Massachusetts Provisional Congress appointed Warren a major general over the states' forces. Despite his military and patriotic leadership thus far, Warren declined to take command believing there were more qualified officers. Instead, he borrowed a musket and joined the troops, which included 19-year-old Henry Knox (see ) and Daniel Shays (see ), in the redoubt to defend the hill as a volunteer with the rank of private.
Following the Intolerable Acts in 1774, Warren drafting a set of resolutions declaring "no obedience is due" to the Acts. (see ) Representatives from all Suffolk County towns agreed on Warren's "Suffolk Resolves," which proposed boycotting British goods and mustering local militias for battle. Warren turned to his fellow Patriot Paul Revere to make the 5-day trip to Philadelphia and deliver the Suffolk Resolves to the Continental Congress, who overwhelmingly endorsed them despite Gov. Hutchinson declaring them "undoubtedly treasonable.”
On April 18, 1775, Warren again called on Revere as well as William Dawes to travel by land and sea for their famous midnight run to warn the militias of the Red Coats’ arrival. A third Patriot and free black man, Wentworth Cheswell, rode north to arouse militiamen there. (see ) Pitcairn led the Red Coats into Lexington and despite commanding his men not to fire until fired upon, it is believed the shot that rang out to begin the historic revolution came from within Pitcairn's troops. (See )
Soon after, Warren authorized Captain Benedict Arnold to gather a militia and attack the British Fort Ticonderoga in northeast New York. (see ) Henry Knox led an expedition to the fort in December of 1775 to retrieve the munitions still in the fort, which Washington used to drive the British out of Boston. (see ) Even after his death, Warren’s efforts helped the Americans win the war.
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill, the British buried the dead, including the Patriots left on the battlefield. Warren was placed in a shallow grave along side a fallen farmer until the Red Coats left Boston on March 17, 1776. Bodies were then exhumed for proper burial elsewhere, yet they were severely decayed. An amateur dentist, Revere had fashioned a false tooth for Warren, which he recognized and used to identify Warren's remains. His body was moved several times before it was placed in Forest Hills Cemetery in 1855, where he rests today.
Marrying Elizabeth Hooten in 1764, they had four children before her death in 1772. He was engaged to Mercy Scollay at the time he was killed. Warren had just turned 34 by less than a week when he died at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. Had he not been killed, some believe his importance and involvement in the Revolution would have overshadowed even Washington. Instead, his untimely death buried his notability as well. Regardless, his friends greatly mourned.
In Philadelphia for the Continental Congress, John Adams was aware of the impending attack in Boston. He instructed his wife Abigail, to take the children and head to safer territory even though they lived over 10 miles south of Boston. Instead, she took her eldest son, John Quincy, to the top of Penn's Hill near their home in Braintree. They watched as the smoke from Charlestown fill the air and the bursting bombs lite up the sky. The following day, Abigail penned a letter to her husband, informing him of the battle, that Charleston now lay in ashes, and the heartbreaking death of their beloved friend and physician.
Colonel John Trumbull, who witnessed the battle and later became a prominent artist, depicted the pivotal events in his painting, “The Death Of General Warren At the Battle Of Bunker’s Hill” (1796). A colonial soldier holds the dying Warren while deflecting a bayonet attack, as the Red Coats catch the wounded Pitcairn. On the right of the painting is a black man, somewhat hiding behind Thomas Grosvenor, holding a musket. For 200 years it has been accepted this man represents Salem, especially since that’s who Trumbull said it was. Nevertheless, progressive professors are rewriting history, arguing it is Grosvenor's slave so as to continue their assault on our forefathers as evil racists. However, they have no problem robbing Peter Salem, a heroic black man, of his rightful honors and place in history to further their agenda.
Another black man stands in the crowd of soldiers on the left of the flags as Trumbull wanted to honor the several African-Americans who fought in the battle, which some say could represent Salem. Yet this led more progressives to question the legitimacy that Salem fired the critical shot that mortally wounded Pitcairn. However, historical documents written at the time by witnesses overwhelmingly affirm Salem as the “hero of the battle”. In fact, Salem received 14 military commendations for his actions that day and was presented to General Washington as "the man who shot Pitcairn" by his superiors. The painting was Trumbull's first Revolutionary War piece and now hangs in the Capital's Rotunda in Washington D.C.
On the 50th Anniversary of the battle in 1825, respected Revolutionary General Marquis de Lafayette returned from France to lay the cornerstone for the Bunker Hill monument. While there, he gathered some dirt from the hill, which his son later sprinkled on his grave in Paris as he wanted to be buried under the free soil of America. (see )
Despite the colonists losing the first major battle of the American Revolution, it proved to be a victory for them. Over 3,000 well-prepared soldiers met a force of less than 2,600 undisciplined, untrained, ordinary citizen militiamen, and were given the fight of their lives. The colonists had no formal military training, uniforms, or even government weapons. They arrived in their meager clothing, carrying their own muskets, and little ammunition. Regardless, they had one goal, one united purpose: Freedom from their oppressive government.
When the smoke settled, 226 Red Coats lay dead with 828 wounded. It was the highest casualty count for the British for any single conflict during the entire war, as well as the Revolution's bloodiest battle. For the Patriots, 115 lost their lives, with another 20 of the 30 POWs dying in captivity. Only 305 were wounded. Britain's General Henry Clinton commented in his diary, "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America."
Liberty, sometimes when we face what seems to be insurmountable odds, we give up too easily, determining the effort is greater than the reward, thus often deciding to not even engage at all. We should never be afraid of defeat as it is a part of life. Warren could have stayed out of the fight and continued on as a vital contributor to the Sons of Liberty and the Revolution. Yet to him, the cause was greater than he was and he sacrificed his life for it. Considering his actions up until the battle, it is unlikely he would have changed anything if he could do it again.
Likewise, Salem could have been bitter, holding a grudge, and not giveing his all to the cause. Instead, he fought bravely and courageously, saving countless lives with one critical shot.
The Patriots temporarily lost the Charlestown Peninsula, yet the fight they gave proved to them, the British, and the American people they had the ability to win and the confidence to continue on with the Revolution. Therefore, they pushed forward and won a war against the best military force at the time. This is the American Spirit that established this country and still runs through the veins of most of our citizens. It is the ethos that these letters are meant to instill in you and others as we once again fight for America, liberty, and freedom. Warren and Salem will never be forgotten if their spirit lives on in you.
That’s my 2 cents.
June 17, 2019
Following Lexington and Concord, the Red Coats surrounded Boston with their navy dominating the waters, but did not control land access. When the colonists learned of their plan to attack the northern Charlestown Peninsula to secure Boston Harbor, militias from primarily Massachusetts, and supported by New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assembled to defend the peninsula. Among the men were two very different soldiers. One had social and military standing and everything to lose. The other was a former slave, freed so he could fight for a country that still enslaved his people. Together, they exemplify the American Spirit and illustrated why America won her independence despite the odds stacked highly against them.
Arriving on the peninsula around midnight the night before, the men immediately and quietly began constructing a redoubt. While it is called the Battle of Bunker Hill, the redoubt, or fortification, was built and the actual fight occurred on Breed's Hill. Their presence was not spotted until daybreak, upon which the enemy tried unsuccessfully to thwart their efforts with constant cannon fire. Finishing about noontime, the exhausted and hungry soldiers took their places behind their protective barrier, ready to fight for their liberty.
DEFINING THE AMERICAN SPIRIT | 3,324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson was born in 1919 to Mallie and Jerry Robinson in Cairo, Georgia and was the youngest of five children. His siblings were Edgar, Frank, Matthew and Willa Mae and the family later moved to Pasadena, California.
He graduated from Washington Junior High School in 1935 and enrolled at John Muir High School. Jackie Robinson brothers recognized early his athletic abilities and encouraged him to pursue his interest in sports.
Jackie became the first African American to play in a Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. He broke the racial barriers when Brooklyn Dodgers started him at first base on April 15, 1947.
This opened up the MLB to black professional players who since the 1880s were relegated to the Negro leagues.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson went on to have an exceptional 10 year career in the Major League Baseball (MLB), winning the inaugural MLB rookie of the year award in 1947. He also won the National League most valuable player in 1949, the first African American to do so. Robinson was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons and played in six World Series.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson Facts
- The first pro athlete in any sport to have his shirt number retired. In 1997 MLB universally retired his shirt number 42 across all major league teams.
- MLB also adopted for the first time a day to honor a player with April 15, named the “Jackie Robinson” day. On this day all players across all teams wear No 42.
- He was the first African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
- Robinson was the first black television analyst in the MLB.
- He was also the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o’Nuts.
He contributed significantly to the civil rights movements and was posthumously awarded Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson died in 1972 at the age of 53 from a heart attack resulting from complications heart disease and diabetes. | <urn:uuid:e809f3f9-0cf5-4b0f-ac4a-2d16e0c5d3fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.busytape.com/jackie-roosevelt-robinson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.981701 | 409 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-... | 3 | Jackie Roosevelt Robinson was born in 1919 to Mallie and Jerry Robinson in Cairo, Georgia and was the youngest of five children. His siblings were Edgar, Frank, Matthew and Willa Mae and the family later moved to Pasadena, California.
He graduated from Washington Junior High School in 1935 and enrolled at John Muir High School. Jackie Robinson brothers recognized early his athletic abilities and encouraged him to pursue his interest in sports.
Jackie became the first African American to play in a Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. He broke the racial barriers when Brooklyn Dodgers started him at first base on April 15, 1947.
This opened up the MLB to black professional players who since the 1880s were relegated to the Negro leagues.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson went on to have an exceptional 10 year career in the Major League Baseball (MLB), winning the inaugural MLB rookie of the year award in 1947. He also won the National League most valuable player in 1949, the first African American to do so. Robinson was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons and played in six World Series.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson Facts
- The first pro athlete in any sport to have his shirt number retired. In 1997 MLB universally retired his shirt number 42 across all major league teams.
- MLB also adopted for the first time a day to honor a player with April 15, named the “Jackie Robinson” day. On this day all players across all teams wear No 42.
- He was the first African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
- Robinson was the first black television analyst in the MLB.
- He was also the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o’Nuts.
He contributed significantly to the civil rights movements and was posthumously awarded Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jackie Roosevelt Robinson died in 1972 at the age of 53 from a heart attack resulting from complications heart disease and diabetes. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Please answer the following questions -- in your own words each answer should be about around 100 words.
1. What are some examples of typical, quick decision teachers make on a daily basis?
2. What are 5 most difficult school-related decisions you have made? Why were they difficult?
3. What was the impact of those decisions on the classroom environment, and were the decisions effective?
6. Describe the complexities you have as a teacher in making decisions?
7. What resources would help to ease decision-making in the classroom?© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 8:45 pm ad1c9bdddf
I can answer these questions based on my personal experience.
1. Typical decisions include resolving situations that come up in the classroom such as someone having a disagreement with another student. These types of instances need to be resolved right away so that they do not become an even bigger problem. Also, when students don't understand certain subjects very well, the teacher has to re-teach it in a way that the students can understand and also be able to do their assignments. The most typical quick decision a teacher usually has to make is how to fill up time with substantive material when schedules change or certain lessons do not take as much time as was originally thought.
2. First, I had to implement a curriculum designed for regular students to students who could not speak English. Another decision involved setting up more time for a learning concept that was not that easy to understand as I would rather have the students understand the concept completely than brush over it, even if it means something else may not be learned in another topic. Decreasing or increasing homework assignments is also usually difficult as students need to learn but they also need the time to be kids as well. Picking out age appropriate and vocabulary appropriate books that are also interesting is also another issue. Finally, taking ... | <urn:uuid:a553b27b-5f1f-4ab1-a8e9-cecfc382b76b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brainmass.com/education/learning-teaching/interview-with-a-teaching-professional-161635 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00541.warc.gz | en | 0.983954 | 389 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.4696614146232... | 1 | Please answer the following questions -- in your own words each answer should be about around 100 words.
1. What are some examples of typical, quick decision teachers make on a daily basis?
2. What are 5 most difficult school-related decisions you have made? Why were they difficult?
3. What was the impact of those decisions on the classroom environment, and were the decisions effective?
6. Describe the complexities you have as a teacher in making decisions?
7. What resources would help to ease decision-making in the classroom?© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 8:45 pm ad1c9bdddf
I can answer these questions based on my personal experience.
1. Typical decisions include resolving situations that come up in the classroom such as someone having a disagreement with another student. These types of instances need to be resolved right away so that they do not become an even bigger problem. Also, when students don't understand certain subjects very well, the teacher has to re-teach it in a way that the students can understand and also be able to do their assignments. The most typical quick decision a teacher usually has to make is how to fill up time with substantive material when schedules change or certain lessons do not take as much time as was originally thought.
2. First, I had to implement a curriculum designed for regular students to students who could not speak English. Another decision involved setting up more time for a learning concept that was not that easy to understand as I would rather have the students understand the concept completely than brush over it, even if it means something else may not be learned in another topic. Decreasing or increasing homework assignments is also usually difficult as students need to learn but they also need the time to be kids as well. Picking out age appropriate and vocabulary appropriate books that are also interesting is also another issue. Finally, taking ... | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Inquisition was an office of the Catholic Church charged with suppressing heresy. There have been four different Inquisitions; their actions and interactions with the local governments are subjects of considerable historical enquiry.
One common misconception is that the Church executed heretics. On rare occations that did happen, but in most jurisdictions and at most times only the secular power had the authority to perform executions. The Church would declare the person a heretic, and when the state learned of a decision it chose to perform an execution. The state had a real investment in religion. The Roman Emperor was a god in their system of religion. From that time forward almost all governments saw their right to rule as coming from God. The Church for her part agreed that all true authority comes from God alone. So the governing body, the state in so far as it was in the business of exercising authority, was interested in God as the foundation of that authority. So when people are attacking beliefs in God, the source of that authority, then the state felt compelled to act. In the interest of Justice the Church felt the need to provide well educated adjudicators. Also heretics who tried to spread their religion to others would cause others to go to hell by doing this, the worst possible thing to happen to anyone, and since the states goal was doing good for the people it believed it was doing the best thing by stopping the spready of heresy.
The infamous Spanish Inquisition was not an ecclesiastical operation at all. It was established in 1481 by Ferdinand and Isabella to investigate and punish the Jews and Moors who had publicly converted to Christianity but had privately continued to practice their prior religion and were thus, by definition, heretics. Prior to their expulsion from the country in 1492, Jews or Muslims who did not become Christians were not subjected to the powers of the Inquisition.
Less known is the Portuguese Inquisition, which rivaled the Spanish in its infamy.
The following needs to be merged with the above
The Inquisition was a permanent institution in the Catholic Church charged with the eradication of heresies. Unlike many other religions (e.g., Buddhism, Judaism), the Catholic Church has a hierarchical structure with a central bureaucracy. In the early years of the church, there were several competing sects that called themselves Christian. But after the Emperor Constantine I (272-337 CE) made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire and the local administrative structures were pulled together into one hierarchy centered in Rome, doctrinal arguments were settled by Church Councils, beginning with the Council of Nicea in 325 (which formulated the Nicean Creed). Those whose beliefs or practices deviated sufficiently from the orthodoxy of the councils now became the objects of efforts to bring them into the fold. Resistance often led to persecution.
Heresies (from Latin haeresis, sect, school of belief) were a problem for the Church from the beginning. In the early centuries there were the Arians and Manicheans; in the Middle Ages there were the Cathari and Waldenses; and in the Renaissance there were the Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Rosicrucians. Efforts to suppress heresies were initially ad hoc. But in the Middle Ages a permanent structure came into being to deal with the problem. Beginning in the 12th century, Church Councils required secular rulers to prosecute heretics. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX published a decree which called for life imprisonment with salutary penance for the heretic who had confessed and repented and capital punishment for those who persisted. The secular authorities were to carry out the execution. Pope Gregory relieved the bishops and archbishops of this obligation, and made it the duty of the Dominican Order, though many inquisitors were members of other orders or of the secular clergy. By the end of the decade the Inquisition had become a general institution in all lands under the purview of the Pope. By the end of the 13th centuries the Inquisition in each region had a bureaucracy to help in its function.
The judge, or inquisitor, could bring suit against anyone. The accused had to testify against himself/herself and not have the right to face and question his/her accuser. It was acceptable to take testimony from criminals, persons of bad reputation, excommunicated people, and heretics. The accused did not have right to counsel, and blood relationship did not exempt one from the duty to testify against the accused. Sentences could not be appealed and inquisitors sometimes interrogated entire populations in their jurisdiction. The inquisitor questioned the accused in the presence of at least two witnesses. The accused was given a summary of the charges and had to take an oath to tell the truth. Various means were used to get the cooperation of the accused. Although there was no tradition of torture in Christian canon law, this method came into use by the middle of the 13th century. The findings of the Inquisition were read before a large audience; the penitents abjured on their knees with one hand on a bible held by the inquisitor. Penalties went from visits to churches, pilgrimages, and wearing the cross of infamy to imprisonment (usually for life but the sentences were often commuted) and (if the accused would not abjure) death. Death was by burning at the stake, and it was carried out by the secular authorities. Death or life imprisonment was always accompanied by the confiscation of all the accused's property.
Abuses by local Inquisitions early on led to reform and regulation by Rome, and in the 14th century intervention by secular authorities became common. At the end of the 15th century, under Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, the Spanish inquisition became independent of Rome. In its dealings with converted Moslems and Jews and also illuminists, the Spanish Inquisition with its notorious "autos de fé " represents a dark chapter in the history of the Inquisition. In northern Europe the Inquisition was considerably more benign: in England it was never instituted, and in the Scandinavian countries it had hardly any impact (although northern Europe had its own institutions such as the "witchhunt").
Pope Paul III established, in 1542, a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, part of the Roman Curia, became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope himself holds the title of prefect but never exercises this office. Instead, he appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a prelate and two assistants all chosen from the Dominican Order. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. In 1616 these consultants gave their assessment of the propositions that the Sun is immobile and at the center of the universe and that the Earth moves around it, judging both to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy," and the first to be "formally heretical" and the second "at least erroneous in faith" in theology. This assessment led to Copernicus's De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium to be placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, until revised and Galileo Galilei to be admonished about his Copernicanism. It was this same body in 1633 that tried Galileo.
The Inquisition succeeded in spreading as far as Venice, Germany and Scandinavia, although it was never as powerful or as abusive in those remote regions as it was in Spain. It had little impact in the German and Scandinavian countries. The Inquisition was never instituted in England, but Christopher Columbus carried it with him to the New World.
The Inquisition was used against Protestants in the Netherlands during their war for independence from Spain. The Inquisition was removed during Napoleonic rule (1808-1812), but reinstituted when Ferdinand VII of Spain recovered the throne. It was officially ended in 1834. | <urn:uuid:9ffb1c70-b533-4cd0-911b-8153f6b3fec8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fact-index.com/i/in/inquisition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.982841 | 1,670 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.17664691... | 4 | The Inquisition was an office of the Catholic Church charged with suppressing heresy. There have been four different Inquisitions; their actions and interactions with the local governments are subjects of considerable historical enquiry.
One common misconception is that the Church executed heretics. On rare occations that did happen, but in most jurisdictions and at most times only the secular power had the authority to perform executions. The Church would declare the person a heretic, and when the state learned of a decision it chose to perform an execution. The state had a real investment in religion. The Roman Emperor was a god in their system of religion. From that time forward almost all governments saw their right to rule as coming from God. The Church for her part agreed that all true authority comes from God alone. So the governing body, the state in so far as it was in the business of exercising authority, was interested in God as the foundation of that authority. So when people are attacking beliefs in God, the source of that authority, then the state felt compelled to act. In the interest of Justice the Church felt the need to provide well educated adjudicators. Also heretics who tried to spread their religion to others would cause others to go to hell by doing this, the worst possible thing to happen to anyone, and since the states goal was doing good for the people it believed it was doing the best thing by stopping the spready of heresy.
The infamous Spanish Inquisition was not an ecclesiastical operation at all. It was established in 1481 by Ferdinand and Isabella to investigate and punish the Jews and Moors who had publicly converted to Christianity but had privately continued to practice their prior religion and were thus, by definition, heretics. Prior to their expulsion from the country in 1492, Jews or Muslims who did not become Christians were not subjected to the powers of the Inquisition.
Less known is the Portuguese Inquisition, which rivaled the Spanish in its infamy.
The following needs to be merged with the above
The Inquisition was a permanent institution in the Catholic Church charged with the eradication of heresies. Unlike many other religions (e.g., Buddhism, Judaism), the Catholic Church has a hierarchical structure with a central bureaucracy. In the early years of the church, there were several competing sects that called themselves Christian. But after the Emperor Constantine I (272-337 CE) made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire and the local administrative structures were pulled together into one hierarchy centered in Rome, doctrinal arguments were settled by Church Councils, beginning with the Council of Nicea in 325 (which formulated the Nicean Creed). Those whose beliefs or practices deviated sufficiently from the orthodoxy of the councils now became the objects of efforts to bring them into the fold. Resistance often led to persecution.
Heresies (from Latin haeresis, sect, school of belief) were a problem for the Church from the beginning. In the early centuries there were the Arians and Manicheans; in the Middle Ages there were the Cathari and Waldenses; and in the Renaissance there were the Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Rosicrucians. Efforts to suppress heresies were initially ad hoc. But in the Middle Ages a permanent structure came into being to deal with the problem. Beginning in the 12th century, Church Councils required secular rulers to prosecute heretics. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX published a decree which called for life imprisonment with salutary penance for the heretic who had confessed and repented and capital punishment for those who persisted. The secular authorities were to carry out the execution. Pope Gregory relieved the bishops and archbishops of this obligation, and made it the duty of the Dominican Order, though many inquisitors were members of other orders or of the secular clergy. By the end of the decade the Inquisition had become a general institution in all lands under the purview of the Pope. By the end of the 13th centuries the Inquisition in each region had a bureaucracy to help in its function.
The judge, or inquisitor, could bring suit against anyone. The accused had to testify against himself/herself and not have the right to face and question his/her accuser. It was acceptable to take testimony from criminals, persons of bad reputation, excommunicated people, and heretics. The accused did not have right to counsel, and blood relationship did not exempt one from the duty to testify against the accused. Sentences could not be appealed and inquisitors sometimes interrogated entire populations in their jurisdiction. The inquisitor questioned the accused in the presence of at least two witnesses. The accused was given a summary of the charges and had to take an oath to tell the truth. Various means were used to get the cooperation of the accused. Although there was no tradition of torture in Christian canon law, this method came into use by the middle of the 13th century. The findings of the Inquisition were read before a large audience; the penitents abjured on their knees with one hand on a bible held by the inquisitor. Penalties went from visits to churches, pilgrimages, and wearing the cross of infamy to imprisonment (usually for life but the sentences were often commuted) and (if the accused would not abjure) death. Death was by burning at the stake, and it was carried out by the secular authorities. Death or life imprisonment was always accompanied by the confiscation of all the accused's property.
Abuses by local Inquisitions early on led to reform and regulation by Rome, and in the 14th century intervention by secular authorities became common. At the end of the 15th century, under Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, the Spanish inquisition became independent of Rome. In its dealings with converted Moslems and Jews and also illuminists, the Spanish Inquisition with its notorious "autos de fé " represents a dark chapter in the history of the Inquisition. In northern Europe the Inquisition was considerably more benign: in England it was never instituted, and in the Scandinavian countries it had hardly any impact (although northern Europe had its own institutions such as the "witchhunt").
Pope Paul III established, in 1542, a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, part of the Roman Curia, became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope himself holds the title of prefect but never exercises this office. Instead, he appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a prelate and two assistants all chosen from the Dominican Order. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. In 1616 these consultants gave their assessment of the propositions that the Sun is immobile and at the center of the universe and that the Earth moves around it, judging both to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy," and the first to be "formally heretical" and the second "at least erroneous in faith" in theology. This assessment led to Copernicus's De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium to be placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, until revised and Galileo Galilei to be admonished about his Copernicanism. It was this same body in 1633 that tried Galileo.
The Inquisition succeeded in spreading as far as Venice, Germany and Scandinavia, although it was never as powerful or as abusive in those remote regions as it was in Spain. It had little impact in the German and Scandinavian countries. The Inquisition was never instituted in England, but Christopher Columbus carried it with him to the New World.
The Inquisition was used against Protestants in the Netherlands during their war for independence from Spain. The Inquisition was removed during Napoleonic rule (1808-1812), but reinstituted when Ferdinand VII of Spain recovered the throne. It was officially ended in 1834. | 1,720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As in most other Middle European states, a multitude of coins circulated in Switzerland towards the end of the 18th century. It is hard to imagine the monetary chaos of that time. In Switzerland coins from different metals and origins were in circulation: cities, bishoprics, abbeys and cantons minted coins at will and mostly without any strict standard. In addition there was much foreign money in use, such as French, Italian, Austrian and German coins. About 8,000 different kinds of coins were circulating! The Helvetic Republic saw the first attempt to unify the minting of coins in Switzerland. A standardized coinage was created that was to replace all the circulating coins. It was the beginning of the Swiss Franc, which divided into 10 batzen and 100 rappens (centimes). | <urn:uuid:6a4637f3-af3b-4ce4-9381-2362bf72bf0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=721 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.981026 | 161 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.155216... | 8 | As in most other Middle European states, a multitude of coins circulated in Switzerland towards the end of the 18th century. It is hard to imagine the monetary chaos of that time. In Switzerland coins from different metals and origins were in circulation: cities, bishoprics, abbeys and cantons minted coins at will and mostly without any strict standard. In addition there was much foreign money in use, such as French, Italian, Austrian and German coins. About 8,000 different kinds of coins were circulating! The Helvetic Republic saw the first attempt to unify the minting of coins in Switzerland. A standardized coinage was created that was to replace all the circulating coins. It was the beginning of the Swiss Franc, which divided into 10 batzen and 100 rappens (centimes). | 170 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word confessor is derived from the Latin confiteri, to confess, to profess. Among the early church fathers, it was a title of honor, designating those individuals who had confessed Christ publicly in time of persecution and had been punished with imprisonment, torture, exile, or labour in the mines, remaining faithful until the end of their lives. The title thus distinguished them from the martyrs, who were those had undergone death for their faith. Among writers, St. Cyprian is the first in whose works it occurs.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the title is given to saints and blesseds who were not martyred. Historically, the title Confessor was given to those who had suffered persecution and torture for the faith but not to the point of martyrdom. As Christianity emerged as the dominant religion in Europe by the fifth century, persecutions became rare, and the title was given to male saints who lived a holy life and died in peace. Perhaps the best-known individual associated with the title is the English king St. Edward the Confessor. It is possible for Confessors to have another title or even two other titles, for example, Bishop and Confessor; Pope and Confessor; or Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, among others: St. Jerome is known as Priest, Confessor, Theologian, Historian and Doctor of the Church.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Confessor refers to a saint (male or female) who has witnessed to the faith and suffered for it (usually torture, but also other types of loss), but not to the point of death, and thus is distinguished from a martyr. Nikephoros I of Constantinople, who was banished to the monastery of Saint Theodore for his support of iconodules, is revered as a confessor. A confessor who is also a priest or bishop may be referred to as hiero-confessor. | <urn:uuid:3964d939-861f-4c33-bfda-8aba91a0c7bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Confessor_of_the_Faith | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.985262 | 392 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.0847902745... | 2 | The word confessor is derived from the Latin confiteri, to confess, to profess. Among the early church fathers, it was a title of honor, designating those individuals who had confessed Christ publicly in time of persecution and had been punished with imprisonment, torture, exile, or labour in the mines, remaining faithful until the end of their lives. The title thus distinguished them from the martyrs, who were those had undergone death for their faith. Among writers, St. Cyprian is the first in whose works it occurs.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the title is given to saints and blesseds who were not martyred. Historically, the title Confessor was given to those who had suffered persecution and torture for the faith but not to the point of martyrdom. As Christianity emerged as the dominant religion in Europe by the fifth century, persecutions became rare, and the title was given to male saints who lived a holy life and died in peace. Perhaps the best-known individual associated with the title is the English king St. Edward the Confessor. It is possible for Confessors to have another title or even two other titles, for example, Bishop and Confessor; Pope and Confessor; or Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, among others: St. Jerome is known as Priest, Confessor, Theologian, Historian and Doctor of the Church.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Confessor refers to a saint (male or female) who has witnessed to the faith and suffered for it (usually torture, but also other types of loss), but not to the point of death, and thus is distinguished from a martyr. Nikephoros I of Constantinople, who was banished to the monastery of Saint Theodore for his support of iconodules, is revered as a confessor. A confessor who is also a priest or bishop may be referred to as hiero-confessor. | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Chinese Architecture
When you hear the word architecture, you should think of it as the science and art of designing and building structures.
The Ancient Chinese had a very specific style of architecture that can be put into three different categories: Imperial, Common, and Religious.
Though there are definite differences between these three different categories, they also shared lots of similarities as well.
Through this shared system of the building, the Ancient Chinese were able to make many different structures that have stood for thousands of years.
Styles of Chinese Architecture
Chinese Architecture can be broken down into three different categories. While all of these different buildings shared common building techniques, they are also unique in their construction.
There are several distinct features that set Imperial buildings apart from other types of structures. First of all, they are much larger than any other types of buildings.
Secondly, Emperors loved to decorate their homes with dragons, as this was a sign of their imperial might.
Finally, you can always tell an Imperial building by the color of the roof tiles. Almost every Imperial building utilized yellow tiles, as this was thought of as a royal color.
The homes of commoners were usually much smaller than imperial homes, making them easy to distinguish.
They would usually have a central courtyard that was dedicated to a shrine for deities and ancestors.
The building would usually have two wings that included a living room, dining, room, kitchen, and sleeping area.
Religious temples were built in a similar fashion to palaces. The biggest difference is that they would have Buddha statues rather than dragons.
Monasteries would also have a front hall and then a great hall or shrine. Sleeping quarters for monks and nuns would be to either side of this great hall.
Related: Religion in Ancient China
Similarities in Building Techniques
Even though buildings might have differed in size depending on who lived there or the use of the structure, they also followed similar building techniques and themes.
Whenever the Ancient Chinese were going to build a structure, they always followed similar steps, regardless if the building was for an emperor or a farmer.
This included building a timber frame and securing it into the ground by stacking compacted earth around the supports.
They always made sure to make each wall independently supported from the others, which made the buildings immensely strong and secure.
All buildings were decorated with flowers, scrolls, and peaceful scenery, such as rivers. These walls were then covered in a glazed paint, which was used to protect them against moisture.
One of the most important features for any type of Ancient Chinese architecture was the courtyard. This was true for commoners as well as royalty.
Of course, depending on the size of the house where the courtyard was laid out, they were of differing sizes.
If, for instance, the courtyard was for a poorer family, it would actually usually be a shared courtyard that multiple families would use.
Each courtyard was built in an open rectangle, with plants and screens making sure that the layout would be different from every vantage point.
The main door into a home, palace, or monastery was always built to face the south.
The Ancient Chinese believed that by having their home and courtyard facing to the south, they would create beneficial energy for everyone who lived or visited the structure.
The pagoda roof is one of the most recognizable features of Ancient Chinese architecture. It is designed to mimic a mountaintop, with peaks, inclines, and levels.
Surprisingly, the Chinese did not actually invent this roofing system. Rather, they borrowed it from India.
Famous Examples of Ancient Chinese Architecture
Ancient China has several famous examples of architecture that are still standing to this day.
In this section, we’ll look at some of the most famous and ingenious designs from the ancient Chinese world of architecture.
Great Wall of China
This was obviously no small feat! It took many years for the wall to be completed.
The wall was completed during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It has watchtowers throughout its length. While it was originally built out of compacted earth and wood, it was later reinforced with stone.
This made it a formidable obstacle that helped to protect ancient China from foreign invaders.
The Forbidden City is in the center of Beijing. It is, by far, the largest palace in the ancient world. It was built between 1406 and 1420 during the Ming Dynasty.
It is comprised of approximately 980 wood and stone buildings. It is roughly 178 acres in size.
The reason that it was named the Forbidden City is due to the fact that access to the complex was barred to almost everyone in China.
The only people that were granted any sort of access were high ranking government officials and members of the imperial family.
Only the Emperor could enter any section of the city whenever they wanted to.
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
As you read earlier, the original pagoda design was from India, not China. It was adopted by the Chinese and has since become an integral part of their building process.
One of the most famous pagodas to ever be built in Ancient China is the Big Wild Goose Pagoda. It was completed during the Tang Dynasty (619-907) as a Buddhist temple.
It was used to house monks. It is a seven-storied brick pagoda that is miraculously built without the use of cement. It is 210 feet tall, which was huge for the time that it was built.
Temple of Heaven
The Temple of Heaven was another large complex built during the Ming Dynasty around 1420. It was later enlarged during the Qing Dynasty.
It was built so that the emperors could celebrate the Heaven Worship Ceremony, where they prayed for a bountiful harvest. The temple is actually larger than the Forbidden City.
It was also designed to reflect Heaven and Earth. The northern half of the temple is meant to represent heaven, while the southern part is meant to represent Earth.
This is why the builders decided to have the northern half higher than the southern.
The Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang
This is one of the oldest pieces of architecture in all of China. This mausoleum was built for the first Qin Emperor in 210 B.C.! This tomb doesn’t just contain the emperor alone, however.
With him are thousands of terracotta warriors. It is believed that this army was constructed to serve the emperor in the afterlife.
Each warrior is unique, with no two being exactly the same.
The tomb itself is the largest of any mausoleum in all of China.
This is due to the fact that it was built for the very first unifying emperor in the country’s history.
It features a main pit and over 200 accompanying pits that house all of the terracotta warriors. | <urn:uuid:8fb69ac5-a31a-4a96-91a3-6db46b665b6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coolkidfacts.com/ancient-chinese-architecture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.984759 | 1,410 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.018013162538... | 3 | Ancient Chinese Architecture
When you hear the word architecture, you should think of it as the science and art of designing and building structures.
The Ancient Chinese had a very specific style of architecture that can be put into three different categories: Imperial, Common, and Religious.
Though there are definite differences between these three different categories, they also shared lots of similarities as well.
Through this shared system of the building, the Ancient Chinese were able to make many different structures that have stood for thousands of years.
Styles of Chinese Architecture
Chinese Architecture can be broken down into three different categories. While all of these different buildings shared common building techniques, they are also unique in their construction.
There are several distinct features that set Imperial buildings apart from other types of structures. First of all, they are much larger than any other types of buildings.
Secondly, Emperors loved to decorate their homes with dragons, as this was a sign of their imperial might.
Finally, you can always tell an Imperial building by the color of the roof tiles. Almost every Imperial building utilized yellow tiles, as this was thought of as a royal color.
The homes of commoners were usually much smaller than imperial homes, making them easy to distinguish.
They would usually have a central courtyard that was dedicated to a shrine for deities and ancestors.
The building would usually have two wings that included a living room, dining, room, kitchen, and sleeping area.
Religious temples were built in a similar fashion to palaces. The biggest difference is that they would have Buddha statues rather than dragons.
Monasteries would also have a front hall and then a great hall or shrine. Sleeping quarters for monks and nuns would be to either side of this great hall.
Related: Religion in Ancient China
Similarities in Building Techniques
Even though buildings might have differed in size depending on who lived there or the use of the structure, they also followed similar building techniques and themes.
Whenever the Ancient Chinese were going to build a structure, they always followed similar steps, regardless if the building was for an emperor or a farmer.
This included building a timber frame and securing it into the ground by stacking compacted earth around the supports.
They always made sure to make each wall independently supported from the others, which made the buildings immensely strong and secure.
All buildings were decorated with flowers, scrolls, and peaceful scenery, such as rivers. These walls were then covered in a glazed paint, which was used to protect them against moisture.
One of the most important features for any type of Ancient Chinese architecture was the courtyard. This was true for commoners as well as royalty.
Of course, depending on the size of the house where the courtyard was laid out, they were of differing sizes.
If, for instance, the courtyard was for a poorer family, it would actually usually be a shared courtyard that multiple families would use.
Each courtyard was built in an open rectangle, with plants and screens making sure that the layout would be different from every vantage point.
The main door into a home, palace, or monastery was always built to face the south.
The Ancient Chinese believed that by having their home and courtyard facing to the south, they would create beneficial energy for everyone who lived or visited the structure.
The pagoda roof is one of the most recognizable features of Ancient Chinese architecture. It is designed to mimic a mountaintop, with peaks, inclines, and levels.
Surprisingly, the Chinese did not actually invent this roofing system. Rather, they borrowed it from India.
Famous Examples of Ancient Chinese Architecture
Ancient China has several famous examples of architecture that are still standing to this day.
In this section, we’ll look at some of the most famous and ingenious designs from the ancient Chinese world of architecture.
Great Wall of China
This was obviously no small feat! It took many years for the wall to be completed.
The wall was completed during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It has watchtowers throughout its length. While it was originally built out of compacted earth and wood, it was later reinforced with stone.
This made it a formidable obstacle that helped to protect ancient China from foreign invaders.
The Forbidden City is in the center of Beijing. It is, by far, the largest palace in the ancient world. It was built between 1406 and 1420 during the Ming Dynasty.
It is comprised of approximately 980 wood and stone buildings. It is roughly 178 acres in size.
The reason that it was named the Forbidden City is due to the fact that access to the complex was barred to almost everyone in China.
The only people that were granted any sort of access were high ranking government officials and members of the imperial family.
Only the Emperor could enter any section of the city whenever they wanted to.
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
As you read earlier, the original pagoda design was from India, not China. It was adopted by the Chinese and has since become an integral part of their building process.
One of the most famous pagodas to ever be built in Ancient China is the Big Wild Goose Pagoda. It was completed during the Tang Dynasty (619-907) as a Buddhist temple.
It was used to house monks. It is a seven-storied brick pagoda that is miraculously built without the use of cement. It is 210 feet tall, which was huge for the time that it was built.
Temple of Heaven
The Temple of Heaven was another large complex built during the Ming Dynasty around 1420. It was later enlarged during the Qing Dynasty.
It was built so that the emperors could celebrate the Heaven Worship Ceremony, where they prayed for a bountiful harvest. The temple is actually larger than the Forbidden City.
It was also designed to reflect Heaven and Earth. The northern half of the temple is meant to represent heaven, while the southern part is meant to represent Earth.
This is why the builders decided to have the northern half higher than the southern.
The Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang
This is one of the oldest pieces of architecture in all of China. This mausoleum was built for the first Qin Emperor in 210 B.C.! This tomb doesn’t just contain the emperor alone, however.
With him are thousands of terracotta warriors. It is believed that this army was constructed to serve the emperor in the afterlife.
Each warrior is unique, with no two being exactly the same.
The tomb itself is the largest of any mausoleum in all of China.
This is due to the fact that it was built for the very first unifying emperor in the country’s history.
It features a main pit and over 200 accompanying pits that house all of the terracotta warriors. | 1,388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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