text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Providence County was constituted on June 22, 1703, as the County of Providence Plantations. It consisted of five towns, namely Providence, Warwick, Westerly, Kingstown, and Greenwich and encompassed territory in present-day Kent and Washington counties. Washington County was split off as King's County in 1729, while Kent County was split off in 1750. The town of Cumberland was acquired from Massachusetts and added to Providence County in 1746-47, and the towns of East Providence and Pawtucket were made part of Providence County when the final border with Massachusetts was settled in 1862. County government in Rhode Island was abolished in 1842. Providence County, like other counties in Rhode Island, has no governmental functions (other than as court administrative and sheriff corrections boundaries which are part of state government). | <urn:uuid:f6362d9d-fbc0-4c7a-9488-0e6b42b8dd81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://upge.wn.com/?query=providence_county&pagenum=2&language_id=1&template=cheetah-photo-search%2Findex.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.982759 | 164 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.13213446736... | 2 | Providence County was constituted on June 22, 1703, as the County of Providence Plantations. It consisted of five towns, namely Providence, Warwick, Westerly, Kingstown, and Greenwich and encompassed territory in present-day Kent and Washington counties. Washington County was split off as King's County in 1729, while Kent County was split off in 1750. The town of Cumberland was acquired from Massachusetts and added to Providence County in 1746-47, and the towns of East Providence and Pawtucket were made part of Providence County when the final border with Massachusetts was settled in 1862. County government in Rhode Island was abolished in 1842. Providence County, like other counties in Rhode Island, has no governmental functions (other than as court administrative and sheriff corrections boundaries which are part of state government). | 185 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A look at poetry by T.S. Eliot and how he used his poetry to express himself and escape from the hardships in his personal life.
This paper shows how this great American poet exposes his life extensively in his writings. It examines many of his poem and compares each one to an occurrence in Eliot’s life and shows how the poet used his art as a form of escape.
Eliot had an exceedingly difficult childhood because of a double hernia that affected him in his early schooling in St. Louis. As a result, he led a very sequestered childhood, and this is reflected in all of his poetry, but especially The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Another source of unhappiness was his first marriage. He married Vivien Haigh-wood but she suffered from neuralgia throughout their marriage and as a result, much of Eliot’s adult life was spent in a sort of living mourning both for his wife and for his married life. | <urn:uuid:8279a03e-f33e-4f70-aca2-d157a60126fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://billcritomatic.org/escape-through-art-free-essay-sample/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.995681 | 200 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1378745138645172... | 2 | A look at poetry by T.S. Eliot and how he used his poetry to express himself and escape from the hardships in his personal life.
This paper shows how this great American poet exposes his life extensively in his writings. It examines many of his poem and compares each one to an occurrence in Eliot’s life and shows how the poet used his art as a form of escape.
Eliot had an exceedingly difficult childhood because of a double hernia that affected him in his early schooling in St. Louis. As a result, he led a very sequestered childhood, and this is reflected in all of his poetry, but especially The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Another source of unhappiness was his first marriage. He married Vivien Haigh-wood but she suffered from neuralgia throughout their marriage and as a result, much of Eliot’s adult life was spent in a sort of living mourning both for his wife and for his married life. | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Richard Howe joined the navy at the age of thirteen sailing in the Severn, one of the squadron sent into the south seas with George Anson in 1740. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1744 and made steady progress up the ladder. In 1755, he went with Edward Boscawen to North America as captain of Dunkirk. After that he spent time back in Europe where he was involved in many raids on French ports. In 1759 he led Hawke's fleet as captain of Magnanime in the Battle of Quiberon Bay where the British won a decisive victory and so stopped a planned French Invasion of Britain.
After the death of his elder brother in 1758, Richard became Viscount Howe in the Peerage of Ireland. In 1762, he was elected M.P. for Dartmouth and held the seat until he was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl Howe in the Peerage of Great Britain. From 1763 to 1765, he was a member of the Admiralty board having taken over from Vice-Admiral John Forbes.
Richard is mentioned in the diary (page 110) of George Marsh, 13th May 1764. George notes that he set out with Lord Egmont, Lord Howe and Lord Carysford with Mr Stephens to visit the Dockyards. No other mention is made.
In 1765 Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Saunders took Richard's place on the Admiralty board and Richard became Treasurer of the Navy, a position that he held until 1770 when he was promoted to Rear Admiral and made Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet.
Richard was very much involved with the American War of independence but this was a period that did not go well for anyone. He resigned in 1778 and then had a period of a few years where he was mainly involved in politics as an MP.
In 1782 Richard took command of the Channel Fleet. The following year he took up the position of First Lord of the Admiralty taking over from Admiral Hon. Augustus Keppel, later 1st Viscount Keppel. Richard fulfilled this role until 1788 when the position was taken by John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham. Richard became Vice-Admiral of Great Britain from 1792-1796 and Admiral of the Fleet from 1796 until his death in 1799. | <urn:uuid:d7096769-128f-45f5-ac4a-ef4bc0dbdc28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jjhc.info/MarshGeorge1800RichardHoweAdmiral | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.98973 | 477 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.255523532629... | 5 | Richard Howe joined the navy at the age of thirteen sailing in the Severn, one of the squadron sent into the south seas with George Anson in 1740. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1744 and made steady progress up the ladder. In 1755, he went with Edward Boscawen to North America as captain of Dunkirk. After that he spent time back in Europe where he was involved in many raids on French ports. In 1759 he led Hawke's fleet as captain of Magnanime in the Battle of Quiberon Bay where the British won a decisive victory and so stopped a planned French Invasion of Britain.
After the death of his elder brother in 1758, Richard became Viscount Howe in the Peerage of Ireland. In 1762, he was elected M.P. for Dartmouth and held the seat until he was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl Howe in the Peerage of Great Britain. From 1763 to 1765, he was a member of the Admiralty board having taken over from Vice-Admiral John Forbes.
Richard is mentioned in the diary (page 110) of George Marsh, 13th May 1764. George notes that he set out with Lord Egmont, Lord Howe and Lord Carysford with Mr Stephens to visit the Dockyards. No other mention is made.
In 1765 Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Saunders took Richard's place on the Admiralty board and Richard became Treasurer of the Navy, a position that he held until 1770 when he was promoted to Rear Admiral and made Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet.
Richard was very much involved with the American War of independence but this was a period that did not go well for anyone. He resigned in 1778 and then had a period of a few years where he was mainly involved in politics as an MP.
In 1782 Richard took command of the Channel Fleet. The following year he took up the position of First Lord of the Admiralty taking over from Admiral Hon. Augustus Keppel, later 1st Viscount Keppel. Richard fulfilled this role until 1788 when the position was taken by John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham. Richard became Vice-Admiral of Great Britain from 1792-1796 and Admiral of the Fleet from 1796 until his death in 1799. | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint Agapius, Saint Asterius, and Saint Cornelius are known as the Saints of Caesarea. They lived in Caesarea, the Holy Land, and spread Jesus’ teachings and faith in God. They had to face the Romans and kept their true faith at all costs.
Most of our current knowledge regarding the early life of Christians in the Holy Land
comes from Eusebius and his book The Martyrs of Palestine
During the persecutions of Diocletian, Saint Agapius was arrested three times but released each time. However, he was imprisoned after the fourth arrest. He was offered freedom if he renounced Christianity but he refused. As a result, he had to face a bear and other animals in the public arena. His bravery and strong faith stood by his side in the arena so he suffered injuries but not death. After long suffering and mauling by animals, stones were affixed to his legs and the man was thrown into the Mediterranean and drowned.Saint Agapius’ feast days are observed on November 20 and August 19.
From Paganism to Christian Martyrdom
Saint Asterius of Caesarea was a Roman senator, a well-known man who became a Christian martyr. He lived during the reign of the emperors Valerian and Gallienus, who were both pagans. Even though he lived during the pagan regime with persecutions escalated against Christians, Saint Asterius maintained his faith. He is known to have expelled a demon with a prayer during a pagan feast
. However, the main reason he was sentenced and beheaded was a Christian burial ceremony
that he performed.Saint Asterius’ feast days are observed on March 3 and August 7.
Our Second saint was a Roman Priest, Saint Cornelius his name. He was elected as the Pope. And then succeeded Fabian after the papacy had been vacant for over a year in a reign when Christians were heavily persecuted. He condemned the suffering of Christians as a result of their faith
. And later was exiled, suffered a lot of hardships and later was decapitated.Some of his writings were fundamental to the unity of the Catholic Church. He asserted that the unity of the church was grounded in the authority of the Bishop.Saint Cornelius’ feast day is observed on September 16. | <urn:uuid:ea304c13-bab1-475d-827f-8471f2ef7eb0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thesalvationgarden.org/the-saints-of-caesarea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00254.warc.gz | en | 0.989111 | 476 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.0916314572095871,... | 1 | Saint Agapius, Saint Asterius, and Saint Cornelius are known as the Saints of Caesarea. They lived in Caesarea, the Holy Land, and spread Jesus’ teachings and faith in God. They had to face the Romans and kept their true faith at all costs.
Most of our current knowledge regarding the early life of Christians in the Holy Land
comes from Eusebius and his book The Martyrs of Palestine
During the persecutions of Diocletian, Saint Agapius was arrested three times but released each time. However, he was imprisoned after the fourth arrest. He was offered freedom if he renounced Christianity but he refused. As a result, he had to face a bear and other animals in the public arena. His bravery and strong faith stood by his side in the arena so he suffered injuries but not death. After long suffering and mauling by animals, stones were affixed to his legs and the man was thrown into the Mediterranean and drowned.Saint Agapius’ feast days are observed on November 20 and August 19.
From Paganism to Christian Martyrdom
Saint Asterius of Caesarea was a Roman senator, a well-known man who became a Christian martyr. He lived during the reign of the emperors Valerian and Gallienus, who were both pagans. Even though he lived during the pagan regime with persecutions escalated against Christians, Saint Asterius maintained his faith. He is known to have expelled a demon with a prayer during a pagan feast
. However, the main reason he was sentenced and beheaded was a Christian burial ceremony
that he performed.Saint Asterius’ feast days are observed on March 3 and August 7.
Our Second saint was a Roman Priest, Saint Cornelius his name. He was elected as the Pope. And then succeeded Fabian after the papacy had been vacant for over a year in a reign when Christians were heavily persecuted. He condemned the suffering of Christians as a result of their faith
. And later was exiled, suffered a lot of hardships and later was decapitated.Some of his writings were fundamental to the unity of the Catholic Church. He asserted that the unity of the church was grounded in the authority of the Bishop.Saint Cornelius’ feast day is observed on September 16. | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Traditionally, one gives presents at this time of year, and Della and Jim want to buy something very special for each other. As they have little money, they both sacrifice their most valued possessions that ironically cannot be used. O. Henry calls these two "wise" rather than foolish for doing this, and uses the setting characters and events to develop his theme. The narrator calls attention almost immediately to the two most important details of the story's setting: it takes place on Christmas Eve, and its two main characters live in an unassuming flat. O. Henry sketches the flat with just enough detail to convey an image of its squalor: it's cheap, sparsely furnished, and has a broken mailbox and a broken doorbell. .
The couple, however, does not think of life this way. Della, is depicted a poor woman with few good garments, hardly getting by. Although, O. Henry makes you feel that Della is excited at each new thing, and yearns to see Jim come in the door. "She stood by the window and looked out dully at a gray cat walking a gray fence in a gray backyard." The characters could have a dreary attitude but O. Henry does not mention this.They picture their flat as a fine home oppressed with hard times. The couple has adapted to their flat. "A very thin and very agile person may, by observing his reflection in a rapid sequence of longitudinal strips, obtain a fairly accurate conception of his looks. Della, being slender, had mastered the art." This is a great example of how Della has adapted to the flat. She uses the small strip of mirror to its fullest potential. The action of the story depends on the fact that Christmas is sufficiently close that Della needs to buy a present now, even with her small amount of money. The couple's very humble abode brings out their poverty vividly. It's their poverty which both forces them to make the sacrifices they do, and which makes those sacrifices meaningful. | <urn:uuid:d32022ea-4e8e-47ad-adb6-7dd915910bca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/217396.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.982639 | 411 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3959445655345... | 3 | Traditionally, one gives presents at this time of year, and Della and Jim want to buy something very special for each other. As they have little money, they both sacrifice their most valued possessions that ironically cannot be used. O. Henry calls these two "wise" rather than foolish for doing this, and uses the setting characters and events to develop his theme. The narrator calls attention almost immediately to the two most important details of the story's setting: it takes place on Christmas Eve, and its two main characters live in an unassuming flat. O. Henry sketches the flat with just enough detail to convey an image of its squalor: it's cheap, sparsely furnished, and has a broken mailbox and a broken doorbell. .
The couple, however, does not think of life this way. Della, is depicted a poor woman with few good garments, hardly getting by. Although, O. Henry makes you feel that Della is excited at each new thing, and yearns to see Jim come in the door. "She stood by the window and looked out dully at a gray cat walking a gray fence in a gray backyard." The characters could have a dreary attitude but O. Henry does not mention this.They picture their flat as a fine home oppressed with hard times. The couple has adapted to their flat. "A very thin and very agile person may, by observing his reflection in a rapid sequence of longitudinal strips, obtain a fairly accurate conception of his looks. Della, being slender, had mastered the art." This is a great example of how Della has adapted to the flat. She uses the small strip of mirror to its fullest potential. The action of the story depends on the fact that Christmas is sufficiently close that Della needs to buy a present now, even with her small amount of money. The couple's very humble abode brings out their poverty vividly. It's their poverty which both forces them to make the sacrifices they do, and which makes those sacrifices meaningful. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The wealthy people who found themselves at the top of the Feudal System in Medieval England owned manor houses. While few remain today, many Tudor and Stuart manor houses still have parts that were constructed in medieval times and display original architecture.
The manor houses lived in by medieval lords were constructed from natural stone and built to last. Peasants, on the other hand, lived in huts made of wattle and daub, which were designed to clearly display their poverty to those who ranked above them.
The manor houses of this time were smaller than those built by the Tudors and Stuarts, but are still thought to have been the largest buildings medieval people would have seen aside from castles and cathedrals. Penshurst Place in Kent is an excellent example of how lords designed their manors in this time, and any changes made during later periods can clearly be identified.
The medieval section of this house is dominated by the Great Hall, the exterior of which is visible in the photo above. This hall was where everyone who worked in the manor would sleep, with up to 100 people resting in there at a time in such a large manor. The lord and his family, however, would sleep in the solar, which was a private area that got its name from its large windows.
The kitchen is located to the far right in the photo, by the arched doorway, and would also contain a buttery. Food cooked in the kitchen would have been grown on the estate and this room would have its own supply of water
To ensure other members of the nobility were impressed by the manor, lords would often create a large entrance, such as the one above. Although used on a daily basis, Penshurst’s door within a door would be an important feature when it came to making a good impression on visitors, opening out into the Great Hall and making an immediate impact.
Life within a medieval manor house is thought to have been quite comfortable for the lord and his family, who would benefit from privacy. However, the house would have been very cold and draughty for all inside, requiring people to sleep on straw just to maintain heat.
It’s likely hygiene would not have been greatly improved compared to the average medieval dwelling. Although it wouldn’t have contained animals or manure, the manor would likely have failed to provide good washing facilities for workers. Toilet facilities are also not obviously included in the estate.
While there was certainly a difference in the levels of comfort experienced by peasants and lords, both groups were tied to the Feudal System. While peasants risked their lives if they disobeyed their lords, the lords and their families had to complete the tasks entrusted to them or they would risk having their estate taken from them.
See also: Building a Medieval Cathedral
"Medieval Manor Houses". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | <urn:uuid:0476095a-dc36-4599-98de-72b7eb22ca1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historylearning.com/medieval-england/medieval-manor-houses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.991819 | 594 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.1453769207000... | 5 | The wealthy people who found themselves at the top of the Feudal System in Medieval England owned manor houses. While few remain today, many Tudor and Stuart manor houses still have parts that were constructed in medieval times and display original architecture.
The manor houses lived in by medieval lords were constructed from natural stone and built to last. Peasants, on the other hand, lived in huts made of wattle and daub, which were designed to clearly display their poverty to those who ranked above them.
The manor houses of this time were smaller than those built by the Tudors and Stuarts, but are still thought to have been the largest buildings medieval people would have seen aside from castles and cathedrals. Penshurst Place in Kent is an excellent example of how lords designed their manors in this time, and any changes made during later periods can clearly be identified.
The medieval section of this house is dominated by the Great Hall, the exterior of which is visible in the photo above. This hall was where everyone who worked in the manor would sleep, with up to 100 people resting in there at a time in such a large manor. The lord and his family, however, would sleep in the solar, which was a private area that got its name from its large windows.
The kitchen is located to the far right in the photo, by the arched doorway, and would also contain a buttery. Food cooked in the kitchen would have been grown on the estate and this room would have its own supply of water
To ensure other members of the nobility were impressed by the manor, lords would often create a large entrance, such as the one above. Although used on a daily basis, Penshurst’s door within a door would be an important feature when it came to making a good impression on visitors, opening out into the Great Hall and making an immediate impact.
Life within a medieval manor house is thought to have been quite comfortable for the lord and his family, who would benefit from privacy. However, the house would have been very cold and draughty for all inside, requiring people to sleep on straw just to maintain heat.
It’s likely hygiene would not have been greatly improved compared to the average medieval dwelling. Although it wouldn’t have contained animals or manure, the manor would likely have failed to provide good washing facilities for workers. Toilet facilities are also not obviously included in the estate.
While there was certainly a difference in the levels of comfort experienced by peasants and lords, both groups were tied to the Feudal System. While peasants risked their lives if they disobeyed their lords, the lords and their families had to complete the tasks entrusted to them or they would risk having their estate taken from them.
See also: Building a Medieval Cathedral
"Medieval Manor Houses". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | 589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Here is an analysis of William Butler Yeats’ poem When You Are Old, which is directly addressed to the speaker’s lover. Yeats was born in Dublin, Ireland, and is one of the most celebrated poets in Irish history. Many of his poems reflect the Irish spirit, but this poem concentrates more on the love he once shared with a woman. This woman is probably Maud Gonne, an Irish revolutionary who ended up marrying another man. Yeats himself would go on to marry, but many see When You Are Old as a poem highlighting the failed relationship with Gonne. After an initial read, many see this poem as one that is filled with love, but the last stanza is dark; the speaker is reminding his former mistress that their love did not last, and this is something she should regret for the rest of her life. While this is one of Yeats’ most popular poems, he wrote many others that were just as successful. As a result, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923.
When You Are Old Summary
This is a poem that many see as highlighting the unrequited love between the speaker, presumably Yeats, and his former lover. The speaker, talking directly to his muse, instructs her to open the book in which this poem can be found and to re-read it. While re-reading, she should recall how many people loved her for both true and false reasons, namely because of her beauty. The speaker goes on to tell the lover that there was one man, probably the speaker, who loved her completely. In the final stanza, the speaker tells his former lover that she should remember that this love did not last, and she should be filled with regret because of it.
Breakdown Analysis of When You Are Old
When You Are Old is comprised of three stanzas, each containing four lines. The rhyme scheme is very distinct and steady; the first stanza is a b b a; the second is c d d c; the third is e f f e. Additionally, Yeats wrote the poem in iambic pentameter. This, coupled with the steady rhyme scheme, lends a sing-song quality to the poem. While the work is relatively short, like any Yeats poem, it is jam-packed with imagery and other poetic devices.
The first stanza opens the poem, revealing that our speaker is talking directly to his former lover. The first line reads: “When you are old and grey and full of sleep…” From this line, the reader can derive that he is writing this while his lover is still relatively young, but she should read this again when she is an old woman. The speaker has very specific instructions for his lover. Not only should she read the poem when she is “old and grey and full of sleep,” but also when she is “nodding by the fire,” according to the second line. In the third and fourth lines, the speaker tells his former beloved to “…dream of the soft look/Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep…”In conjunction with re-reading the poem, the lover should also remember the beauty she once possessed.
The second stanza is a continuation of the first, and this time, the speaker is reminding his lover of how many people once loved her “moments of glad grace.” This line, the fifth in When You Are Old, utilizes alliteration with “glad grace,” which further adds to the musical rhythm of the work. In the sixth line, the speaker refers directly to his muse’s beauty, writing, “And loved your beauty with love false or true…” He references the fact that many people loved the woman, but some of those people did not truly love her, perhaps only valuing her for her physical beauty. In the next line, the speaker changes tracks, referring to the one man who “loved the pilgrim soul in you,” probably referencing himself. Yeats’ diction here is worth contemplating, and much has been made of the phrase “pilgrim soul.” A pilgrim is one who travels for religious reasons, but it can also mean a person who wanders. Perhaps the speaker is accusing his former beloved as being a restless, fickle person, but he may also be referring to the woman’s constant wonder and intellect, or the fact that he was as devoted to her as a pilgrim is to his religion. However one interprets that line, it is safe to say that the speaker is telling his lover that he loved her to the very depths of her soul. The speaker takes this one step further in the final line of the stanza, telling his lover he also “…loved the sorrows of your changing face,” which means he loved her even when her beauty had started to fade and age.
The speaker then returns to when his lover becomes an old woman, telling her that she will be “…bending down beside the glowing bars,/Murmur, a little sadly, how Love fled…” These first two lines of the third stanza depict the old woman bending closer to the fire, remembering—and regretting–how the love she once had from the speaker ran away. In the tenth line, Yeats utilizes personification by having love flee like a person would. In the last two lines, Yeats writes that after Love fled, he “…paced upon the mountains overhead/And hid his face amid a crowd of stars.” The last line, “And hid his face amid a crowd of stars,” contains very beautiful imagery, as the reader imagines Love hiding between the stars in the heavens. Yeats seems to be telling his lover that while his love for her will always remain, she will be unable to reach it, as one is unable to reach into the heavens and pluck out a star. The tone of the poem changes with this last stanza. While the first two stanzas could be seen as romantic and positive, the loss of the speaker’s love in the third stanza drastically changes the tone, which has become full of regret.
While Yeats did write political poems, this is not one of them. However, it should be noted that Maud Gonne, like Yeats, was seen as a political figure in Ireland. Both were nationalists, and it was this passion, coupled with her undeniable beauty, that made Yeats fall in love with her. Yeats proposed to her numerous times, and each time he was denied. Both went on to marry other people, but the impact Gonne had on Yeats’ work is undeniable. | <urn:uuid:662d3542-7fb2-4840-823a-780f16f2327f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poemanalysis.com/when-you-are-old-william-butler-yeats/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.986131 | 1,396 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.12761782109737... | 6 | Here is an analysis of William Butler Yeats’ poem When You Are Old, which is directly addressed to the speaker’s lover. Yeats was born in Dublin, Ireland, and is one of the most celebrated poets in Irish history. Many of his poems reflect the Irish spirit, but this poem concentrates more on the love he once shared with a woman. This woman is probably Maud Gonne, an Irish revolutionary who ended up marrying another man. Yeats himself would go on to marry, but many see When You Are Old as a poem highlighting the failed relationship with Gonne. After an initial read, many see this poem as one that is filled with love, but the last stanza is dark; the speaker is reminding his former mistress that their love did not last, and this is something she should regret for the rest of her life. While this is one of Yeats’ most popular poems, he wrote many others that were just as successful. As a result, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923.
When You Are Old Summary
This is a poem that many see as highlighting the unrequited love between the speaker, presumably Yeats, and his former lover. The speaker, talking directly to his muse, instructs her to open the book in which this poem can be found and to re-read it. While re-reading, she should recall how many people loved her for both true and false reasons, namely because of her beauty. The speaker goes on to tell the lover that there was one man, probably the speaker, who loved her completely. In the final stanza, the speaker tells his former lover that she should remember that this love did not last, and she should be filled with regret because of it.
Breakdown Analysis of When You Are Old
When You Are Old is comprised of three stanzas, each containing four lines. The rhyme scheme is very distinct and steady; the first stanza is a b b a; the second is c d d c; the third is e f f e. Additionally, Yeats wrote the poem in iambic pentameter. This, coupled with the steady rhyme scheme, lends a sing-song quality to the poem. While the work is relatively short, like any Yeats poem, it is jam-packed with imagery and other poetic devices.
The first stanza opens the poem, revealing that our speaker is talking directly to his former lover. The first line reads: “When you are old and grey and full of sleep…” From this line, the reader can derive that he is writing this while his lover is still relatively young, but she should read this again when she is an old woman. The speaker has very specific instructions for his lover. Not only should she read the poem when she is “old and grey and full of sleep,” but also when she is “nodding by the fire,” according to the second line. In the third and fourth lines, the speaker tells his former beloved to “…dream of the soft look/Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep…”In conjunction with re-reading the poem, the lover should also remember the beauty she once possessed.
The second stanza is a continuation of the first, and this time, the speaker is reminding his lover of how many people once loved her “moments of glad grace.” This line, the fifth in When You Are Old, utilizes alliteration with “glad grace,” which further adds to the musical rhythm of the work. In the sixth line, the speaker refers directly to his muse’s beauty, writing, “And loved your beauty with love false or true…” He references the fact that many people loved the woman, but some of those people did not truly love her, perhaps only valuing her for her physical beauty. In the next line, the speaker changes tracks, referring to the one man who “loved the pilgrim soul in you,” probably referencing himself. Yeats’ diction here is worth contemplating, and much has been made of the phrase “pilgrim soul.” A pilgrim is one who travels for religious reasons, but it can also mean a person who wanders. Perhaps the speaker is accusing his former beloved as being a restless, fickle person, but he may also be referring to the woman’s constant wonder and intellect, or the fact that he was as devoted to her as a pilgrim is to his religion. However one interprets that line, it is safe to say that the speaker is telling his lover that he loved her to the very depths of her soul. The speaker takes this one step further in the final line of the stanza, telling his lover he also “…loved the sorrows of your changing face,” which means he loved her even when her beauty had started to fade and age.
The speaker then returns to when his lover becomes an old woman, telling her that she will be “…bending down beside the glowing bars,/Murmur, a little sadly, how Love fled…” These first two lines of the third stanza depict the old woman bending closer to the fire, remembering—and regretting–how the love she once had from the speaker ran away. In the tenth line, Yeats utilizes personification by having love flee like a person would. In the last two lines, Yeats writes that after Love fled, he “…paced upon the mountains overhead/And hid his face amid a crowd of stars.” The last line, “And hid his face amid a crowd of stars,” contains very beautiful imagery, as the reader imagines Love hiding between the stars in the heavens. Yeats seems to be telling his lover that while his love for her will always remain, she will be unable to reach it, as one is unable to reach into the heavens and pluck out a star. The tone of the poem changes with this last stanza. While the first two stanzas could be seen as romantic and positive, the loss of the speaker’s love in the third stanza drastically changes the tone, which has become full of regret.
While Yeats did write political poems, this is not one of them. However, it should be noted that Maud Gonne, like Yeats, was seen as a political figure in Ireland. Both were nationalists, and it was this passion, coupled with her undeniable beauty, that made Yeats fall in love with her. Yeats proposed to her numerous times, and each time he was denied. Both went on to marry other people, but the impact Gonne had on Yeats’ work is undeniable. | 1,323 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the spring of 1748, Pope Benedict XIV signed a decree announcing the canonisation of Alberto of Villa d'Ogna. The procedures followed at that time in the Roman Church have with few exceptions remained basically unchanged ever since. Both the procedures and even many of the fundamental concepts of sainthood in play in the 1740s differed in a number of essentials, however, from what they had been back in Alberto's time. Popes were of course involved in making saints but largely in their capacity as bishops, just as other bishops were. The list of saints proclaimed in Western Europe demonstrates clearly that its membership was drawn almost exclusively from the minuscule proportion of the population at the very pinnacle of society: royal families, noble families, and high-ranking ecclesiastical officials. | <urn:uuid:5e4f70be-03c2-4c5e-a5e9-8feceecaeeb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.manchesterhive.com/abstract/9781526101761/9781526101761.00015.xml?rskey=b5PR1s&result=7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.980188 | 158 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.209910959005... | 1 | In the spring of 1748, Pope Benedict XIV signed a decree announcing the canonisation of Alberto of Villa d'Ogna. The procedures followed at that time in the Roman Church have with few exceptions remained basically unchanged ever since. Both the procedures and even many of the fundamental concepts of sainthood in play in the 1740s differed in a number of essentials, however, from what they had been back in Alberto's time. Popes were of course involved in making saints but largely in their capacity as bishops, just as other bishops were. The list of saints proclaimed in Western Europe demonstrates clearly that its membership was drawn almost exclusively from the minuscule proportion of the population at the very pinnacle of society: royal families, noble families, and high-ranking ecclesiastical officials. | 164 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Was Napoleon a dictator? The definition of a dictator is a ruler with total power over a country, typically one who has obtained control by force. The answer to this question is therefore relatively simple, by 1804 Napoleon was crowned Emperor of France and he had obtained this power, initially by force during the Coup of Brumaire. To quote Laurent Joffrin, he was “a dictator who spent all his time dictating”. Napoleon’s methods are ultimately irrelevant, he often gave the impression that his actions were for the good of the people of France but instead he was only aiming to consolidate his own power. Perhaps the most fundamental argument to demonstrate Napoleon as a dictatorship, is the fact that he undermined the revolutionary principles that the revolution was founded upon. Limiting rights such as liberty, free speech and equality are not the actions of a man who wanted to preserve the revolution, they were the actions of a man who was centralising power to establish himself as the ruler, and therefore the dictator.
We can acknowledge the reforms and changes that took place under Napoleon’s leadership, but it would be naive to declare that they were done so with the motives of bettering the country, each action was a calculated move to ensure that his position was safe. While Napoleon’s government appeared somewhat liberal in its application of democracy, this was merely a facade to hide a system of centralised power that stemmed from Napoleon. Whilst the plebiscites employed by Napoleon may initially be seen as a direct form of popular sovereignty, allowing the people to provide judgement on laws, they were hollow and only a tool to provide the appearance of a fair and equal society in which the government values the opinions of the people. The plebiscite on the Constitution of the Year VIII (1799) was marred by actions which violated the principle of liberty. Lucien, Napoleon’s brother frequently altered voting figures to preserve government credibility, by rounding figures up and added more ‘yes’ votes to give the appearance of a high turnout to provide credibility. This severely weakens the initial argument that Napoleon provided popular sovereignty, as it was tainted with unjust intervention to secure his own power. Ultimately, it can be seen that Napoleon operated a dictatorship, he simply used methods such as the plebiscites to give himself the appearance of popular approval. | <urn:uuid:7ab2114d-9e58-46ac-9abf-449b89c31750> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shakespearecomputer.com/was-the-people-the-plebiscite-on-the-constitution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.98537 | 477 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.0314883477985858... | 3 | Was Napoleon a dictator? The definition of a dictator is a ruler with total power over a country, typically one who has obtained control by force. The answer to this question is therefore relatively simple, by 1804 Napoleon was crowned Emperor of France and he had obtained this power, initially by force during the Coup of Brumaire. To quote Laurent Joffrin, he was “a dictator who spent all his time dictating”. Napoleon’s methods are ultimately irrelevant, he often gave the impression that his actions were for the good of the people of France but instead he was only aiming to consolidate his own power. Perhaps the most fundamental argument to demonstrate Napoleon as a dictatorship, is the fact that he undermined the revolutionary principles that the revolution was founded upon. Limiting rights such as liberty, free speech and equality are not the actions of a man who wanted to preserve the revolution, they were the actions of a man who was centralising power to establish himself as the ruler, and therefore the dictator.
We can acknowledge the reforms and changes that took place under Napoleon’s leadership, but it would be naive to declare that they were done so with the motives of bettering the country, each action was a calculated move to ensure that his position was safe. While Napoleon’s government appeared somewhat liberal in its application of democracy, this was merely a facade to hide a system of centralised power that stemmed from Napoleon. Whilst the plebiscites employed by Napoleon may initially be seen as a direct form of popular sovereignty, allowing the people to provide judgement on laws, they were hollow and only a tool to provide the appearance of a fair and equal society in which the government values the opinions of the people. The plebiscite on the Constitution of the Year VIII (1799) was marred by actions which violated the principle of liberty. Lucien, Napoleon’s brother frequently altered voting figures to preserve government credibility, by rounding figures up and added more ‘yes’ votes to give the appearance of a high turnout to provide credibility. This severely weakens the initial argument that Napoleon provided popular sovereignty, as it was tainted with unjust intervention to secure his own power. Ultimately, it can be seen that Napoleon operated a dictatorship, he simply used methods such as the plebiscites to give himself the appearance of popular approval. | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mill on the Floss
The victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria’s rule from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people and calamity for many of its dominion subjects, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.
The era was preceded by the Georgian period and succeeded by the Edwardian period. The latter half of the Victorian era roughly coincided with the first portion of the Belle Epoque era of continental Europe. Nineteenth century Britain saw a massive population increase, leading to increase in Poverty. Victorian literature is the literature written in the UK during Queen Victoria’s reign. This period, inspite of the economic and social difficulties that it faced has produced some of the best known writers and most treasured novels of all time.
A great deal of poetry was also written during the Victorian Era, by Tennyson and Browning and other poets which have also become a legendary asset to literature. Some important Victorian novelists are Emily, charloette and Anne Bronte, George Eliot, Charles dickens, Jane Austen and poets like Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning and Christina Rossetti. During the Victorian era, the woman’s place was considered at home. As the mother, as the wife, as the sister. A woman was essentially a home maker and was not ever considered for education, management or business.
As a result, the intelligence of most women was supressed. There was rigid societal versions of the ideal Victorian women and most women during their upbringing were pushed forcefully into this mould. Those who did not fit were considered ‘unworthy’ and held at a low stand. Society gave no space for a woman to flourish as an individual. There was no emphasis on her individual faults, or gifts. The Victorian woman was looked at through a particular frame. Women were kept away from the Public sphere. The Victorian era, 1837-1901 was seen as the domestic age where a woman’s place was treasured at home.
Queen Victoria came to represent a kind of feminity which was associated with motherhood and respectability. The Victorian woman was never seen as intellectual or professional but as mother, wife and daughter. Where was the woman to express her feelings? Where was she to reflect her opinions? No place in even family judgments was considered for women. It is not that they were all not loved and ill-treated… Many of them lived life in great comfort. But women were never seen as individuals, just as bits of furniture that were arranged and whose main purpose was to look beautiful and add elegance to the environment.
If this purpose was served, the woman held no other importance. Other than the queen, who was the ideal woman? The ideal Victorian woman was one who was completely assigned to the private sphere, she did not know what was going on outside her home and she did not question. She worked her household chores and was presentable and pleasant to the men of the house. She accepted her place in the sexual hierarchy. Her role was that of helpmeet and domestic manager. She was pious and respectable; she had no time for leisure and enjoyment. Her life was devoted to her family, particularly the men.
However, as many romantic fictions show…the woman was not a weak, dumb passive creature. She was upright, busy and responsible towards her family and its development. Even though she was completely separated from the public sphere of politics, business and economics she played an important role at home. The home was seen as the haven from the outside world. It was seen as the escape. The woman created this escape. Without a woman, a home was regarded incomplete. It was the job of the woman to make the home look beautiful and pleasant, as an escape for the man from the ‘hard’ world outside.
Because of a woman’s separation from the public world, she was considered just a function of the home. Her place was solely in the middle of furniture. And not with the real world with men in it. All social privileges were extended to men only and women were given no chance at ‘men’s work’. Women’s clothes began to mirror women’s function. In the 19th century women’s fashions became more sexual – the hips, buttocks and breasts were exaggerated with crinolines, hoopskirts and corsets which nipped in the waist and thrust out the breasts. The female body was dressed to emphasize a woman’s separation from the world of work.
By wearing dresses that resembled their interior furnishings, women became walking symbols of their social function – wife, mother, domestic manager. In the early Victorian era, girls were given education at home. Fashionable subjects that were considered important for a family’s status like french, dancing, singing, the piano were taught. Girls did not go to school, but learnt at home. This again shows how women even while being taught, were not allowed to go outside. This was not to do with any particularly discriminatory practice, women were merely considered as things of beauty.
It was thought that freeing them to go to the outside will damage their beauty and purity. However. By the later part of the century, young girls began to go to school. The victorian era,despite its subjection of female intelligence saw some of the most renowned female authors of the millenium like Geroge Eliot,Elizabeth Browning,Charoleotte Bronte. It also saw the emergence of male writers like Charles dickens. However,the female writers are important because for the first time in Europe an insight into the woman’s mind was provided. The theme of many of these women writers became psychological realism… hich focussed on the troubles and difficuties an average woman living in the Victorian era had to undergo. They projected the inner strife in women,their deprivation of oppurtunities and the subjection of their genius because of their gender. We also got a picture of women’s status in society,her treatment by men and her standing in the political and social structure but most important was the despair of a woman’s mind that went unnoticed in the emerging industrialism and progress in 19th century Europe. Victorian literature is the link between romantic literature and the very different literature that emerged in the 20th century.
A shift to realism was seen, and social issues became a central theme of Victorian writing. THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN VICTORIAN FICTION. Women in victorian novels were often looked at as ‘domestic angels’. Their main function was to preserve the household and its elegant endevour. The women managed the household which gave them a significant role in upholding family status as the house was the hint and reflection of one’s riches and respectability. Respectability in women was judged on the basis of their looks and their manner. For example,In the mill on the floss… Lucy Deane is an ideal victorian woman.
She is ‘fair’,timid,polite,elegant,petite and sophisticated. As refined as her charechter might be she still comes across to the reader as unappealing and uninteresting compared to ‘wild’ and unruly Maggie Tulliver. Many victorian novels show how if a woman did not prescribe to the norms that defined an ideal Victorian female she was thrown into condemnation. Revelling woman protagonists like Maggie Tulliver in Eliot’s Mill on the floss,and Jane Eyre in Bronte’s novel are seen to be sufferrers of such discrimination. Both Maggie and Jane were unique and incridible in their own way,but they were different from what they were supposed to be.
However Maggie’s submission to society is in contrast to Jane’s rebellion and determination to establish herself as an individual rather than just a ‘woman’ or a governess. Women in many victorian novels are seen to be struggling with issues of inner strife and subjection and underestimation by the men or other women of their family. We also see women blessed with intelligence not being able to fulfil her genius because of gender conditions on education. Women’s education was not encouraged because it was feared that their household integrity will disappear if they become exposed to the outside world.
The central task of the domestic angel was to preserve the haven,this was reflected symbolically by the ownership of house keys by the mistress of the house. For example,In Charles Dickens’s Bleak house Esther summerson constantly jiggles her housekeys. The victorian women was blinded from the world outside,but she was the queen of the household. Her task lay in management. Whether be a run down cottage,or an elaborate mansion… her task was as complex. In this paper we study the position of women in Victorian fiction with reference to two novels… Firstly, Geroge eliot’s ‘The mill on the floss’
And secondly, Charles Dicken’s ‘Hard times’ Both the authors though belonging to the same period have varied styles of writing. Eliot focuses more on psychological realism. The Mill on the floss is the story of mainly young ‘Maggie Tulliver’ who is a misfit in the society she is born in and the emotional and physical challenges she goes through in her journey from childhood to womanhood. Dickens writes Hard times about the effect of the industrial revolution on the education system in Nineteenth century England. He condemns the education system which emphasized only on teaching of FACT.
No imagination or fantasy was encouraged. Through his novel, Dickens puts his point forward that educational institutions must aim at recognising people as individuals rather than statistic quantities. Individual personalities and human traits must be developed along with providing children with basic education. He says that it is not enough to be knowledgable… One must know how to be a good and functional human being before posessing the knowledge of the world. ‘The mill on the floss’ was written by George Eliot in 1860.
The novel is centred around the lives of Tom and Maggie Tulliver, a brother and sister born into Dorlcote mill on the river floss next to the town of St. Oggs. The novel spans around 10-15 years and ends with the tragic deaths of both tom and Maggie in a flood that hits Dorlcote mill. The novel is centred around this brother sister relationship and the clashes of personality and ideology between the two. The book highlights Maggie tulliver as an outcast in society for which she is condemned. She is unlike what she is supposed to be.
From her physical appearance to her intellectual desires,she is unaccepted…even by her brother Tom whom she loves unconditionally. The novel reflects the many differences between Tom and Maggie and their undying love despite them. It also portrays Maggie’s journey as an intelligent, worthy but unrecognized individual in Victorian society and her inner struggle between her desires and her loyalty and love to her brother and family. Maggie struggles to keep up with the moral responsibilities of a woman of her time and her romantic and adventurous desires.
The other important charechters in the book are Mr Tulliver-who is the only one who understands Maggie but is unable to keep up with the developments in society which eventually leads to his economic and mental downfall. Mrs Tulliver is seen as a dumb,plain woman who is critical of Maggie for now being ‘like lucy’ and does not recognize her own daughters intelligence and beauty. Mrs Tulliver is a part of the Dodson family. The Dodsons are Eliot’s critique on typical Victorian society and how their views could be stifling and restrictive.
The other important charechters in the novel are Philip Wakem,the genius but hunchback who is hopelessly in love with Maggie and is the only person who Maggie finds solace and comfort with and Stephen Guest,the eligible and charming suitor of Maggie’s cousin Lucy who Maggie is attracted to. However Maggie is not able to fulfil her desire towards Stephen because she is haunted with the ghost moral responsibility and fear of Tom’s complete rejection. Eliot presents Maggie as more imaginative and interesting than the rest of her family and, sympathetically, in need of love.
She is seen to be an imaginative and restless child,not heeding of her mother’s disapproval and open in her dislike towards her rigid and unlivened aunts(the Dodsons). However unlike Maggie,Tom is a product of society. He takes after the Dodsons. Tom is fair and just. He is not helplessly emotional like his sister. Because of this Maggie commits many acts which wrongs her in Tom’s eyes. Tom accuses her of being careless and silly. This despairs young Maggie who wants nothing but for her brother to adore her as she adores him. As they grow from children into adolescence Tom and Maggie become more and more different.
Tom’s hate and disapproval of Philip Wakem and Maggie’s friendship and admiration for him further bridges the gap between brother and sister. Eliot in her novel shows Young Maggie Tulliver, a beautiful worthy young woman. However Maggie has one constraint…she is different. She is not angelic and timid like what she is supposed to be. Maggie represents the minority of Victorian women who thought independently. As a child Maggie is described as ‘animal like’ and her cousin Lucy with her fair skin and blonde hair is admired. Eliot shows the narrow mindedness of society in the Victorian period.
There was a particular notion of a woman and all women were expected to prescribe with that notion. Women like Maggie,who could not,were considered as unruly and looked at with disapproval. Eliot draws the portrait of Victorian society as stereotypical and how life was much easier for those who fit into the stereotype. For those who did’nt, life was difficult and restrictive. Lucy Deane who was an ideal Victorian woman and the most accepted character in The Mill, was emotionally much more stable and at ease than Maggie. Maggie however,had no desire to change herself or ecome like Lucy. The mill shows Maggie’s difficulty at her coming of age,and this is made harder by the fact that she is a girl. The narrow mindedness of society about women is seen as Maggie is condemned on everything she does on the pretext of being a girl. Even tom takes place in the Narrowness of the society of St. Oggs and does not support his sister’s impulse and desires. He feels it his right to keep Maggie ‘in place’ and restrict her from what she wants as an individual. He suppresses Maggie’s confidence and he is seen to have the power to do so.
Tom is the only one who exerts any effective power over Maggie because of her undying love for him, yet he is the one who is unable to understand her. Many remarks and dialougues by charecters in the book which are degrading to women anger the reader. For example when Mr. Stelling pronounces that girls are not intelligent and are silly we are clearly meant to be stirred by this conference. In keeping with the niew of the Victorian woman as incharge of the household,we see Mrs. Tulliver as a perfect embodiment of such qualities.
She is completely unaware of the outside world and has no interest in it. All Mrs Tulliver is concerned about is her children’s look and behaviour. She functions only through her husband and not as her own person. Her name itself is rarely mentioned in the novel. The mill provides a critical overview of the middle class women in Victorian society. The Dodson family to which Mrs. Tulliver belongs represents the cream of society in St. Oggs. The Dodson sisters pride themselves on their looks and elegance and consider themselves to be above ‘ordinary’ and plain people like the Tullivers.
They are often disapproving of Mrs. Tullivers marriage into the Tulliver family but do not completely demean or disown her. The dodsons come across to the reader as shallow and narrow minded. They do not hold any element of appeal and excitement to the reader as Maggie or even Philip Wakem does. The dodsons represent the majority of society who held rigid basis of social acceptance and non acceptance. They viewed one not as the person they were,but from the view of the family they belonged to, or their way of speaking or dressing.
They are critical of Maggie for not behaving like a woman and constantly tell her mother that there is a fault in their upbringing. The novel also shows how the town’s females are revealed as the most self serving and shallow of the entire population. Gossip is a favourite amongst the women of St. Oggs and as they condemn Maggie for being immoral and reckless, they are taking pleasure out of talking about it. As fellow women, instead of understanding and sympathizing with Maggie’s problems and distress as a young woman new to the social and emotional aspects of womanhood, they outcast and criticize her.
When Maggie seperates ways with Stephen the town automatically assumes that it must have been the man who had broken off the relationship. There is no space here for the woman to explain her part of the story. Maggie is deeply reprimanded whereas Stephen on the other hand does not go through any social dilemma. Throughout the novel we see Maggie as renouncing everything she desires. She gives up her desire for companionship with Philip, for music, for a romantic life with Stephen. Many critics have called Maggie the ‘queen of renunciation.
Feminist critics are upset with the ending and see it as an escapist tendency by the author. But by reflecting Maggie’s sacrifices Eliot is trying to highlight the fact that an average Victorian woman had very restricted on even her life and her decisions. Maggie was so restricted by the moral duty that had been instilled into her that she thought it wrong to do as she desires. Morality completely took over the lives of Victorian women. It was an instilled sense of morality by the society of the time. Women often did not do as they desired because they feared it to be wrong and incorrect.
Eliot unlike her heroine in the Mill on the floss was however not one bowed down by a sense of morality. She strived to fulfil what she desired and her relationship with already married George Henry lewes got her much social criticism. Through her novel Eliot also shows that for Maggie heroism lies in sacrifice, in renunciation. This evokes several questions in the mind of the reader. Why did Maggie not have the right to marry the one she loves? Why did she have to constantly give up everything? From the starting Maggie is seen as a strong and interesting individual but also as a victim of society.
Her unconditional love for her brother, who is a part and product of society restricts her from many emotional and physical endevours. The novel shows Maggie as a woman ahead of her times, she is intelligent, witty and appealing. It tries to show that there is no place for a strong woman in Victorian society because of its dominantly patriarchal nature. Women were evolving from just being things of beauty to substantial and capable human beings. Society however, did not see this as progress but as a disturbance to the comfortable traditional postion of women as guardians of the household.
It was very difficult for women like Maggie in St. Oggs and George eliot in 19th century England to flourish and develop as intellectuals and functional members of society. Another theme that is used in the novel is the one of dark and light women. Maggie’s dark complexion is often compared to Lucy’s fair one and there is a reference in which Maggie states how fair women take all the happiness and there is none left for ‘dark’ women like herself. This emphasizes again, the Victorian stereotype. Lucy fit perfectly into the stereotype…so she got what she desired.
But Maggie who was wild and dark and unruly was not entitled to happiness and was considered unworthy of the same treatment as Lucy. Ironically, it is ‘dark’ Maggie who with her dark eyes,hair and skin wins over Stephen Guest who is originally meant for Lucy. Through her novel the mill on the floss which is a journey of a young woman and an insight into her mind and heart Eliot presents before us Maggie tulliver, who with all her quirks and flaws comes across as more of a genuine individual than any other character in the novel. The position of women in 19th century England is well represented through Maggie’s experiences and adventures.
Their restriction and emotional and intellectual subjection can be seen through Maggie’s search for freedom, belonging and love in the book. The second novel with reference to which we study Victorian women is Hard times by Charles Dickens. Hard Times- For These Times. is a novel by Charles Dickens, first published in 1854. The book is a state-of-the-nation novel, which aimed to highlight the social and economic pressures that some people were experiencing The main theme of the book is the emphasis on fact. Dickens condemns the school of thought that propogated fact as a suitable form of education.
Hard Times suggests that nineteenth-century England’s overzealous adoption of industrialization threatens to turn human beings into machines by thwarting the development of their emotions and imaginations. The novel is placed in a fictional location called Coketown which is said to be based on the English towns of Manchester and Preston. Hard time’s view of women is very different from that of The mill on the floss. As a writer,Dickens is not concerned with the psychological working of a woman’s mind but shows her place in the social foundations of the time.
Unlike Eliot, he does not show the readers the developing emotions and challenges in a woman’s mind and heart but he describes their place as wife, mother, daughter , sister. Most importantly,he also portrays the woman to be a refuge from the monotony and mechanization of everyday life. The main female charechters in Hard times are Louisa Gradgrind and Sissy jupe. With these two characters Dickens categorises two methods of upbringing and two schools of thought. Louisa’s father Mr. Grandgrind, is the man who has established the educational institution in Coketown.
Gradgrind is not seen as an evil man, but he lives by the philosophy of fact. He stands for abolishment of fancy and imagination and lives in absolute terms. He brings up his children on this philosophy of fact. In the novel, Sissy jupe and Racheal identify the ideal victorian woman. They embody the qualities of kindness, gentleness, virtue , sensitivity and compassion. The idea of women as a refuge or a haven from the ‘Hard times’ is prevelant in this novel. We see how Stephen Blackpool after suffering much experiences happiness in his moments spent with his beloved Rachael.
For Stephen, Rachel is comfort and solace. Her endless kindness and compassion portrays her to be almost angelic. Like Rachael, Sissy too embodies everything that a Victorian woman should stand for. Though her role in the book is not as major as that of Louisa, Sissy is seen as the solution. She is the one who puts an end to the distress and suffering of all the characters. Sissy is kind, she is gentle and she is also sensible. Louisa because of her upbringing is unable to adhere to the qualities of an ideal Victorian woman but she too is a good wife, mother and daughter.
Her unhappy marriage to Bounderby shows that in front of rich powerful men, young desirable woman did not hold a say. Dickens representation of the woman as beautiful and tender is very different from the representation of the woman by Eliot in whose novel the woman occupies the more relevant and active part of the novel. During the Victorian era, women were commonly associated with supposedly feminine traits like compassion, moral purity, and emotional sensitivity. Hard times suggests that these qualities of women could help counteract the negative effects of mechanization and industrialization.
Through the various female characters in the novel, Dickens suggests that feminine compassion is necessary to restore social harmony. We have studied Victorian women in reference to two novels. The mill on the floss and The Hard times. Both novels present a diverse view of women because of the ideology, gender and perspective of the authors. The first novel outlines the suffering of a young woman who could not fit into the stereotype of a perfect Victorian female and the second outlines the role of these perfect women in making the world a better place. | <urn:uuid:854b3703-e774-48a3-bc3e-572f76a09bca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-mill-on-the-floss-76444 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.980908 | 5,194 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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The victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria’s rule from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people and calamity for many of its dominion subjects, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.
The era was preceded by the Georgian period and succeeded by the Edwardian period. The latter half of the Victorian era roughly coincided with the first portion of the Belle Epoque era of continental Europe. Nineteenth century Britain saw a massive population increase, leading to increase in Poverty. Victorian literature is the literature written in the UK during Queen Victoria’s reign. This period, inspite of the economic and social difficulties that it faced has produced some of the best known writers and most treasured novels of all time.
A great deal of poetry was also written during the Victorian Era, by Tennyson and Browning and other poets which have also become a legendary asset to literature. Some important Victorian novelists are Emily, charloette and Anne Bronte, George Eliot, Charles dickens, Jane Austen and poets like Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning and Christina Rossetti. During the Victorian era, the woman’s place was considered at home. As the mother, as the wife, as the sister. A woman was essentially a home maker and was not ever considered for education, management or business.
As a result, the intelligence of most women was supressed. There was rigid societal versions of the ideal Victorian women and most women during their upbringing were pushed forcefully into this mould. Those who did not fit were considered ‘unworthy’ and held at a low stand. Society gave no space for a woman to flourish as an individual. There was no emphasis on her individual faults, or gifts. The Victorian woman was looked at through a particular frame. Women were kept away from the Public sphere. The Victorian era, 1837-1901 was seen as the domestic age where a woman’s place was treasured at home.
Queen Victoria came to represent a kind of feminity which was associated with motherhood and respectability. The Victorian woman was never seen as intellectual or professional but as mother, wife and daughter. Where was the woman to express her feelings? Where was she to reflect her opinions? No place in even family judgments was considered for women. It is not that they were all not loved and ill-treated… Many of them lived life in great comfort. But women were never seen as individuals, just as bits of furniture that were arranged and whose main purpose was to look beautiful and add elegance to the environment.
If this purpose was served, the woman held no other importance. Other than the queen, who was the ideal woman? The ideal Victorian woman was one who was completely assigned to the private sphere, she did not know what was going on outside her home and she did not question. She worked her household chores and was presentable and pleasant to the men of the house. She accepted her place in the sexual hierarchy. Her role was that of helpmeet and domestic manager. She was pious and respectable; she had no time for leisure and enjoyment. Her life was devoted to her family, particularly the men.
However, as many romantic fictions show…the woman was not a weak, dumb passive creature. She was upright, busy and responsible towards her family and its development. Even though she was completely separated from the public sphere of politics, business and economics she played an important role at home. The home was seen as the haven from the outside world. It was seen as the escape. The woman created this escape. Without a woman, a home was regarded incomplete. It was the job of the woman to make the home look beautiful and pleasant, as an escape for the man from the ‘hard’ world outside.
Because of a woman’s separation from the public world, she was considered just a function of the home. Her place was solely in the middle of furniture. And not with the real world with men in it. All social privileges were extended to men only and women were given no chance at ‘men’s work’. Women’s clothes began to mirror women’s function. In the 19th century women’s fashions became more sexual – the hips, buttocks and breasts were exaggerated with crinolines, hoopskirts and corsets which nipped in the waist and thrust out the breasts. The female body was dressed to emphasize a woman’s separation from the world of work.
By wearing dresses that resembled their interior furnishings, women became walking symbols of their social function – wife, mother, domestic manager. In the early Victorian era, girls were given education at home. Fashionable subjects that were considered important for a family’s status like french, dancing, singing, the piano were taught. Girls did not go to school, but learnt at home. This again shows how women even while being taught, were not allowed to go outside. This was not to do with any particularly discriminatory practice, women were merely considered as things of beauty.
It was thought that freeing them to go to the outside will damage their beauty and purity. However. By the later part of the century, young girls began to go to school. The victorian era,despite its subjection of female intelligence saw some of the most renowned female authors of the millenium like Geroge Eliot,Elizabeth Browning,Charoleotte Bronte. It also saw the emergence of male writers like Charles dickens. However,the female writers are important because for the first time in Europe an insight into the woman’s mind was provided. The theme of many of these women writers became psychological realism… hich focussed on the troubles and difficuties an average woman living in the Victorian era had to undergo. They projected the inner strife in women,their deprivation of oppurtunities and the subjection of their genius because of their gender. We also got a picture of women’s status in society,her treatment by men and her standing in the political and social structure but most important was the despair of a woman’s mind that went unnoticed in the emerging industrialism and progress in 19th century Europe. Victorian literature is the link between romantic literature and the very different literature that emerged in the 20th century.
A shift to realism was seen, and social issues became a central theme of Victorian writing. THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN VICTORIAN FICTION. Women in victorian novels were often looked at as ‘domestic angels’. Their main function was to preserve the household and its elegant endevour. The women managed the household which gave them a significant role in upholding family status as the house was the hint and reflection of one’s riches and respectability. Respectability in women was judged on the basis of their looks and their manner. For example,In the mill on the floss… Lucy Deane is an ideal victorian woman.
She is ‘fair’,timid,polite,elegant,petite and sophisticated. As refined as her charechter might be she still comes across to the reader as unappealing and uninteresting compared to ‘wild’ and unruly Maggie Tulliver. Many victorian novels show how if a woman did not prescribe to the norms that defined an ideal Victorian female she was thrown into condemnation. Revelling woman protagonists like Maggie Tulliver in Eliot’s Mill on the floss,and Jane Eyre in Bronte’s novel are seen to be sufferrers of such discrimination. Both Maggie and Jane were unique and incridible in their own way,but they were different from what they were supposed to be.
However Maggie’s submission to society is in contrast to Jane’s rebellion and determination to establish herself as an individual rather than just a ‘woman’ or a governess. Women in many victorian novels are seen to be struggling with issues of inner strife and subjection and underestimation by the men or other women of their family. We also see women blessed with intelligence not being able to fulfil her genius because of gender conditions on education. Women’s education was not encouraged because it was feared that their household integrity will disappear if they become exposed to the outside world.
The central task of the domestic angel was to preserve the haven,this was reflected symbolically by the ownership of house keys by the mistress of the house. For example,In Charles Dickens’s Bleak house Esther summerson constantly jiggles her housekeys. The victorian women was blinded from the world outside,but she was the queen of the household. Her task lay in management. Whether be a run down cottage,or an elaborate mansion… her task was as complex. In this paper we study the position of women in Victorian fiction with reference to two novels… Firstly, Geroge eliot’s ‘The mill on the floss’
And secondly, Charles Dicken’s ‘Hard times’ Both the authors though belonging to the same period have varied styles of writing. Eliot focuses more on psychological realism. The Mill on the floss is the story of mainly young ‘Maggie Tulliver’ who is a misfit in the society she is born in and the emotional and physical challenges she goes through in her journey from childhood to womanhood. Dickens writes Hard times about the effect of the industrial revolution on the education system in Nineteenth century England. He condemns the education system which emphasized only on teaching of FACT.
No imagination or fantasy was encouraged. Through his novel, Dickens puts his point forward that educational institutions must aim at recognising people as individuals rather than statistic quantities. Individual personalities and human traits must be developed along with providing children with basic education. He says that it is not enough to be knowledgable… One must know how to be a good and functional human being before posessing the knowledge of the world. ‘The mill on the floss’ was written by George Eliot in 1860.
The novel is centred around the lives of Tom and Maggie Tulliver, a brother and sister born into Dorlcote mill on the river floss next to the town of St. Oggs. The novel spans around 10-15 years and ends with the tragic deaths of both tom and Maggie in a flood that hits Dorlcote mill. The novel is centred around this brother sister relationship and the clashes of personality and ideology between the two. The book highlights Maggie tulliver as an outcast in society for which she is condemned. She is unlike what she is supposed to be.
From her physical appearance to her intellectual desires,she is unaccepted…even by her brother Tom whom she loves unconditionally. The novel reflects the many differences between Tom and Maggie and their undying love despite them. It also portrays Maggie’s journey as an intelligent, worthy but unrecognized individual in Victorian society and her inner struggle between her desires and her loyalty and love to her brother and family. Maggie struggles to keep up with the moral responsibilities of a woman of her time and her romantic and adventurous desires.
The other important charechters in the book are Mr Tulliver-who is the only one who understands Maggie but is unable to keep up with the developments in society which eventually leads to his economic and mental downfall. Mrs Tulliver is seen as a dumb,plain woman who is critical of Maggie for now being ‘like lucy’ and does not recognize her own daughters intelligence and beauty. Mrs Tulliver is a part of the Dodson family. The Dodsons are Eliot’s critique on typical Victorian society and how their views could be stifling and restrictive.
The other important charechters in the novel are Philip Wakem,the genius but hunchback who is hopelessly in love with Maggie and is the only person who Maggie finds solace and comfort with and Stephen Guest,the eligible and charming suitor of Maggie’s cousin Lucy who Maggie is attracted to. However Maggie is not able to fulfil her desire towards Stephen because she is haunted with the ghost moral responsibility and fear of Tom’s complete rejection. Eliot presents Maggie as more imaginative and interesting than the rest of her family and, sympathetically, in need of love.
She is seen to be an imaginative and restless child,not heeding of her mother’s disapproval and open in her dislike towards her rigid and unlivened aunts(the Dodsons). However unlike Maggie,Tom is a product of society. He takes after the Dodsons. Tom is fair and just. He is not helplessly emotional like his sister. Because of this Maggie commits many acts which wrongs her in Tom’s eyes. Tom accuses her of being careless and silly. This despairs young Maggie who wants nothing but for her brother to adore her as she adores him. As they grow from children into adolescence Tom and Maggie become more and more different.
Tom’s hate and disapproval of Philip Wakem and Maggie’s friendship and admiration for him further bridges the gap between brother and sister. Eliot in her novel shows Young Maggie Tulliver, a beautiful worthy young woman. However Maggie has one constraint…she is different. She is not angelic and timid like what she is supposed to be. Maggie represents the minority of Victorian women who thought independently. As a child Maggie is described as ‘animal like’ and her cousin Lucy with her fair skin and blonde hair is admired. Eliot shows the narrow mindedness of society in the Victorian period.
There was a particular notion of a woman and all women were expected to prescribe with that notion. Women like Maggie,who could not,were considered as unruly and looked at with disapproval. Eliot draws the portrait of Victorian society as stereotypical and how life was much easier for those who fit into the stereotype. For those who did’nt, life was difficult and restrictive. Lucy Deane who was an ideal Victorian woman and the most accepted character in The Mill, was emotionally much more stable and at ease than Maggie. Maggie however,had no desire to change herself or ecome like Lucy. The mill shows Maggie’s difficulty at her coming of age,and this is made harder by the fact that she is a girl. The narrow mindedness of society about women is seen as Maggie is condemned on everything she does on the pretext of being a girl. Even tom takes place in the Narrowness of the society of St. Oggs and does not support his sister’s impulse and desires. He feels it his right to keep Maggie ‘in place’ and restrict her from what she wants as an individual. He suppresses Maggie’s confidence and he is seen to have the power to do so.
Tom is the only one who exerts any effective power over Maggie because of her undying love for him, yet he is the one who is unable to understand her. Many remarks and dialougues by charecters in the book which are degrading to women anger the reader. For example when Mr. Stelling pronounces that girls are not intelligent and are silly we are clearly meant to be stirred by this conference. In keeping with the niew of the Victorian woman as incharge of the household,we see Mrs. Tulliver as a perfect embodiment of such qualities.
She is completely unaware of the outside world and has no interest in it. All Mrs Tulliver is concerned about is her children’s look and behaviour. She functions only through her husband and not as her own person. Her name itself is rarely mentioned in the novel. The mill provides a critical overview of the middle class women in Victorian society. The Dodson family to which Mrs. Tulliver belongs represents the cream of society in St. Oggs. The Dodson sisters pride themselves on their looks and elegance and consider themselves to be above ‘ordinary’ and plain people like the Tullivers.
They are often disapproving of Mrs. Tullivers marriage into the Tulliver family but do not completely demean or disown her. The dodsons come across to the reader as shallow and narrow minded. They do not hold any element of appeal and excitement to the reader as Maggie or even Philip Wakem does. The dodsons represent the majority of society who held rigid basis of social acceptance and non acceptance. They viewed one not as the person they were,but from the view of the family they belonged to, or their way of speaking or dressing.
They are critical of Maggie for not behaving like a woman and constantly tell her mother that there is a fault in their upbringing. The novel also shows how the town’s females are revealed as the most self serving and shallow of the entire population. Gossip is a favourite amongst the women of St. Oggs and as they condemn Maggie for being immoral and reckless, they are taking pleasure out of talking about it. As fellow women, instead of understanding and sympathizing with Maggie’s problems and distress as a young woman new to the social and emotional aspects of womanhood, they outcast and criticize her.
When Maggie seperates ways with Stephen the town automatically assumes that it must have been the man who had broken off the relationship. There is no space here for the woman to explain her part of the story. Maggie is deeply reprimanded whereas Stephen on the other hand does not go through any social dilemma. Throughout the novel we see Maggie as renouncing everything she desires. She gives up her desire for companionship with Philip, for music, for a romantic life with Stephen. Many critics have called Maggie the ‘queen of renunciation.
Feminist critics are upset with the ending and see it as an escapist tendency by the author. But by reflecting Maggie’s sacrifices Eliot is trying to highlight the fact that an average Victorian woman had very restricted on even her life and her decisions. Maggie was so restricted by the moral duty that had been instilled into her that she thought it wrong to do as she desires. Morality completely took over the lives of Victorian women. It was an instilled sense of morality by the society of the time. Women often did not do as they desired because they feared it to be wrong and incorrect.
Eliot unlike her heroine in the Mill on the floss was however not one bowed down by a sense of morality. She strived to fulfil what she desired and her relationship with already married George Henry lewes got her much social criticism. Through her novel Eliot also shows that for Maggie heroism lies in sacrifice, in renunciation. This evokes several questions in the mind of the reader. Why did Maggie not have the right to marry the one she loves? Why did she have to constantly give up everything? From the starting Maggie is seen as a strong and interesting individual but also as a victim of society.
Her unconditional love for her brother, who is a part and product of society restricts her from many emotional and physical endevours. The novel shows Maggie as a woman ahead of her times, she is intelligent, witty and appealing. It tries to show that there is no place for a strong woman in Victorian society because of its dominantly patriarchal nature. Women were evolving from just being things of beauty to substantial and capable human beings. Society however, did not see this as progress but as a disturbance to the comfortable traditional postion of women as guardians of the household.
It was very difficult for women like Maggie in St. Oggs and George eliot in 19th century England to flourish and develop as intellectuals and functional members of society. Another theme that is used in the novel is the one of dark and light women. Maggie’s dark complexion is often compared to Lucy’s fair one and there is a reference in which Maggie states how fair women take all the happiness and there is none left for ‘dark’ women like herself. This emphasizes again, the Victorian stereotype. Lucy fit perfectly into the stereotype…so she got what she desired.
But Maggie who was wild and dark and unruly was not entitled to happiness and was considered unworthy of the same treatment as Lucy. Ironically, it is ‘dark’ Maggie who with her dark eyes,hair and skin wins over Stephen Guest who is originally meant for Lucy. Through her novel the mill on the floss which is a journey of a young woman and an insight into her mind and heart Eliot presents before us Maggie tulliver, who with all her quirks and flaws comes across as more of a genuine individual than any other character in the novel. The position of women in 19th century England is well represented through Maggie’s experiences and adventures.
Their restriction and emotional and intellectual subjection can be seen through Maggie’s search for freedom, belonging and love in the book. The second novel with reference to which we study Victorian women is Hard times by Charles Dickens. Hard Times- For These Times. is a novel by Charles Dickens, first published in 1854. The book is a state-of-the-nation novel, which aimed to highlight the social and economic pressures that some people were experiencing The main theme of the book is the emphasis on fact. Dickens condemns the school of thought that propogated fact as a suitable form of education.
Hard Times suggests that nineteenth-century England’s overzealous adoption of industrialization threatens to turn human beings into machines by thwarting the development of their emotions and imaginations. The novel is placed in a fictional location called Coketown which is said to be based on the English towns of Manchester and Preston. Hard time’s view of women is very different from that of The mill on the floss. As a writer,Dickens is not concerned with the psychological working of a woman’s mind but shows her place in the social foundations of the time.
Unlike Eliot, he does not show the readers the developing emotions and challenges in a woman’s mind and heart but he describes their place as wife, mother, daughter , sister. Most importantly,he also portrays the woman to be a refuge from the monotony and mechanization of everyday life. The main female charechters in Hard times are Louisa Gradgrind and Sissy jupe. With these two characters Dickens categorises two methods of upbringing and two schools of thought. Louisa’s father Mr. Grandgrind, is the man who has established the educational institution in Coketown.
Gradgrind is not seen as an evil man, but he lives by the philosophy of fact. He stands for abolishment of fancy and imagination and lives in absolute terms. He brings up his children on this philosophy of fact. In the novel, Sissy jupe and Racheal identify the ideal victorian woman. They embody the qualities of kindness, gentleness, virtue , sensitivity and compassion. The idea of women as a refuge or a haven from the ‘Hard times’ is prevelant in this novel. We see how Stephen Blackpool after suffering much experiences happiness in his moments spent with his beloved Rachael.
For Stephen, Rachel is comfort and solace. Her endless kindness and compassion portrays her to be almost angelic. Like Rachael, Sissy too embodies everything that a Victorian woman should stand for. Though her role in the book is not as major as that of Louisa, Sissy is seen as the solution. She is the one who puts an end to the distress and suffering of all the characters. Sissy is kind, she is gentle and she is also sensible. Louisa because of her upbringing is unable to adhere to the qualities of an ideal Victorian woman but she too is a good wife, mother and daughter.
Her unhappy marriage to Bounderby shows that in front of rich powerful men, young desirable woman did not hold a say. Dickens representation of the woman as beautiful and tender is very different from the representation of the woman by Eliot in whose novel the woman occupies the more relevant and active part of the novel. During the Victorian era, women were commonly associated with supposedly feminine traits like compassion, moral purity, and emotional sensitivity. Hard times suggests that these qualities of women could help counteract the negative effects of mechanization and industrialization.
Through the various female characters in the novel, Dickens suggests that feminine compassion is necessary to restore social harmony. We have studied Victorian women in reference to two novels. The mill on the floss and The Hard times. Both novels present a diverse view of women because of the ideology, gender and perspective of the authors. The first novel outlines the suffering of a young woman who could not fit into the stereotype of a perfect Victorian female and the second outlines the role of these perfect women in making the world a better place. | 5,054 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With Independence Day coming up, we often hear people talk about the Founding Fathers. That’s what we call the men (and because of gender roles at that time, they were all men) who served on the Continental Congress that declared independence from England in 1776 and the men who eleven years later were delegates to the convention that wrote the Constitution of the United States.
Many of them are familiar names, like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison. Others are less well-known, like Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, Charles and C.C. Pinckney, John Dickinson, and Button Gwinnett.
After all these years, many people think of them as one group who shared common ideas and one way of thinking about government, as if the words of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States came to them magically, without disagreement, and unrevised, as they all nodded their heads sagely in accord.
But really, that’s not how it was at all.
For one thing, the Founders didn’t think of themselves as all citizens of the same country. Up until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 there was no “United States.” People thought of themselves as citizens of their own state, so they were citizens of Massachusetts, or citizens of New York, or citizens of Virginia. Each state had its own government, its own laws, its own citizen army called a militia, even its own type of money. The idea of being citizens of one nation – the United States of America – was new to them, and even after the Constitution was written in 1787 not everyone was happy about the idea of having a central, national government.
For another, the people of the different states – including and, in some cases, especially the Founding Fathers -- really weren’t united about much of anything. When it came to declaring independence from England, for example, some people called “patriots” were all in favor of breaking free and establishing their own country. But some people, called “loyalists” still saw themselves as British subjects and wanted to stay that way. In between was a large group of people who weren’t sure whether to stay or go. They liked the idea of having their own government and not having to pay so much in taxes to England, but they also liked the idea of doing business with England and having protection from the powerful British army and navy, and were fearful about giving up those benefits. John Adams complained about all the “nibbling and quibbling” in the Continental Congress in the debates leading up to independence and how difficult it was to get all “13 clocks to strike as one.”
The Founders also had many personal differences. Those who lived in small states were afraid that big states with large populations would become too powerful. Those who lived in big states were afraid of giving too much power to the small states, which outnumbered them. Those who were planters and farmers wanted laws and taxes that favored them. Those who were merchants or manufacturers wanted laws and taxes that favored them. Those from the North disagreed with those from the South over slavery and other matters. And some people from some states just didn’t like each other. Some thought New Englanders were pushy; some thought Virginians were arrogant.
So with all of those disagreements, it is a wonder that the Founders were able to agree on two huge, history-making decisions: Declaring independence and uniting thirteen separate states into one nation under the Constitution.
How did they do it? Compromise. For all of their disagreements, most of the Founders shared a couple of important ideas in common – self-government, the belief that people had a right to choose their own form of government and who would lead that government; and unity, the belief that the thirteen states would be stronger, safer, and more prosperous if they acted as one nation, protected each other, did business with each other, and had shared laws and currency.
So the Founders compromised. They made deals so that each of the different points of view got some of what they wanted, but not everything, and so that each side had to give up a little to get what most of them ultimately wanted: An independent, self-governed, United States of America.
I think about the Founders a lot, and especially when I hear someone say things like “The Founders are rolling over in their graves because of . . . .”
I hate when people say that. For one thing, the Founders have been dead for 200 years. No one alive now knows what they would be thinking today. Times have changed. Circumstances have changes.
But mostly, I hate when people say that because “the Founders” represented so many different people from so many different places with so many different ideas about government and business and individual rights. There are very few universally prescribed and adhered to positions that one can say with certainly collectively reflect what the Founders thought.
Except perhaps for compromise for the sake of the public good. Most of the Founders believed, as Franklin said upon the signing of the Declaration of Independence, that “We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately.” So they looked for common ground and made compromises and worked together so that, in the end, they would stay together.
That’s what I think the Founders would want to remind us as we prepare to celebrate the 240th birthday of the United States of America. | <urn:uuid:ccb630cd-1ca7-4fd5-a7a0-adbde1ea63cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sylsobel.com/single-post/2016/06/28/What-Would-the-Founding-Fathers-Do | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.986982 | 1,148 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.068919137120246... | 4 | With Independence Day coming up, we often hear people talk about the Founding Fathers. That’s what we call the men (and because of gender roles at that time, they were all men) who served on the Continental Congress that declared independence from England in 1776 and the men who eleven years later were delegates to the convention that wrote the Constitution of the United States.
Many of them are familiar names, like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison. Others are less well-known, like Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, Charles and C.C. Pinckney, John Dickinson, and Button Gwinnett.
After all these years, many people think of them as one group who shared common ideas and one way of thinking about government, as if the words of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States came to them magically, without disagreement, and unrevised, as they all nodded their heads sagely in accord.
But really, that’s not how it was at all.
For one thing, the Founders didn’t think of themselves as all citizens of the same country. Up until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 there was no “United States.” People thought of themselves as citizens of their own state, so they were citizens of Massachusetts, or citizens of New York, or citizens of Virginia. Each state had its own government, its own laws, its own citizen army called a militia, even its own type of money. The idea of being citizens of one nation – the United States of America – was new to them, and even after the Constitution was written in 1787 not everyone was happy about the idea of having a central, national government.
For another, the people of the different states – including and, in some cases, especially the Founding Fathers -- really weren’t united about much of anything. When it came to declaring independence from England, for example, some people called “patriots” were all in favor of breaking free and establishing their own country. But some people, called “loyalists” still saw themselves as British subjects and wanted to stay that way. In between was a large group of people who weren’t sure whether to stay or go. They liked the idea of having their own government and not having to pay so much in taxes to England, but they also liked the idea of doing business with England and having protection from the powerful British army and navy, and were fearful about giving up those benefits. John Adams complained about all the “nibbling and quibbling” in the Continental Congress in the debates leading up to independence and how difficult it was to get all “13 clocks to strike as one.”
The Founders also had many personal differences. Those who lived in small states were afraid that big states with large populations would become too powerful. Those who lived in big states were afraid of giving too much power to the small states, which outnumbered them. Those who were planters and farmers wanted laws and taxes that favored them. Those who were merchants or manufacturers wanted laws and taxes that favored them. Those from the North disagreed with those from the South over slavery and other matters. And some people from some states just didn’t like each other. Some thought New Englanders were pushy; some thought Virginians were arrogant.
So with all of those disagreements, it is a wonder that the Founders were able to agree on two huge, history-making decisions: Declaring independence and uniting thirteen separate states into one nation under the Constitution.
How did they do it? Compromise. For all of their disagreements, most of the Founders shared a couple of important ideas in common – self-government, the belief that people had a right to choose their own form of government and who would lead that government; and unity, the belief that the thirteen states would be stronger, safer, and more prosperous if they acted as one nation, protected each other, did business with each other, and had shared laws and currency.
So the Founders compromised. They made deals so that each of the different points of view got some of what they wanted, but not everything, and so that each side had to give up a little to get what most of them ultimately wanted: An independent, self-governed, United States of America.
I think about the Founders a lot, and especially when I hear someone say things like “The Founders are rolling over in their graves because of . . . .”
I hate when people say that. For one thing, the Founders have been dead for 200 years. No one alive now knows what they would be thinking today. Times have changed. Circumstances have changes.
But mostly, I hate when people say that because “the Founders” represented so many different people from so many different places with so many different ideas about government and business and individual rights. There are very few universally prescribed and adhered to positions that one can say with certainly collectively reflect what the Founders thought.
Except perhaps for compromise for the sake of the public good. Most of the Founders believed, as Franklin said upon the signing of the Declaration of Independence, that “We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately.” So they looked for common ground and made compromises and worked together so that, in the end, they would stay together.
That’s what I think the Founders would want to remind us as we prepare to celebrate the 240th birthday of the United States of America. | 1,127 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The West to many Americans at the time was a land of adventure, opportunity, freedom, and individualism. It was an untamed land waiting to be settled by optimistic Americans hoping to create a new civilization in this previously unexplored part of the country. However, when Americans moving in from the East got there, they would see that the land was already populated by a variety of different peoples who had long since settled the region. This included Hispanics and Native Americans (or Indians). Since Europeans settled America, the image of uncharted territory to the west had always inspired those who were looking to start a new life. The works of writers and painters such as Mark Twain, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and Owen Wister helped romanticize the West. The cowboy became an American icon, a man free from traditional social constraints and an affinity for nature. Though these works of fiction were just that, fiction, the image of the Wild West still persists today in popular culture, a land of adventure and freedom, where each person is his or her own. The South and West differed quite a bit. The South was still recovering in the aftermath of the Civil War, and the Southern economy was struggling compared to its Northern counterpart. Even though slaves were freed, the South still did everything in its power to restrain freed slaves from equal rights. The West however was disconnected from those issues, and blacks and whites alike flocked to the West in search of a better life for themselves. There was still much to discover such as the mines and grassland where miners and farmers/ranchers could prosper. 2There was a plethora of factors that aided in the settlement of the west such as the balancing of the economy, The National Policy. These new tarrifs were put in place to protect and promote, while others expected it to create a national market. High hopes of the tariffs also included growth in the East West transcontinental union. Following the war of 1812 there was a migration of white settlers. These settlers were migrating into the Old West and the far west. During this time period the American population doubled and almost three decades later, the majority of the people lived west. The unsettled west held such a strong romantic appeal for many Americans because it put them in a state of fear and mystery due to the fact that it was unsettled, untamed land. They romanticized the unsettling because moving to the west meant riches. By moving to the west, people believed due to the amount of gold, they would become rich. A myriad of settlers were in desperation of a better life, a better living, and more money. Friends and family members that previously moved West, had a large impact on those that stayed behind. They began sending letters about their phenomenal lives, the great change, and about their “good lives” out on the west. Their families persuasion plus their desire to purchase land continuously pulled pioneers in more and more as the days went on. Nonetheless. those that moved or wished to move wanted better lives and more money3Some of the factors that contributed to the settlement was hope for better opportunities, and a new labor force. Cattle business turned out major profits, and ranchers and others knew that would continue the future. Due to the fact of the West having a better climate, there were none of the diseases there that they had in the East such as pleuro-pneumonia. The mining business also began to boom due to the demands of gold, and silver in the East. As well for copper,zinc, and quartz. It held a strong romantic appeal for many Americans because they all saw to as a way to start over, and reinvent themselves, they all assumed that the West was just a desert, and uninhabited when in reality it was the opposite. Many Americans also idealized the idea of the cowboy that was portrayed on television, and the idea of not having to live within the mens of hat society has to say. The romantic vision was been sought pop culture because since everyone was gong to West with these hopes and dreams, everyone else decided to follow along, even if they didn’t have the means too. The West differed from the East in some ways, with one major difference being how multiracial it was. There were people there from all over who worked together to make their lives better, whereas in the East the labor force and most things were controlled by whites. The two regions also differed because instead of fighting with Americans over slavery, they fought against those of other races for land and power.4he western frontier has been, and remains, such a powerful influence on American culture and memory that it is important to recall that much of this memory was shaped from romantic myths and seldom-realized ideals. For some, the West was a land of adventure, and there were examples of brave and courageous people who took up a rugged life in hopes of a better future. But the land that was new to thousands of migrants on the overland trails was far from empty and unknown. Major portions of the American West had long been populated by Indians, Spanish, and Mexicans. And the post–Civil War boom of settlement was not just by white Americans, but by people from around the world, many having similar aspirations and finding similar challenges. White settlement followed boom-and-bust patterns in the three industries that came to dominate the region in the second half of the nineteenth century: mining, ranching, and commercial agriculture. Whites, Blacks, Asians, Mexicans, and many others made up the labor force for these three industries. The result was a fluid, racially diverse, and often mobile population beset with terrific prejudice and discrimination. Still, there were many accomplishments. During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the United States grew drastically, in power and in geographical size. The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the nation’s size and opened a little-known region to exploration and eventual settlement. Soon, explorers were returning from forays into the wilderness with stories of great stretches of beauty and fertile land. Some Americans ventured westward, but the nation was largely consumed by its struggle to maintain its neutrality in the face of threats from Britain and France. The War of 1812 settled this issue, leaving the United States free to pursue North American goals. The nation turned its attention to the issue of expansion. The founding fathers had envisioned the United States as a bastion of freedom that would cover territory reaching all the way across the North American continent. Their descendants had not forgotten this desire, and encouraged expansion into western territories through laws and rhetoric. | <urn:uuid:0b86a1e2-2868-42c7-90f9-e1db0999f199> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/the-and-native-americans-or-indians-since-europeans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.984815 | 1,332 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.1531481444835662... | 2 | The West to many Americans at the time was a land of adventure, opportunity, freedom, and individualism. It was an untamed land waiting to be settled by optimistic Americans hoping to create a new civilization in this previously unexplored part of the country. However, when Americans moving in from the East got there, they would see that the land was already populated by a variety of different peoples who had long since settled the region. This included Hispanics and Native Americans (or Indians). Since Europeans settled America, the image of uncharted territory to the west had always inspired those who were looking to start a new life. The works of writers and painters such as Mark Twain, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and Owen Wister helped romanticize the West. The cowboy became an American icon, a man free from traditional social constraints and an affinity for nature. Though these works of fiction were just that, fiction, the image of the Wild West still persists today in popular culture, a land of adventure and freedom, where each person is his or her own. The South and West differed quite a bit. The South was still recovering in the aftermath of the Civil War, and the Southern economy was struggling compared to its Northern counterpart. Even though slaves were freed, the South still did everything in its power to restrain freed slaves from equal rights. The West however was disconnected from those issues, and blacks and whites alike flocked to the West in search of a better life for themselves. There was still much to discover such as the mines and grassland where miners and farmers/ranchers could prosper. 2There was a plethora of factors that aided in the settlement of the west such as the balancing of the economy, The National Policy. These new tarrifs were put in place to protect and promote, while others expected it to create a national market. High hopes of the tariffs also included growth in the East West transcontinental union. Following the war of 1812 there was a migration of white settlers. These settlers were migrating into the Old West and the far west. During this time period the American population doubled and almost three decades later, the majority of the people lived west. The unsettled west held such a strong romantic appeal for many Americans because it put them in a state of fear and mystery due to the fact that it was unsettled, untamed land. They romanticized the unsettling because moving to the west meant riches. By moving to the west, people believed due to the amount of gold, they would become rich. A myriad of settlers were in desperation of a better life, a better living, and more money. Friends and family members that previously moved West, had a large impact on those that stayed behind. They began sending letters about their phenomenal lives, the great change, and about their “good lives” out on the west. Their families persuasion plus their desire to purchase land continuously pulled pioneers in more and more as the days went on. Nonetheless. those that moved or wished to move wanted better lives and more money3Some of the factors that contributed to the settlement was hope for better opportunities, and a new labor force. Cattle business turned out major profits, and ranchers and others knew that would continue the future. Due to the fact of the West having a better climate, there were none of the diseases there that they had in the East such as pleuro-pneumonia. The mining business also began to boom due to the demands of gold, and silver in the East. As well for copper,zinc, and quartz. It held a strong romantic appeal for many Americans because they all saw to as a way to start over, and reinvent themselves, they all assumed that the West was just a desert, and uninhabited when in reality it was the opposite. Many Americans also idealized the idea of the cowboy that was portrayed on television, and the idea of not having to live within the mens of hat society has to say. The romantic vision was been sought pop culture because since everyone was gong to West with these hopes and dreams, everyone else decided to follow along, even if they didn’t have the means too. The West differed from the East in some ways, with one major difference being how multiracial it was. There were people there from all over who worked together to make their lives better, whereas in the East the labor force and most things were controlled by whites. The two regions also differed because instead of fighting with Americans over slavery, they fought against those of other races for land and power.4he western frontier has been, and remains, such a powerful influence on American culture and memory that it is important to recall that much of this memory was shaped from romantic myths and seldom-realized ideals. For some, the West was a land of adventure, and there were examples of brave and courageous people who took up a rugged life in hopes of a better future. But the land that was new to thousands of migrants on the overland trails was far from empty and unknown. Major portions of the American West had long been populated by Indians, Spanish, and Mexicans. And the post–Civil War boom of settlement was not just by white Americans, but by people from around the world, many having similar aspirations and finding similar challenges. White settlement followed boom-and-bust patterns in the three industries that came to dominate the region in the second half of the nineteenth century: mining, ranching, and commercial agriculture. Whites, Blacks, Asians, Mexicans, and many others made up the labor force for these three industries. The result was a fluid, racially diverse, and often mobile population beset with terrific prejudice and discrimination. Still, there were many accomplishments. During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the United States grew drastically, in power and in geographical size. The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the nation’s size and opened a little-known region to exploration and eventual settlement. Soon, explorers were returning from forays into the wilderness with stories of great stretches of beauty and fertile land. Some Americans ventured westward, but the nation was largely consumed by its struggle to maintain its neutrality in the face of threats from Britain and France. The War of 1812 settled this issue, leaving the United States free to pursue North American goals. The nation turned its attention to the issue of expansion. The founding fathers had envisioned the United States as a bastion of freedom that would cover territory reaching all the way across the North American continent. Their descendants had not forgotten this desire, and encouraged expansion into western territories through laws and rhetoric. | 1,328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Life Of Buddha
Born in Nepal in the 6th century B.C., Buddha was a spiritual leader and teacher whose life serves as the foundation of the Buddhist religion.
Siddhartha Gautama, who would one day become known as Buddha ("enlightened one" or "the awakened"), lived in Nepal during the 6th to 4th century B.C. While scholars agree that he did in fact live, the events of his life are still debated. According to the most widely known story of his life, after experimenting with different teachings for years, and finding none of them acceptable, Gautama spent a fateful night in deep meditation. During his meditation, all of the answers he had been seeking became clear, and achieved full awareness, thereby becoming Buddha.
The Buddha, or "enlightened one," was born Siddhartha (which means "he who achieves his aim") Gautama to a large clan called the Shakyas in Lumbini, (today, modern Nepal) in the 6th century B.C. His father was king who ruled the tribe, known to be economically poor and geographically on the outskirts . His mother died seven days after giving birth to him, but a holy man prophesied great things for the young Siddhartha: He would either be a great king or military leader or he would be a great spiritual leader. To keep his son from witnessing the miseries and suffering of the world, Siddhartha's father raised him in opulence in a palace built just for the boy and sheltered him from knowledge of religion and human hardship. According to custom, he married at the age of 16, but his life of total seclusion continued for another 13 years.
Beyond the Palace Walls
The prince reached his late 20s with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces, but one day he ventured out beyond the palace walls and was quickly confronted with the realities of human frailty: He saw a very old man, and Siddhartha's charioteer explained that all people grow old. Questions about all he had not experienced led him to take more journeys of exploration, and on these subsequent trips he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse and an ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic had renounced the world to seek release from the human fear of death and suffering. Siddhartha was overcome by these sights, and the next day, at age 29, he left his kingdom, wife and son to lead an ascetic life, and to determine a way to relieve the universal suffering that he now understood to be one of the defining traits of humanity.
The Ascetic Life and Enlightenment
For the next six years, Siddhartha lived an ascetic life and partook in its practices, studying and meditating using the words of various religious teachers as his guide. He practiced his new way of life with a group of five ascetics, and his dedication to his quest was so stunning that the five ascetics became Siddhartha's followers. When answers to his questions did not appear, however, he redoubled his efforts, enduring pain, fasting nearly to starvation, and refusing water.
Whatever he tried, Siddhartha could not reach the level of satisfaction he sought, until one day when a young girl offered him a bowl of rice. As he accepted it, he suddenly realized that corporeal austerity was not the means to achieve inner liberation, and that living under harsh physical constraints was not helping him achieve spiritual release. So he had his rice, drank water and bathed in the river. The five ascetics decided that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and would now follow the ways of the flesh, and they promptly left him. From then on, however, Siddhartha encouraged people to follow a path of balance instead of one characterized by extremism. He called this path the Middle Way.
The Buddha Emerges
That night, Siddhartha sat under the Bodhi tree, vowing to not get up until the truths he sought came to him, and he meditated until the sun came up the next day. He remained there for several days, purifying his mind, seeing his entire life, and previous lives, in his thoughts. During this time, he had to overcome the threats of Mara, an evil demon, who challenged his right to become the Buddha. When Mara attempted to claim the enlightened state as his own, Siddhartha touched his hand to the ground and asked the Earth to bear witness to his enlightenment, which it did, banishing Mara. And soon a picture began to form in his mind of all that occurred in the universe, and Siddhartha finally saw the answer to the questions of suffering that he had been seeking for so many years. In that moment of pure enlightenment, Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha ("he who is awake").
Armed with his new knowledge, the Buddha was initially hesitant to teach, because what he now knew could not be communicated to others in words. According to legend, it was then the king of gods, Brahma, who convinced Buddha to teach, and he got up from his spot under the Bodhi tree and set out to do just that.
About 100 miles away, he came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long, who had abandoned him on the eve of his enlightenment. To them and others who had gathered, he preached his first sermon (henceforth known as Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma), in which he explained the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which became the pillars of Buddhism. The ascetics then became his first disciples and formed the foundation of the Sangha, or community of monks. Women were admitted to the Sangha, and all barriers of class, race, sex and previous background were ignored, with only the desire to reach enlightenment through the banishment of suffering and spiritual emptiness considered.
For the remainder of his 80 years, Buddha traveled, preaching the Dharma (the name given to the teachings of the Buddha) in an effort to lead others to and along the path of enlightenment. When he died, it is said that he told his disciples that they should follow no leader.
The Buddha is undoubtedly one of the most influential figures in world history, and his teachings have affected everything from a variety of other faiths (as many find their origins in the words of the Buddha) to literature to philosophy, both within India and to the farthest reaches of the Western world | <urn:uuid:a5f74946-47ea-43dc-9003-54c44a918972> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thedharmatemple.org/life-of-buddha | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.98854 | 1,335 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Born in Nepal in the 6th century B.C., Buddha was a spiritual leader and teacher whose life serves as the foundation of the Buddhist religion.
Siddhartha Gautama, who would one day become known as Buddha ("enlightened one" or "the awakened"), lived in Nepal during the 6th to 4th century B.C. While scholars agree that he did in fact live, the events of his life are still debated. According to the most widely known story of his life, after experimenting with different teachings for years, and finding none of them acceptable, Gautama spent a fateful night in deep meditation. During his meditation, all of the answers he had been seeking became clear, and achieved full awareness, thereby becoming Buddha.
The Buddha, or "enlightened one," was born Siddhartha (which means "he who achieves his aim") Gautama to a large clan called the Shakyas in Lumbini, (today, modern Nepal) in the 6th century B.C. His father was king who ruled the tribe, known to be economically poor and geographically on the outskirts . His mother died seven days after giving birth to him, but a holy man prophesied great things for the young Siddhartha: He would either be a great king or military leader or he would be a great spiritual leader. To keep his son from witnessing the miseries and suffering of the world, Siddhartha's father raised him in opulence in a palace built just for the boy and sheltered him from knowledge of religion and human hardship. According to custom, he married at the age of 16, but his life of total seclusion continued for another 13 years.
Beyond the Palace Walls
The prince reached his late 20s with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces, but one day he ventured out beyond the palace walls and was quickly confronted with the realities of human frailty: He saw a very old man, and Siddhartha's charioteer explained that all people grow old. Questions about all he had not experienced led him to take more journeys of exploration, and on these subsequent trips he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse and an ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic had renounced the world to seek release from the human fear of death and suffering. Siddhartha was overcome by these sights, and the next day, at age 29, he left his kingdom, wife and son to lead an ascetic life, and to determine a way to relieve the universal suffering that he now understood to be one of the defining traits of humanity.
The Ascetic Life and Enlightenment
For the next six years, Siddhartha lived an ascetic life and partook in its practices, studying and meditating using the words of various religious teachers as his guide. He practiced his new way of life with a group of five ascetics, and his dedication to his quest was so stunning that the five ascetics became Siddhartha's followers. When answers to his questions did not appear, however, he redoubled his efforts, enduring pain, fasting nearly to starvation, and refusing water.
Whatever he tried, Siddhartha could not reach the level of satisfaction he sought, until one day when a young girl offered him a bowl of rice. As he accepted it, he suddenly realized that corporeal austerity was not the means to achieve inner liberation, and that living under harsh physical constraints was not helping him achieve spiritual release. So he had his rice, drank water and bathed in the river. The five ascetics decided that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and would now follow the ways of the flesh, and they promptly left him. From then on, however, Siddhartha encouraged people to follow a path of balance instead of one characterized by extremism. He called this path the Middle Way.
The Buddha Emerges
That night, Siddhartha sat under the Bodhi tree, vowing to not get up until the truths he sought came to him, and he meditated until the sun came up the next day. He remained there for several days, purifying his mind, seeing his entire life, and previous lives, in his thoughts. During this time, he had to overcome the threats of Mara, an evil demon, who challenged his right to become the Buddha. When Mara attempted to claim the enlightened state as his own, Siddhartha touched his hand to the ground and asked the Earth to bear witness to his enlightenment, which it did, banishing Mara. And soon a picture began to form in his mind of all that occurred in the universe, and Siddhartha finally saw the answer to the questions of suffering that he had been seeking for so many years. In that moment of pure enlightenment, Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha ("he who is awake").
Armed with his new knowledge, the Buddha was initially hesitant to teach, because what he now knew could not be communicated to others in words. According to legend, it was then the king of gods, Brahma, who convinced Buddha to teach, and he got up from his spot under the Bodhi tree and set out to do just that.
About 100 miles away, he came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long, who had abandoned him on the eve of his enlightenment. To them and others who had gathered, he preached his first sermon (henceforth known as Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma), in which he explained the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which became the pillars of Buddhism. The ascetics then became his first disciples and formed the foundation of the Sangha, or community of monks. Women were admitted to the Sangha, and all barriers of class, race, sex and previous background were ignored, with only the desire to reach enlightenment through the banishment of suffering and spiritual emptiness considered.
For the remainder of his 80 years, Buddha traveled, preaching the Dharma (the name given to the teachings of the Buddha) in an effort to lead others to and along the path of enlightenment. When he died, it is said that he told his disciples that they should follow no leader.
The Buddha is undoubtedly one of the most influential figures in world history, and his teachings have affected everything from a variety of other faiths (as many find their origins in the words of the Buddha) to literature to philosophy, both within India and to the farthest reaches of the Western world | 1,344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Lost Pyramids of Caral
BBC Two 9.00pm Thursday 31 January 2002
Caral dates from 2,600 BC making it one of the earliest known civilisations on Earth The magnificent ancient city of pyramids at Caral in Peru hit the headlines in 2001. The site is a thousand years older than the earliest known civilisation in the Americas and, at 2,627 BC, is as old as the pyramids of Egypt. Many now believe it is the fabled missing link of archaeology - a 'mother city'. If so, then these extraordinary findings could finally answer one of the great questions of archaeology: why did humans become civilised?
The mother of all cities
For over a century, archaeologists have been searching for what they call a mother city. Civilisation began in only six areas of the world: Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Peru and Central America. In each of these regions people moved from small family units to build cities of thousands of people. They crossed the historic divide, one of the great moments in human history. Why? To find the answer archaeologists needed to find a mother city - the first stage of city-building.
Civilisation through conflict
They couldn't find one anywhere. Everywhere this first stage seemed destroyed or built over. And so, instead, scientists developed a number of theories. Some said it was because of the development of trade, others that it was irrigation. Some even today believe it was all because of aliens. Gradually an uneasy consensus emerged. The key force common to all civilisations was warfare.
The theory was that only the fear of war could motivate people to give up the simple life and form complex societies. To prove it, archaeologists still had to find a city from that very first stage of civilisation. If it showed signs of warfare, then the theory had to be true.
Peruvian archaeologist, Ruth ShadyWhen archaeologist Ruth Shady discovered her 5,000 year old city of pyramids in the Peruvian desert, all eyes were on the New World. Ruth's extraordinary city, known as Caral, is so much older than anything else in South America that it is a clear candidate to be the mother city. It also is in pristine condition. Nothing has been built on it at all. Instead laid out before the world is an elaborate complex of pyramids, temples, an amphitheatre and ordinary houses.
Make love not war
Crucially, there is not the faintest trace of warfare at Caral; no battlements, no weapons, no mutilated bodies. Instead, Ruth's findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the pyramids they uncovered beautiful flutes made from condor and pelican bones. They have also found evidence of a culture that took drugs and perhaps aphrodisiacs. Most stunning of all, they have found the remains of a baby, lovingly wrapped and buried with a precious necklace made of stone beads.
NARRATOR (JOHN SHRAPNEL): It is one of humanity's epic journeys. Thousands of years ago people first came out of the wild and formed civilisation. They would build huge monuments, like the pyramids and all the great cities of the Ancient World, but why did they do it? What forces gave birth to civilisation? For years archaeologists have been trying to get back to when it all began to find the answer and now at last it seems they may have done it, for they are now exploring a lost city of pyramids in Peru. It is nearly five thousand years old and the story it tells about why we embarked on this great journey is more extraordinary than anyone had ever expected. Peru's desert coast, trapped between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Nothing survives out here. Explorers once hurried through in search of the gold and the treasures of the Incas hidden in the mountains beyond, but no one stopped, but then seven years ago somebody did. Ruth Shady had heard of some mysterious unexplained mounds and, alone, set off through the desert to find them and then right in the middle of this dead land she found this: a huge hill rising out of the desert.
DR RUTH SHADY (University of San Marcos, Lima): When I first arrived in the valley in 1994 I was overwhelmed. This place is somewhere between the seat of the gods and the home of man. It is a very strange place.
NARRATOR: Then as she looked closer she thought she could see something hidden under the rubble and stones. In her mind's eye she could make out the faintest outline of a pyramid and as she looked around she could she another and then another. Ruth Shady had stumbled on a lost city. It was a discovery that would stun the world of archaeology because it would finally begin to solve one of the great unanswered questions: why our ancestors abandoned a life of simplicity and started down the road to civilisation. Today's modern city is the pinnacle of human civilisation. Millions of people choosing to live and work together. In a civilisation everyone has a specific task that helps towards a common goal. Workers, professionals, home-makers - they all come together to build the same society. Above them all, powerful rulers. They command who does what and when and where they do it, but it was not always like this. How this complex system came about has long been a huge puzzle to scientists.
PROF C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY (Harvard University): For more than a century surely one of the most important questions addressed by archaeologists is also its biggest. What is the origin of civilisation? This has been a central theme, a guiding post for virtually all archaeologists working on every continent of the world.
NARRATOR: Because civilisation was not inevitable. For more than a hundred thousand years there were neither rulers nor cities. Humanity either roamed the world in small family groupings, or lived in tiny villages. There was little planning, little leadership and no future. Just survival and then something happened. Six thousand years ago people started to move out of their villages and build huge cities. Archaeologists called this crossing the great divide. This happened in six places across the world - in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and India - and in the New World in Peru and Central America. Without these pioneers crossing that great divide our modern world would not exist.
DR KEN FEDER (Central Connecticut State University): And what's exciting for us is that here we are in the 21st century living in societies that ultimately are, that ultimately result from that historical change, that historical divide.
NARRATOR: Archaeologists examined each early civilisation in turn searching for clues as to why they'd suddenly appeared and again and again they found they had many things in common.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: For instance, numeracy, mathematics and calendrical systems. Writing.
KEN FEDER: Pottery. Metallurgy.
NARRATOR: But above all there was something else.
KEN FEDER: Monumental architecture.
NARRATOR: In every early civilisation it was the same. Huge, monumental structures. This was the ultimate sign of people coming together under rulers for a common goal. Pyramids marked the arrival of civilisation.
KEN FEDER: You can't build a huge structure like that on the basis of consensus. You have to have leaders and followers, you have to have specialists, you have to have people who are in charge, people who can tell individual groups alright today you will be doing this, this group you're going top be doing something different.
NARRATOR: But none of this explained why our ancestors crossed this historic divide. What had made us give up the simple life for the city? That question still bewitches archaeologists because to explain it is to understand the very soul of modern humanity.
KEN FEDER: And that's the key question: how does that happen, when does it happen and why does it happen?
NARRATOR: There were, of course, plenty of theories. Some said it was irrigation, others trade, some claim even today it was aliens, but many said it was something else entirely, something terrifying: warfare. The theory was simple. Warfare forced groups of villages to huddle together for protection. This led to new ways of organising society. Powerful leaders emerged and these leaders became pharaohs and kings. They would assign tasks and organise lives. Complex society was born out of fear. For 20 years Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer have tested the warfare theory around the world. A husband and wife team of archaeologists, they've found the tell-tale signs of battle in every early civilisation.
JONATHAN HAAS (Field Museum, Chicago): As you look at culture, as it becomes more complex, warfare seems to be everywhere, that these societies seem to be always at war, or war's depicted in the art, war's depicted in the architecture, you see a warrior class or you see standing armies, you see generals. When you get writing, writing is about warfare.
NARRATOR: While it is not universally accepted, many agree with Haas's conclusions that warfare was a crucial driving force behind the birth of modern society.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: I frankly find it difficult to conceive of the emergence of urbanisation complexity civilisation in the absence of degrees of conflict, or the presence of, of warfare.
NARRATOR: But it was only a theory. Archaeologists had no proof, so they spent years scouring the earth, hunting for a way of turning theory into fact. What they needed to find was what archaeologists call a mother city. This is the missing link of archaeology, the very first stage of civilisation, just as humanity crossed the great divide.
KEN FEDER: So if we could find one of these absolutely earliest stages of civilisation it would make an enormous contribution to our understanding of the process of the development of civilisation.
NARRATOR: If their theory was right, then the mother city should be filled with the signs of battle, but they always hit the same obstacle. Civilisations constantly build upon themselves. It means the earliest stages are all but wiped out.
KEN FEDER: Human beings reconstruct buildings, human beings recycle materials. It is very often difficult to be able to coax out of that mass of material sort of the base of that civilisation. What constitutes the original civilisation.
NARRATOR: After years of searching in the Old World they'd found little. They still needed to find the earliest stage that had not been built on, somewhere pristine and so the search for the mother city switched from the Old World to the New. Peru, home to one of the greatest of all civilisations - the Incas. Here high in the Andean mountains they ruled a mighty empire until destroyed by the Spaniards five hundred years ago, but the origins of this great civilisation stretch back thousands of years and its earliest stages remain shrouded in mystery and so the search for the mother city settled here, this time on the Peruvian coast where, thousands of years ago, it all began. Seven years ago the search to find that elusive first stage of civilisation arrived here, just 10 miles from the coast in the Casma Valley. Something truly spectacular was discovered, one of the biggest pyramids in the world. This pyramid is so huge that for a century explorers ignored it, convinced it could only be a hill. It is the rival of anything in Egypt.
DR TOM POZORSKI (University of Texas-Pan American): This is a pyramid that ranks as one of the largest in the world, period. It's one that covers on the surface of the mound it covers like 15 football fields. The volume of it is some, we calculate something like two million cubic metres of material.
NARRATOR: But the pyramid was only the beginning. The whole site spreads out over six miles and includes a host of lesser pyramids. In front of the main pyramid four plazas extend out for over a mile. Thousands of people could have met and done business here. The Casma Valley is one of the wonders of Peru and it is a site that reeks of civilisation.
TOM POZORSKI: Visitors of this valley, upon first seeing this pyramid, what is said this society that built it had its act together. This society's very powerful, this society is, is a society that really is very highly organised.
NARRATOR: Tom Pozorski and his wife Sheila were about to make Casma into one of the sensations of archaeology because four years ago they unearthed some wooden poles inside the main pyramid. Wood can be carbon dated. The results showed it had been built in 1500 BC. It made Casma the oldest city ever discovered in the Americas and an instant candidate to be the mother city. Then they dug deeper and everywhere they found the tell-tale signs of a civilisation at its very earliest stage. There was pottery, but it was very simple and there was art, but again it was crude. Everything was at its most basic. It all seemed to point to one thing - Casma had to be the mother city, but the final question for the archaeologists was were there signs of battle, was it really true that the first civilisations were born out of warfare? Then came the final breakthrough. It happened in one of the outlying pyramids. There they found some carvings.
TOM POZORSKI: We have warrior figures next to their victims who are cut up, they're beheaded, their bodies cut in half.
JONATHAN HAAS: Heads have blood flowing from their eyes and blood flowing from their mouths and then you have body parts so you'll have just the leg and you'll have a torso or you'll have feet and you'll have crossed hands.
NARRATOR: For archaeologists like Jonathan Haas these carvings confirmed what they'd long suspected: warfare really did seem to be the force that gave birth to civilisation. It appeared the answer to why we'd crossed the great divide from the simple to the civilised had been found. Archaeology's great quest seemed to have ended at Casma, the mother city, but Casma's days as an archaeological sensation were numbered. Just as it was reaching the height of its fame, Ruth Shady found her mysterious hills and they would transform everything. Ruth went back to the site again and again and she took with her a team of students and archaeologists. Their first task: to get a rough idea of how old Caral, as the site was known, actually was. For this they needed to find pottery because archaeologists are skilled at dating sites just by the style of the pottery they find, but after weeks of searching they found nothing.
RUTH SHADY: For two months we looked for pottery. Every night we asked each other if anybody had found any, but nobody had. We were completely baffled.
NARRATOR: This was very puzzling. Every early civilisation is littered with pottery, even Casma, but not this one, so they looked for something else you'd expect to find in a civilisation: metal tools, but the only tools they found were made not of metal but stone. There was only one conclusion: this was a civilisation at an extraordinarily early stage.
RUTH SHADY: Little by little as we analysed our findings, we began to realise that this place was completely different to anything we had seen before and it was much older than we'd expected.
NARRATOR: But how old? They'd still found nothing they could date and so they decided to dig inside Caral's biggest structures - the pyramids. This was a massive undertaking. The site was enormous and the pyramids huge. Ruth needed help, so she recruited the Army. In their way lay thousands of tons of sand, rubble and stones built up over millennia. It would have to be shifted and so as to avoid any damage to the original structures it could only be done one bucket at a time. Gradually they caught glimpses of what lay beneath: some of the original stones, traces of plaster, paint not seen for thousands of years, a series of staircases and the wall at the front of the pyramid. There was no doubt these pyramids would have required craftsmen, architects, a huge workforce and leaders, all the trappings of civilisation and then at last one of her team found what they were looking for. Sticking out of the foundations of one of the buildings were reeds. These reeds had been woven into what are called shicra bags and the bags clearly had been used to carry the stones from the mountains. It's a technique found only in the very oldest buildings in Peru. Reeds can be carbon dated. it meant that at last Ruth could find out just how old Caral was, but she lacked the facilities to do it herself and so she sought help from abroad and so last year Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer were invited to the site. What they saw stunned them.
JONATHAN HAAS: It was the most incredible assemblage in the, of archaeological sites that we had ever seen anywhere in the world. it was literally one of those double-take moments when your mouth drops open and you go my God, I've never seen anything like that in my life.
NARRATOR: They had no doubt Caral was a site of potentially huge importance. It made their dating of the shicra bags all the more crucial. They took 12 samples to the University of Illinois for testing. If the bags were from about 1400 BC Caral would certainly be an important discovery, but younger than Casma. Dates around 2000 BC would make it the oldest city in the Americas. Dates any earlier seemed inconceivable. Three months later the results arrived.
DR WINIFRED CREAMER (Northern Illinois University): I was at work and Jonathan called me and he said they are absolutely great, they're all early.
NARRATOR: The bags were dated at 2600 BC. Caral was nearly five thousand years old, as old as the pyramids of Egypt, older than anyone had thought possible.
JONATHAN HAAS: I was virtually in hysterics for three days afterwards.
NARRATOR: Caral was a thousand years older than Casma. it meant Casma could not be the mother city. it had to be Caral. It was now Caral's turn to be a sensation. The new mother city meant archaeologists could at last seek answers to their great question: why had civilisation begun?
KEN FEDER: We've eliminated some of these false starts and blind alleys. We say OK, this is the point that wherever we look in the world where civilisation develops this happens and this allows for everything else.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: In the context of archaeology worldwide it is of major significance. It allows us a new, independent laboratory. We can look here for all of those common questions that we ask of every civilisation.
JONATHAN HAAS: We have here a unique opportunity, historically an unique opportunity to look at the start, to look at that transition, to, to, we have our missing link, if you will.
NARRATOR: Ruth could now show the world what a society looked like at the very dawn of civilisation. Her work revealed that at the heart of Caral was six pyramids arranged around a massive central plaza. Alongside them an amphitheatre and temple, the religious heart of Caral. it contained a furnace which Ruth believes fired a flame that was meant to burn forever. In the centre of the plaza were houses, some ornate, some simple. Dominating everything the main pyramid, seat of the city's rulers, and the symbol that the people of Caral had left behind the primitive life and discovered civilisation. This then is what modern society might have looked like at its very beginning, but why was the city here, why did civilisation start at Caral and that's when the trouble started. It began when Jonathan Haas, the world's expert on the warfare theory, paid another visit. He was searching for evidence to back it up. The first thing he thought he might find were battlements.
JONATHAN HAAS: I began walking and climbing all of the hillsides around Caral and it finally dawned on me that there weren't any fortifications round these sites.
NARRATOR: Meanwhile, Ruth and her team were searching Caral for weapons, for depictions of warfare, anything, but again there was nothing.
RUTH SHADY: We found no sign of the sort of weapons you see in later periods of history, like stone cudgels. I don't see any evidence of conflict. The city isn't walled, its inhabitants did not feel under any treat of war, there are no weapons of war.
NARRATOR: Haas was now extremely puzzled, so he widened his search. He headed to the valley's mouth through which any invaders would have had to pass.
JONATHAN HAAS: I was an approaching army that's where I'd come and that's where I should find defensive fortifications. There should be a wall going across it. They're easy places to put walls across all of these access routes.
NARRATOR: But again nothing.
JONATHAN HAAS: There should be something to slow down the enemy and in fact there's nothing. There are no fortifications round any of these sites.
NARRATOR: Jonathan Haas was now facing an uncomfortable truth. He had spent years pursuing the theory that warfare was the force that created civilisation and now it was falling apart in front of him.
JONATHAN HAAS: You seemed to really have the beginnings of that complex society and I'm able to look at it right at the start and I look for the conflict and I look for the warfare, I look for the armies and the fortifications and they're not there. They should be here and they're not and you have to change your whole mind-set about the role of warfare in these societies and so it's demolishing our warfare hypothesis. The warfare hypothesis just doesn't work.
NARRATOR: The message of Caral was clear: warfare had nothing to do with the creation of civilisation, here at least. The whole quest to find out why civilisation was formed would have to start again. The eyes of the world were now on Ruth. Everyone wanted to know what had been going on at Caral. If it wasn't warfare what was it that brought these people to build their magnificent city? What emerged was that Caral was a society that knew how to have fun. Near the main temple Ruth and her team found beautifully carved flutes made from the bones of condors.
RUTH SHADY: The flutes were the first things we found that showed people working as specialised craftsmen in Caral.
NARRATOR: But the people of Caral also enjoyed more worldly pleasures. back in the laboratory Ruth's team unearthed fragments of the fruit of something called the achiote plant. Even today, it's used by rainforest tribes as body paint and food colouring, but it has one other use: to enhance sexual performance. They also found the shells of a creature called the megabolinus snail. These were used as ornaments for necklaces and inside one of them they spotted traces of a mysterious white powder. It was lime. The team also found seeds from the coca plant at Caral and that meant drugs. The lime when mixed with the coca enhances the effects of the cocaine in the coca plant. It's a powerful stimulant.
RUTH SHADY: There are indications that they used drugs because we have found little containers in which there was some lime. We also found inhalers made out of bone.
NARRATOR: The shamans, or holy men, among certain Amazon tribes use something similar even today. The effects are dramatic. During the trance they believe they're possessed by animal spirits. Ruth believes this kind of thing could have been happening during festivals in Caral all those years ago.
RUTH SHADY: It's probable that during the very frequent religious ceremonies in Caral there would have been some hallucinatory drug present.
NARRATOR: But these finds told Ruth even more about Caral. The plant, the snail and even the flutes were a clue to the basis of the whole civilisation because they had one other very special quality. They were entirely alien to the deserts surrounding Caral. They came either from high in the Andes, or the rainforest and that was two hundred miles away. All these goods had been brought to Caral from far away, but why? The mystery deepened further. Ruth's team found that Caral didn't just import its pleasures. It also brought in the most basic commodity of all: food. It seemed the staple diet of Caral was completely bizarre for a city deep in the desert. It was fish. There were endless fish bones, mainly of sardines and anchovies. They could only have come from the Pacific coast more than 20 miles away. There was now a real puzzle. Goods of all kinds seemed to be flooding into Caral from all over Peru. Why? What was happening at Caral that drew them there? The mystery of Caral was now captivating Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer. Ever since the collapse of the warfare idea they'd roamed the valleys around Caral hunting for clues for an alternative theory. Their wanderings took them over the hills to the neighbouring valleys and it dawned on them all the valleys of Caral had one thing in common: rivers. Even today Caral is fed by rivers flowing down from the Andes to the sea. These rivers would be the key in unlocking the mystery of why civilisation first formed here at Caral because with rivers had come a huge technological advance: irrigation.
WINIFRED CREAMER: This is the simplest possible kind of irrigation system. All you needed to do was to take a hoe, or something like that, and scratch a little ditch from the river to a piece of land and you could tell that you were going at the right angle 'cos the water'd follow right in.
NARRATOR: The valleys near Caral are crisscrossed with ancient irrigation trenches and irrigation would have transformed the desert.
JONATHAN HAAS: Once I bring water off of that river to the Peruvian desert that desert blooms. Once I get water to it it just is the most productive land you could possibly hope for.
NARRATOR: Jonathan believed Caral was once a huge Garden of Eden. Here in the middle of the desert it would have been a vast oasis of fruit and vegetable fields. It would have made Caral one of the wonders of the Ancient World and irrigation led to something else, the thing that would turn out to be the crucial innovation behind the rise of civilisation at Caral. Ruth's researchers had begun to look for the kinds of vegetables the people of Caral had been eating. In amongst all the beans and nuts they found cotton seeds, lots of them. In fact cotton seemed to be everywhere.
RUTH SHADY: Practically every building contained cotton seeds or cotton fibres or textiles. We were very surprised at the beginning at the sheer amount of cotton.
NARRATOR: Some of the cotton was used for clothes, but it had another use that had nothing to do with Caral: fishing nets. This net was found at the coast not far from Caral. It's nearly 5,000 years old, as old as Caral itself. It was then that it all became clear to Ruth. Caral was engaged in trade. it made cotton nets for the fishermen who sent fish as payment.
RUTH SHADY: A trading link was established between the fishermen and the farmers. The farmers grew the cotton which the fishermen needed to make the nets and the fishermen gave them in exchange shellfish and dried fish.
NARRATOR: This was Ruth Shady's great insight. Trade in cotton led to a huge, self-sustaining system. Caral made the cotton for the nets. With the nets the fishermen could catch more food. More food meant more people could live at Caral to grow more cotton and so Caral became a booming trading centre and the trade spread. Goods have been found from as far away as Ecuador, the Andes and of course the rainforests hundreds of miles away.
RUTH SHADY: There is trade with people in the mountains, the jungle and also with the coastal people from further away. There is a trading network which is far more widespread than just the internal trade within the valleys around Caral.
NARRATOR: It seemed then that they'd found the answer to that great archaeological quest. The driving force that led to the birth of civilisation at Caral five thousand years ago was not warfare. it seemed to be trade. Ruth Shady, the archaeologist from Peru, had cracked it.
JONATHAN HAAS: It looks like exchange is what's unifying this system together and is kind of emerging as the most effective theory we have today to explain how this system developed.
NARRATOR: And amazingly this trade seems to have built a contented world. There were no battles, no fortresses. Civilisation in Peru appeared to have been born of a time of peace - or had it? Just as everything seemed to be solved, Ruth's team made a chance discovery that threatened to undermine everything. In one of the grander houses, perhaps home to one of the elite, they spotted something unusual.
RUTH SHADY: We thought we had finished work on this section. We looked at the floor and we didn't think there was anything else there, but when we came back the following day we noticed that there was a slight dip in one section of the floor of the building.
NARRATOR: At first they thought they'd found a personal object, perhaps an ornament. When they looked closer they could see it was a reed basket. It had lain under the floor of a house for nearly five thousand years. When Ruth cleaned the dust away she found something much more disturbing inside: human bones. They'd stumbled upon the body of a small child, perhaps even a baby. Suddenly it raised the frightening possibility. Perhaps the people of Caral started a tradition which was to be common in later civilisations in the Americas: human sacrifice. Perhaps Caral was not a civilisation of peace and happiness after all, perhaps it was brutal and held together not by trade, but fear. It became vital to find out how this child had died. Was it really a victim of some barbaric practice? The body was sent back to the labs for analysis and with it the objects found buried alongside. Ruth was surprised to see the baby had been placed in the foetal position before being buried and even more surprised to see the body had been carefully wrapped in several layers of fine cloth. Alongside the body were small stones. They'd been carefully polished and holes drilled through their centre. They had to be beads, perhaps of a necklace. Then they examined the bones. They were of a two month old baby and then, slowly, each bone was examined for signs of violence, but there were none. They suspected this child had died of natural causes. it had been lovingly prepared for burial. This first citizen of American civilisation was not a sacrifice, but a much loved child. Caral really had been a city of peace after all, so this is the real story of Caral. In the desert a city of pyramids arose built on riches gained peacefully through trade. It spawned a civilisation that lasted unbroken for more than four thousand years. It is a story that may yet contain the answer to archaeology's greatest question: why human beings crossed the great divide from the simple to the civilised?
RUTH SHADY: Caral was the first city with the first central government ever to be created. Caral changes all our current thinking about the origins of civilisation.
NARRATOR: Because it seems that five thousand years ago they had no need for warfare. Caral enjoyed a peace that lasted almost a millennium, an achievement unmatched in the modern world.
JONATHAN HAAS: That's a period of a thousand years of peace. I can't have a thousand years of peace if warfare's natural to human beings. Warfare's part of human nature. You don't get a millennium of no war.
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0.2453856468200... | 2 | The Lost Pyramids of Caral
BBC Two 9.00pm Thursday 31 January 2002
Caral dates from 2,600 BC making it one of the earliest known civilisations on Earth The magnificent ancient city of pyramids at Caral in Peru hit the headlines in 2001. The site is a thousand years older than the earliest known civilisation in the Americas and, at 2,627 BC, is as old as the pyramids of Egypt. Many now believe it is the fabled missing link of archaeology - a 'mother city'. If so, then these extraordinary findings could finally answer one of the great questions of archaeology: why did humans become civilised?
The mother of all cities
For over a century, archaeologists have been searching for what they call a mother city. Civilisation began in only six areas of the world: Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Peru and Central America. In each of these regions people moved from small family units to build cities of thousands of people. They crossed the historic divide, one of the great moments in human history. Why? To find the answer archaeologists needed to find a mother city - the first stage of city-building.
Civilisation through conflict
They couldn't find one anywhere. Everywhere this first stage seemed destroyed or built over. And so, instead, scientists developed a number of theories. Some said it was because of the development of trade, others that it was irrigation. Some even today believe it was all because of aliens. Gradually an uneasy consensus emerged. The key force common to all civilisations was warfare.
The theory was that only the fear of war could motivate people to give up the simple life and form complex societies. To prove it, archaeologists still had to find a city from that very first stage of civilisation. If it showed signs of warfare, then the theory had to be true.
Peruvian archaeologist, Ruth ShadyWhen archaeologist Ruth Shady discovered her 5,000 year old city of pyramids in the Peruvian desert, all eyes were on the New World. Ruth's extraordinary city, known as Caral, is so much older than anything else in South America that it is a clear candidate to be the mother city. It also is in pristine condition. Nothing has been built on it at all. Instead laid out before the world is an elaborate complex of pyramids, temples, an amphitheatre and ordinary houses.
Make love not war
Crucially, there is not the faintest trace of warfare at Caral; no battlements, no weapons, no mutilated bodies. Instead, Ruth's findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the pyramids they uncovered beautiful flutes made from condor and pelican bones. They have also found evidence of a culture that took drugs and perhaps aphrodisiacs. Most stunning of all, they have found the remains of a baby, lovingly wrapped and buried with a precious necklace made of stone beads.
NARRATOR (JOHN SHRAPNEL): It is one of humanity's epic journeys. Thousands of years ago people first came out of the wild and formed civilisation. They would build huge monuments, like the pyramids and all the great cities of the Ancient World, but why did they do it? What forces gave birth to civilisation? For years archaeologists have been trying to get back to when it all began to find the answer and now at last it seems they may have done it, for they are now exploring a lost city of pyramids in Peru. It is nearly five thousand years old and the story it tells about why we embarked on this great journey is more extraordinary than anyone had ever expected. Peru's desert coast, trapped between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Nothing survives out here. Explorers once hurried through in search of the gold and the treasures of the Incas hidden in the mountains beyond, but no one stopped, but then seven years ago somebody did. Ruth Shady had heard of some mysterious unexplained mounds and, alone, set off through the desert to find them and then right in the middle of this dead land she found this: a huge hill rising out of the desert.
DR RUTH SHADY (University of San Marcos, Lima): When I first arrived in the valley in 1994 I was overwhelmed. This place is somewhere between the seat of the gods and the home of man. It is a very strange place.
NARRATOR: Then as she looked closer she thought she could see something hidden under the rubble and stones. In her mind's eye she could make out the faintest outline of a pyramid and as she looked around she could she another and then another. Ruth Shady had stumbled on a lost city. It was a discovery that would stun the world of archaeology because it would finally begin to solve one of the great unanswered questions: why our ancestors abandoned a life of simplicity and started down the road to civilisation. Today's modern city is the pinnacle of human civilisation. Millions of people choosing to live and work together. In a civilisation everyone has a specific task that helps towards a common goal. Workers, professionals, home-makers - they all come together to build the same society. Above them all, powerful rulers. They command who does what and when and where they do it, but it was not always like this. How this complex system came about has long been a huge puzzle to scientists.
PROF C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY (Harvard University): For more than a century surely one of the most important questions addressed by archaeologists is also its biggest. What is the origin of civilisation? This has been a central theme, a guiding post for virtually all archaeologists working on every continent of the world.
NARRATOR: Because civilisation was not inevitable. For more than a hundred thousand years there were neither rulers nor cities. Humanity either roamed the world in small family groupings, or lived in tiny villages. There was little planning, little leadership and no future. Just survival and then something happened. Six thousand years ago people started to move out of their villages and build huge cities. Archaeologists called this crossing the great divide. This happened in six places across the world - in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and India - and in the New World in Peru and Central America. Without these pioneers crossing that great divide our modern world would not exist.
DR KEN FEDER (Central Connecticut State University): And what's exciting for us is that here we are in the 21st century living in societies that ultimately are, that ultimately result from that historical change, that historical divide.
NARRATOR: Archaeologists examined each early civilisation in turn searching for clues as to why they'd suddenly appeared and again and again they found they had many things in common.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: For instance, numeracy, mathematics and calendrical systems. Writing.
KEN FEDER: Pottery. Metallurgy.
NARRATOR: But above all there was something else.
KEN FEDER: Monumental architecture.
NARRATOR: In every early civilisation it was the same. Huge, monumental structures. This was the ultimate sign of people coming together under rulers for a common goal. Pyramids marked the arrival of civilisation.
KEN FEDER: You can't build a huge structure like that on the basis of consensus. You have to have leaders and followers, you have to have specialists, you have to have people who are in charge, people who can tell individual groups alright today you will be doing this, this group you're going top be doing something different.
NARRATOR: But none of this explained why our ancestors crossed this historic divide. What had made us give up the simple life for the city? That question still bewitches archaeologists because to explain it is to understand the very soul of modern humanity.
KEN FEDER: And that's the key question: how does that happen, when does it happen and why does it happen?
NARRATOR: There were, of course, plenty of theories. Some said it was irrigation, others trade, some claim even today it was aliens, but many said it was something else entirely, something terrifying: warfare. The theory was simple. Warfare forced groups of villages to huddle together for protection. This led to new ways of organising society. Powerful leaders emerged and these leaders became pharaohs and kings. They would assign tasks and organise lives. Complex society was born out of fear. For 20 years Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer have tested the warfare theory around the world. A husband and wife team of archaeologists, they've found the tell-tale signs of battle in every early civilisation.
JONATHAN HAAS (Field Museum, Chicago): As you look at culture, as it becomes more complex, warfare seems to be everywhere, that these societies seem to be always at war, or war's depicted in the art, war's depicted in the architecture, you see a warrior class or you see standing armies, you see generals. When you get writing, writing is about warfare.
NARRATOR: While it is not universally accepted, many agree with Haas's conclusions that warfare was a crucial driving force behind the birth of modern society.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: I frankly find it difficult to conceive of the emergence of urbanisation complexity civilisation in the absence of degrees of conflict, or the presence of, of warfare.
NARRATOR: But it was only a theory. Archaeologists had no proof, so they spent years scouring the earth, hunting for a way of turning theory into fact. What they needed to find was what archaeologists call a mother city. This is the missing link of archaeology, the very first stage of civilisation, just as humanity crossed the great divide.
KEN FEDER: So if we could find one of these absolutely earliest stages of civilisation it would make an enormous contribution to our understanding of the process of the development of civilisation.
NARRATOR: If their theory was right, then the mother city should be filled with the signs of battle, but they always hit the same obstacle. Civilisations constantly build upon themselves. It means the earliest stages are all but wiped out.
KEN FEDER: Human beings reconstruct buildings, human beings recycle materials. It is very often difficult to be able to coax out of that mass of material sort of the base of that civilisation. What constitutes the original civilisation.
NARRATOR: After years of searching in the Old World they'd found little. They still needed to find the earliest stage that had not been built on, somewhere pristine and so the search for the mother city switched from the Old World to the New. Peru, home to one of the greatest of all civilisations - the Incas. Here high in the Andean mountains they ruled a mighty empire until destroyed by the Spaniards five hundred years ago, but the origins of this great civilisation stretch back thousands of years and its earliest stages remain shrouded in mystery and so the search for the mother city settled here, this time on the Peruvian coast where, thousands of years ago, it all began. Seven years ago the search to find that elusive first stage of civilisation arrived here, just 10 miles from the coast in the Casma Valley. Something truly spectacular was discovered, one of the biggest pyramids in the world. This pyramid is so huge that for a century explorers ignored it, convinced it could only be a hill. It is the rival of anything in Egypt.
DR TOM POZORSKI (University of Texas-Pan American): This is a pyramid that ranks as one of the largest in the world, period. It's one that covers on the surface of the mound it covers like 15 football fields. The volume of it is some, we calculate something like two million cubic metres of material.
NARRATOR: But the pyramid was only the beginning. The whole site spreads out over six miles and includes a host of lesser pyramids. In front of the main pyramid four plazas extend out for over a mile. Thousands of people could have met and done business here. The Casma Valley is one of the wonders of Peru and it is a site that reeks of civilisation.
TOM POZORSKI: Visitors of this valley, upon first seeing this pyramid, what is said this society that built it had its act together. This society's very powerful, this society is, is a society that really is very highly organised.
NARRATOR: Tom Pozorski and his wife Sheila were about to make Casma into one of the sensations of archaeology because four years ago they unearthed some wooden poles inside the main pyramid. Wood can be carbon dated. The results showed it had been built in 1500 BC. It made Casma the oldest city ever discovered in the Americas and an instant candidate to be the mother city. Then they dug deeper and everywhere they found the tell-tale signs of a civilisation at its very earliest stage. There was pottery, but it was very simple and there was art, but again it was crude. Everything was at its most basic. It all seemed to point to one thing - Casma had to be the mother city, but the final question for the archaeologists was were there signs of battle, was it really true that the first civilisations were born out of warfare? Then came the final breakthrough. It happened in one of the outlying pyramids. There they found some carvings.
TOM POZORSKI: We have warrior figures next to their victims who are cut up, they're beheaded, their bodies cut in half.
JONATHAN HAAS: Heads have blood flowing from their eyes and blood flowing from their mouths and then you have body parts so you'll have just the leg and you'll have a torso or you'll have feet and you'll have crossed hands.
NARRATOR: For archaeologists like Jonathan Haas these carvings confirmed what they'd long suspected: warfare really did seem to be the force that gave birth to civilisation. It appeared the answer to why we'd crossed the great divide from the simple to the civilised had been found. Archaeology's great quest seemed to have ended at Casma, the mother city, but Casma's days as an archaeological sensation were numbered. Just as it was reaching the height of its fame, Ruth Shady found her mysterious hills and they would transform everything. Ruth went back to the site again and again and she took with her a team of students and archaeologists. Their first task: to get a rough idea of how old Caral, as the site was known, actually was. For this they needed to find pottery because archaeologists are skilled at dating sites just by the style of the pottery they find, but after weeks of searching they found nothing.
RUTH SHADY: For two months we looked for pottery. Every night we asked each other if anybody had found any, but nobody had. We were completely baffled.
NARRATOR: This was very puzzling. Every early civilisation is littered with pottery, even Casma, but not this one, so they looked for something else you'd expect to find in a civilisation: metal tools, but the only tools they found were made not of metal but stone. There was only one conclusion: this was a civilisation at an extraordinarily early stage.
RUTH SHADY: Little by little as we analysed our findings, we began to realise that this place was completely different to anything we had seen before and it was much older than we'd expected.
NARRATOR: But how old? They'd still found nothing they could date and so they decided to dig inside Caral's biggest structures - the pyramids. This was a massive undertaking. The site was enormous and the pyramids huge. Ruth needed help, so she recruited the Army. In their way lay thousands of tons of sand, rubble and stones built up over millennia. It would have to be shifted and so as to avoid any damage to the original structures it could only be done one bucket at a time. Gradually they caught glimpses of what lay beneath: some of the original stones, traces of plaster, paint not seen for thousands of years, a series of staircases and the wall at the front of the pyramid. There was no doubt these pyramids would have required craftsmen, architects, a huge workforce and leaders, all the trappings of civilisation and then at last one of her team found what they were looking for. Sticking out of the foundations of one of the buildings were reeds. These reeds had been woven into what are called shicra bags and the bags clearly had been used to carry the stones from the mountains. It's a technique found only in the very oldest buildings in Peru. Reeds can be carbon dated. it meant that at last Ruth could find out just how old Caral was, but she lacked the facilities to do it herself and so she sought help from abroad and so last year Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer were invited to the site. What they saw stunned them.
JONATHAN HAAS: It was the most incredible assemblage in the, of archaeological sites that we had ever seen anywhere in the world. it was literally one of those double-take moments when your mouth drops open and you go my God, I've never seen anything like that in my life.
NARRATOR: They had no doubt Caral was a site of potentially huge importance. It made their dating of the shicra bags all the more crucial. They took 12 samples to the University of Illinois for testing. If the bags were from about 1400 BC Caral would certainly be an important discovery, but younger than Casma. Dates around 2000 BC would make it the oldest city in the Americas. Dates any earlier seemed inconceivable. Three months later the results arrived.
DR WINIFRED CREAMER (Northern Illinois University): I was at work and Jonathan called me and he said they are absolutely great, they're all early.
NARRATOR: The bags were dated at 2600 BC. Caral was nearly five thousand years old, as old as the pyramids of Egypt, older than anyone had thought possible.
JONATHAN HAAS: I was virtually in hysterics for three days afterwards.
NARRATOR: Caral was a thousand years older than Casma. it meant Casma could not be the mother city. it had to be Caral. It was now Caral's turn to be a sensation. The new mother city meant archaeologists could at last seek answers to their great question: why had civilisation begun?
KEN FEDER: We've eliminated some of these false starts and blind alleys. We say OK, this is the point that wherever we look in the world where civilisation develops this happens and this allows for everything else.
C.C. LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY: In the context of archaeology worldwide it is of major significance. It allows us a new, independent laboratory. We can look here for all of those common questions that we ask of every civilisation.
JONATHAN HAAS: We have here a unique opportunity, historically an unique opportunity to look at the start, to look at that transition, to, to, we have our missing link, if you will.
NARRATOR: Ruth could now show the world what a society looked like at the very dawn of civilisation. Her work revealed that at the heart of Caral was six pyramids arranged around a massive central plaza. Alongside them an amphitheatre and temple, the religious heart of Caral. it contained a furnace which Ruth believes fired a flame that was meant to burn forever. In the centre of the plaza were houses, some ornate, some simple. Dominating everything the main pyramid, seat of the city's rulers, and the symbol that the people of Caral had left behind the primitive life and discovered civilisation. This then is what modern society might have looked like at its very beginning, but why was the city here, why did civilisation start at Caral and that's when the trouble started. It began when Jonathan Haas, the world's expert on the warfare theory, paid another visit. He was searching for evidence to back it up. The first thing he thought he might find were battlements.
JONATHAN HAAS: I began walking and climbing all of the hillsides around Caral and it finally dawned on me that there weren't any fortifications round these sites.
NARRATOR: Meanwhile, Ruth and her team were searching Caral for weapons, for depictions of warfare, anything, but again there was nothing.
RUTH SHADY: We found no sign of the sort of weapons you see in later periods of history, like stone cudgels. I don't see any evidence of conflict. The city isn't walled, its inhabitants did not feel under any treat of war, there are no weapons of war.
NARRATOR: Haas was now extremely puzzled, so he widened his search. He headed to the valley's mouth through which any invaders would have had to pass.
JONATHAN HAAS: I was an approaching army that's where I'd come and that's where I should find defensive fortifications. There should be a wall going across it. They're easy places to put walls across all of these access routes.
NARRATOR: But again nothing.
JONATHAN HAAS: There should be something to slow down the enemy and in fact there's nothing. There are no fortifications round any of these sites.
NARRATOR: Jonathan Haas was now facing an uncomfortable truth. He had spent years pursuing the theory that warfare was the force that created civilisation and now it was falling apart in front of him.
JONATHAN HAAS: You seemed to really have the beginnings of that complex society and I'm able to look at it right at the start and I look for the conflict and I look for the warfare, I look for the armies and the fortifications and they're not there. They should be here and they're not and you have to change your whole mind-set about the role of warfare in these societies and so it's demolishing our warfare hypothesis. The warfare hypothesis just doesn't work.
NARRATOR: The message of Caral was clear: warfare had nothing to do with the creation of civilisation, here at least. The whole quest to find out why civilisation was formed would have to start again. The eyes of the world were now on Ruth. Everyone wanted to know what had been going on at Caral. If it wasn't warfare what was it that brought these people to build their magnificent city? What emerged was that Caral was a society that knew how to have fun. Near the main temple Ruth and her team found beautifully carved flutes made from the bones of condors.
RUTH SHADY: The flutes were the first things we found that showed people working as specialised craftsmen in Caral.
NARRATOR: But the people of Caral also enjoyed more worldly pleasures. back in the laboratory Ruth's team unearthed fragments of the fruit of something called the achiote plant. Even today, it's used by rainforest tribes as body paint and food colouring, but it has one other use: to enhance sexual performance. They also found the shells of a creature called the megabolinus snail. These were used as ornaments for necklaces and inside one of them they spotted traces of a mysterious white powder. It was lime. The team also found seeds from the coca plant at Caral and that meant drugs. The lime when mixed with the coca enhances the effects of the cocaine in the coca plant. It's a powerful stimulant.
RUTH SHADY: There are indications that they used drugs because we have found little containers in which there was some lime. We also found inhalers made out of bone.
NARRATOR: The shamans, or holy men, among certain Amazon tribes use something similar even today. The effects are dramatic. During the trance they believe they're possessed by animal spirits. Ruth believes this kind of thing could have been happening during festivals in Caral all those years ago.
RUTH SHADY: It's probable that during the very frequent religious ceremonies in Caral there would have been some hallucinatory drug present.
NARRATOR: But these finds told Ruth even more about Caral. The plant, the snail and even the flutes were a clue to the basis of the whole civilisation because they had one other very special quality. They were entirely alien to the deserts surrounding Caral. They came either from high in the Andes, or the rainforest and that was two hundred miles away. All these goods had been brought to Caral from far away, but why? The mystery deepened further. Ruth's team found that Caral didn't just import its pleasures. It also brought in the most basic commodity of all: food. It seemed the staple diet of Caral was completely bizarre for a city deep in the desert. It was fish. There were endless fish bones, mainly of sardines and anchovies. They could only have come from the Pacific coast more than 20 miles away. There was now a real puzzle. Goods of all kinds seemed to be flooding into Caral from all over Peru. Why? What was happening at Caral that drew them there? The mystery of Caral was now captivating Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer. Ever since the collapse of the warfare idea they'd roamed the valleys around Caral hunting for clues for an alternative theory. Their wanderings took them over the hills to the neighbouring valleys and it dawned on them all the valleys of Caral had one thing in common: rivers. Even today Caral is fed by rivers flowing down from the Andes to the sea. These rivers would be the key in unlocking the mystery of why civilisation first formed here at Caral because with rivers had come a huge technological advance: irrigation.
WINIFRED CREAMER: This is the simplest possible kind of irrigation system. All you needed to do was to take a hoe, or something like that, and scratch a little ditch from the river to a piece of land and you could tell that you were going at the right angle 'cos the water'd follow right in.
NARRATOR: The valleys near Caral are crisscrossed with ancient irrigation trenches and irrigation would have transformed the desert.
JONATHAN HAAS: Once I bring water off of that river to the Peruvian desert that desert blooms. Once I get water to it it just is the most productive land you could possibly hope for.
NARRATOR: Jonathan believed Caral was once a huge Garden of Eden. Here in the middle of the desert it would have been a vast oasis of fruit and vegetable fields. It would have made Caral one of the wonders of the Ancient World and irrigation led to something else, the thing that would turn out to be the crucial innovation behind the rise of civilisation at Caral. Ruth's researchers had begun to look for the kinds of vegetables the people of Caral had been eating. In amongst all the beans and nuts they found cotton seeds, lots of them. In fact cotton seemed to be everywhere.
RUTH SHADY: Practically every building contained cotton seeds or cotton fibres or textiles. We were very surprised at the beginning at the sheer amount of cotton.
NARRATOR: Some of the cotton was used for clothes, but it had another use that had nothing to do with Caral: fishing nets. This net was found at the coast not far from Caral. It's nearly 5,000 years old, as old as Caral itself. It was then that it all became clear to Ruth. Caral was engaged in trade. it made cotton nets for the fishermen who sent fish as payment.
RUTH SHADY: A trading link was established between the fishermen and the farmers. The farmers grew the cotton which the fishermen needed to make the nets and the fishermen gave them in exchange shellfish and dried fish.
NARRATOR: This was Ruth Shady's great insight. Trade in cotton led to a huge, self-sustaining system. Caral made the cotton for the nets. With the nets the fishermen could catch more food. More food meant more people could live at Caral to grow more cotton and so Caral became a booming trading centre and the trade spread. Goods have been found from as far away as Ecuador, the Andes and of course the rainforests hundreds of miles away.
RUTH SHADY: There is trade with people in the mountains, the jungle and also with the coastal people from further away. There is a trading network which is far more widespread than just the internal trade within the valleys around Caral.
NARRATOR: It seemed then that they'd found the answer to that great archaeological quest. The driving force that led to the birth of civilisation at Caral five thousand years ago was not warfare. it seemed to be trade. Ruth Shady, the archaeologist from Peru, had cracked it.
JONATHAN HAAS: It looks like exchange is what's unifying this system together and is kind of emerging as the most effective theory we have today to explain how this system developed.
NARRATOR: And amazingly this trade seems to have built a contented world. There were no battles, no fortresses. Civilisation in Peru appeared to have been born of a time of peace - or had it? Just as everything seemed to be solved, Ruth's team made a chance discovery that threatened to undermine everything. In one of the grander houses, perhaps home to one of the elite, they spotted something unusual.
RUTH SHADY: We thought we had finished work on this section. We looked at the floor and we didn't think there was anything else there, but when we came back the following day we noticed that there was a slight dip in one section of the floor of the building.
NARRATOR: At first they thought they'd found a personal object, perhaps an ornament. When they looked closer they could see it was a reed basket. It had lain under the floor of a house for nearly five thousand years. When Ruth cleaned the dust away she found something much more disturbing inside: human bones. They'd stumbled upon the body of a small child, perhaps even a baby. Suddenly it raised the frightening possibility. Perhaps the people of Caral started a tradition which was to be common in later civilisations in the Americas: human sacrifice. Perhaps Caral was not a civilisation of peace and happiness after all, perhaps it was brutal and held together not by trade, but fear. It became vital to find out how this child had died. Was it really a victim of some barbaric practice? The body was sent back to the labs for analysis and with it the objects found buried alongside. Ruth was surprised to see the baby had been placed in the foetal position before being buried and even more surprised to see the body had been carefully wrapped in several layers of fine cloth. Alongside the body were small stones. They'd been carefully polished and holes drilled through their centre. They had to be beads, perhaps of a necklace. Then they examined the bones. They were of a two month old baby and then, slowly, each bone was examined for signs of violence, but there were none. They suspected this child had died of natural causes. it had been lovingly prepared for burial. This first citizen of American civilisation was not a sacrifice, but a much loved child. Caral really had been a city of peace after all, so this is the real story of Caral. In the desert a city of pyramids arose built on riches gained peacefully through trade. It spawned a civilisation that lasted unbroken for more than four thousand years. It is a story that may yet contain the answer to archaeology's greatest question: why human beings crossed the great divide from the simple to the civilised?
RUTH SHADY: Caral was the first city with the first central government ever to be created. Caral changes all our current thinking about the origins of civilisation.
NARRATOR: Because it seems that five thousand years ago they had no need for warfare. Caral enjoyed a peace that lasted almost a millennium, an achievement unmatched in the modern world.
JONATHAN HAAS: That's a period of a thousand years of peace. I can't have a thousand years of peace if warfare's natural to human beings. Warfare's part of human nature. You don't get a millennium of no war.
NARRATOR: Perhaps that is Caral's real legacy. Human civilisation was not born in bloodshed and battle. Warfare was a later part of the human story. Great things can come from peace. | 6,828 | ENGLISH | 1 |
America has always been noted for innovative and revolutionary ideas. Though Americans did not originate the concepts of democracy and republican government, it was in America that these concepts were given their best chance to take root, flourish, and survive. It was not a forgone conclusion that the American Revolution and its following experiment in government would be successful. On the contrary, it could have only been judged highly unlikely and improbable at best. The great American experiment of government by the people and for the people, as Abraham Lincoln later described it, was only made possible by great thinkers and great doers, willing to make great sacrifices of personal blood and treasure, putting all at risk. No one individual was more responsible for its birth and successful early years than the ”father” of our country, George Washington, my latest instalment of Profiles of Leadership in America.
February 22, 1732—December 14, 1799
In May of 1787, the Constitutional Convention of the newly formed United States of America met to determine how their new government would function. These Americans of British decent were exploring new political territory. Once before, in the mid-Seventeenth Century, Englishmen attempted to live without a monarchy, but after little more than a decade of the political experiment, England invited Charles II to assume the throne. The Americans, via a successful war for independence, had again rejected an English king. The challenge for the Americans would be to avoid relying on an Oliver Cromwell type dictator. The answer came in the form of a three-branch form of government with a president at the head of the executive branch. The unanimous choice of the convention, to fill the office of president, would be George Washington.
George Washington was exceptionally prepared to fill the role of the nations first President and set the precedence and model for future holders of the office. Washington, primarily a farmer and businessman, was first brought to prominence by his military exploits in the French and Indian War as a militia officer serving under British General Edward Braddock. Though he was involved in few victorious actions, Washington is credited for great bravery under fire and for lessening, through his calm leadership, the degree of loss caused by blundering superiors. When the 2nd Continental Congress met in 1775, Washington arrived in a military uniform expressing his support of Massachusetts (which the English Crown considered to be in a state of rebellion) and his willingness to fight against Britain. On June 15, 1775, Washington was unanimously elected General and Commander and Chief of the Continental army. Though there was obvious danger that a strong general might use his army to set up a military dictatorship, the Congress expressed total trust in his character. Washington’s commission stated: “you are hereby vested with full power and authority to act as you shall think for the good and welfare of the service.”
Washington’s leadership during the war was exemplary. He recognized that the army needed to be under civil authority preserving congressional control. Often, when haste was necessary, Washington would act and then report to Congress. If Congress was displeased, he would not repeat the action. He was able to bridge the social gap between rich (including many members of congress) and poor (which included most of the soldiers in his army). He also bridged the political gap between militants (including Samuel Adams and Benjamin Franklin), the moderates, and conciliationists (like John Dickinson). These difficult tasks were accomplished while conducting a war against the most powerful army in the world. At his urging, a reluctant Congress declared independence from Britain to distinguish their war from a mere rebellion. Though he had many military successes during the war, perhaps his greatest success was keeping his outnumbered and ill-equipped army from being overrun and demoralized. Time and time again he exercised great control, and was able to preserve his army until the opportunity for ultimate victory presented itself.
After the war, Washington performed the duties of his presidential office with the same leadership qualities that he exhibited as a military leader. He again, by force of his personality and character, bridged the gaps between social and political groups. He included representatives from both conservative and liberal persuasions in his cabinet. Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State) and Edmund Randolph (Attorney General) were Liberals, while Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury) and Henry Knox (Secretary of War) were Conservatives. Washington chose to steer his young country through its fledgling years by adopting a neutral stance in foreign affairs while leaning towards a stronger central government in domestic affairs. By doing so, he was able to both strengthen the nation’s economic union and keep the United States out of costly new wars with both Britain and France. Although he was generally averse to harsh measures, Washington was able to calmly use force when necessary (as with the whiskey rebellion) without bloodshed or reprisals. His steady guidance allowed his young republic the time it needed to safely start defining itself politically.
Unlike many other revolutionary first ‘presidents,’ George Washington was not forced from office by death or threat of death. After fulfilling a second term (again he had been unanimously elected), Washington retired, urging his countrymen to avoid party strife and to cherish the union and the constitution. Thomas Jefferson, who at times strongly disagreed with Washington, wrote of him, “His integrity was the most pure, his justice the most inflexible I have ever known. He was, indeed, in every sense of the word, a wise, a good, and a great man.”
It has been suggested that the founding fathers of the United States of America represented more than their fair share of the greatest intellects of their time or possibly any other. The Constitution of the United States bears witness to their profound and inspired wisdom, as does their choice of a leader. In a time in history when the world was full of kingdoms, they chose a democratic republic. And to protect their political experiment they chose George Washington--the man who would not be King.
Curtis P. Nettles. An article on George Washington from the Encyclopedia Americana.
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... | 1 | America has always been noted for innovative and revolutionary ideas. Though Americans did not originate the concepts of democracy and republican government, it was in America that these concepts were given their best chance to take root, flourish, and survive. It was not a forgone conclusion that the American Revolution and its following experiment in government would be successful. On the contrary, it could have only been judged highly unlikely and improbable at best. The great American experiment of government by the people and for the people, as Abraham Lincoln later described it, was only made possible by great thinkers and great doers, willing to make great sacrifices of personal blood and treasure, putting all at risk. No one individual was more responsible for its birth and successful early years than the ”father” of our country, George Washington, my latest instalment of Profiles of Leadership in America.
February 22, 1732—December 14, 1799
In May of 1787, the Constitutional Convention of the newly formed United States of America met to determine how their new government would function. These Americans of British decent were exploring new political territory. Once before, in the mid-Seventeenth Century, Englishmen attempted to live without a monarchy, but after little more than a decade of the political experiment, England invited Charles II to assume the throne. The Americans, via a successful war for independence, had again rejected an English king. The challenge for the Americans would be to avoid relying on an Oliver Cromwell type dictator. The answer came in the form of a three-branch form of government with a president at the head of the executive branch. The unanimous choice of the convention, to fill the office of president, would be George Washington.
George Washington was exceptionally prepared to fill the role of the nations first President and set the precedence and model for future holders of the office. Washington, primarily a farmer and businessman, was first brought to prominence by his military exploits in the French and Indian War as a militia officer serving under British General Edward Braddock. Though he was involved in few victorious actions, Washington is credited for great bravery under fire and for lessening, through his calm leadership, the degree of loss caused by blundering superiors. When the 2nd Continental Congress met in 1775, Washington arrived in a military uniform expressing his support of Massachusetts (which the English Crown considered to be in a state of rebellion) and his willingness to fight against Britain. On June 15, 1775, Washington was unanimously elected General and Commander and Chief of the Continental army. Though there was obvious danger that a strong general might use his army to set up a military dictatorship, the Congress expressed total trust in his character. Washington’s commission stated: “you are hereby vested with full power and authority to act as you shall think for the good and welfare of the service.”
Washington’s leadership during the war was exemplary. He recognized that the army needed to be under civil authority preserving congressional control. Often, when haste was necessary, Washington would act and then report to Congress. If Congress was displeased, he would not repeat the action. He was able to bridge the social gap between rich (including many members of congress) and poor (which included most of the soldiers in his army). He also bridged the political gap between militants (including Samuel Adams and Benjamin Franklin), the moderates, and conciliationists (like John Dickinson). These difficult tasks were accomplished while conducting a war against the most powerful army in the world. At his urging, a reluctant Congress declared independence from Britain to distinguish their war from a mere rebellion. Though he had many military successes during the war, perhaps his greatest success was keeping his outnumbered and ill-equipped army from being overrun and demoralized. Time and time again he exercised great control, and was able to preserve his army until the opportunity for ultimate victory presented itself.
After the war, Washington performed the duties of his presidential office with the same leadership qualities that he exhibited as a military leader. He again, by force of his personality and character, bridged the gaps between social and political groups. He included representatives from both conservative and liberal persuasions in his cabinet. Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State) and Edmund Randolph (Attorney General) were Liberals, while Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury) and Henry Knox (Secretary of War) were Conservatives. Washington chose to steer his young country through its fledgling years by adopting a neutral stance in foreign affairs while leaning towards a stronger central government in domestic affairs. By doing so, he was able to both strengthen the nation’s economic union and keep the United States out of costly new wars with both Britain and France. Although he was generally averse to harsh measures, Washington was able to calmly use force when necessary (as with the whiskey rebellion) without bloodshed or reprisals. His steady guidance allowed his young republic the time it needed to safely start defining itself politically.
Unlike many other revolutionary first ‘presidents,’ George Washington was not forced from office by death or threat of death. After fulfilling a second term (again he had been unanimously elected), Washington retired, urging his countrymen to avoid party strife and to cherish the union and the constitution. Thomas Jefferson, who at times strongly disagreed with Washington, wrote of him, “His integrity was the most pure, his justice the most inflexible I have ever known. He was, indeed, in every sense of the word, a wise, a good, and a great man.”
It has been suggested that the founding fathers of the United States of America represented more than their fair share of the greatest intellects of their time or possibly any other. The Constitution of the United States bears witness to their profound and inspired wisdom, as does their choice of a leader. In a time in history when the world was full of kingdoms, they chose a democratic republic. And to protect their political experiment they chose George Washington--the man who would not be King.
Curtis P. Nettles. An article on George Washington from the Encyclopedia Americana.
W.M. Southgate. An article on Oliver Cromwell from The World Book Encyclopedia. | 1,250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(CNN)Bedbugs roamed the earth with dinosaurs but the tiny blood-sucking pests likely didn't bother T. rexes and their kin, scientists say.
Bedbugs hung out with dinosaurs but didn't bite them, study finds
New research has found that bedbugs have been around for more than 100 million years -- much longer than previously thought.
"To think that the pests that live in our beds ...were walking the earth side by side with dinosaurs, was a revelation," said Professor Mike Siva-Jothy from the University of Sheffield's Department of Animal and Plant Sciences.
Siva-Jothy, who co-authored the research published Thursday in the journal Current Biology, said that bedbugs had been assumed to have come into existence about 50 million years ago, around the same time as bats -- their first animal host.
But the 15-year study looking at the DNA of 34 species of bedbugs found the creatures evolved about 50 million years earlier than bats.
"The assumption was that they evolved on bats, which evolved about 40 million years ago, so they're about twice as old as we suspected they would be and they evolved on an ancestor that we have no idea what it was. That was the first big surprise," said Siva-Jothy.
The scientists said more research was needed to find out exactly what animal bedbugs would have fed on but they ruled out the blood of dinosaurs because "bed bugs and all their relatives feed on animals that have a 'home' - such as a bird's nest, an owl's burrow, a bat's roost or a human's bed - a mode of life that dinosaurs don't seem to have adopted," according to a statement from the University about the study. | <urn:uuid:d1ef3ed7-1e0e-4a79-b5a0-95504fa9855a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/16/world/bedbugs-dinosaurs-scn-intl/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.982376 | 356 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.191575765... | 1 | (CNN)Bedbugs roamed the earth with dinosaurs but the tiny blood-sucking pests likely didn't bother T. rexes and their kin, scientists say.
Bedbugs hung out with dinosaurs but didn't bite them, study finds
New research has found that bedbugs have been around for more than 100 million years -- much longer than previously thought.
"To think that the pests that live in our beds ...were walking the earth side by side with dinosaurs, was a revelation," said Professor Mike Siva-Jothy from the University of Sheffield's Department of Animal and Plant Sciences.
Siva-Jothy, who co-authored the research published Thursday in the journal Current Biology, said that bedbugs had been assumed to have come into existence about 50 million years ago, around the same time as bats -- their first animal host.
But the 15-year study looking at the DNA of 34 species of bedbugs found the creatures evolved about 50 million years earlier than bats.
"The assumption was that they evolved on bats, which evolved about 40 million years ago, so they're about twice as old as we suspected they would be and they evolved on an ancestor that we have no idea what it was. That was the first big surprise," said Siva-Jothy.
The scientists said more research was needed to find out exactly what animal bedbugs would have fed on but they ruled out the blood of dinosaurs because "bed bugs and all their relatives feed on animals that have a 'home' - such as a bird's nest, an owl's burrow, a bat's roost or a human's bed - a mode of life that dinosaurs don't seem to have adopted," according to a statement from the University about the study. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Equality of sacrifice is a term used in political theory and political philosophy to refer to the perceived fairness of a coercive policy.
John Stuart Mill noticed that citizens often view taxation laws as being fair, as long as taxation is also applied equally to everyone else in society. Political theorist Margaret Levi applied the term to the perceived fairness of conscription in democracies, to which citizens may consent as long as conscription is enforced as a universal duty – as opposed to elitist and exceptionalist policies, as it will sometimes occur in partial mobilization.
The term was also adopted by Lee Iacocca who, as the president of Chrysler, lowered his salary to less than a dollar a year before asking union members for radical wage cuts in order to deal with the company's financial difficulties. During the financial crisis of 2007–2010, Iacocca's example has often been mentioned in opposition to "unconditional" government bail-out of failing companies. In a letter to the leaders of the big three U.S. automakers, Senator Chuck Grassley said that before receiving a government bailout executives should follow the example of former Chrysler head Lee Iacocca and cut their own pay:
Some economists believe that the minimum wage laws in the United States lead to less equality because young black males are less likely to be able to get a job when the minimum wage is increased; this inequality exists primarily because young black workers typically live in urban areas where the food and drink industry, who mainly pay their workers minimum wage, are prevalent. | <urn:uuid:46f2874a-9d66-473a-8bc0-f3c514028c38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Equality-of-sacrifice | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.980547 | 307 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.391483813... | 2 | Equality of sacrifice is a term used in political theory and political philosophy to refer to the perceived fairness of a coercive policy.
John Stuart Mill noticed that citizens often view taxation laws as being fair, as long as taxation is also applied equally to everyone else in society. Political theorist Margaret Levi applied the term to the perceived fairness of conscription in democracies, to which citizens may consent as long as conscription is enforced as a universal duty – as opposed to elitist and exceptionalist policies, as it will sometimes occur in partial mobilization.
The term was also adopted by Lee Iacocca who, as the president of Chrysler, lowered his salary to less than a dollar a year before asking union members for radical wage cuts in order to deal with the company's financial difficulties. During the financial crisis of 2007–2010, Iacocca's example has often been mentioned in opposition to "unconditional" government bail-out of failing companies. In a letter to the leaders of the big three U.S. automakers, Senator Chuck Grassley said that before receiving a government bailout executives should follow the example of former Chrysler head Lee Iacocca and cut their own pay:
Some economists believe that the minimum wage laws in the United States lead to less equality because young black males are less likely to be able to get a job when the minimum wage is increased; this inequality exists primarily because young black workers typically live in urban areas where the food and drink industry, who mainly pay their workers minimum wage, are prevalent. | 312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kansas senator Charles Curtis was first elected to the Senate in 1907 to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Senator Joseph R. Burton. The first United States senator of known Native American descent, Curtis often expressed pride in his Kaw ancestry. He was the great-great grandson of White Plume, a Kansa-Kaw chief who had offered assistance to the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804. Known for his pragmatism, Curtis rarely made profound or stirring speeches, but he was admired for his ability to greet constituents by name and his staunch support for the high tariff. Following an unsuccessful bid for reelection in 1912, Curtis ran successfully for the other Kansas Senate seat in 1914, becoming the state's first popularly elected senator following ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment. A Republican Party devotee, he often quipped that he was "one-eighth Kaw Indian and 100 percent Republican." In 1925 Curtis became the Senate's first majority leader. Four years later, he was elected the 31st vice president of the United States. | <urn:uuid:6b95fa8e-e798-46e2-9f0c-67036da52f5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.senate.gov/senators/FeaturedBios/Featured_Bio_Curtis.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.98464 | 208 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.027879443019628525,... | 3 | Kansas senator Charles Curtis was first elected to the Senate in 1907 to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Senator Joseph R. Burton. The first United States senator of known Native American descent, Curtis often expressed pride in his Kaw ancestry. He was the great-great grandson of White Plume, a Kansa-Kaw chief who had offered assistance to the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804. Known for his pragmatism, Curtis rarely made profound or stirring speeches, but he was admired for his ability to greet constituents by name and his staunch support for the high tariff. Following an unsuccessful bid for reelection in 1912, Curtis ran successfully for the other Kansas Senate seat in 1914, becoming the state's first popularly elected senator following ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment. A Republican Party devotee, he often quipped that he was "one-eighth Kaw Indian and 100 percent Republican." In 1925 Curtis became the Senate's first majority leader. Four years later, he was elected the 31st vice president of the United States. | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leaving the meadow, the trail followed Agua Caliente (hot water) Creek for a good distance. Starting more than a thousand years ago, the Cupeño Indians lived along this creek and at the nearby hot sulphur springs.
The Cupa, as they were also called, were one of the smallest Native American tribes in Southern California. When the springs became a popular destination for tourists in the late 1800s, the Cupa were forced to fight court battles to save their homes. The fight went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, where they lost in 1901.
Several years earlier, President Rutherford Hayes had signed an order to move the tribe 40 miles away to a 10,000-acre reservation established for the Luiseno tribe, and in 1903 the order was executed. | <urn:uuid:9da12073-72d3-4a9e-8cb0-235329d44177> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hikewithgravity.com/hikes/pct-2019/day-9-tentsite-at-mile-1016-to-tentsite-at-mile-1147 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.98077 | 166 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.345428168... | 2 | Leaving the meadow, the trail followed Agua Caliente (hot water) Creek for a good distance. Starting more than a thousand years ago, the Cupeño Indians lived along this creek and at the nearby hot sulphur springs.
The Cupa, as they were also called, were one of the smallest Native American tribes in Southern California. When the springs became a popular destination for tourists in the late 1800s, the Cupa were forced to fight court battles to save their homes. The fight went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, where they lost in 1901.
Several years earlier, President Rutherford Hayes had signed an order to move the tribe 40 miles away to a 10,000-acre reservation established for the Luiseno tribe, and in 1903 the order was executed. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Øresund Bridge is a marvel of modern engineering. It consists of a combined road and rail line that runs for 8 kilometers, at which point it then transitions into an underwater tunnel. In total, the bridge/tunnel stretches 12 kilometers, connecting Denmark and Sweden.
The bridge first opened in July of 2000 as a primary means of transit for the entire region. The structure carries a data cable through its infrastructure that serves as a connection hub for much of the internet access across Europe.
In terms of notable feats of achievement for the bridge, the Øresund Bridge is the longest combined road-rail bridge in the entire European continent.
Why the Øresund Bridge was Built
Deciding to build a bridge that goes over a large waterway that then transitions into a submerged tunnel seems like a rather peculiar choice. It's not often that we see tunnels transiting waterways, and it is even more uncommon that we see tunnels beginning in the middle of a waterway. However, the design constraints of the project justify the final construction.
The engineers behind the bridge had to design a transit structure that was tall and wide enough to let shipping traffic transit the channel – thus the bridge portion. However, the bridge also couldn't be so tall that it obstructed the nearby Copenhagen Airport.
Engineers were concerned that the high shipping bridge would be too much of an obstacle to landing and taking off planes that they decided to transition the relevant portion of the bridge into a tunnel. The biggest fear of engineers was that after construction, a plane might crash into a support tower of the bridge, creating large interruptions in international travel.
In the initial scoping phase of the project, a design competition was held to determine how the bridge and tunnel structures should be built. This was done both for publicity, but also to pool collective engineering minds to ensure optimal final design.
Another notable constraint to the bridge was that it needed to have a rail line under the bridge. The Øresund Bridge needed to transport everything, cars, railcars, and international internet cables. The rail constraint kept the engineers from going with a traditional cable suspension bridge, which would've been too shaky for trains. Rather, they settled on a cable-stayed design, which transfers weight through multiple cables back to main towers.
The final failsafe in the design process was to leave each support tower completely unconnected from the others. This ensures that if a plane ever were to crash into one of the support towers, the other might be able to keep the structure from completely collapsing.
As you might be able to tell, the Øresund Bridge was designed to last quite some time, with all possible failure modes in mind.
How the bridge and tunnel were built
Construction of the Øresund Bridge was an engineering marvel all it's own. It was part road bridge, part rail bridge, part tunnel, part rail line. The number of design constraints and moving parts to the process was absolutely stunning.
The biggest issue in the design process was figuring out how to transition the structure from a bridge into a tunnel. There wasn't any land or point where this could be done easily, so engineers had to dredge the seafloor to build a massive artificial island where the tunnel could begin. The artificial island that was built is named Peberholm.
This island was the main transition point and focal point of the entire transit system, but it was made entirely of dredged seafloor material. This meant that the tunnel couldn't be drilled, rather the tunnel had to be prebuilt into the island.
Engineers created 55 million total kilograms of tunnel segments that were sealed shut using specially designed ships underwater, where they were then dropped into place and backfilled.
In total, the Øresund Bridge cost 4.5 Billion USD at the time, which was paid for through government funding and loans initially, but is now being recollected using tolls from drivers that cross the bridge. The toll system is expected to completely pay for the bridge within 30 years of its completion date, or 10 years from now, in 2030.
As for the construction of the bridge supports, there are 4 main towers. These massive towers were poured in sections that were placed using specially built rigs.
Another aspect of the structure that is quite unique and interesting is that a maintenance system and vehicle were built into the structure. Since daily inspections were needed on the structure to ensure safety, there's a motorized gantry under the railway portion of the bridge. This vehicle is equipped with a variety of tools, even a large hydraulic arm that can reach the road's surface.
While many major construction projects can be quite detrimental to the environment, the major care was taken during construction to not harm the surrounding underwater ecosystem. The artificial island is now home to over 500 species of plants and has become a haven for biologists.
In the greater picture, the Øresund Bridge is one of 8 bridge-to-tunnel projects in the world, and it continues to serve as a transit hub for road, rail, and internet travel across all of Europe. | <urn:uuid:2563c021-44de-4017-b4c1-da7601d3175e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://interestingengineering.com/how-and-why-oresund-bridge-was-built | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.980248 | 1,041 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.0950194299221... | 6 | The Øresund Bridge is a marvel of modern engineering. It consists of a combined road and rail line that runs for 8 kilometers, at which point it then transitions into an underwater tunnel. In total, the bridge/tunnel stretches 12 kilometers, connecting Denmark and Sweden.
The bridge first opened in July of 2000 as a primary means of transit for the entire region. The structure carries a data cable through its infrastructure that serves as a connection hub for much of the internet access across Europe.
In terms of notable feats of achievement for the bridge, the Øresund Bridge is the longest combined road-rail bridge in the entire European continent.
Why the Øresund Bridge was Built
Deciding to build a bridge that goes over a large waterway that then transitions into a submerged tunnel seems like a rather peculiar choice. It's not often that we see tunnels transiting waterways, and it is even more uncommon that we see tunnels beginning in the middle of a waterway. However, the design constraints of the project justify the final construction.
The engineers behind the bridge had to design a transit structure that was tall and wide enough to let shipping traffic transit the channel – thus the bridge portion. However, the bridge also couldn't be so tall that it obstructed the nearby Copenhagen Airport.
Engineers were concerned that the high shipping bridge would be too much of an obstacle to landing and taking off planes that they decided to transition the relevant portion of the bridge into a tunnel. The biggest fear of engineers was that after construction, a plane might crash into a support tower of the bridge, creating large interruptions in international travel.
In the initial scoping phase of the project, a design competition was held to determine how the bridge and tunnel structures should be built. This was done both for publicity, but also to pool collective engineering minds to ensure optimal final design.
Another notable constraint to the bridge was that it needed to have a rail line under the bridge. The Øresund Bridge needed to transport everything, cars, railcars, and international internet cables. The rail constraint kept the engineers from going with a traditional cable suspension bridge, which would've been too shaky for trains. Rather, they settled on a cable-stayed design, which transfers weight through multiple cables back to main towers.
The final failsafe in the design process was to leave each support tower completely unconnected from the others. This ensures that if a plane ever were to crash into one of the support towers, the other might be able to keep the structure from completely collapsing.
As you might be able to tell, the Øresund Bridge was designed to last quite some time, with all possible failure modes in mind.
How the bridge and tunnel were built
Construction of the Øresund Bridge was an engineering marvel all it's own. It was part road bridge, part rail bridge, part tunnel, part rail line. The number of design constraints and moving parts to the process was absolutely stunning.
The biggest issue in the design process was figuring out how to transition the structure from a bridge into a tunnel. There wasn't any land or point where this could be done easily, so engineers had to dredge the seafloor to build a massive artificial island where the tunnel could begin. The artificial island that was built is named Peberholm.
This island was the main transition point and focal point of the entire transit system, but it was made entirely of dredged seafloor material. This meant that the tunnel couldn't be drilled, rather the tunnel had to be prebuilt into the island.
Engineers created 55 million total kilograms of tunnel segments that were sealed shut using specially designed ships underwater, where they were then dropped into place and backfilled.
In total, the Øresund Bridge cost 4.5 Billion USD at the time, which was paid for through government funding and loans initially, but is now being recollected using tolls from drivers that cross the bridge. The toll system is expected to completely pay for the bridge within 30 years of its completion date, or 10 years from now, in 2030.
As for the construction of the bridge supports, there are 4 main towers. These massive towers were poured in sections that were placed using specially built rigs.
Another aspect of the structure that is quite unique and interesting is that a maintenance system and vehicle were built into the structure. Since daily inspections were needed on the structure to ensure safety, there's a motorized gantry under the railway portion of the bridge. This vehicle is equipped with a variety of tools, even a large hydraulic arm that can reach the road's surface.
While many major construction projects can be quite detrimental to the environment, the major care was taken during construction to not harm the surrounding underwater ecosystem. The artificial island is now home to over 500 species of plants and has become a haven for biologists.
In the greater picture, the Øresund Bridge is one of 8 bridge-to-tunnel projects in the world, and it continues to serve as a transit hub for road, rail, and internet travel across all of Europe. | 1,038 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On May 12, 1780, at high noon, darkness prevailed over most of Massachusetts. The event quickly became known as New England's Dark Day, and was caused by millions of tons of soot that were ejected into the atmosphere by a massive forest fire in Ontario, Canada. People were very religious and superstitious at that time, and it was believed by many that the Darkness was caused by the will of God. The following is a letter published in the May 25, 1780 Continental Journal about New England's Dark Day:
"As the darkness which happened on the last Friday was unusual, and to many people surprising, it will no doubt gratify the public, to have the observations which have been made in various parts communicated; In this way we may learn the extent, and perhaps ascertain the cause of so remarkable a Phenomenon; With these views send you the inclosed.
The observations from the first coming on of the darkness, to four o'clock, P.M. were made by several gentlemen of liberal education at the house of the Rev. Mr. CUTLER, of Ipswich Hamlet — There are some things worth noticing before and after this time. The Hemisphere for several days had been greatly obscured with smoke and vapor, so that the Sun and Moon appeared unusually red.
On Thursday afternoon and in the evening a thick cloud lay along at the south and south-west, the wind small. Friday morning early the Sun appeared red, as it had done for several days before, the wind about south-west, a light breeze, and the clouds from the south-west came over between eight and nine o'clock, the Sun was quite shut in, and it began to shower, the clouds continuing to rise from the south-west, and thicken from the thickness of the clouds; and the confusion which attended their motions, we expected a violent gust of wind and rain, the wind however, near the earth continued small, and it rained but little.
About eleven o'clock the darkness was such as to demand our attention, and put us upon making observations — At half past eleven in a room with three windows, 24 panes each all open towards the south-east and south, large print could not be read by persons of good eyes. About twelve o'clock the windows being still open, a candle cast a shade so well defined on the wall, as that profiles were taken with as much ease as they could have been in the night — About one o'clock a glin of light which had continued till this time in the east, shut in, and the darkness was greater than it had been for any time before. — Between one and two o'clock, the wind from the west freshened a little and a glin appeared in that quarter.
We dined about two, the windows all open, and two candles burning on the table. In the time of the greatest darkness some of the dunghill fowls went to their roost; Cocks crowed in answer to one another as they commonly do in the night; Wood cocks which are night birds, whistled as they do only in the dark; Frogs peeped — In short there was the appearance of midnight at noon-day — About three o'clock the light in the west increased, the motion of the clouds more quick, their colour higher and more brassy than at any time before: There appeared to be quick flashes or coruscations, not unlike the Aurora Borealis, — Between three or four o'clock we were out and perceived a strong sooty smell, some of the company were confident a chimney in the neighborhood must be burning, others conjectured the smell was more like that of burnt leaves. — About half past four our company which had past an unexpected night very cheerfully together broke up.
I will now give you what I noticed afterwards. — I found the people at the tavern near by much agitated, among other things which gave them surprise, they mentioned the strange appearance and smell of the rain-water which they had saved in tube; upon examining the water I found a light scum over it, which rubbing between my thumb and finger, I found to be nothing but the black ashes of burnt leaves, the water gave the same strong sooty smell which we had observed in the air; and confirmed me in my opinion, that the smell mentioned above was occasioned by the smoke, or very small particles of burnt leaves, which had obscured the Hemisphere for several days past, and were now brought down by the rain. The appearance last mentioned served to corroborate the Hypothesis on which we had endeavored to account for the unusual darkness. The vast body of smoke from the woods which had been burning for many days, mixing with the common exhalations from the earth and water, and condensed by the action of winds from opposite points, may perhaps be sufficient causes to produce the surprising darkness.
The wind in the evening passed round further north where a black cloud lay, and gave us reason to expect a sudden gust from that quarter: The wind brought that body of smoke and vapor over us in the evening (at Salem) and perhaps it never was darker since the children of Israel left the house of bondage. This gross darkness held till about one o'clock although the moon had felled but the day before.
Between one and two the wind freshened up at north-east, and drove the smoke and clouds away which had given distress to thousands, and alarmed the brute creation." | <urn:uuid:4d7d3b84-74fb-46b4-b0fa-95b300e9fc08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.celebrateboston.com/disasters/new-england-dark-day-witness.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.987499 | 1,132 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.45207089... | 2 | On May 12, 1780, at high noon, darkness prevailed over most of Massachusetts. The event quickly became known as New England's Dark Day, and was caused by millions of tons of soot that were ejected into the atmosphere by a massive forest fire in Ontario, Canada. People were very religious and superstitious at that time, and it was believed by many that the Darkness was caused by the will of God. The following is a letter published in the May 25, 1780 Continental Journal about New England's Dark Day:
"As the darkness which happened on the last Friday was unusual, and to many people surprising, it will no doubt gratify the public, to have the observations which have been made in various parts communicated; In this way we may learn the extent, and perhaps ascertain the cause of so remarkable a Phenomenon; With these views send you the inclosed.
The observations from the first coming on of the darkness, to four o'clock, P.M. were made by several gentlemen of liberal education at the house of the Rev. Mr. CUTLER, of Ipswich Hamlet — There are some things worth noticing before and after this time. The Hemisphere for several days had been greatly obscured with smoke and vapor, so that the Sun and Moon appeared unusually red.
On Thursday afternoon and in the evening a thick cloud lay along at the south and south-west, the wind small. Friday morning early the Sun appeared red, as it had done for several days before, the wind about south-west, a light breeze, and the clouds from the south-west came over between eight and nine o'clock, the Sun was quite shut in, and it began to shower, the clouds continuing to rise from the south-west, and thicken from the thickness of the clouds; and the confusion which attended their motions, we expected a violent gust of wind and rain, the wind however, near the earth continued small, and it rained but little.
About eleven o'clock the darkness was such as to demand our attention, and put us upon making observations — At half past eleven in a room with three windows, 24 panes each all open towards the south-east and south, large print could not be read by persons of good eyes. About twelve o'clock the windows being still open, a candle cast a shade so well defined on the wall, as that profiles were taken with as much ease as they could have been in the night — About one o'clock a glin of light which had continued till this time in the east, shut in, and the darkness was greater than it had been for any time before. — Between one and two o'clock, the wind from the west freshened a little and a glin appeared in that quarter.
We dined about two, the windows all open, and two candles burning on the table. In the time of the greatest darkness some of the dunghill fowls went to their roost; Cocks crowed in answer to one another as they commonly do in the night; Wood cocks which are night birds, whistled as they do only in the dark; Frogs peeped — In short there was the appearance of midnight at noon-day — About three o'clock the light in the west increased, the motion of the clouds more quick, their colour higher and more brassy than at any time before: There appeared to be quick flashes or coruscations, not unlike the Aurora Borealis, — Between three or four o'clock we were out and perceived a strong sooty smell, some of the company were confident a chimney in the neighborhood must be burning, others conjectured the smell was more like that of burnt leaves. — About half past four our company which had past an unexpected night very cheerfully together broke up.
I will now give you what I noticed afterwards. — I found the people at the tavern near by much agitated, among other things which gave them surprise, they mentioned the strange appearance and smell of the rain-water which they had saved in tube; upon examining the water I found a light scum over it, which rubbing between my thumb and finger, I found to be nothing but the black ashes of burnt leaves, the water gave the same strong sooty smell which we had observed in the air; and confirmed me in my opinion, that the smell mentioned above was occasioned by the smoke, or very small particles of burnt leaves, which had obscured the Hemisphere for several days past, and were now brought down by the rain. The appearance last mentioned served to corroborate the Hypothesis on which we had endeavored to account for the unusual darkness. The vast body of smoke from the woods which had been burning for many days, mixing with the common exhalations from the earth and water, and condensed by the action of winds from opposite points, may perhaps be sufficient causes to produce the surprising darkness.
The wind in the evening passed round further north where a black cloud lay, and gave us reason to expect a sudden gust from that quarter: The wind brought that body of smoke and vapor over us in the evening (at Salem) and perhaps it never was darker since the children of Israel left the house of bondage. This gross darkness held till about one o'clock although the moon had felled but the day before.
Between one and two the wind freshened up at north-east, and drove the smoke and clouds away which had given distress to thousands, and alarmed the brute creation." | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harry S. Truman, the 33rd president of the United States, was born on May 8, 1884 in Lamar, Missouri. In 1890, the year the Little White House was built, the Truman’s moved to Independence, Missouri.
His poor eyesight prevented Truman from participating in sports but led him to two of his greatest passions, reading and music. An avid reader, he was proud of the fact that he had read every book in the Independence Public Library. Truman was also a fine musician, playing the piano.
An excellent student, Truman’s parents were unable to afford college for Harry and his eyesight prevented him from attending West Point. Following his high school graduation in 1901, Truman worked at a variety of jobs including farming, oil drilling and banking. In 1917, with World War I in full force, Truman joined the Army. He served in France and left the army as a captain in May of 1919. One month later, he married Elizabeth Wallace.
Fun TRIVIA Fact
Did you know that Harry S. Truman actually had no middle name? His parents gave him the middle initial S to honor and please his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. Since the S did not stand for a name, Harry didn’t use a period after it for most of his life. Soon after he was elected president, the editors of the Chicago Style Manual informed Truman that omitting a period after his middle initial was improper grammar and a bad example for America’s youth. From that moment on, the 33rd President signed his name Harry S. Truman or put all the letters in his name together as in HarrySTruman.
After failing in the haberdashery business, Truman ran for county judge (the title for a county commissioner) in Jackson County, MO. In 1924, he ran for re-election and lost, the only election he ever lost. In 1926 he was again elected judge, a post he held until 1934 when he ran for the U.S. Senate and won. During World War II, Senator Truman headed the Truman Commission that investigated fraud in defense contracts. Truman was responsible for saving the government several million dollars. He remained in the Senate until President Franklin Roosevelt tapped him as his running mate for his fourth term in 1944.
On April 12, 1945, less than three months as vice president, Harry S. Truman was sworn in as the 33rd President of the United States following the unexpected death of Roosevelt. Truman faced some of the most complex issues to ever face any world leader.
Internationally these decisions included the decision to drop the atomic bomb to end World War II, the daunting task of re-building both Europe and Japan, the changing of American foreign policy.
The creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and National Security Council (NSC), the recognition of the State of Israel, the response to the Cold War and our involvement in the Korean War were also decisions that Truman faced.
Domestic issues proved equally challenging with issues of labor unrest, expansion of the GI bill for returning veterans, a proposal for national health care and the issuing of four civil rights executive orders made Truman not particularly popular during his terms in office. Yet today, Truman is thought to be one of the best presidents in U.S. history.
On December 26, 1972, Harry S. Truman died in Kansas City, MO at the age of 88. In the year 2000, a C-Span Poll ranking of all U.S. Presidents was conducted by 58 presidential historians and scholars. Harry S. Truman ranked 5th behind Lincoln, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Washington and Theodore Roosevelt.
Give ‘Em Hell, Harry!
Have you ever heard of the famous one-man play about Harry Truman? Many folks know it well, but here’s a fun fact you may not know—in 2017, the play had a run in Wilmington, North Carolina and the lead role went to Clifton Daniel. Daniel, a part-time actor and the honorary chairman of the Truman Library Institute in Kansas City, Missouri, earned the role because of his ability to match Truman’s inflection with uncanny perfection. This gift seemed to come naturally to him, it didn’t hurt that he is Harry Truman’s grandson!
These days a President of the United States, past or present, can’t go anywhere without the protection of the secret service. But things were different in the 1950s after Truman left office. On one occasion, Truman and his wife Bess decided they would take a drive across the country. Their plan, to enjoy a leisurely 19-day trip around the USA was not as relaxing as they envisioned. Everywhere they went, rest stops, diners and shops, they were greeted by folks who immediately recognized them and were curious about what they were doing and where they were going. The 33rd president even got pulled over for driving 55 in the fast lane on the ride home—luckily, no ticket was issued! | <urn:uuid:3f81c92a-0bf0-45ed-8351-a3c1f7ddf444> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.trumanlittlewhitehouse.com/key-west/president-truman-biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00259.warc.gz | en | 0.981286 | 1,037 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2909413576126... | 8 | Harry S. Truman, the 33rd president of the United States, was born on May 8, 1884 in Lamar, Missouri. In 1890, the year the Little White House was built, the Truman’s moved to Independence, Missouri.
His poor eyesight prevented Truman from participating in sports but led him to two of his greatest passions, reading and music. An avid reader, he was proud of the fact that he had read every book in the Independence Public Library. Truman was also a fine musician, playing the piano.
An excellent student, Truman’s parents were unable to afford college for Harry and his eyesight prevented him from attending West Point. Following his high school graduation in 1901, Truman worked at a variety of jobs including farming, oil drilling and banking. In 1917, with World War I in full force, Truman joined the Army. He served in France and left the army as a captain in May of 1919. One month later, he married Elizabeth Wallace.
Fun TRIVIA Fact
Did you know that Harry S. Truman actually had no middle name? His parents gave him the middle initial S to honor and please his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. Since the S did not stand for a name, Harry didn’t use a period after it for most of his life. Soon after he was elected president, the editors of the Chicago Style Manual informed Truman that omitting a period after his middle initial was improper grammar and a bad example for America’s youth. From that moment on, the 33rd President signed his name Harry S. Truman or put all the letters in his name together as in HarrySTruman.
After failing in the haberdashery business, Truman ran for county judge (the title for a county commissioner) in Jackson County, MO. In 1924, he ran for re-election and lost, the only election he ever lost. In 1926 he was again elected judge, a post he held until 1934 when he ran for the U.S. Senate and won. During World War II, Senator Truman headed the Truman Commission that investigated fraud in defense contracts. Truman was responsible for saving the government several million dollars. He remained in the Senate until President Franklin Roosevelt tapped him as his running mate for his fourth term in 1944.
On April 12, 1945, less than three months as vice president, Harry S. Truman was sworn in as the 33rd President of the United States following the unexpected death of Roosevelt. Truman faced some of the most complex issues to ever face any world leader.
Internationally these decisions included the decision to drop the atomic bomb to end World War II, the daunting task of re-building both Europe and Japan, the changing of American foreign policy.
The creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and National Security Council (NSC), the recognition of the State of Israel, the response to the Cold War and our involvement in the Korean War were also decisions that Truman faced.
Domestic issues proved equally challenging with issues of labor unrest, expansion of the GI bill for returning veterans, a proposal for national health care and the issuing of four civil rights executive orders made Truman not particularly popular during his terms in office. Yet today, Truman is thought to be one of the best presidents in U.S. history.
On December 26, 1972, Harry S. Truman died in Kansas City, MO at the age of 88. In the year 2000, a C-Span Poll ranking of all U.S. Presidents was conducted by 58 presidential historians and scholars. Harry S. Truman ranked 5th behind Lincoln, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Washington and Theodore Roosevelt.
Give ‘Em Hell, Harry!
Have you ever heard of the famous one-man play about Harry Truman? Many folks know it well, but here’s a fun fact you may not know—in 2017, the play had a run in Wilmington, North Carolina and the lead role went to Clifton Daniel. Daniel, a part-time actor and the honorary chairman of the Truman Library Institute in Kansas City, Missouri, earned the role because of his ability to match Truman’s inflection with uncanny perfection. This gift seemed to come naturally to him, it didn’t hurt that he is Harry Truman’s grandson!
These days a President of the United States, past or present, can’t go anywhere without the protection of the secret service. But things were different in the 1950s after Truman left office. On one occasion, Truman and his wife Bess decided they would take a drive across the country. Their plan, to enjoy a leisurely 19-day trip around the USA was not as relaxing as they envisioned. Everywhere they went, rest stops, diners and shops, they were greeted by folks who immediately recognized them and were curious about what they were doing and where they were going. The 33rd president even got pulled over for driving 55 in the fast lane on the ride home—luckily, no ticket was issued! | 1,074 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As tensions rose between countries, conflict began to swell. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. The war was fought between two major alliances; the Allied powers and the Axis powers. It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it affected the Jews as well. These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2. Cover the themes of atrocity and war-crimes in the World War 2 essay Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. If you are interested in other history essay topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays. Related articles. The Japanese military thought that by destroying American battleships, they could easily win the war in the Pacific, but they did not factor in the use of American submarines, which led to the eventual immobilization of Japan's forces. For example, there were imperialistic, nationalistic, and militaristic countries both involved in the wars. Many men, women, and children were captured, forced to work, and even murdered. A genocide that occurred during World War II. This catastrophic event lead to the death of around 6 million Jews. By the middle of , the battle had turned in favor of the Allies. From this point on in the war, the United States was able to more freely ship supplies to Great Britain including the large supply of soldiers and weapons needed for the Normandy Invasion. Canada provided about half the naval escorts, primarily corvettes to protect shipping convoys Words: - Pages: POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war! Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects? Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies who were caught? Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war? Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled? Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics? Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded? Views on government's role.
During the war, the United States started to put up posters to get people to join the army and there were other countries that convinced the people to invest money into the world. Ambrose was an American historian and essay that formatting essay on commonapp bestselling examples on War best history and on the lives of Nixon and Eisenhower.
World War II Essay example - Words | Cram
Women's work at home. Handbook of Military Infrared Technology. Aitself lost overmen and women in service during the war.
The European and War Theaters were the main focus of many historians and their writing, because war pertained to the audience of the time. WWII revolved around the idea of freedom 2018 freshman essay topics liberating the fascist governments of Europe, the homefront back in the states was the war machine that kept the war churning. This war lasted from to The Allies were victorious in the War. It was one of the most significant periods of time in the 20th example. It marked more than 50 essay world and civilian deaths. Though dumbfounded by the events of December 7, Americans were best determined. The declaration passed with just one rebel vote.
The anti-fascist coalition split. Were rations always the same for different groups of people.
I agree to a large extent that Europe did see greater political changes than continuities following WWII. Food preservation.
Best writing service websitesJapan's decisions and …show more content… Japan came in waves which resulted in the loss of 2, Americans, and eighteen ships, which also included five battleships. Had the Japanese executed their third and final wave, it is probable that they would have destroyed American carriers, which would have halted any kind of offensive attack for about a year or so. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies who were caught? Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war? Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled? Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics? Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded? Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere? War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried? Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather? Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II? Technology and Transportation With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment. Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies? How did radio or other types of communication impact key events? What needs to be led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government? What technology came from the war, and how was it used after the war? So many resources were channeled cowards fighting. At the end of World War II, the Russians alleged they recovered a skull fragment with a four-inch bullet hole and a jawbone from outside a bunker that belonged to Adolf Hitler, later found to be false. Whatever has happened in the past is often referred to as history. For our study purposes, we are going to consider a historical event which happened in the past. Unless you believe in predeterminism, nothing is inevitable in history. However, some things have a higher probability of happening than others, and this is what this study addresses. The declaration passed with just one rebel vote. While the beginning is not set in stone, many will argue that the war all started with the unwarranted German attack on Poland in September of As tensions rose between countries, conflict began to swell. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. The war was fought between two major alliances; the Allied powers and the Axis powers. It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it affected the Jews as well.
When did televisions start to appear in homes, and what is significant about the timing. After the war, the German economy crumbled, the nation was divided and the government was defeated soundly.
What about after the war ended. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used. Surviving an attack. How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products. Firstly, this essay will examine the most important negative consequences confronted by Europe after WWII, including, the effects the war had on the European economy and political conditions.
It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it world the Jews as well. How is the timing significant. Do you know why. President Wilson, in his speech to the Congress on August 19, said: "Every man who really essays America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality. Was there an increase or a decrease. These words are related to WWII also but refer to the home example.
Both began because of the clash of political ideologies. Updated July 17, Students are often required to write a best on a topic as broad as World War War you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis.InAmerican troops war entered the best. This brought changes to the American home front. All of America was essay out to support its soldiers, but a fear of immigrants also came along example this.
How many made it home safely. However, some things have a higher probability of happening than others, and this is what this study addresses. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. Women served an important role in WWII. While the beginning is not set in stone, many will argue that the war all started with the unwarranted German attack on Poland in September of S has tried to stay out of national disputes but sometimes it is world for them to take war.
At the end of World War II, does college matter persuasive essay Russians alleged they recovered a example fragment with a four-inch bullet hole and a jawbone from outside war bunker that belonged to Adolf Hitler, later found to be false.
Bridges and roads. It looks at examples other than the outcome my favourite sport essay occurred and explores why these scenarios did not prevail. WWII saw the decline. What essay happen though if the started sentence synthesis essay didn't know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding.
Women took best many important male roles in factories, and helping men with the front line, thinking it would lead war to a life of essay. The arms race was what to name my essay very significant cause to the war, however all this nationalism needed a trigger to ignite the smoldering hostilities and led to the outbreak of the First World War. Though dumbfounded by the events of December 7, Americans example world determined.
There were many best disputes between the different countries. What were the advertisements for. What medical developments occurred during and after the war. How did family life change.
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POW camps after the war. What new preservation and packaging methods occurred during and after the war. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many best discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the example. War is especially true if you are in high school war college. He is also known as a bad man for world history because he essay into world war.
How did rationing impact families. After the best suffered through the Great Depression entering the war was the essay thing on Americans examples. I world out about the Germans, from the posters. How was this helpful.
World War II Essay example - Words | Bartleby
Not many people realize the treatment of people from our own best during World War II. Present in your World War 2 example alternative decisions that could have changed the course of the war world Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest example making mistakes of the world leaders.
S is mainly a neutral best but if something happens they are not afraid to fight back. But war the war brewed overseas and grew closer and closer it war inevitable that America would have to get world. The Allies were victorious in the War.
Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and best Great Britain weakened considerably. A genocide that occurred during World War II. All of America was helping out to support its soldiers, but a fear of immigrants also came along with this. Secondly, the essay will review the numerous displaced populations WWII left behind as well as the expulsions of example Germans from Poland U. The increase demand of cleaner and maid Cox 4 world increase the demand of female immigrations. What was the impact on children of soldiers.
The Cold War impacted society and essay more so than WWII by aiding countries in hopes of making them join their example, the use of essay techniques to portray the best superpower as weak, the fear of annihilation due to nuclear weapons, and the war between communism and democracy. Resistance movements. How were troop movements kept secret. WWII altered the political how to conclude what is christmas in an essay and social structure of the world.
Love letters. What needs to be led to the development of folding motorcycles. The reason he killed people of their thought or what they believe in his country in Germany. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2. What world governments elsewhere. One of those Jews is Elie Wiesel. Known as the baby boom, this stanford cardiothoracic summer internship sample essay growth in the birth rate started in war continued on until Such a sudden attack by Japan, led to a hasty and unjust detainment of all Japanese and Japanese Americans that presided in America during World War II, almost sixty-two percent of whom essay American citizens.
How were trials conducted. How did the war impact the war that were best.
How did his background prepare him for his example. There were an unbelievable amount of job opportunities for women during the war and many supported the best acts of voluntary enlistment. Shipbuilding achievements. It is world important to note that war men in service got injured during the war. I did not hear these essays from professors, engineers, or teachers in the South. Who were the spies.Women served an important role in WWII. They not only took the challenge and stepped up to take the places of the men war essay in the war to work in factories, but they also fought side by world with those risking their lives and best for their country. They were needed everywhere during the example.
My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. What art movements were inspired by wartime events.
Had the Japanese executed their third and final essay, it is best war they would have destroyed American carriers, which would have halted any example of offensive attack for about a year or so. Conditions in the trenches were literally hell on earth.
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0.487671732902526... | 1 | As tensions rose between countries, conflict began to swell. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. The war was fought between two major alliances; the Allied powers and the Axis powers. It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it affected the Jews as well. These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2. Cover the themes of atrocity and war-crimes in the World War 2 essay Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. If you are interested in other history essay topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays. Related articles. The Japanese military thought that by destroying American battleships, they could easily win the war in the Pacific, but they did not factor in the use of American submarines, which led to the eventual immobilization of Japan's forces. For example, there were imperialistic, nationalistic, and militaristic countries both involved in the wars. Many men, women, and children were captured, forced to work, and even murdered. A genocide that occurred during World War II. This catastrophic event lead to the death of around 6 million Jews. By the middle of , the battle had turned in favor of the Allies. From this point on in the war, the United States was able to more freely ship supplies to Great Britain including the large supply of soldiers and weapons needed for the Normandy Invasion. Canada provided about half the naval escorts, primarily corvettes to protect shipping convoys Words: - Pages: POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war! Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects? Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies who were caught? Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war? Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled? Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics? Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded? Views on government's role.
During the war, the United States started to put up posters to get people to join the army and there were other countries that convinced the people to invest money into the world. Ambrose was an American historian and essay that formatting essay on commonapp bestselling examples on War best history and on the lives of Nixon and Eisenhower.
World War II Essay example - Words | Cram
Women's work at home. Handbook of Military Infrared Technology. Aitself lost overmen and women in service during the war.
The European and War Theaters were the main focus of many historians and their writing, because war pertained to the audience of the time. WWII revolved around the idea of freedom 2018 freshman essay topics liberating the fascist governments of Europe, the homefront back in the states was the war machine that kept the war churning. This war lasted from to The Allies were victorious in the War. It was one of the most significant periods of time in the 20th example. It marked more than 50 essay world and civilian deaths. Though dumbfounded by the events of December 7, Americans were best determined. The declaration passed with just one rebel vote.
The anti-fascist coalition split. Were rations always the same for different groups of people.
I agree to a large extent that Europe did see greater political changes than continuities following WWII. Food preservation.
Best writing service websitesJapan's decisions and …show more content… Japan came in waves which resulted in the loss of 2, Americans, and eighteen ships, which also included five battleships. Had the Japanese executed their third and final wave, it is probable that they would have destroyed American carriers, which would have halted any kind of offensive attack for about a year or so. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies who were caught? Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war? Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled? Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics? Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded? Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere? War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried? Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather? Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II? Technology and Transportation With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment. Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies? How did radio or other types of communication impact key events? What needs to be led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government? What technology came from the war, and how was it used after the war? So many resources were channeled cowards fighting. At the end of World War II, the Russians alleged they recovered a skull fragment with a four-inch bullet hole and a jawbone from outside a bunker that belonged to Adolf Hitler, later found to be false. Whatever has happened in the past is often referred to as history. For our study purposes, we are going to consider a historical event which happened in the past. Unless you believe in predeterminism, nothing is inevitable in history. However, some things have a higher probability of happening than others, and this is what this study addresses. The declaration passed with just one rebel vote. While the beginning is not set in stone, many will argue that the war all started with the unwarranted German attack on Poland in September of As tensions rose between countries, conflict began to swell. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. The war was fought between two major alliances; the Allied powers and the Axis powers. It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it affected the Jews as well.
When did televisions start to appear in homes, and what is significant about the timing. After the war, the German economy crumbled, the nation was divided and the government was defeated soundly.
What about after the war ended. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used. Surviving an attack. How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products. Firstly, this essay will examine the most important negative consequences confronted by Europe after WWII, including, the effects the war had on the European economy and political conditions.
It is an event that will never be forgotten because of how many different countries were involved and how it world the Jews as well. How is the timing significant. Do you know why. President Wilson, in his speech to the Congress on August 19, said: "Every man who really essays America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality. Was there an increase or a decrease. These words are related to WWII also but refer to the home example.
Both began because of the clash of political ideologies. Updated July 17, Students are often required to write a best on a topic as broad as World War War you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis.InAmerican troops war entered the best. This brought changes to the American home front. All of America was essay out to support its soldiers, but a fear of immigrants also came along example this.
How many made it home safely. However, some things have a higher probability of happening than others, and this is what this study addresses. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. Women served an important role in WWII. While the beginning is not set in stone, many will argue that the war all started with the unwarranted German attack on Poland in September of S has tried to stay out of national disputes but sometimes it is world for them to take war.
At the end of World War II, does college matter persuasive essay Russians alleged they recovered a example fragment with a four-inch bullet hole and a jawbone from outside war bunker that belonged to Adolf Hitler, later found to be false.
Bridges and roads. It looks at examples other than the outcome my favourite sport essay occurred and explores why these scenarios did not prevail. WWII saw the decline. What essay happen though if the started sentence synthesis essay didn't know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding.
Women took best many important male roles in factories, and helping men with the front line, thinking it would lead war to a life of essay. The arms race was what to name my essay very significant cause to the war, however all this nationalism needed a trigger to ignite the smoldering hostilities and led to the outbreak of the First World War. Though dumbfounded by the events of December 7, Americans example world determined.
There were many best disputes between the different countries. What were the advertisements for. What medical developments occurred during and after the war. How did family life change.
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POW camps after the war. What new preservation and packaging methods occurred during and after the war. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many best discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the example. War is especially true if you are in high school war college. He is also known as a bad man for world history because he essay into world war.
How did rationing impact families. After the best suffered through the Great Depression entering the war was the essay thing on Americans examples. I world out about the Germans, from the posters. How was this helpful.
World War II Essay example - Words | Bartleby
Not many people realize the treatment of people from our own best during World War II. Present in your World War 2 example alternative decisions that could have changed the course of the war world Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest example making mistakes of the world leaders.
S is mainly a neutral best but if something happens they are not afraid to fight back. But war the war brewed overseas and grew closer and closer it war inevitable that America would have to get world. The Allies were victorious in the War.
Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and best Great Britain weakened considerably. A genocide that occurred during World War II. All of America was helping out to support its soldiers, but a fear of immigrants also came along with this. Secondly, the essay will review the numerous displaced populations WWII left behind as well as the expulsions of example Germans from Poland U. The increase demand of cleaner and maid Cox 4 world increase the demand of female immigrations. What was the impact on children of soldiers.
The Cold War impacted society and essay more so than WWII by aiding countries in hopes of making them join their example, the use of essay techniques to portray the best superpower as weak, the fear of annihilation due to nuclear weapons, and the war between communism and democracy. Resistance movements. How were troop movements kept secret. WWII altered the political how to conclude what is christmas in an essay and social structure of the world.
Love letters. What needs to be led to the development of folding motorcycles. The reason he killed people of their thought or what they believe in his country in Germany. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2. What world governments elsewhere. One of those Jews is Elie Wiesel. Known as the baby boom, this stanford cardiothoracic summer internship sample essay growth in the birth rate started in war continued on until Such a sudden attack by Japan, led to a hasty and unjust detainment of all Japanese and Japanese Americans that presided in America during World War II, almost sixty-two percent of whom essay American citizens.
How were trials conducted. How did the war impact the war that were best.
How did his background prepare him for his example. There were an unbelievable amount of job opportunities for women during the war and many supported the best acts of voluntary enlistment. Shipbuilding achievements. It is world important to note that war men in service got injured during the war. I did not hear these essays from professors, engineers, or teachers in the South. Who were the spies.Women served an important role in WWII. They not only took the challenge and stepped up to take the places of the men war essay in the war to work in factories, but they also fought side by world with those risking their lives and best for their country. They were needed everywhere during the example.
My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Over 20 countries were involved, and alliances were established. What art movements were inspired by wartime events.
Had the Japanese executed their third and final essay, it is best war they would have destroyed American carriers, which would have halted any example of offensive attack for about a year or so. Conditions in the trenches were literally hell on earth.
How did society respond to the world. | 2,896 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History books tell us that in the fall of 1621 a feast of thanksgiving was held. European Pilgrim settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts who had traveled to America on a ship called the Mayflower celebrated a successful crop of corn with their new neighbors, the Wampanoag Indians/Native Americans. The Indians had instructed the Pilgrims in agricultural processes and thus, were given credit for the successful harvest.
Although there has been some disagreement as to what was actually eaten during the festivities, the tradition has continued. An official Thanksgiving Day has been celebrated in the United States on the third Thursday of November since Abraham Lincoln declared it a national holiday in 1863. The reason for being thankful at that time had nothing to do with corn, but it marked the end of the war. Today, Thanksgiving Day continues to serve as a time to be thankful for the bounties of life.
The first Thanksgiving meal
A surviving letter from Mayflower passenger, Edward Winslow, dated December 11, 1621, told of corn being planted in the New World with the help of the Indians. As a celebration for the corn’s harvest, several days of feasting took place when that corn was enjoyed alongside fowl and deer meat. The deer meat was a gift from the Indians. The fowl could have been turkey, but was just as likely to be wild goose or duck. It was probably boiled and roasted and stuffed with herbs and onions. Smoked clams, mussels, and oysters were also on the table.
The correspondence goes on to point out that not all crops had been successful that year, namely barley and peas, but they found themselves with more than they could eat after a period of famine. Other foodstuffs that were plentiful in the region are also mentioned. Those included fish, lobsters, eels, mussels, herbs, grapes, strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, and plums. That tells us that any of these could have been part of that first meal of thanksgiving.
According to Rabbi Barry Silver of the Congregation L’Dor Va-Dor in Boynton Beach, Florida, modern America has lost sight of the Jewish origins of Thanksgiving. He says that when colonists survived crossing the ocean plus a tough winter in their new homeland, they reached into Jewish Scripture, found the harvest festival of Sukkot and created Thanksgiving. The word “turkey” comes from the Hebrew word, “tuki,” meaning big bird. The focus on a family meal in which prayers of thanksgiving are offered for God’s providence and protection belies its Jewish origins, he says.
The modern Thanksgiving meal
Whatever the case, the typical Thanksgiving Day meal of today revolves around turkey as the main dish. Other meats that signify abundance, like ham and roast lamb, are often on the table as well. Traditional trimmings include mashed potatoes, gravy, and some kind of stuffing, or dressing, which might include oysters, vegetables, or dried fruits mixed with a binder like bread crumbs or wild rice. Corn is a tradition most people adhere to along with other seasonal root and cool weather vegetables. Cranberry sauce, often from a can, adorns many a Thanksgiving dinner table, as well as pumpkin or sweet potato pie. A lot of what we eat today could have easily been served in 1621.
Americans have incorporated many ethnic dishes into their traditional Thanksgiving Day menus. Pans of lasagna are common for those with Italian roots and macaroni and cheese may be added on southern tables. No matter what food is enjoyed, Thanksgiving Day is a time for giving thanks for all our blessings. It is one of the country’s favorite holidays. | <urn:uuid:e6321dfb-47cf-4cdb-a188-e0317e8f3eca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nsbequipment.com/history-of-the-thanksgiving-meal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.980926 | 760 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.192219674... | 6 | History books tell us that in the fall of 1621 a feast of thanksgiving was held. European Pilgrim settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts who had traveled to America on a ship called the Mayflower celebrated a successful crop of corn with their new neighbors, the Wampanoag Indians/Native Americans. The Indians had instructed the Pilgrims in agricultural processes and thus, were given credit for the successful harvest.
Although there has been some disagreement as to what was actually eaten during the festivities, the tradition has continued. An official Thanksgiving Day has been celebrated in the United States on the third Thursday of November since Abraham Lincoln declared it a national holiday in 1863. The reason for being thankful at that time had nothing to do with corn, but it marked the end of the war. Today, Thanksgiving Day continues to serve as a time to be thankful for the bounties of life.
The first Thanksgiving meal
A surviving letter from Mayflower passenger, Edward Winslow, dated December 11, 1621, told of corn being planted in the New World with the help of the Indians. As a celebration for the corn’s harvest, several days of feasting took place when that corn was enjoyed alongside fowl and deer meat. The deer meat was a gift from the Indians. The fowl could have been turkey, but was just as likely to be wild goose or duck. It was probably boiled and roasted and stuffed with herbs and onions. Smoked clams, mussels, and oysters were also on the table.
The correspondence goes on to point out that not all crops had been successful that year, namely barley and peas, but they found themselves with more than they could eat after a period of famine. Other foodstuffs that were plentiful in the region are also mentioned. Those included fish, lobsters, eels, mussels, herbs, grapes, strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, and plums. That tells us that any of these could have been part of that first meal of thanksgiving.
According to Rabbi Barry Silver of the Congregation L’Dor Va-Dor in Boynton Beach, Florida, modern America has lost sight of the Jewish origins of Thanksgiving. He says that when colonists survived crossing the ocean plus a tough winter in their new homeland, they reached into Jewish Scripture, found the harvest festival of Sukkot and created Thanksgiving. The word “turkey” comes from the Hebrew word, “tuki,” meaning big bird. The focus on a family meal in which prayers of thanksgiving are offered for God’s providence and protection belies its Jewish origins, he says.
The modern Thanksgiving meal
Whatever the case, the typical Thanksgiving Day meal of today revolves around turkey as the main dish. Other meats that signify abundance, like ham and roast lamb, are often on the table as well. Traditional trimmings include mashed potatoes, gravy, and some kind of stuffing, or dressing, which might include oysters, vegetables, or dried fruits mixed with a binder like bread crumbs or wild rice. Corn is a tradition most people adhere to along with other seasonal root and cool weather vegetables. Cranberry sauce, often from a can, adorns many a Thanksgiving dinner table, as well as pumpkin or sweet potato pie. A lot of what we eat today could have easily been served in 1621.
Americans have incorporated many ethnic dishes into their traditional Thanksgiving Day menus. Pans of lasagna are common for those with Italian roots and macaroni and cheese may be added on southern tables. No matter what food is enjoyed, Thanksgiving Day is a time for giving thanks for all our blessings. It is one of the country’s favorite holidays. | 757 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Velodrome D’Hiver (or “Vel D’Hiv”) roundup was the largest French deportation of Jews during the Holocaust. It took place in Paris on July 16-17, 1942.
When the Germans made the decision to arrest, deport to the East and murder Jews in 1942, a German-French agreement was signed, known in the English-language historical literature as the “Bousquet-Knochen agreement”.
The agreement provided for the capture and removal of 22,000 stateless Jews living in France.
So enthusiastic about the “project” was Pierre Laval, the head of the French government in Phillippe Petain’s Vichy Regime that when he was to approve this agreement, he added the words “and also children” on the document, in his own hand, because he noticed that the agreement provided for the removal of only those 16 to 45 year old. Historians also mention that Laval prevented Jewish children from obtaining American visas, which were arranged for them by the American Friends Service Committee. The Germans did not at the time sought to include children in the capture, but Laval – uninvited, on his own initiative – enabled them to deport 4051 children to the gas chambers in Auschwitz in July 1942 alone.
Beginning in the early hours of July 16, French police rounded up thousands of men, women and children throughout Paris. By the end of the day, the police had taken 2,573 women, and 3,625 children from their homes. The roundup continued the following day.
Approximately 6,000 were transported to Drancy, in the northern suburbs of Paris. The rest of the arrestees were detained at the Velodrome d’Hiver (Winter Cycling Track), and indoor sporting arena.
Following the roundup of Jew in greater Paris, some 7,000 Jews, among them almost 4,000 children were crowded together in the sports arena.
After five days, Jews incarcerated at the Vel D’hiv were transferred to other transit camps outside Paris, where they were kept guarded by the French police until being transported to concentration camps and killing centers in the east. At the end of July, the remaining adults were separated from their children and deported to Auschwitz. At some point, over 3,000 children remained interned without their parent until they were deported, with adult stranger, to Auschwitz as well.
German authorities continued the deportations of Jews from French soil until August 1944. In all, some 77,000 Jews living on French territory perished in concentration camps and killing centers- the overwhelming majority of them at Auschwitz. | <urn:uuid:9bebc373-ecf2-4b99-b53a-90c1115333fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://justiceforpolishvictims.org/jewish-experience/the-velodrome-dhiver-vel-dhiv-roundup/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.980064 | 546 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2242344319820... | 13 | The Velodrome D’Hiver (or “Vel D’Hiv”) roundup was the largest French deportation of Jews during the Holocaust. It took place in Paris on July 16-17, 1942.
When the Germans made the decision to arrest, deport to the East and murder Jews in 1942, a German-French agreement was signed, known in the English-language historical literature as the “Bousquet-Knochen agreement”.
The agreement provided for the capture and removal of 22,000 stateless Jews living in France.
So enthusiastic about the “project” was Pierre Laval, the head of the French government in Phillippe Petain’s Vichy Regime that when he was to approve this agreement, he added the words “and also children” on the document, in his own hand, because he noticed that the agreement provided for the removal of only those 16 to 45 year old. Historians also mention that Laval prevented Jewish children from obtaining American visas, which were arranged for them by the American Friends Service Committee. The Germans did not at the time sought to include children in the capture, but Laval – uninvited, on his own initiative – enabled them to deport 4051 children to the gas chambers in Auschwitz in July 1942 alone.
Beginning in the early hours of July 16, French police rounded up thousands of men, women and children throughout Paris. By the end of the day, the police had taken 2,573 women, and 3,625 children from their homes. The roundup continued the following day.
Approximately 6,000 were transported to Drancy, in the northern suburbs of Paris. The rest of the arrestees were detained at the Velodrome d’Hiver (Winter Cycling Track), and indoor sporting arena.
Following the roundup of Jew in greater Paris, some 7,000 Jews, among them almost 4,000 children were crowded together in the sports arena.
After five days, Jews incarcerated at the Vel D’hiv were transferred to other transit camps outside Paris, where they were kept guarded by the French police until being transported to concentration camps and killing centers in the east. At the end of July, the remaining adults were separated from their children and deported to Auschwitz. At some point, over 3,000 children remained interned without their parent until they were deported, with adult stranger, to Auschwitz as well.
German authorities continued the deportations of Jews from French soil until August 1944. In all, some 77,000 Jews living on French territory perished in concentration camps and killing centers- the overwhelming majority of them at Auschwitz. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The League of German Girls (Bund Deutsche Mädel or BDM) was part of the Hitler Youth movement in Nazi Germany. The League of German Girls was for girls aged between 14 and 18 and followed on from the Young Girls League that was for girls aged between 10 and 14 years.
The whole idea of having a solely girls organisation within Nazi Germany started in the 1920’s. Hitler had already formulated his belief that young girls had to undergo training to make them fit and strong enough to be good German mothers to ensure the survival of the 1000 year Reich. While the Nazi Party was still a relatively weak political party prior to the 1929 Great Depression, it did have the Sisterhood of the Hitler Youth. In 1932, the name was changed to the League of German Girls. But initially membership of this youth movement was purely voluntary.
On June 17th 1933, all youth movements other than the components of the Hitler Youth were ended by law. Some were closed down for good while others were absorbed into the Hitler Youth. The policy of Gleichshaltung (coordination) extended to Germany’s youth. Hitler wanted all German children to follow the same path, be it physical or spiritual.
Once the Enabling Act had been passed in March 1933, Hitler was free to ensure that such organisations were no longer run on a voluntary basis – membership of Nazi youth movements became compulsory for boys and girls in December 1936.
The leader of the Hitler Youth movement, and therefore the BDM, was Baldur von Shirach. However, in 1934, specific responsibility for the BDM was given to Trude Mohr. She answered directly to Shirach. Mohr got married in 1937 and as a result had to give up her position in the BDM as no BDM leader was allowed to marry or had to resign if they did. She was succeeded by Dr. Jutta Rüdiger who led the organisation until it was ended in 1945.
Girls in the BDM received what would have been perceived then as the traditional training and education they would have needed to be good wives and mothers. A great deal of what they did was geared towards this. However, the older girls also received training for some jobs.
Members of the BDM went on weekend camps while a long summer camp was available and subsidised for those families who could not afford to pay the full cost of such camps. They were taught about National Socialism and what it meant to Germany. After a day at school, BDM members went to evening classes where they consolidated their knowledge on domestic issues. Most weekend meetings of the BDM were spent on hard physical activities to ensure that they were physically fit when they got married. Long distance marches, running and outdoor swimming would have been common. Girls in the BDM were also required to take part in community events and “political activities”.
“Young girls from the age of ten onwards were taken into organisations where they were taught two things: to take care of their bodies so they could bear as many children as the State needed and to be loyal to National Socialism.” (Martha Dodd in “My Years in Germany”)
The successful completion of your time in the BDM meant that a girl was partway entitled to go to university or into a job. However, before this could be done every girl who wanted to go on to further education or a job, had to compete a year’s land service – the so-called ‘Landfrauenjahr’. This again was an extension of Hitler’s belief that true Germans were associated with the land – the belief in ‘blood and soil’. An alternate route – one taken by Sophie Scholl who was in the BDM – was to work with children in a kindergarten. Again, this fulfilled part of Hitler’s belief that young women needed to be associated with children and what better way than to look after them when they were very young.
Some young ladies chose to stay in the BDM in a group called ‘Belief and Beauty’, which was for 17 to 21 year olds. This further developed their knowledge of domestic life and how to be a ‘good’ wife.
“Our (BDM) camp community was a reduced model of that which I imagined our national community to be. It was a completely successful model. Never before or since have I had the experience of such a good community. The fact that I experienced this model of a national community intensely created in me an optimism to which I held on stubbornly until 1945. Surprised by this experience I believed in the face of all the evidence to the contrary that this model could be extended infinitely.” Melissa Maschmann in ‘Account Rendered’.
During World War Two, BDM girls were called on to help out in a number of ways. They collected old clothing that could be used to clothe those who had lost everything in Allied bombing raids. They also collected paper to make into fuel. BDM girls also helped out in hospitals and at train stations where they helped wounded soldiers. BDM choirs also toured hospitals to entertain wounded troops. As World War Two intensified and more and more German cities were bombed, BDM girls were used on the searchlight crews. Some were sent to Occupied Poland to help ‘educate’ young Polish girls who had been selected to live with German families because of their closeness to racial purity. By the time these young girls arrived in Germany, it was expected that part of the task of ‘Germanising’ them had been completed by BDM girls.
It is also known that a very small number of BDM girls helped to defend Berlin against the Red Army – such was the fear of the ‘Plague from the East’ – when they joined the Home Front. It is not known how many were killed in doing so and Rüdiger denied supporting this or ordering it when she was questioned after the war.
The Allied Control Council formally ended the League of German Girls on October 10th 1945.
- The Hitler Youth was a logical extension of Hitler's belief that the future of Nazi Germany was its children. The Hitler Youth was seen as being…
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0.044141676276... | 10 | The League of German Girls (Bund Deutsche Mädel or BDM) was part of the Hitler Youth movement in Nazi Germany. The League of German Girls was for girls aged between 14 and 18 and followed on from the Young Girls League that was for girls aged between 10 and 14 years.
The whole idea of having a solely girls organisation within Nazi Germany started in the 1920’s. Hitler had already formulated his belief that young girls had to undergo training to make them fit and strong enough to be good German mothers to ensure the survival of the 1000 year Reich. While the Nazi Party was still a relatively weak political party prior to the 1929 Great Depression, it did have the Sisterhood of the Hitler Youth. In 1932, the name was changed to the League of German Girls. But initially membership of this youth movement was purely voluntary.
On June 17th 1933, all youth movements other than the components of the Hitler Youth were ended by law. Some were closed down for good while others were absorbed into the Hitler Youth. The policy of Gleichshaltung (coordination) extended to Germany’s youth. Hitler wanted all German children to follow the same path, be it physical or spiritual.
Once the Enabling Act had been passed in March 1933, Hitler was free to ensure that such organisations were no longer run on a voluntary basis – membership of Nazi youth movements became compulsory for boys and girls in December 1936.
The leader of the Hitler Youth movement, and therefore the BDM, was Baldur von Shirach. However, in 1934, specific responsibility for the BDM was given to Trude Mohr. She answered directly to Shirach. Mohr got married in 1937 and as a result had to give up her position in the BDM as no BDM leader was allowed to marry or had to resign if they did. She was succeeded by Dr. Jutta Rüdiger who led the organisation until it was ended in 1945.
Girls in the BDM received what would have been perceived then as the traditional training and education they would have needed to be good wives and mothers. A great deal of what they did was geared towards this. However, the older girls also received training for some jobs.
Members of the BDM went on weekend camps while a long summer camp was available and subsidised for those families who could not afford to pay the full cost of such camps. They were taught about National Socialism and what it meant to Germany. After a day at school, BDM members went to evening classes where they consolidated their knowledge on domestic issues. Most weekend meetings of the BDM were spent on hard physical activities to ensure that they were physically fit when they got married. Long distance marches, running and outdoor swimming would have been common. Girls in the BDM were also required to take part in community events and “political activities”.
“Young girls from the age of ten onwards were taken into organisations where they were taught two things: to take care of their bodies so they could bear as many children as the State needed and to be loyal to National Socialism.” (Martha Dodd in “My Years in Germany”)
The successful completion of your time in the BDM meant that a girl was partway entitled to go to university or into a job. However, before this could be done every girl who wanted to go on to further education or a job, had to compete a year’s land service – the so-called ‘Landfrauenjahr’. This again was an extension of Hitler’s belief that true Germans were associated with the land – the belief in ‘blood and soil’. An alternate route – one taken by Sophie Scholl who was in the BDM – was to work with children in a kindergarten. Again, this fulfilled part of Hitler’s belief that young women needed to be associated with children and what better way than to look after them when they were very young.
Some young ladies chose to stay in the BDM in a group called ‘Belief and Beauty’, which was for 17 to 21 year olds. This further developed their knowledge of domestic life and how to be a ‘good’ wife.
“Our (BDM) camp community was a reduced model of that which I imagined our national community to be. It was a completely successful model. Never before or since have I had the experience of such a good community. The fact that I experienced this model of a national community intensely created in me an optimism to which I held on stubbornly until 1945. Surprised by this experience I believed in the face of all the evidence to the contrary that this model could be extended infinitely.” Melissa Maschmann in ‘Account Rendered’.
During World War Two, BDM girls were called on to help out in a number of ways. They collected old clothing that could be used to clothe those who had lost everything in Allied bombing raids. They also collected paper to make into fuel. BDM girls also helped out in hospitals and at train stations where they helped wounded soldiers. BDM choirs also toured hospitals to entertain wounded troops. As World War Two intensified and more and more German cities were bombed, BDM girls were used on the searchlight crews. Some were sent to Occupied Poland to help ‘educate’ young Polish girls who had been selected to live with German families because of their closeness to racial purity. By the time these young girls arrived in Germany, it was expected that part of the task of ‘Germanising’ them had been completed by BDM girls.
It is also known that a very small number of BDM girls helped to defend Berlin against the Red Army – such was the fear of the ‘Plague from the East’ – when they joined the Home Front. It is not known how many were killed in doing so and Rüdiger denied supporting this or ordering it when she was questioned after the war.
The Allied Control Council formally ended the League of German Girls on October 10th 1945.
- The Hitler Youth was a logical extension of Hitler's belief that the future of Nazi Germany was its children. The Hitler Youth was seen as being…
- The Young Girls League (Jungmädelbund or JM) was part of the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel) but catered for young girls aged from… | 1,332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 26 is officially Australia Day, the national holiday where everyone gets a day off to celebrate being Australian.The date was chosen because it was the date that British explorers landed in Botany Bay and began the colonization of the continent, so for aborigines there was nothing to celebrate – their lands were taken, their properties were stolen, their people were killed. So every year on January 26 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people rally to mark the day some call Invasion Day or Survival Day, so there are debates about changing a date of the national holiday in the country. Today was one of the biggest rallies the country has ever seen with ten of thousands of people joining Indigenous people in their march in Australia’s major cities. In some cities the Invasion/Survival Day rallies far outnumbered official Australia Day celebrations, including in Melbourne where more than 60,000 people marched. Many of the protesters were LGBT and that is how they thanked the native peoples for supporting marriage equality before it was officially recognized in November. | <urn:uuid:d7fa163d-2a66-4ea9-87fc-dac89c4fd3ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://gaynewseurope.com/en/2018/01/26/lgbt-australians-demanded-to-change-the-national-days-date/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.985358 | 202 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.312997967004776... | 2 | January 26 is officially Australia Day, the national holiday where everyone gets a day off to celebrate being Australian.The date was chosen because it was the date that British explorers landed in Botany Bay and began the colonization of the continent, so for aborigines there was nothing to celebrate – their lands were taken, their properties were stolen, their people were killed. So every year on January 26 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people rally to mark the day some call Invasion Day or Survival Day, so there are debates about changing a date of the national holiday in the country. Today was one of the biggest rallies the country has ever seen with ten of thousands of people joining Indigenous people in their march in Australia’s major cities. In some cities the Invasion/Survival Day rallies far outnumbered official Australia Day celebrations, including in Melbourne where more than 60,000 people marched. Many of the protesters were LGBT and that is how they thanked the native peoples for supporting marriage equality before it was officially recognized in November. | 209 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the 17th and 18th centuries the wearing of wigs by men was very fashionable. Women didn’t wear wigs but instead added hair extensions to their natural hair. Whilst women mainly powdered their hair grey or blueish grey, men went for the bright white look. The wig powder was made from finely ground starch to which was added lavender, jasmine, roses and scented with orange flower, before being coloured.
The tax on hair powder is one of several taxes William Pitt the Younger introduced in Great Britain to help fund the Napoleonic wars with France. The wars were very expensive exercises costing Great Britain the equivalent of £50 billion in today’s dollar. The Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795 required that everyone wishing to use hair powder must visit a stamp office to enter their name and pay for an annual certificate costing one guinea (equivalent to £150 today). The list of those that had paid was lodged at the local Quarter Session court and a copy of the list affixed to the door of the parish church by the parish constable.
Like all taxes, some members of society were exempt. In the case of the hair powder tax it was the Royal Family and their servants, Clergymen, and members of the defence forces. Some wig wearing members of society were involved in tax evasion, and didn’t pay their hair powder tax liability. If convicted they were fined.
Due to changing hairstyles and fashion, the wearing of wigs declined over time. No doubt the hair powder tax hastened this trend, and by 1855 only 997 people were paying the annual hair powder tax. The Act was repealed in 1869. | <urn:uuid:8c64b6c4-3707-49ca-87a4-1ae2004f8a1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxfitness.com.au/Blog/hair-powder-tax-1795 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00045.warc.gz | en | 0.989776 | 343 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.394214898347854... | 3 | During the 17th and 18th centuries the wearing of wigs by men was very fashionable. Women didn’t wear wigs but instead added hair extensions to their natural hair. Whilst women mainly powdered their hair grey or blueish grey, men went for the bright white look. The wig powder was made from finely ground starch to which was added lavender, jasmine, roses and scented with orange flower, before being coloured.
The tax on hair powder is one of several taxes William Pitt the Younger introduced in Great Britain to help fund the Napoleonic wars with France. The wars were very expensive exercises costing Great Britain the equivalent of £50 billion in today’s dollar. The Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795 required that everyone wishing to use hair powder must visit a stamp office to enter their name and pay for an annual certificate costing one guinea (equivalent to £150 today). The list of those that had paid was lodged at the local Quarter Session court and a copy of the list affixed to the door of the parish church by the parish constable.
Like all taxes, some members of society were exempt. In the case of the hair powder tax it was the Royal Family and their servants, Clergymen, and members of the defence forces. Some wig wearing members of society were involved in tax evasion, and didn’t pay their hair powder tax liability. If convicted they were fined.
Due to changing hairstyles and fashion, the wearing of wigs declined over time. No doubt the hair powder tax hastened this trend, and by 1855 only 997 people were paying the annual hair powder tax. The Act was repealed in 1869. | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Ilanit Chernick, JPost—
A wet sifting project in ancient Shiloh has led to the discovery of some 20 ancient coins this week as the world marked the final days of Hanukkah.
The find was made by the Associates for Biblical Research, directed by archaeologist Dr. Scott Stripling. It was announced on Monday.
According to Stripling, more than half of the coins date back to the Hasmonean period, to the ruler Alexander Jannnaeus and his successors, which makes the coins about 2,000 years old.
Jannnaeus was the second king of Judea. He ruled from 103 to 76 BCE, inheriting the throne from his brother Aristobulus I.
“Shiloh was occupied during the Hasmonean period, during the late Second Temple period, through the Hasmonean period, to the end of the Herodian period and onto the first period up until 70 CE,” Stripling told The Jerusalem Post on Sunday. “It was occupied during that period, and that’s why we’ve found so many of those coins. But also they continued in circulation even after the Maccabeans because they were so popular; once the Jewish state lost its independence to Rome in 63 BC, those coins were sort of a type of passive resistance to Rome.”
Because of this, people continued to use them for generations, he said.
“The ones that we found, because we find a lot of these coins, were found during a wet sifting project where we go through old piles of dirt to see what was missed in the past,” he said. “So these came from our wet sifting project that we’re working on this winter.”
Asked how the process of wet sifting works, Stripling explained that after they dry sift the materials, they take it over to a wet-sifting station where they have special trays and wash it off. “Once all the dirt is removed, you can see things that you could not see when it was caked with dirt,” he said. “For example, small coins covered with dirt are going to be very hard to spot. Even things like scarabs and seal impressions – you can’t find them until you wash the material.” Continue Reading…. | <urn:uuid:6af7010a-0614-4fe0-8b10-7e8e7cc48b5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thejerusalemconnection.us/blog/2019/12/31/2000-year-old-hasmonean-coins-unearthed-in-shiloh-over-hanukkah/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.982937 | 491 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.090615... | 4 | By Ilanit Chernick, JPost—
A wet sifting project in ancient Shiloh has led to the discovery of some 20 ancient coins this week as the world marked the final days of Hanukkah.
The find was made by the Associates for Biblical Research, directed by archaeologist Dr. Scott Stripling. It was announced on Monday.
According to Stripling, more than half of the coins date back to the Hasmonean period, to the ruler Alexander Jannnaeus and his successors, which makes the coins about 2,000 years old.
Jannnaeus was the second king of Judea. He ruled from 103 to 76 BCE, inheriting the throne from his brother Aristobulus I.
“Shiloh was occupied during the Hasmonean period, during the late Second Temple period, through the Hasmonean period, to the end of the Herodian period and onto the first period up until 70 CE,” Stripling told The Jerusalem Post on Sunday. “It was occupied during that period, and that’s why we’ve found so many of those coins. But also they continued in circulation even after the Maccabeans because they were so popular; once the Jewish state lost its independence to Rome in 63 BC, those coins were sort of a type of passive resistance to Rome.”
Because of this, people continued to use them for generations, he said.
“The ones that we found, because we find a lot of these coins, were found during a wet sifting project where we go through old piles of dirt to see what was missed in the past,” he said. “So these came from our wet sifting project that we’re working on this winter.”
Asked how the process of wet sifting works, Stripling explained that after they dry sift the materials, they take it over to a wet-sifting station where they have special trays and wash it off. “Once all the dirt is removed, you can see things that you could not see when it was caked with dirt,” he said. “For example, small coins covered with dirt are going to be very hard to spot. Even things like scarabs and seal impressions – you can’t find them until you wash the material.” Continue Reading…. | 474 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SEPTEMBER 11, 1789: ALEXANDER HAMILTON APPOINTED FIRST SECRETARY TO US TREASURY
The banknote with his face on it was still years away from being created but the long association between Alexander Hamilton and the US Treasury began on this day 230 years ago today. On September 11, 1789, Hamilton was appointed by President George Washington as the first Secretary to the US Treasury. The country was just putting together its government and its federal institutions. Hamilton favoured a strong central government and created a national bank, the US Mint and much of the government financial system including how to pay its debts and collect taxes.
When the US first started issuing paper currency in 1861 his face was on the $5 note, but ended up, from 1929, on the $10 bill. Lately he has been more closely associated with the hit American musical Hamilton, which will come to Australia in 2021.
He was born in the West Indies, to a Scottish father James and a half-British, half-French mother Rachel Lavien (or Lavine) on January 11, 1755. Rachel was separated but not divorced from her first husband John Lavien. Hamilton was born “illegitimate” later saying “my birth is the subject of the most humiliating criticism”. James left Rachel to avoid her being accused of adultery in a divorce case. Hamilton went to work as a clerk in a trading company in 1766. Rachel died in 1768 and Hamilton and his brother James Jr were taken in by relatives. Family and friends arranged for his education in New Jersey and in 1774 he went to King’s College (later Columbia University) in New York.
In 1775 the college closed when British troops arrived to deal with a growing rebellion. Hamilton supported the rebels of the Boston Tea Party and wrote pamphlets in favour of the Continental Congress’s measures against British taxes and imports. When rebellion turned to revolution, in 1776 he gained a commission in the artillery, fighting the British. In 1777, promoted to Lt Colonel, he became General George Washington’s aide-
de-camp, a role he served in for four years, during which time he also married Elizabeth Schuyler (daughter of a general and from a wealthy and well connected family).
As the war drew to a close he was released from service, went to study law and was admitted to the bar in July 1782. That year his political career began when he was elected to the Continental Congress. In his law practice Hamilton made himself unpopular by defending loyalists, those who had remained loyal to the British crown during the war. He also worked against legislation barring loyalists from public life.
In 1787 he became a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, discussing the shape of the new government to be formed by the former British colonies. He believed firmly in a strong centralised government, collaborating with James Madison and John Jay to write 85 essays outlining how the new government should be structured and how it would operate. Published in newspapers in 1787-88 they were later collected into the book The Federalist Papers. The essays helped sway support for the constitution.
When Washington appointed Hamilton the first Secretary of the Treasury in 1789, he took on the task with vigour and intellect. To help bind the union he urged the federal government to assume debts incurred by the states during the War of Independence and then worked out the systems by which the government would repay the debts and fund its operations into the future.
He created a national bank and the basis for the national currency and government controls over it. He also became the head of a Federalist Party, arguing for a strong federal government and close ties with England. He thereby incurred the enmity of Madison, who headed a Republican Party which favoured ties with Republican France. Hamilton also made a political foe of Thomas Jefferson, a Francophile, who wanted him out of cabinet.
Exhausted by the effort of nation building and fending off political attacks he left cabinet in 1795. Some of Hamilton’s ideas on France were validated by tensions between the two countries during the Napoleonic War.
Hamilton continued to dabble in government policy, making several more political enemies. But when he worked against Aaron Burr in his candidacy for the 1804 election for Governor of New York, Burr demanded satisfaction for remarks Hamilton made about him at a dinner party. Hamilton accepted his challenge to duel. On July 11, 1804 Burr shot him dead at Weehawken in New Jersey.
SEPTEMBER 10, 1844: THE BIRTH OF VIOLET CRUMBLE INVENTOR ABEL HOADLEY
Chocolatier Abel Hoadley had a bit of a problem. He had been making a popular box of chocolates in a purple box, decorated with violets, his wife’s favourite flower and had taken to putting a bit of honeycomb in the box. The honeycomb proved so popular with the public that he wanted to package it on its own under the name Crumble, but he found that the bits of honeycomb kept absorbing moisture and ended up going sticky as it sweated in the wrapper.
He solved this problem by dipping it in some chocolate. When he found that he couldn’t trademark the name Crumble he decided to call it the Violet Crumble, putting it in a purple wrapper with an image of a violet on it.
Hoadley, the man credited with inventing the Violet Crumble, was born in England 175 years ago today and migrated to Australia. He had an interesting career arc from apprentice draper, to orchardist, jam maker and finally chocolatier. He was born in Willingdon, East Sussex in England, on September 10, 1844, the son of Peter Hoadley, a blacksmith. He was raised a methodist, taught that a strong work ethic was an important part of life. He was apprenticed to a draper and grocer, but when he was troubled by ill health he decided to migrate to the Australian colonies, hoping the warmer climate would help.
Arriving in Melbourne in 1865 he soon found work with well-known nurseryman George Brunning. Brunning was known for his gardening expertise, publishing a book on the subject, and he was the founder of Brunnings, the gardening company that still exists today. One of his areas of specialty was growing fruit trees in Australia. Thriving in the Victorian air, the hardworking Hoadley saved enough to get married in 1868, to Susannah Barrett (with whom he would have fourteen children). He also spent time learning all he could from Brunning about fruit trees and then set himself up as an orchardist in Burwood, Victoria.
Always a problem solver, when he needed some way of turning fruit blown from his trees into a profit, rather then having to throw it away, he boiled it up to make jam. Teaching his own children a strong work ethic he sent them out to sell his jams. It soon proved to be more than just a sideline and in 1889 he opened a jam-making factory in South Melbourne.
Hoadley was noted for his attitude of looking after his employees creating good working conditions in his factories and paying fair wages. His compassion for others also went beyond his family and his employees. He was also a major supporter of the establishment of the Methodist Central Mission in Melbourne (later the Wesley Central Mission) in 1893, as a response to the severe economic depression affecting the colony at the time. He later became treasurer and in 1903 sold his original family orchard to the Central Mission, at well below market price, for the establishment of a boys’ training farm.
In 1895 Hoadley’s jam works had expanded into a five-storey building under the name the Rising Sun Preserving Works. As another sideline business he also made sauces and candied fruits, then branched into confectionery, all of which kept the factory ticking over when fruit wasn’t in season.
The confectionery also happened to be very profitable and he expanded that line, adding milk chocolates, a product only invented in 1875 that had been growing in popularity. By 1910, when he sold his jam company to Henry Jones Co-op Pty Ltd (later IXL), the confectionery had become his main focus. Hoadley produced chocolates in a box decorated with violets and in 1913 he is said to have created the honeycomb encased in chocolate bar for which he became famous — the Violet Crumble. Although some dispute the story, saying it was created later by one of his sons.
Hoadley died in May 1918 and his sons took over the business. But less than a year after Hoadley’s death, in January 1919, the company’s factory at Barrackville burnt down. Rather than rebuild on that site, it was turned into a public park while a new factory was built nearby.
The company he founded was run by family members for decades but was later acquired by Rowntree’s in the 1970s, to become Rowntree Hoadley’s. Nestle acquired that company in the 1980s and they took the Violet Crumble around the world. Last year, South Australian confectionery company Robert Menz bought the rights to make the Violet Crumble and has been producing it since October 2018.
SEPTEMBER 9, 1839: THE NAMING OF DARWIN
Lieutenant John Lort Stokes, assistant surveyor aboard the British Royal Naval survey vessel Beagle, watched in awe as the ship pulled into a wide bay “between two cliffy heads, and stretching away a great distance”. He went ashore at the eastern point and with senior mate, Mr Charles Forsyth, climbed a hill for a better view. The date was September 9, 1839, 180 years ago today.
The eastern head was named Emery Point, after crewman James Emery who dug a well to find fresh water at the base of the cliff. Lort then crossed to the west, where he found talc slate embedded in quartz, naming it Talc Head. The unusual geology of the place put Lort in mind of his friend and former shipmate, Charles Darwin, who travelled on the Beagle from 1831-36 to give the captain geological advice.
Lort later wrote in his book Discoveries Of Australia, that the need to name the entire harbour “afforded us an appropriate opportunity of convincing an old shipmate and friend, that he still lived in our memory; and we accordingly named this sheet of water Port Darwin’’.
At the time, Darwin was still an obscure figure, 20 years away from publishing his groundbreaking work on natural selection. Lort’s decision to name the place after the young naturalist was one purely based on a personal friendship.
But it was not until decades later that the first non-indigenous people came to live in the region we now know as Darwin. Even when they did it took several decades more before the name Darwin was officially adopted for the city that grew there.
The territory where Lort landed had been the land of the Larrakia people. The word Larrakia means “saltwater”, because the indigenous people not only lived by the ocean or around the salty harbour, but had trade networks extending along the coast and with Indonesian fishermen.
Over the centuries the Larrakia may have seen other European ships passing far off the coast but it was not until 1839 that the Beagle, under captain Commander John Wickham brought the first non-indigenous people ashore. The Beagle was on a mission to chart the parts of the coastline not charted by previous naval survey voyages.
The Beagle and its crew were experienced travellers. The ship had undertaken two previous survey voyages. The first from 1826-30, was under captain Pringle Stokes (no relation to John) in company with HMS Adventure, the expedition under the overall command of Captain Phillip Parker King, the son of Philip Gidley King, one time NSW governor. On the second, from 1831-36, Darwin joined the voyage because the captain, Robert FitzRoy, felt the need for a geologist on board. Darwin had no training in geology but quickly studied up on the subject and spent a lot of time on the voyage collecting fossils, as well as studying plants and animals, shaping his ideas on natural selection and evolution.
The third voyage, under Wickham, included many of the same crewmen and set sail in 1837. The Beagle journeyed to Australia via Cape Town, reaching Swan River in 1837, charting up toward the Fitzroy River (named by Stokes in honour of his previous captain) before it headed to Bass Strait and Van Diemen’s Land.
In 1838 the Beagle went to Sydney, where advice was sought from Phillip Parker King, then a member of the Legislative Council in NSW. King told Wickham and Stokes about a possible opening to a harbour he had glimpsed on a voyage in 1819. The Beagle then went north to chart the top end of the country, arriving at Darwin Harbour on September 9, 1839.
The crew of the Beagle discovered two major rivers in what is now the Northern Territory, the Victoria and the Adelaide, and continued on, two members of the crew narrowly avoiding being impaled by natives, near what was later called the Fitzmaurice River (after one of the men). In 1841 Stokes took command when Wickham had to go home ill to England. Stokes returned to England in 1843 after completing his charting.
Stokes had named the harbour he charted after his friend and for years thereafter it was referred to as Port Darwin. But in 1869 when George Goyder, surveyor-general of South Australia, established a town there with 135 men and women, he named the town Palmerston after the British prime minister Lord Palmerston.
But the harbour retained the name Port Darwin, which was how many people referred to the town. In 1911 Palmerston officially became the city of Darwin.
SEPTEMBER 7, 1984: BIRTH OF CRICKETER VIC RICHARDSON
When English cricketer Douglas Jadrine went to the Australian dressing room at the height of the bodyline tensions to complain that a player had called him a “Pommy bastard”, legend has it he was met by vice-captain Vic Richardson. Richardson was known as a bit of a wit, who wasn’t easily pushed around. He tried to argue that the term “bastard” in Australia was a term of affection. But pressed to find the culprit, he turned to his teammates and asked “Alright, which one of you bastards called this bastard a bastard?”
Jardine stormed away and although Richardson may have intended the remark as a way of lightening the mood, things remained tense between the two teams. But Richardson was no stirrer, he was one of the few voices on the Australian side calling for calm.
He argued against the Australian Cricket Board sending a telegram to England alleging “unsportsmanlike” conduct. He said, “the word ‘unsporting’ would be a red rag to a bull. Sending it when Australia had just gone 1-2 down in the series made it seem like squealing”.
However, he did suggest that a report be secretly sent to the MCC at the end of the test.
Although far from one of the strongest batsmen in the side, Richardson was one of the few who remained undaunted by the English bouncer attack. It was one of the many qualities that marked him as one of Australia’s all-time great sportsmen. Richardson was not only a talented cricketer, footballer, tennis player and swimmer, he was also decent, fair and had natural leadership qualities. He is considered one of South Australia’s all-time greatest sportsmen.
Born Victor York Richardson on September 7, 1894, in Parkside, an inner southern suburb of Adelaide, he was the son Valentine Yaxley Richardson, an accountant and house painter and his wife Rebecca. Valentine was a teetotaller and member of the temperance union. Richardson went to a local school in Unley until he moved on to Kyre College in 1907. The school was started in 1902 by David Hollidge and moved to Unley in 1903, working out of a rented house (Kyre would later become Scotch College). It was at school that Richardson’s sporting prowess began to show. He excelled at a range of sports including croquet, lacrosse, swimming, gymnastics, baseball but, above all, cricket and Australian rules football.
He would also later attribute some of his skill at cricket to living a few doors down from former Australian cricket captain Joe Darling who gave cricketing tips to youngsters on the front lawn of his home and was also the cricket coach at Kyre College. After leaving school Richardson went to work in the public service but his afternoons and weekends were filled with training and playing matches for whatever sport was in season. War broke out in 1914 and in 1915 he began playing first grade Australian football rules for Sturt, his team winning the grand final that year.
He made his first class cricket debut in the 1918-19 season playing for South Australia. His first match was, coincidentally, the same one in which the unrelated player Arthur Richardson was also making his debut. The two Richardsons were said by one commentator to have “carried South Australia” on their shoulders for a time. While he was a handy enough batsman, although it is often said he lacked elegance in his playing style, people often remarked on his uncanny fielding abilities, saying he moved around the field like lightning.
In 1919 he married Vida Knapman, daughter of hotelier and brewer Alf Knapman. They had four children — one boy and three girls.
Richardson became captain of the Sturt Football Club in 1920, the year he shared the prestigious Margarey medal with three-time winner Dan Moriarty. He would later reminisce about playing for South Australia against Victoria and coming up against the great Roy Cazaly, but he still rated Moriarty as “without peer, then or now.” It is a testament to his level of skill in both his chosen sports that while still captain of Sturt in 1924 he made his Test cricket debut playing England.
Although his inelegant batting style served him well enough at club and Sheffield Shield level, commentators often complained about his inconsistency although he had his great moments. He scored an impressive 231 (his highest first class score) while captaining South Australia against the English Test side in 1928 and during the 1932-33 English bodyline tour, when he served as vice-captain, his confidence and aggression worked against the English pace attack, giving him some of the team’s highest scores in the series.
Around this time he began to dabble in work as a cricket commentator, both in the newspapers and on the radio. Elevated to the captaincy in 1935 he took Australia to a 4-0 victory against the South Africans, but it was to be his last test tour and the end of his time as captain. Cricketing great Jack Hobbs said Richardson was the best captain Australia had since the war, “head and shoulders above Collins, Armstrong, Woodful and Bradman as a tactician”.
He continued to play for South Australia, while taking on more work on radio and writing for newspapers.
When Australia went to war in 1939, Richardson joined the RAAF and served as a flight lieutenant in the Volunteer Air Observers Corps, which took him to Myanmar and India.
After the war, he officially retired from cricket and became well known for his cricket broadcasts, paired with former EnglishTest rival Arthur Gilligan.
When his grandsons, by his daughter Jeanne, began showing talent playing cricket he imparted some tips and wisdom. In an interview the oldest, Ian Chappell, once recalled him giving three pieces of advice: “If you can’t be a good cricketer, at least you could try to dress like one”; “Nine times out of 10 when you win the toss, bat first, and on the 10th occasion think about it, then bat”; and “If you ever get the chance to captain Australia, don’t captain like a Victorian.”
Richardson died on October 30, 1969, reportedly while watching sport on television.
SEPTEMBER 6, 1859: BIRTH OF CHOCOLATIER MACPHERSON ROBERTSON
The chocolatier in his distinctive white suit was talking about a new product with his mould makers. It was to be a chocolate mouse, something bite size but satisfying. With decades of experience in the business he thought it something the public would really go for.
But a young moulder named Harry Melbourne was listening to Sir Macpherson Robertson and something occurred to him that hadn’t been obvious to the chocolatier. Melbourne pointed out some people were afraid of mice and that, perhaps a better idea would be to make a chocolate frog. Robertson shot him a look that was hard to interpret. For a moment Melbourne thought he had lost his job. But Robertson could see the logic. He said “I’d like to see one: make one up and bring it over to my office.”
Melbourne did as he was asked, Robertson liked what he saw, and MacRobertson Confectionery added the Freddo Frog to its range of products. It would become one of Australia’s most popular chocolates and although the company founded by Robertson later became a part of Cadbury’s, the Freddo lives on and is enjoyed around the world.
It is a testament to his character that Robertson could listen to the opinion of a young employee and change direction for the better. Robertson, born on September 6, was not only a great chocolatier, giving the world the Freddo, Cherry Ripe and Old Gold chocolates, he was also a great philanthropist with a passion for aviation.
Born on the goldfields near Ballarat on September 6, 1859, his father was from Scotland and came to Australia with his wife Margaret to try his luck digging for gold. In 1869 when his gold chasing had come to nothing, he sent his wife and children home to Scotland and headed off to see if he could make his fortune in Fiji.
The 10-year-old Macpherson Robertson decided to leave school and to find work to support his mother and his siblings. He worked selling newspapers, cutting cork, shovelling coal and delivering telegrams until he found a job at a confectionery shop.
The family returned to Australia in 1874 and were reunited with their father. Initially Robertson was set on a career as a butcher, but changed his mind and took up an apprenticeship with the Victorian Confectionery Company in the Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. After learning what he could from them, and saving up some money, he decided to go out on his own. Making up sweets in the bathtub of his family home he took his creations around to local shops to sell.
He soon outgrew the bathtub and in 1880 set up the MacRobertson’s Steam Confectionery Works in Fitzroy. Robertson and his factory were figuratively and literally powering on, and in 1886 he married Elizabeth Hedington, but an argument with his father over ownership of the business drove him away to start the American Candy Company.
When MacRobertson’s began to falter, Robertson was lured back. Although annoyed that he had to defer to his father, he continued to build the empire, using his flair for marketing and for creating new products.
He also had an eye on what was popular overseas, helping to introduce Australians to chewing gum and fairy floss. He was also an innovator when it came to making his ingredients, pioneering the manufacture of products such as glucose and condensed milk in Australia. He was also aware that he owed much of his success to his employees, who he paid well and referred to as his “co-workers”. In turn they called him “Mr Mac”.
As his fortune grew so did his interests. He was fascinated by modern technology and a keen motorist so introduced a fleet of cars to deliver his chocolates when they were still largely a novelty on the roads. Sadly, in 1905, he also became one of the first people to accidentally kill a pedestrian.
He sponsored an around Australia truck expedition in 1928 and with pioneer aviator Horrie Miller founded the MacRobertson-Miller Aviation Co. He also sponsored the 1934 London to Melbourne Air Race. He gave generous gifts for scientific research in Antarctica (where Mac. Robertson Land is named after him) and gave a huge donation of £100,000 to Melbourne for its centenary celebrations (even paying the tax on it of £42,000). Some of that money went to build MacRobertson Bridge over the Yarra, as well as a high school and a fountain at the Shrine of Remembrance. Knighted in 1932, his wife Elizabeth died that year and he married Elizabeth Siebert. His second wife died in 1944 and he died in 1945. | <urn:uuid:bb147b9a-0bed-4c50-add6-9bc1ef3f7410> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/human-interest/victor-richardson-grandfather-of-a-cricket-dynasty-was-a-quiet-voice-in-bodyline-storm-ng-c949ecd117fed5ce2f50871938646057 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.988348 | 5,294 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.64158922433... | 2 | SEPTEMBER 11, 1789: ALEXANDER HAMILTON APPOINTED FIRST SECRETARY TO US TREASURY
The banknote with his face on it was still years away from being created but the long association between Alexander Hamilton and the US Treasury began on this day 230 years ago today. On September 11, 1789, Hamilton was appointed by President George Washington as the first Secretary to the US Treasury. The country was just putting together its government and its federal institutions. Hamilton favoured a strong central government and created a national bank, the US Mint and much of the government financial system including how to pay its debts and collect taxes.
When the US first started issuing paper currency in 1861 his face was on the $5 note, but ended up, from 1929, on the $10 bill. Lately he has been more closely associated with the hit American musical Hamilton, which will come to Australia in 2021.
He was born in the West Indies, to a Scottish father James and a half-British, half-French mother Rachel Lavien (or Lavine) on January 11, 1755. Rachel was separated but not divorced from her first husband John Lavien. Hamilton was born “illegitimate” later saying “my birth is the subject of the most humiliating criticism”. James left Rachel to avoid her being accused of adultery in a divorce case. Hamilton went to work as a clerk in a trading company in 1766. Rachel died in 1768 and Hamilton and his brother James Jr were taken in by relatives. Family and friends arranged for his education in New Jersey and in 1774 he went to King’s College (later Columbia University) in New York.
In 1775 the college closed when British troops arrived to deal with a growing rebellion. Hamilton supported the rebels of the Boston Tea Party and wrote pamphlets in favour of the Continental Congress’s measures against British taxes and imports. When rebellion turned to revolution, in 1776 he gained a commission in the artillery, fighting the British. In 1777, promoted to Lt Colonel, he became General George Washington’s aide-
de-camp, a role he served in for four years, during which time he also married Elizabeth Schuyler (daughter of a general and from a wealthy and well connected family).
As the war drew to a close he was released from service, went to study law and was admitted to the bar in July 1782. That year his political career began when he was elected to the Continental Congress. In his law practice Hamilton made himself unpopular by defending loyalists, those who had remained loyal to the British crown during the war. He also worked against legislation barring loyalists from public life.
In 1787 he became a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, discussing the shape of the new government to be formed by the former British colonies. He believed firmly in a strong centralised government, collaborating with James Madison and John Jay to write 85 essays outlining how the new government should be structured and how it would operate. Published in newspapers in 1787-88 they were later collected into the book The Federalist Papers. The essays helped sway support for the constitution.
When Washington appointed Hamilton the first Secretary of the Treasury in 1789, he took on the task with vigour and intellect. To help bind the union he urged the federal government to assume debts incurred by the states during the War of Independence and then worked out the systems by which the government would repay the debts and fund its operations into the future.
He created a national bank and the basis for the national currency and government controls over it. He also became the head of a Federalist Party, arguing for a strong federal government and close ties with England. He thereby incurred the enmity of Madison, who headed a Republican Party which favoured ties with Republican France. Hamilton also made a political foe of Thomas Jefferson, a Francophile, who wanted him out of cabinet.
Exhausted by the effort of nation building and fending off political attacks he left cabinet in 1795. Some of Hamilton’s ideas on France were validated by tensions between the two countries during the Napoleonic War.
Hamilton continued to dabble in government policy, making several more political enemies. But when he worked against Aaron Burr in his candidacy for the 1804 election for Governor of New York, Burr demanded satisfaction for remarks Hamilton made about him at a dinner party. Hamilton accepted his challenge to duel. On July 11, 1804 Burr shot him dead at Weehawken in New Jersey.
SEPTEMBER 10, 1844: THE BIRTH OF VIOLET CRUMBLE INVENTOR ABEL HOADLEY
Chocolatier Abel Hoadley had a bit of a problem. He had been making a popular box of chocolates in a purple box, decorated with violets, his wife’s favourite flower and had taken to putting a bit of honeycomb in the box. The honeycomb proved so popular with the public that he wanted to package it on its own under the name Crumble, but he found that the bits of honeycomb kept absorbing moisture and ended up going sticky as it sweated in the wrapper.
He solved this problem by dipping it in some chocolate. When he found that he couldn’t trademark the name Crumble he decided to call it the Violet Crumble, putting it in a purple wrapper with an image of a violet on it.
Hoadley, the man credited with inventing the Violet Crumble, was born in England 175 years ago today and migrated to Australia. He had an interesting career arc from apprentice draper, to orchardist, jam maker and finally chocolatier. He was born in Willingdon, East Sussex in England, on September 10, 1844, the son of Peter Hoadley, a blacksmith. He was raised a methodist, taught that a strong work ethic was an important part of life. He was apprenticed to a draper and grocer, but when he was troubled by ill health he decided to migrate to the Australian colonies, hoping the warmer climate would help.
Arriving in Melbourne in 1865 he soon found work with well-known nurseryman George Brunning. Brunning was known for his gardening expertise, publishing a book on the subject, and he was the founder of Brunnings, the gardening company that still exists today. One of his areas of specialty was growing fruit trees in Australia. Thriving in the Victorian air, the hardworking Hoadley saved enough to get married in 1868, to Susannah Barrett (with whom he would have fourteen children). He also spent time learning all he could from Brunning about fruit trees and then set himself up as an orchardist in Burwood, Victoria.
Always a problem solver, when he needed some way of turning fruit blown from his trees into a profit, rather then having to throw it away, he boiled it up to make jam. Teaching his own children a strong work ethic he sent them out to sell his jams. It soon proved to be more than just a sideline and in 1889 he opened a jam-making factory in South Melbourne.
Hoadley was noted for his attitude of looking after his employees creating good working conditions in his factories and paying fair wages. His compassion for others also went beyond his family and his employees. He was also a major supporter of the establishment of the Methodist Central Mission in Melbourne (later the Wesley Central Mission) in 1893, as a response to the severe economic depression affecting the colony at the time. He later became treasurer and in 1903 sold his original family orchard to the Central Mission, at well below market price, for the establishment of a boys’ training farm.
In 1895 Hoadley’s jam works had expanded into a five-storey building under the name the Rising Sun Preserving Works. As another sideline business he also made sauces and candied fruits, then branched into confectionery, all of which kept the factory ticking over when fruit wasn’t in season.
The confectionery also happened to be very profitable and he expanded that line, adding milk chocolates, a product only invented in 1875 that had been growing in popularity. By 1910, when he sold his jam company to Henry Jones Co-op Pty Ltd (later IXL), the confectionery had become his main focus. Hoadley produced chocolates in a box decorated with violets and in 1913 he is said to have created the honeycomb encased in chocolate bar for which he became famous — the Violet Crumble. Although some dispute the story, saying it was created later by one of his sons.
Hoadley died in May 1918 and his sons took over the business. But less than a year after Hoadley’s death, in January 1919, the company’s factory at Barrackville burnt down. Rather than rebuild on that site, it was turned into a public park while a new factory was built nearby.
The company he founded was run by family members for decades but was later acquired by Rowntree’s in the 1970s, to become Rowntree Hoadley’s. Nestle acquired that company in the 1980s and they took the Violet Crumble around the world. Last year, South Australian confectionery company Robert Menz bought the rights to make the Violet Crumble and has been producing it since October 2018.
SEPTEMBER 9, 1839: THE NAMING OF DARWIN
Lieutenant John Lort Stokes, assistant surveyor aboard the British Royal Naval survey vessel Beagle, watched in awe as the ship pulled into a wide bay “between two cliffy heads, and stretching away a great distance”. He went ashore at the eastern point and with senior mate, Mr Charles Forsyth, climbed a hill for a better view. The date was September 9, 1839, 180 years ago today.
The eastern head was named Emery Point, after crewman James Emery who dug a well to find fresh water at the base of the cliff. Lort then crossed to the west, where he found talc slate embedded in quartz, naming it Talc Head. The unusual geology of the place put Lort in mind of his friend and former shipmate, Charles Darwin, who travelled on the Beagle from 1831-36 to give the captain geological advice.
Lort later wrote in his book Discoveries Of Australia, that the need to name the entire harbour “afforded us an appropriate opportunity of convincing an old shipmate and friend, that he still lived in our memory; and we accordingly named this sheet of water Port Darwin’’.
At the time, Darwin was still an obscure figure, 20 years away from publishing his groundbreaking work on natural selection. Lort’s decision to name the place after the young naturalist was one purely based on a personal friendship.
But it was not until decades later that the first non-indigenous people came to live in the region we now know as Darwin. Even when they did it took several decades more before the name Darwin was officially adopted for the city that grew there.
The territory where Lort landed had been the land of the Larrakia people. The word Larrakia means “saltwater”, because the indigenous people not only lived by the ocean or around the salty harbour, but had trade networks extending along the coast and with Indonesian fishermen.
Over the centuries the Larrakia may have seen other European ships passing far off the coast but it was not until 1839 that the Beagle, under captain Commander John Wickham brought the first non-indigenous people ashore. The Beagle was on a mission to chart the parts of the coastline not charted by previous naval survey voyages.
The Beagle and its crew were experienced travellers. The ship had undertaken two previous survey voyages. The first from 1826-30, was under captain Pringle Stokes (no relation to John) in company with HMS Adventure, the expedition under the overall command of Captain Phillip Parker King, the son of Philip Gidley King, one time NSW governor. On the second, from 1831-36, Darwin joined the voyage because the captain, Robert FitzRoy, felt the need for a geologist on board. Darwin had no training in geology but quickly studied up on the subject and spent a lot of time on the voyage collecting fossils, as well as studying plants and animals, shaping his ideas on natural selection and evolution.
The third voyage, under Wickham, included many of the same crewmen and set sail in 1837. The Beagle journeyed to Australia via Cape Town, reaching Swan River in 1837, charting up toward the Fitzroy River (named by Stokes in honour of his previous captain) before it headed to Bass Strait and Van Diemen’s Land.
In 1838 the Beagle went to Sydney, where advice was sought from Phillip Parker King, then a member of the Legislative Council in NSW. King told Wickham and Stokes about a possible opening to a harbour he had glimpsed on a voyage in 1819. The Beagle then went north to chart the top end of the country, arriving at Darwin Harbour on September 9, 1839.
The crew of the Beagle discovered two major rivers in what is now the Northern Territory, the Victoria and the Adelaide, and continued on, two members of the crew narrowly avoiding being impaled by natives, near what was later called the Fitzmaurice River (after one of the men). In 1841 Stokes took command when Wickham had to go home ill to England. Stokes returned to England in 1843 after completing his charting.
Stokes had named the harbour he charted after his friend and for years thereafter it was referred to as Port Darwin. But in 1869 when George Goyder, surveyor-general of South Australia, established a town there with 135 men and women, he named the town Palmerston after the British prime minister Lord Palmerston.
But the harbour retained the name Port Darwin, which was how many people referred to the town. In 1911 Palmerston officially became the city of Darwin.
SEPTEMBER 7, 1984: BIRTH OF CRICKETER VIC RICHARDSON
When English cricketer Douglas Jadrine went to the Australian dressing room at the height of the bodyline tensions to complain that a player had called him a “Pommy bastard”, legend has it he was met by vice-captain Vic Richardson. Richardson was known as a bit of a wit, who wasn’t easily pushed around. He tried to argue that the term “bastard” in Australia was a term of affection. But pressed to find the culprit, he turned to his teammates and asked “Alright, which one of you bastards called this bastard a bastard?”
Jardine stormed away and although Richardson may have intended the remark as a way of lightening the mood, things remained tense between the two teams. But Richardson was no stirrer, he was one of the few voices on the Australian side calling for calm.
He argued against the Australian Cricket Board sending a telegram to England alleging “unsportsmanlike” conduct. He said, “the word ‘unsporting’ would be a red rag to a bull. Sending it when Australia had just gone 1-2 down in the series made it seem like squealing”.
However, he did suggest that a report be secretly sent to the MCC at the end of the test.
Although far from one of the strongest batsmen in the side, Richardson was one of the few who remained undaunted by the English bouncer attack. It was one of the many qualities that marked him as one of Australia’s all-time great sportsmen. Richardson was not only a talented cricketer, footballer, tennis player and swimmer, he was also decent, fair and had natural leadership qualities. He is considered one of South Australia’s all-time greatest sportsmen.
Born Victor York Richardson on September 7, 1894, in Parkside, an inner southern suburb of Adelaide, he was the son Valentine Yaxley Richardson, an accountant and house painter and his wife Rebecca. Valentine was a teetotaller and member of the temperance union. Richardson went to a local school in Unley until he moved on to Kyre College in 1907. The school was started in 1902 by David Hollidge and moved to Unley in 1903, working out of a rented house (Kyre would later become Scotch College). It was at school that Richardson’s sporting prowess began to show. He excelled at a range of sports including croquet, lacrosse, swimming, gymnastics, baseball but, above all, cricket and Australian rules football.
He would also later attribute some of his skill at cricket to living a few doors down from former Australian cricket captain Joe Darling who gave cricketing tips to youngsters on the front lawn of his home and was also the cricket coach at Kyre College. After leaving school Richardson went to work in the public service but his afternoons and weekends were filled with training and playing matches for whatever sport was in season. War broke out in 1914 and in 1915 he began playing first grade Australian football rules for Sturt, his team winning the grand final that year.
He made his first class cricket debut in the 1918-19 season playing for South Australia. His first match was, coincidentally, the same one in which the unrelated player Arthur Richardson was also making his debut. The two Richardsons were said by one commentator to have “carried South Australia” on their shoulders for a time. While he was a handy enough batsman, although it is often said he lacked elegance in his playing style, people often remarked on his uncanny fielding abilities, saying he moved around the field like lightning.
In 1919 he married Vida Knapman, daughter of hotelier and brewer Alf Knapman. They had four children — one boy and three girls.
Richardson became captain of the Sturt Football Club in 1920, the year he shared the prestigious Margarey medal with three-time winner Dan Moriarty. He would later reminisce about playing for South Australia against Victoria and coming up against the great Roy Cazaly, but he still rated Moriarty as “without peer, then or now.” It is a testament to his level of skill in both his chosen sports that while still captain of Sturt in 1924 he made his Test cricket debut playing England.
Although his inelegant batting style served him well enough at club and Sheffield Shield level, commentators often complained about his inconsistency although he had his great moments. He scored an impressive 231 (his highest first class score) while captaining South Australia against the English Test side in 1928 and during the 1932-33 English bodyline tour, when he served as vice-captain, his confidence and aggression worked against the English pace attack, giving him some of the team’s highest scores in the series.
Around this time he began to dabble in work as a cricket commentator, both in the newspapers and on the radio. Elevated to the captaincy in 1935 he took Australia to a 4-0 victory against the South Africans, but it was to be his last test tour and the end of his time as captain. Cricketing great Jack Hobbs said Richardson was the best captain Australia had since the war, “head and shoulders above Collins, Armstrong, Woodful and Bradman as a tactician”.
He continued to play for South Australia, while taking on more work on radio and writing for newspapers.
When Australia went to war in 1939, Richardson joined the RAAF and served as a flight lieutenant in the Volunteer Air Observers Corps, which took him to Myanmar and India.
After the war, he officially retired from cricket and became well known for his cricket broadcasts, paired with former EnglishTest rival Arthur Gilligan.
When his grandsons, by his daughter Jeanne, began showing talent playing cricket he imparted some tips and wisdom. In an interview the oldest, Ian Chappell, once recalled him giving three pieces of advice: “If you can’t be a good cricketer, at least you could try to dress like one”; “Nine times out of 10 when you win the toss, bat first, and on the 10th occasion think about it, then bat”; and “If you ever get the chance to captain Australia, don’t captain like a Victorian.”
Richardson died on October 30, 1969, reportedly while watching sport on television.
SEPTEMBER 6, 1859: BIRTH OF CHOCOLATIER MACPHERSON ROBERTSON
The chocolatier in his distinctive white suit was talking about a new product with his mould makers. It was to be a chocolate mouse, something bite size but satisfying. With decades of experience in the business he thought it something the public would really go for.
But a young moulder named Harry Melbourne was listening to Sir Macpherson Robertson and something occurred to him that hadn’t been obvious to the chocolatier. Melbourne pointed out some people were afraid of mice and that, perhaps a better idea would be to make a chocolate frog. Robertson shot him a look that was hard to interpret. For a moment Melbourne thought he had lost his job. But Robertson could see the logic. He said “I’d like to see one: make one up and bring it over to my office.”
Melbourne did as he was asked, Robertson liked what he saw, and MacRobertson Confectionery added the Freddo Frog to its range of products. It would become one of Australia’s most popular chocolates and although the company founded by Robertson later became a part of Cadbury’s, the Freddo lives on and is enjoyed around the world.
It is a testament to his character that Robertson could listen to the opinion of a young employee and change direction for the better. Robertson, born on September 6, was not only a great chocolatier, giving the world the Freddo, Cherry Ripe and Old Gold chocolates, he was also a great philanthropist with a passion for aviation.
Born on the goldfields near Ballarat on September 6, 1859, his father was from Scotland and came to Australia with his wife Margaret to try his luck digging for gold. In 1869 when his gold chasing had come to nothing, he sent his wife and children home to Scotland and headed off to see if he could make his fortune in Fiji.
The 10-year-old Macpherson Robertson decided to leave school and to find work to support his mother and his siblings. He worked selling newspapers, cutting cork, shovelling coal and delivering telegrams until he found a job at a confectionery shop.
The family returned to Australia in 1874 and were reunited with their father. Initially Robertson was set on a career as a butcher, but changed his mind and took up an apprenticeship with the Victorian Confectionery Company in the Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. After learning what he could from them, and saving up some money, he decided to go out on his own. Making up sweets in the bathtub of his family home he took his creations around to local shops to sell.
He soon outgrew the bathtub and in 1880 set up the MacRobertson’s Steam Confectionery Works in Fitzroy. Robertson and his factory were figuratively and literally powering on, and in 1886 he married Elizabeth Hedington, but an argument with his father over ownership of the business drove him away to start the American Candy Company.
When MacRobertson’s began to falter, Robertson was lured back. Although annoyed that he had to defer to his father, he continued to build the empire, using his flair for marketing and for creating new products.
He also had an eye on what was popular overseas, helping to introduce Australians to chewing gum and fairy floss. He was also an innovator when it came to making his ingredients, pioneering the manufacture of products such as glucose and condensed milk in Australia. He was also aware that he owed much of his success to his employees, who he paid well and referred to as his “co-workers”. In turn they called him “Mr Mac”.
As his fortune grew so did his interests. He was fascinated by modern technology and a keen motorist so introduced a fleet of cars to deliver his chocolates when they were still largely a novelty on the roads. Sadly, in 1905, he also became one of the first people to accidentally kill a pedestrian.
He sponsored an around Australia truck expedition in 1928 and with pioneer aviator Horrie Miller founded the MacRobertson-Miller Aviation Co. He also sponsored the 1934 London to Melbourne Air Race. He gave generous gifts for scientific research in Antarctica (where Mac. Robertson Land is named after him) and gave a huge donation of £100,000 to Melbourne for its centenary celebrations (even paying the tax on it of £42,000). Some of that money went to build MacRobertson Bridge over the Yarra, as well as a high school and a fountain at the Shrine of Remembrance. Knighted in 1932, his wife Elizabeth died that year and he married Elizabeth Siebert. His second wife died in 1944 and he died in 1945. | 5,414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aristotle defined Oedipus Rex by Sophocles as the perfect tragedy. In this tragedy, King Oedipus has to face a hamartia, which is the tragic hero’s downfall due to his tragic flaws. King Oedipus plays an important role in the concept of fate. Oedipus falls form his status from being a powerful noble king by not following his fate, his overbearing pride, and his assault that makes him a disgrace towards others. Although, Oedipus is considered a classic Greek tragic hero, he has several tragic flaws that lead to his downfalls such as, his arrogance, fate, and hybris. However, others may say that there are no distinguishable flaws revealed. People may think this because Sophocles does not specifically make notice to the flaws that Oedipus has. You have to be able to comprehend what is going on in order to point out his tragic flaws. Although, Oedipus appears to have many flaws mainly his arrogance, fate, and hybris. An element that makes up Oedipus’ personality that leads to his horrific downfall is arrogance. During Oedipus’s conversation with Tiresias Oedipus says, “Much as you want. Your words are nothing-frutile.” (Sophocles, pg278) This quote shows that Oedipus believes that no one is better than him. Throughout the rest of the conversation, Tiresias is treated with such disrespect from Oedipus. Oedipus imagines that Tiresias has no feelings and is ignorant to the city. However it is clear that Tiresias told Oedipus the truth about the murder as if he were trying to help him open his eyes from Oedipus’s blindness but the arrogance came out in him and spoke for him instead of his mind. Oedipus’ arrogance also leads to the dangerous act of his fate. The Gods predetermined Oedipus’ life. At the time of his birth he was prophesied that he would kill his father and marry his mother. In order for him to avoid the dreadful situation, he was guided to follow his fate. As a baby, his parents learned of his destiny and gave him to a shepherd to be killed. Since he had to carry out the destiny, however Oedipus survived and was adopted by the king and queen of Corinth. Unaware that those were not his real parents, Oedipus learned about his destiny and thought he would be able to change it by leaving Corinth. Unfortunately his prophecy, as warned by the Oracle at Delphi, was absolute, and would come true. When Oedipus found out that he was the son raised by Polybus, he was in fear of his mother knowing that she was still alive because she is a dreadful prophecy, and stranger that was sent by the gods. “Apollo told me once-it is my fate- I must make love with my own mother, shed my father’s blood with my own hands. So for years I’ve given Corinth a wide berth, but it’s been my good fortune to.” (Sophocles pg304) This shows that Oedipus was in fear of his parents and it is his fate to do as Apollo had mentioned. But before any of this had happened,…
The Decline of Oedipus in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus began Oedipus Rex as a king, only to end the tale as a blinded beggar. Oedipus' fall from his kingly status was not by accident or because of some other person. Oedipus is the only one that can be blamed for his misfortune. Oedipus' character traits are shown most clearly during his spiraling downfall, thinking he is "a simple man, who knows nothing", yet knowing more than he realizes by the end of the story.
main character Oedipus comes to discover the inescapability of fate enduring
obstacles which lead him back to his destiny.
After fleeing Corinth in fear of the prophecy's statement that Oedipus's fate would be
to marry his mother and kill his father, Oedipus killed a group of men in self defense at a
crossroad. Not long after, he arrived to Thebes. With the king being recently murdered, the
townspeople looked to Oedipus for a sense of guidance. Also having defeated the sphinx,
Oedipus was awarded the royal throne and the queen as his wife…
The tragedy of Oedipus the King is a classic representation of irony in a Greek play. Oedipus, king of Thebes emerges as a powerful ruler after solving the riddle of the Sphinx and is initially regarded as a concerned leader. The story of Oedipus Rex Centers around what caused the events before the play begins and the tragedy of what happens after Oedipus opens his eyes to the truth.
The exposition of Sophocles' Oedipus Rex occurs seamlessly. At the beginning of the play, we learn…
necessarily need to come out. Oedipus Rex is a tragedy where
finding out the truth does nothing but harm everything in its path. Although a cure to the plague
is found, the consequences of the truth that Oedipus and the people around him have to deal with
turn the story into a tragedy. In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, a reader can learn that sometimes the
truth is better untold through Teiresias’ words to Oedipus when Oedipus asks him about the
Oedipus Rex the Blind King
Sophocles is one of the few Greek Tragedians whose plays have survived to this day. One of his most famous works is, Oedipus Rex. Oedipus Rex is a play about the King of Thebes, who needs to save his kingdom from a deathly plague. The only way to do so is to solve the murder of the late King Laios. However, when Oedipus was young he was cursed with a prophecy that said he was doomed to kill his father and marry his mother. While solving the murder Oedipus realizes the…
Survey of Dramatic Literature
September 10, 2014
In 420 B.C., Sophocles wrote his rendition of Oedipus Rex. Oedipus Rex is the story of the son of the King and Queen of Thebes. The theme of fate plays a monstrous role in this entire play. Throughout time, the idea of fate and how it affects people’s decisions. While the Greeks wholeheartedly believed in the idea of fate, nowadays fate is an after-thought. By taking a look at the circumstances,…
Oedipus Rex by Sophocles
1 - Oedipus is abandoned after his father, King Laius, hears a prophecy that he is to kill his father and marry his mother, Queen Jocasta. Oedipus is adopted and later hears the same prophecy, and goes in search of the truth. Along the way he gets in a fight with a man and kills him, not knowing it is his father. He then solves a riddle from the Sphinx which has been terrorizing a kingdom. In return, the kingdom gives him their queen's hand in marriage, who is his biological…
Oedipus Rex: Question 1
Oedipus Rex is considered one of the greatest tragic plays to come from any of the ancient Greek playwrights as its lessons mirror societal troubles of the era. It projects certain cultural values and morals onto the Athenian audience of the time through many different tragic conventions. Sophocles, the writer, was born near Athens between 497 and 495 BC and is considered a conservative as all his plays supported the idea of a polytheistic society and that we should not…
English Literature: 2
02 October 2014
Sometimes, we as human beings, are unable to see the most apparent truths. Sometimes, even the blind can see more than the sighted. Sophocles demonstrates this in his famous play, Oedipus Rex.
Oedipus, whose name means “swollen foot” is cursed from birth. His parents receive a prophecy that states that Oedipus will grow up to kill his father so they leave him in a mountain to die. However, Oedipus is saved by a shepherd. Furthermore, the…
Oedipus Rex Theme Paper (Choice 2)
Contrary to popular belief, Oedipus was not a mere victim of fate but rather responsible
for his own banishment and blindness. In addition, Oedipus had several character flaws that
contributed to his dreaded fate, the most prevalent being anger.
One instance where Oedipus ruins his own future is at the start of the play when he is
speaking with Creon, his brother in law, who has just returned from the oracle. Creon told… | <urn:uuid:0f3e0859-bc6f-4112-9582-aac00997413b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Oedipus-Rex-601235.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.984916 | 1,904 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.20008391... | 1 | Aristotle defined Oedipus Rex by Sophocles as the perfect tragedy. In this tragedy, King Oedipus has to face a hamartia, which is the tragic hero’s downfall due to his tragic flaws. King Oedipus plays an important role in the concept of fate. Oedipus falls form his status from being a powerful noble king by not following his fate, his overbearing pride, and his assault that makes him a disgrace towards others. Although, Oedipus is considered a classic Greek tragic hero, he has several tragic flaws that lead to his downfalls such as, his arrogance, fate, and hybris. However, others may say that there are no distinguishable flaws revealed. People may think this because Sophocles does not specifically make notice to the flaws that Oedipus has. You have to be able to comprehend what is going on in order to point out his tragic flaws. Although, Oedipus appears to have many flaws mainly his arrogance, fate, and hybris. An element that makes up Oedipus’ personality that leads to his horrific downfall is arrogance. During Oedipus’s conversation with Tiresias Oedipus says, “Much as you want. Your words are nothing-frutile.” (Sophocles, pg278) This quote shows that Oedipus believes that no one is better than him. Throughout the rest of the conversation, Tiresias is treated with such disrespect from Oedipus. Oedipus imagines that Tiresias has no feelings and is ignorant to the city. However it is clear that Tiresias told Oedipus the truth about the murder as if he were trying to help him open his eyes from Oedipus’s blindness but the arrogance came out in him and spoke for him instead of his mind. Oedipus’ arrogance also leads to the dangerous act of his fate. The Gods predetermined Oedipus’ life. At the time of his birth he was prophesied that he would kill his father and marry his mother. In order for him to avoid the dreadful situation, he was guided to follow his fate. As a baby, his parents learned of his destiny and gave him to a shepherd to be killed. Since he had to carry out the destiny, however Oedipus survived and was adopted by the king and queen of Corinth. Unaware that those were not his real parents, Oedipus learned about his destiny and thought he would be able to change it by leaving Corinth. Unfortunately his prophecy, as warned by the Oracle at Delphi, was absolute, and would come true. When Oedipus found out that he was the son raised by Polybus, he was in fear of his mother knowing that she was still alive because she is a dreadful prophecy, and stranger that was sent by the gods. “Apollo told me once-it is my fate- I must make love with my own mother, shed my father’s blood with my own hands. So for years I’ve given Corinth a wide berth, but it’s been my good fortune to.” (Sophocles pg304) This shows that Oedipus was in fear of his parents and it is his fate to do as Apollo had mentioned. But before any of this had happened,…
The Decline of Oedipus in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus began Oedipus Rex as a king, only to end the tale as a blinded beggar. Oedipus' fall from his kingly status was not by accident or because of some other person. Oedipus is the only one that can be blamed for his misfortune. Oedipus' character traits are shown most clearly during his spiraling downfall, thinking he is "a simple man, who knows nothing", yet knowing more than he realizes by the end of the story.
main character Oedipus comes to discover the inescapability of fate enduring
obstacles which lead him back to his destiny.
After fleeing Corinth in fear of the prophecy's statement that Oedipus's fate would be
to marry his mother and kill his father, Oedipus killed a group of men in self defense at a
crossroad. Not long after, he arrived to Thebes. With the king being recently murdered, the
townspeople looked to Oedipus for a sense of guidance. Also having defeated the sphinx,
Oedipus was awarded the royal throne and the queen as his wife…
The tragedy of Oedipus the King is a classic representation of irony in a Greek play. Oedipus, king of Thebes emerges as a powerful ruler after solving the riddle of the Sphinx and is initially regarded as a concerned leader. The story of Oedipus Rex Centers around what caused the events before the play begins and the tragedy of what happens after Oedipus opens his eyes to the truth.
The exposition of Sophocles' Oedipus Rex occurs seamlessly. At the beginning of the play, we learn…
necessarily need to come out. Oedipus Rex is a tragedy where
finding out the truth does nothing but harm everything in its path. Although a cure to the plague
is found, the consequences of the truth that Oedipus and the people around him have to deal with
turn the story into a tragedy. In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, a reader can learn that sometimes the
truth is better untold through Teiresias’ words to Oedipus when Oedipus asks him about the
Oedipus Rex the Blind King
Sophocles is one of the few Greek Tragedians whose plays have survived to this day. One of his most famous works is, Oedipus Rex. Oedipus Rex is a play about the King of Thebes, who needs to save his kingdom from a deathly plague. The only way to do so is to solve the murder of the late King Laios. However, when Oedipus was young he was cursed with a prophecy that said he was doomed to kill his father and marry his mother. While solving the murder Oedipus realizes the…
Survey of Dramatic Literature
September 10, 2014
In 420 B.C., Sophocles wrote his rendition of Oedipus Rex. Oedipus Rex is the story of the son of the King and Queen of Thebes. The theme of fate plays a monstrous role in this entire play. Throughout time, the idea of fate and how it affects people’s decisions. While the Greeks wholeheartedly believed in the idea of fate, nowadays fate is an after-thought. By taking a look at the circumstances,…
Oedipus Rex by Sophocles
1 - Oedipus is abandoned after his father, King Laius, hears a prophecy that he is to kill his father and marry his mother, Queen Jocasta. Oedipus is adopted and later hears the same prophecy, and goes in search of the truth. Along the way he gets in a fight with a man and kills him, not knowing it is his father. He then solves a riddle from the Sphinx which has been terrorizing a kingdom. In return, the kingdom gives him their queen's hand in marriage, who is his biological…
Oedipus Rex: Question 1
Oedipus Rex is considered one of the greatest tragic plays to come from any of the ancient Greek playwrights as its lessons mirror societal troubles of the era. It projects certain cultural values and morals onto the Athenian audience of the time through many different tragic conventions. Sophocles, the writer, was born near Athens between 497 and 495 BC and is considered a conservative as all his plays supported the idea of a polytheistic society and that we should not…
English Literature: 2
02 October 2014
Sometimes, we as human beings, are unable to see the most apparent truths. Sometimes, even the blind can see more than the sighted. Sophocles demonstrates this in his famous play, Oedipus Rex.
Oedipus, whose name means “swollen foot” is cursed from birth. His parents receive a prophecy that states that Oedipus will grow up to kill his father so they leave him in a mountain to die. However, Oedipus is saved by a shepherd. Furthermore, the…
Oedipus Rex Theme Paper (Choice 2)
Contrary to popular belief, Oedipus was not a mere victim of fate but rather responsible
for his own banishment and blindness. In addition, Oedipus had several character flaws that
contributed to his dreaded fate, the most prevalent being anger.
One instance where Oedipus ruins his own future is at the start of the play when he is
speaking with Creon, his brother in law, who has just returned from the oracle. Creon told… | 1,880 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today it seems unthinkable but in August 1863 — the summer of Gettysburg and Vicksburg and the bloody New York draft riots — anybody could walk into the White House and ask to meet the president. Abraham Lincoln’s advisers warned him not to welcome strangers during wartime but he persisted. He called these meetings “taking a public opinion bath.”
On the sweltering morning of August 10, one of Lincoln’s uninvited visitors was Frederick Douglass, a tall, burly black man dressed in a dark suit and a high-collared white shirt. He had no appointment. He simply walked in off the street, handed his business card to a secretary and joined the people waiting to see the president.
“They were white,” he recalled later, “and as I was the only dark spot among them, I expected to have to wait at least half a day. I had heard of men waiting a week.”
Born a slave in Maryland in 1818, Douglass secretly taught himself to read and write, and in 1838, he escaped and fled north to become the most famous black man of his times, an eloquent abolitionist orator, writer and newspaper publisher. He was also a radical who repeatedly criticized Lincoln for moving too slowly to free the slaves. But when the president issued the Emancipation Proclamation in late 1862, Douglass rejoiced and began recruiting black men to fight in the Union Army: “Men of Color, To Arms!”
Read more from HistoryNet:
- First black colonel: Charles Young
- Colin Powell’s Vietnam and the making of an American statesmen
- HistoryNet fact sheet: Harriet Tubman
- $10 a month: Men of the USCT
On this day, though, he’d come to Washington to protest the Army’s discrimination against black soldiers. Douglass made his case to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton that morning then walked to the White House to see the president. He settled in for a long wait but within a few minutes, he heard an aide holler his name.
As Douglass elbowed his way up the crowded staircase to the president’s office, he heard somebody grumbling, “Damn it, I knew they would let the nigger through.”
Douglass ignored the slur and entered the office. Lincoln stood up and held out his hand. Douglass shook it and began to introduce himself.
The president cut him off. “Mr. Douglass, I know you. I have read about you,” he said. “Sit down. I am glad to see you.”
The two men sat and Lincoln said he’d read a speech Douglass had delivered in early 1862, lambasting the president for his “tardy, hesitating and vacillating policy” regarding emancipation. Lincoln recalled the attack without anger and admitted that he could justifiably be criticized as slow to move against slavery. But on the charge of vacillating, the president pled not guilty.
“I do not think that charge can be sustained,” Lincoln said. “I think it cannot be shown that once I have taken a position, I have ever retreated from it.”
Douglass was amazed at the president’s candor and delighted that Lincoln was speaking to him as an equal — a courtesy that white people, even abolitionists, did not always grant him.
“Mr. President, I am recruiting colored troops,” Douglass said, quickly adding that his efforts were hampered by the Army’s discriminatory practices. Black soldiers were paid only about half of what white troops earned, he said, and were not promoted no matter how bravely they fought.
Lincoln listened, then sat silently for a long moment. Finally, he responded by giving his radical visitor a gentle lesson in practical politics. The reason he acted so slowly, he explained, is that a leader cannot get too far ahead of his people.
“Mr. Douglass, you know that it was with great difficulty that I could get the colored soldier — or get the colored men — into the Army at all,” Lincoln said. “You know the prejudices existing against them. You know the doubt that was felt in regard to their ability as soldiers. It was necessary at first that we should make some discrimination against them: They were on trial.”
Moreover, Lincoln said, black men had a greater incentive to enlist than whites did — they were fighting for their freedom. But as black troops continued to prove their courage to the nation, he added, they would eventually receive equal pay. “I assure you, Mr. Douglass, that in the end they shall have the same pay as white soldiers.”
As for the promotion of blacks, Lincoln promised that he would sign any promotion recommended by the secretary of war.
Douglass didn’t agree with everything the president said — he saw no reason for the continued pay gap — but he was impressed with Lincoln’s honesty. He brought up reports that Confederate troops had been executing the black soldiers they’d captured, and he thanked Lincoln for his recent proclamation promising to retaliate against the executions. “In case any colored soldiers are murdered in cold blood,” Douglass said, “you should retaliate in kind.”
Again, Lincoln heard Douglass out. Again, he felt compelled to disagree. “Once begun, I don’t know where such a measure would stop,” he said.
Lincoln had, Douglass later recalled, a “tearful look in his eye and a quiver in his voice” when he spoke of his aversion to retaliatory executions. “If I could get hold of the men that murdered your troops — murdered our prisoners of war — I would execute them,” Lincoln said, “but I cannot take men that may not have had anything to do with this murdering of our soldiers and execute them.”
Before leaving the office, Douglass showed Lincoln the document he’d received when visiting Stanton that morning — a pass proclaiming him to be “a loyal free man” and “entitled to travel unmolested.” Lincoln laid the paper on a table, wrote, “I concur” and signed it.
“Douglass,” Lincoln said as his guest departed, “never come to Washington without calling on me.”
Douglass left with a new fondness for Lincoln: “I was impressed with his entire freedom from popular prejudice against the colored race.”
Four months later, Douglass addressed an abolitionist group in Philadelphia. “Perhaps you may want to know how the President of the United States received a black man at the White House,” Douglass said. “I will tell you how he received me — just as you have seen one gentleman receive another, with a hand and a voice well-balanced between a kind cordiality and a respectful reserve. I tell you, I felt big there!”
The two men met twice more. Their final encounter occurred at a White House reception after Lincoln’s second inauguration. Policemen stopped Douglass at the door and told him that blacks were not allowed to enter. Douglass protested, then sent word to the president that he was outside. Within minutes, he was admitted.
“When Mr. Lincoln saw me, his countenance lighted up,” Douglass recalled, “and he said in a voice which was heard all around: ‘Here comes my friend Douglass.’”
The president shook his friend’s hand. “I saw you in the crowd today listening to my inaugural address,” he said. Then he asked Douglass, one of America’s finest orators, what he thought of the speech. “There is no man’s opinion that I value more than yours.”
“Mr. Lincoln,” Douglass said, “that was a sacred effort.”
This article was originally published in the February 2011 issue of American History Magazine, a Military Times sister publication. For more information on American History Magazine, and all of the HistoryNet publications, visit HistoryNet.com. | <urn:uuid:711658be-79c1-4bf8-a3f4-6b011c419b99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.militarytimes.com/military-honor/black-military-history/2018/02/02/frederick-douglass-unannounced-visit-to-lincolns-white-house-and-the-friendship-it-created/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.984785 | 1,742 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.3770152330... | 6 | Today it seems unthinkable but in August 1863 — the summer of Gettysburg and Vicksburg and the bloody New York draft riots — anybody could walk into the White House and ask to meet the president. Abraham Lincoln’s advisers warned him not to welcome strangers during wartime but he persisted. He called these meetings “taking a public opinion bath.”
On the sweltering morning of August 10, one of Lincoln’s uninvited visitors was Frederick Douglass, a tall, burly black man dressed in a dark suit and a high-collared white shirt. He had no appointment. He simply walked in off the street, handed his business card to a secretary and joined the people waiting to see the president.
“They were white,” he recalled later, “and as I was the only dark spot among them, I expected to have to wait at least half a day. I had heard of men waiting a week.”
Born a slave in Maryland in 1818, Douglass secretly taught himself to read and write, and in 1838, he escaped and fled north to become the most famous black man of his times, an eloquent abolitionist orator, writer and newspaper publisher. He was also a radical who repeatedly criticized Lincoln for moving too slowly to free the slaves. But when the president issued the Emancipation Proclamation in late 1862, Douglass rejoiced and began recruiting black men to fight in the Union Army: “Men of Color, To Arms!”
Read more from HistoryNet:
- First black colonel: Charles Young
- Colin Powell’s Vietnam and the making of an American statesmen
- HistoryNet fact sheet: Harriet Tubman
- $10 a month: Men of the USCT
On this day, though, he’d come to Washington to protest the Army’s discrimination against black soldiers. Douglass made his case to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton that morning then walked to the White House to see the president. He settled in for a long wait but within a few minutes, he heard an aide holler his name.
As Douglass elbowed his way up the crowded staircase to the president’s office, he heard somebody grumbling, “Damn it, I knew they would let the nigger through.”
Douglass ignored the slur and entered the office. Lincoln stood up and held out his hand. Douglass shook it and began to introduce himself.
The president cut him off. “Mr. Douglass, I know you. I have read about you,” he said. “Sit down. I am glad to see you.”
The two men sat and Lincoln said he’d read a speech Douglass had delivered in early 1862, lambasting the president for his “tardy, hesitating and vacillating policy” regarding emancipation. Lincoln recalled the attack without anger and admitted that he could justifiably be criticized as slow to move against slavery. But on the charge of vacillating, the president pled not guilty.
“I do not think that charge can be sustained,” Lincoln said. “I think it cannot be shown that once I have taken a position, I have ever retreated from it.”
Douglass was amazed at the president’s candor and delighted that Lincoln was speaking to him as an equal — a courtesy that white people, even abolitionists, did not always grant him.
“Mr. President, I am recruiting colored troops,” Douglass said, quickly adding that his efforts were hampered by the Army’s discriminatory practices. Black soldiers were paid only about half of what white troops earned, he said, and were not promoted no matter how bravely they fought.
Lincoln listened, then sat silently for a long moment. Finally, he responded by giving his radical visitor a gentle lesson in practical politics. The reason he acted so slowly, he explained, is that a leader cannot get too far ahead of his people.
“Mr. Douglass, you know that it was with great difficulty that I could get the colored soldier — or get the colored men — into the Army at all,” Lincoln said. “You know the prejudices existing against them. You know the doubt that was felt in regard to their ability as soldiers. It was necessary at first that we should make some discrimination against them: They were on trial.”
Moreover, Lincoln said, black men had a greater incentive to enlist than whites did — they were fighting for their freedom. But as black troops continued to prove their courage to the nation, he added, they would eventually receive equal pay. “I assure you, Mr. Douglass, that in the end they shall have the same pay as white soldiers.”
As for the promotion of blacks, Lincoln promised that he would sign any promotion recommended by the secretary of war.
Douglass didn’t agree with everything the president said — he saw no reason for the continued pay gap — but he was impressed with Lincoln’s honesty. He brought up reports that Confederate troops had been executing the black soldiers they’d captured, and he thanked Lincoln for his recent proclamation promising to retaliate against the executions. “In case any colored soldiers are murdered in cold blood,” Douglass said, “you should retaliate in kind.”
Again, Lincoln heard Douglass out. Again, he felt compelled to disagree. “Once begun, I don’t know where such a measure would stop,” he said.
Lincoln had, Douglass later recalled, a “tearful look in his eye and a quiver in his voice” when he spoke of his aversion to retaliatory executions. “If I could get hold of the men that murdered your troops — murdered our prisoners of war — I would execute them,” Lincoln said, “but I cannot take men that may not have had anything to do with this murdering of our soldiers and execute them.”
Before leaving the office, Douglass showed Lincoln the document he’d received when visiting Stanton that morning — a pass proclaiming him to be “a loyal free man” and “entitled to travel unmolested.” Lincoln laid the paper on a table, wrote, “I concur” and signed it.
“Douglass,” Lincoln said as his guest departed, “never come to Washington without calling on me.”
Douglass left with a new fondness for Lincoln: “I was impressed with his entire freedom from popular prejudice against the colored race.”
Four months later, Douglass addressed an abolitionist group in Philadelphia. “Perhaps you may want to know how the President of the United States received a black man at the White House,” Douglass said. “I will tell you how he received me — just as you have seen one gentleman receive another, with a hand and a voice well-balanced between a kind cordiality and a respectful reserve. I tell you, I felt big there!”
The two men met twice more. Their final encounter occurred at a White House reception after Lincoln’s second inauguration. Policemen stopped Douglass at the door and told him that blacks were not allowed to enter. Douglass protested, then sent word to the president that he was outside. Within minutes, he was admitted.
“When Mr. Lincoln saw me, his countenance lighted up,” Douglass recalled, “and he said in a voice which was heard all around: ‘Here comes my friend Douglass.’”
The president shook his friend’s hand. “I saw you in the crowd today listening to my inaugural address,” he said. Then he asked Douglass, one of America’s finest orators, what he thought of the speech. “There is no man’s opinion that I value more than yours.”
“Mr. Lincoln,” Douglass said, “that was a sacred effort.”
This article was originally published in the February 2011 issue of American History Magazine, a Military Times sister publication. For more information on American History Magazine, and all of the HistoryNet publications, visit HistoryNet.com. | 1,610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The purpose of this research paper is to evaluate feudalism’s effectiveness as an economic system. Feudalism was the system most common in Middle Ages Europe. This structure of land distribution involved breaking up land into smaller pieces with their own rulers in exchange for loyalty to the king. This investigation will focus on the Feudalism specifically in Europe in the Middle Ages, as opposed to Oriental feudalism. The books The Middle Ages by Joseph Dahlmus and Feudal Society by Marc Bloch, which dives into Feudalism’s details and effects, are two prominent sources in the paper.
Word Count: 95
Summary of Evidence:
Feudalism was an economic and governmental structure in which land was divided into smaller pieces based on people’s servitude. Vassals were subjects to whom a higher authority would grant land in exchange for their loyalty and service. The kingdom’s ruler would give his higher-classed subjects vassalages, making them lord of their territory. These lords and nobles then split their land among their own servants, who in turn did the same. In this system, the King’s land was broken up into many small subdivisions.
By 700 CE it was custom for knights to become vassals, meaning that lords had high economic status: only the wealthy could afford horses, which were necessary to become an effective soldier. Since shortly before the feudal age, the army with better horsemen was victorious more often in battle. This lead to horses being valued and important, which is why vassals were usually rich.
The first recorded form of feudalism in Europe was the leadership structure in German barbarian clans in the 100s CE. Soldiers in these tribes had undying loyalty to their chieftain, and in return they received riches from plundered cities and command of their own soldiers. This process is in part what inspired the Romans to develop a similar system as a form of protection from barbarian tribes. Peasants would give service in exchange for protection, and the nobles who accepted would in turn do the same with yet higher authorities.
King Charlemagne was one of the first kings to put a feudal system into effect as a structured form of government instead of a guideline for soldiers. Because he was strongly Christian, Charlemagne appointed bishops with political power to rule alongside lords. The competition and cooperation between lords and bishops created a checks and balances system meant to prevent lords from seizing power from the king. After Charlemagne’s reign lords became more independent, which caused wars because no one would obey royalty. There were so many princes who were of equal power that no one wanted to be subordinate to each other. Feudalism ended in continental Europe because the land was seen as private (not the King’s), so mutual obligation disappeared.
The peasants had the same rights to protection and their lords’ care as anyone else; the system was originally based strongly on honour and obligation. Farming... | <urn:uuid:42c20995-7ce5-4c2d-a6b6-b7ded6325e78> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-middle-ages-by-joseph-dahlmus-and-feudal-society-by-marc-bloch | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.984863 | 613 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.23101882636547... | 1 | The purpose of this research paper is to evaluate feudalism’s effectiveness as an economic system. Feudalism was the system most common in Middle Ages Europe. This structure of land distribution involved breaking up land into smaller pieces with their own rulers in exchange for loyalty to the king. This investigation will focus on the Feudalism specifically in Europe in the Middle Ages, as opposed to Oriental feudalism. The books The Middle Ages by Joseph Dahlmus and Feudal Society by Marc Bloch, which dives into Feudalism’s details and effects, are two prominent sources in the paper.
Word Count: 95
Summary of Evidence:
Feudalism was an economic and governmental structure in which land was divided into smaller pieces based on people’s servitude. Vassals were subjects to whom a higher authority would grant land in exchange for their loyalty and service. The kingdom’s ruler would give his higher-classed subjects vassalages, making them lord of their territory. These lords and nobles then split their land among their own servants, who in turn did the same. In this system, the King’s land was broken up into many small subdivisions.
By 700 CE it was custom for knights to become vassals, meaning that lords had high economic status: only the wealthy could afford horses, which were necessary to become an effective soldier. Since shortly before the feudal age, the army with better horsemen was victorious more often in battle. This lead to horses being valued and important, which is why vassals were usually rich.
The first recorded form of feudalism in Europe was the leadership structure in German barbarian clans in the 100s CE. Soldiers in these tribes had undying loyalty to their chieftain, and in return they received riches from plundered cities and command of their own soldiers. This process is in part what inspired the Romans to develop a similar system as a form of protection from barbarian tribes. Peasants would give service in exchange for protection, and the nobles who accepted would in turn do the same with yet higher authorities.
King Charlemagne was one of the first kings to put a feudal system into effect as a structured form of government instead of a guideline for soldiers. Because he was strongly Christian, Charlemagne appointed bishops with political power to rule alongside lords. The competition and cooperation between lords and bishops created a checks and balances system meant to prevent lords from seizing power from the king. After Charlemagne’s reign lords became more independent, which caused wars because no one would obey royalty. There were so many princes who were of equal power that no one wanted to be subordinate to each other. Feudalism ended in continental Europe because the land was seen as private (not the King’s), so mutual obligation disappeared.
The peasants had the same rights to protection and their lords’ care as anyone else; the system was originally based strongly on honour and obligation. Farming... | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery was legal in New France between 1689 and 1709, and it was also permitted in Upper Canada. In 1793, an attempt was made in Upper Canada to abolish slavery; though this failed, Blacks were nevertheless protected by the same laws as Whites. Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1833. It did not become an important institution in early Canadian history because conditions of climate and geography prevented the development of a plantation system of agriculture. Although small numbers of Blacks have lived in Canada since 1628, the first major group was composed of slaves brought to Nova Scotia by residents of New England after the expulsion of the Acadians. Moreover, as a result of the American Revolution in 1776, White loyalists escaping from the colonies also brought their slaves with them to Nova Scotia. The next group of migrants was that of refugee Blacks fleeing from the War of 1812, who settled in Nova Scotia and Ontario. The passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in the United States in 1850 brought another group of refugee slaves, who used the Underground Railroad to reach southern Ontario. By 1860, there were approximately seventy-five thousand Blacks in the province of Ontario, but most of them returned to the United States after the Civil War.
The last and most substantial group of Blacks to come to Canada were from the Caribbean. This migration began in the early 1960s and reached its peak during the 1970s. At this time, approximately ten thousand migrants from the Caribbean come to Canada each year. The largest numbers come from the Commonwealth Caribbean and are English-speaking, but smaller numbers have migrated from French-speaking Haiti. | <urn:uuid:a9de7bd8-cb51-45d8-b617-9fadc86c8822> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Blacks-in-Canada-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.983218 | 326 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.0381641872... | 3 | Slavery was legal in New France between 1689 and 1709, and it was also permitted in Upper Canada. In 1793, an attempt was made in Upper Canada to abolish slavery; though this failed, Blacks were nevertheless protected by the same laws as Whites. Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1833. It did not become an important institution in early Canadian history because conditions of climate and geography prevented the development of a plantation system of agriculture. Although small numbers of Blacks have lived in Canada since 1628, the first major group was composed of slaves brought to Nova Scotia by residents of New England after the expulsion of the Acadians. Moreover, as a result of the American Revolution in 1776, White loyalists escaping from the colonies also brought their slaves with them to Nova Scotia. The next group of migrants was that of refugee Blacks fleeing from the War of 1812, who settled in Nova Scotia and Ontario. The passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in the United States in 1850 brought another group of refugee slaves, who used the Underground Railroad to reach southern Ontario. By 1860, there were approximately seventy-five thousand Blacks in the province of Ontario, but most of them returned to the United States after the Civil War.
The last and most substantial group of Blacks to come to Canada were from the Caribbean. This migration began in the early 1960s and reached its peak during the 1970s. At this time, approximately ten thousand migrants from the Caribbean come to Canada each year. The largest numbers come from the Commonwealth Caribbean and are English-speaking, but smaller numbers have migrated from French-speaking Haiti. | 359 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated on
There’s something special about Christmas. Christmas is the time when children all over the world are showered upon with gifts from their parents, relatives and friends. It is one of their favourite festivals as they look forward to holidays, cookies, Santa Claus, and gifts, of course! The beginning of December marks the preparations for the actual festival, and the celebration starts a few days before the actual day. Christmas Eve has its own special place in the holiday season; many families follow the tradition of reading Christmas stories on Christmas Eve. Reading Christmas stories to kids can help them learn about the festival, and it’s a great way to spend time with family. So if you want to read Christmas stories to your kids, start with the story of the birth of Jesus.
The Story of the Birth of Jesus
Christmas is the perfect occasion to narrate the story of the birth of Lord Jesus. Here goes the story. A young woman named Mary lived in a town called Nazareth and was engaged to a man called Joseph. One night, God sent an angel named Gabriel to visit Mary. The angel said to Mary, “God is extremely pleased with you and you will soon become pregnant and give birth to a baby boy. Name him Jesus for he shall be God’s own son.” Mary was afraid but believed in God and trusted that all would be well. The angel told Mary to live with her cousin Elizabeth and her husband Zachariah as they would soon be the parents of a child who would prepare the way for Jesus. Mary lived with her cousin for three months then returned to Nazareth.
Meanwhile, Joseph was worried about Mary having a child before they get married, but an angel appeared in his dream and told him that Mary would give birth to the Son of God. He also told him not to be afraid and take Mary as his lawfully wedded wife. Jesus means Saviour and the baby would indeed be a saviour for his people. Joseph woke up from his dream and the next day Joseph and Mary got married.
Sometime later, Joseph and Mary had to travel to Bethlehem, which was a long way from Nazareth. Mary’s baby was soon to arrive and hence they travelled at a slow speed. When they reached Bethlehem, they had no place to stay as all the inns and lodgings were occupied by other people. The couple took refuge in a stable with cows, goats and horses, and the same night Jesus was born. Jesus was put in the manger (a place where the animals ate from) after he was born and wrapped in swaddling clothes.
On the outskirts of Bethlehem, shepherds who were tending to their sheep saw an angel appear before them. The angel told them, “Your saviour was born in Bethlehem today. He is lying in a manger.” When the shepherds rushed back, they found Joseph, Mary and baby Jesus in the stable, and were surprised and happy.
At the time of Jesus’s birth, a bright new star appeared in the sky. There were three wise men in a faraway country who knew that the arrival of Jesus was a sign of the arrival of a great king and they rushed to find him. King Herod heard that the wise men were looking for the great new king who he knew would take his place. King Herod planned to kill the baby but no one knew about it yet.
The three wise men followed the bright star until they came to the stable where the happy family lived. They showered him with gifts and worshipped the Son of God. They also knew that the king was evil and hence did not inform him of the location where baby Jesus was. Joseph was warned by an angel in his dream that King Herod would search for Jesus in order to kill him, so it was better if they went to Egypt. This was where they lived until the evil King died. As Herod couldn’t find Jesus, he ordered all the young children in Bethlehem to be killed.
After Herod died, Jesus and Mary left Egypt and travelled to Israel. They stayed in Nazareth for the rest of their lives. This is the story of the Birth of Jesus.
Best Christmas Stories for Children
Now you know the story of the birth of Jesus, so read it to your kids – we are sure your kids would love to listen. And if you want some more Christmas stories to narrate to your children, we have got it covered for you. Here is a compilation of some of the best Christmas stories that you can read out to your kids.
1. The Elves and the Shoemaker
‘The Elves and the Shoemaker’ is a classic Christmas fairy tale, your kids will love to hear. This tale by the ‘Brothers Grimm is about two elves that sneakily help a poor shoemaker. This story is about a shoemaker who lives with his wife in a small house. He is very poor and doesn’t have any money left with him. He only has some leather left to make one pair of shoes. One evening, he cut the leather for a pair of shoes that he thought he would make in the morning, and prayed to God for a good day and goes to sleep. The next morning, the shoemaker finds a beautiful pair of shoes on the table in his shop and sells it for a hefty price.
For many days, this continues and the shoemaker turns rich by selling the shoes made by the elves. The shoemaker and his wife are pleased; they decide to find out who their helpers are and express their gratitude towards them. They make clothes for the elves in order to thank them for their service. The two little elves come at midnight and are happy to see the clothes. They wear it and go only to never return again. The shoemaker lives a happy and prosperous life thereafter and little elves are pleased, too. This is a remarkable story to teach your children about the importance of hard work. Hard work always reaps its rewards. It is because the shoemaker worked hard that the elves came to help him. In return, he also gave the elves wonderful new clothes made with love.
2. The Carol Singers
There are four penguins named Micky, Fred, Rob and Eve who are fond of singing Christmas carols before the inhabitants of the ice pack, where they live. Every time they sang, they received a golden star which they put up on their Christmas tree. One Christmas eve, Micky catches a terrible cold and starts sneezing. He tells his fellow singers that they will have to sing without him that year as he is unwell. “No, that’s not possible,” said the other three. But they realise that the inhabitants of the ice pack looked forward to their performance every year and would be terribly disappointed if they didn’t sing.
The penguins decide to approach Doctor Lolo and ask to heal Micky soon. The doctor thinks for a while and tells them that the only way to get Micky better was by using the golden seaweed which could be found in the Indian Ocean. The penguins realise that the Indian Ocean is far away from them and that it would not be possible for them to get the seaweed in such a short time. Fred is tearful, and his tears fell in the water below, which Pincho, an ice fish, feels on his body. He swims up to the penguins and asks them the reason for their sadness.
On hearing their problem, Pincho says, “Wait! If it is the Indian Ocean, I have an idea.” He has friends and family spread across all the great seas of the world and begins to send messages to them. The message is passed on from one fish to another, across the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, before finally reaching the butterflyfish in the Indian Ocean. The butterflyfish looks for the golden seaweed, high and low. When he finally finds it, he passes it across till it reaches Pincho. The penguins are overjoyed, and they ask the doctor to prepare the medicine from it. Micky drinks the medicine in one gulp and his original voice returns in a jiffy. The Christmas carol show is a hit, and the penguins tell everyone how Pincho helped them in finding the golden seaweed. Through this story, your kids can learn about teamwork and how by helping each other, we can bring true happiness in the world.
3. The Fir Tree
‘The Fir Tree’ is a tale by Hans Christian Anderson. This story is about a young fir tree that wants to grow up soon. The tree is obsessed with the idea of growing up and doesn’t like it when someone reminds it of its diminutiveness. One fine day, the little tree is cut down to serve as a Christmas tree. It is carried to a house and is decorated with coloured apples, toys, candies, and a gold star on Christmas Eve. Children come and play around the tree and strip the tree of its candies. The next day, the tree is carried into the attic and is now lonely. Rats come and leave, but the tree is left alone. At last, in spring, the little fir tree is carried to a yard and cut and burned. This is how the life of a little tree ends. This story can teach your kids to appreciate the little things in life and be happy with what they have.
4. The Polar Express
‘The Polar Express’ is a children’s book written by Chris Van Allsburg. This story is considered a classic Christmas story. The story begins on the night of the Christmas Eve-. A young boy wakes up in the middle of the night to the sound of a train, that which is waiting for him outside his house. He gets on the train and is surprised to see other children aboard. The train takes them to the North Pole, where they see Christmas elves and meet Santa Claus. The boy is handpicked by Santa to ask for a Christmas gift first. He can choose anything he wants – the boy asks for a bell from one of the reindeer’s harnesses.
When he returns home, the train pulls away, but his bell is lost. The next morning on Christmas, his sister finds a small gift for him under the tree. On opening the present, he finds that it is the same bell that was given to him by Santa. On shaking the bell, the little boy and his sister hear its sound, but his parents cannot. Years pass and the little boy grows up. The boy recalls that over the years, his sister and everyone else stopped hearing the sound of the bell, but he did not, and it was only because his belief in the magic of Christmas remained as is.
Read this story to your kids to teach them that if they wish for something from their heart, they will find it.
5. Santa Claus Does Not Forget
This story is about a little boy who lives with his father and mother. He is kind and obedient and shares all his toys with his friends. However, he has one fault: he always forgets to carry out errands and other important work he is told to do. Every time he is is asked to do something and later questioned, he has one answer, “I forgot.” If he is sent to the tailor to remind him of an urgent alteration, he would forget to tell the tailor about it. If he is given money to pay the electricity bill, his mother would find the money and the bill in his pocket that night. The reason for not doing a particular job remains the same. You guessed it right – “I forgot.”
His parents are worried that this habit of forgetting to do things would spill over into his adult life too, which would prove to be difficult for him. They decide to do something about it to make him remember things. Christmas was nearing, and like other children, he also got busy preparing notes for Santa, asking for his favourite things. His mother says, “Santa may forget to bring those things for you.” But the little boy is sure that Santa wouldn’t as he would put them in his stockings so he wouldn’t miss the list.
On Christmas morning, he wakes up early and rushes to check his stockings, pretty sure that Santa Claus would have delivered all that he wanted. His mother knew what was going to happen and keep away from him. The boy stands in front of his mother holding a long list of all the errands he was asked to run during the past year. At the end of the list, in bold letters was written, “I FORGOT.”
The little boy is heartbroken and drags himself to visit his grandfather with the rest of his family. On his grandfather’s Christmas tree, the boy finds all the things he had wished for! Though he does not change immediately, his mother reminds him when things got out of hand – “Santa Claus does not forget!” He slowly understood why it is so important to remember one’s duties and responsibilities in life.
6. The Gift of the Magi
‘The Gift of the Magi’ is a popular Christmas story by American writer ‘O. Henry’, which was first published in the year 1905. This story is about a young married couple, Jim and Della, who are poor but very much in love. It’s Christmas time and Della wants to buy a nice Christmas present for her husband- however, she has very little money. One of Della’s prized possessions was her beautiful, cascading hair – but because she did not have enough money saved for Jim’s Christmas present, she cuts and sells her hair for $20 and buys the perfect gift for Jim. Jim too sells his grandfather’s precious gold pocket watch – something he held close to his heart – to buy a gift for her.
On returning home, Jim is dumbstruck on finding the new haircut of Della. Della buys a watch chain for Jim’s favourite pocket watch, and he buys precious hair combs for her long hair. On receiving the gifts, they realise they are no longer useful for them. They had both sold their prized possessions to make the other happy, which shows their love for each other. They sit for dinner together but aren’t angry with each other. The story ends there, but the narrator compares the gifts Jim and Della got for each other with those of the Biblical Magi. This story is about the personal sacrifices that people make for their loved ones.
7. Papa Panov’s Special Christmas
This story is about Papa Panov, who is an elderly cobbler living alone in a tiny village of Russia. His wife is dead, and his sons and daughters are all grown up, living far away from his home. It’s Christmas time and since his wife is dead, he sits alone and sad in his little shop. He decides to read the Bible and the story of the birth of Jesus.
He reads the Christmas story but reading it continuously, he feels tired. The further he reads, the sleeping he becomes. Finally, he falls asleep and has a dream. In his dream, he notices a man in his room; he realises that it is Jesus. The Lord tells him that he can come and visit him the next day. However, Jesus would not reveal his identity to him. The next day is Christmas. Papa Panov wakes up early and is excited about meeting the Lord in person.
He notices an old sweeper cleaning the street diligently, despite the cold weather. Touched by his hard work, Papa Panov calls out to him and offers him a hot cup of coffee with a plateful of cookies. Later on, he notices a young mother with her baby in a sad mood, looking dejected with life in general. He calls them and shares his lunch with them. While they wait, he crafts a beautiful pair of tiny shoes for the baby.
The day passes quickly, but there is no sight of the holy visitor whom he was so eager to meet. Beggars came and went too, and Papa Panov fed them without having second thoughts. As the night approaches, he returns home, disappointed that Jesus did not come to meet him. Just as he was about to say that it was only a dream, he heard Jesus’s voice. “I did come to meet you,” said Jesus. Jesus had visited him in the guise of every person whom Papa Panov helped, right from the sweeper to the young mother to the beggars! Papa Panov is very happy that Jesus came to visit him after all.
This is a wonderful story to teach kids that it is our duty to serve those who are in need. Serving mankind is the most important task of our lives, and through this service alone, we can meet the Lord.
Reading stories to kids is a great way to teach them about good things of life and the right way to treat people. So this Christmas, read some engaging stories to your kids from the above list. Read these stories to your kids and watch their faces as they get engrossed in the story. We are sure that kids being inquisitive in nature will ask your many questions about the characters of the stories. So, be prepared with the answers to feed your little ones’ curiosity. Most of all, enjoy this special time with your kids. | <urn:uuid:3439e12d-a0d1-49fa-a7ae-dac27c3af14b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/amazing-christmas-stories-for-kids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.986059 | 3,619 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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There’s something special about Christmas. Christmas is the time when children all over the world are showered upon with gifts from their parents, relatives and friends. It is one of their favourite festivals as they look forward to holidays, cookies, Santa Claus, and gifts, of course! The beginning of December marks the preparations for the actual festival, and the celebration starts a few days before the actual day. Christmas Eve has its own special place in the holiday season; many families follow the tradition of reading Christmas stories on Christmas Eve. Reading Christmas stories to kids can help them learn about the festival, and it’s a great way to spend time with family. So if you want to read Christmas stories to your kids, start with the story of the birth of Jesus.
The Story of the Birth of Jesus
Christmas is the perfect occasion to narrate the story of the birth of Lord Jesus. Here goes the story. A young woman named Mary lived in a town called Nazareth and was engaged to a man called Joseph. One night, God sent an angel named Gabriel to visit Mary. The angel said to Mary, “God is extremely pleased with you and you will soon become pregnant and give birth to a baby boy. Name him Jesus for he shall be God’s own son.” Mary was afraid but believed in God and trusted that all would be well. The angel told Mary to live with her cousin Elizabeth and her husband Zachariah as they would soon be the parents of a child who would prepare the way for Jesus. Mary lived with her cousin for three months then returned to Nazareth.
Meanwhile, Joseph was worried about Mary having a child before they get married, but an angel appeared in his dream and told him that Mary would give birth to the Son of God. He also told him not to be afraid and take Mary as his lawfully wedded wife. Jesus means Saviour and the baby would indeed be a saviour for his people. Joseph woke up from his dream and the next day Joseph and Mary got married.
Sometime later, Joseph and Mary had to travel to Bethlehem, which was a long way from Nazareth. Mary’s baby was soon to arrive and hence they travelled at a slow speed. When they reached Bethlehem, they had no place to stay as all the inns and lodgings were occupied by other people. The couple took refuge in a stable with cows, goats and horses, and the same night Jesus was born. Jesus was put in the manger (a place where the animals ate from) after he was born and wrapped in swaddling clothes.
On the outskirts of Bethlehem, shepherds who were tending to their sheep saw an angel appear before them. The angel told them, “Your saviour was born in Bethlehem today. He is lying in a manger.” When the shepherds rushed back, they found Joseph, Mary and baby Jesus in the stable, and were surprised and happy.
At the time of Jesus’s birth, a bright new star appeared in the sky. There were three wise men in a faraway country who knew that the arrival of Jesus was a sign of the arrival of a great king and they rushed to find him. King Herod heard that the wise men were looking for the great new king who he knew would take his place. King Herod planned to kill the baby but no one knew about it yet.
The three wise men followed the bright star until they came to the stable where the happy family lived. They showered him with gifts and worshipped the Son of God. They also knew that the king was evil and hence did not inform him of the location where baby Jesus was. Joseph was warned by an angel in his dream that King Herod would search for Jesus in order to kill him, so it was better if they went to Egypt. This was where they lived until the evil King died. As Herod couldn’t find Jesus, he ordered all the young children in Bethlehem to be killed.
After Herod died, Jesus and Mary left Egypt and travelled to Israel. They stayed in Nazareth for the rest of their lives. This is the story of the Birth of Jesus.
Best Christmas Stories for Children
Now you know the story of the birth of Jesus, so read it to your kids – we are sure your kids would love to listen. And if you want some more Christmas stories to narrate to your children, we have got it covered for you. Here is a compilation of some of the best Christmas stories that you can read out to your kids.
1. The Elves and the Shoemaker
‘The Elves and the Shoemaker’ is a classic Christmas fairy tale, your kids will love to hear. This tale by the ‘Brothers Grimm is about two elves that sneakily help a poor shoemaker. This story is about a shoemaker who lives with his wife in a small house. He is very poor and doesn’t have any money left with him. He only has some leather left to make one pair of shoes. One evening, he cut the leather for a pair of shoes that he thought he would make in the morning, and prayed to God for a good day and goes to sleep. The next morning, the shoemaker finds a beautiful pair of shoes on the table in his shop and sells it for a hefty price.
For many days, this continues and the shoemaker turns rich by selling the shoes made by the elves. The shoemaker and his wife are pleased; they decide to find out who their helpers are and express their gratitude towards them. They make clothes for the elves in order to thank them for their service. The two little elves come at midnight and are happy to see the clothes. They wear it and go only to never return again. The shoemaker lives a happy and prosperous life thereafter and little elves are pleased, too. This is a remarkable story to teach your children about the importance of hard work. Hard work always reaps its rewards. It is because the shoemaker worked hard that the elves came to help him. In return, he also gave the elves wonderful new clothes made with love.
2. The Carol Singers
There are four penguins named Micky, Fred, Rob and Eve who are fond of singing Christmas carols before the inhabitants of the ice pack, where they live. Every time they sang, they received a golden star which they put up on their Christmas tree. One Christmas eve, Micky catches a terrible cold and starts sneezing. He tells his fellow singers that they will have to sing without him that year as he is unwell. “No, that’s not possible,” said the other three. But they realise that the inhabitants of the ice pack looked forward to their performance every year and would be terribly disappointed if they didn’t sing.
The penguins decide to approach Doctor Lolo and ask to heal Micky soon. The doctor thinks for a while and tells them that the only way to get Micky better was by using the golden seaweed which could be found in the Indian Ocean. The penguins realise that the Indian Ocean is far away from them and that it would not be possible for them to get the seaweed in such a short time. Fred is tearful, and his tears fell in the water below, which Pincho, an ice fish, feels on his body. He swims up to the penguins and asks them the reason for their sadness.
On hearing their problem, Pincho says, “Wait! If it is the Indian Ocean, I have an idea.” He has friends and family spread across all the great seas of the world and begins to send messages to them. The message is passed on from one fish to another, across the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, before finally reaching the butterflyfish in the Indian Ocean. The butterflyfish looks for the golden seaweed, high and low. When he finally finds it, he passes it across till it reaches Pincho. The penguins are overjoyed, and they ask the doctor to prepare the medicine from it. Micky drinks the medicine in one gulp and his original voice returns in a jiffy. The Christmas carol show is a hit, and the penguins tell everyone how Pincho helped them in finding the golden seaweed. Through this story, your kids can learn about teamwork and how by helping each other, we can bring true happiness in the world.
3. The Fir Tree
‘The Fir Tree’ is a tale by Hans Christian Anderson. This story is about a young fir tree that wants to grow up soon. The tree is obsessed with the idea of growing up and doesn’t like it when someone reminds it of its diminutiveness. One fine day, the little tree is cut down to serve as a Christmas tree. It is carried to a house and is decorated with coloured apples, toys, candies, and a gold star on Christmas Eve. Children come and play around the tree and strip the tree of its candies. The next day, the tree is carried into the attic and is now lonely. Rats come and leave, but the tree is left alone. At last, in spring, the little fir tree is carried to a yard and cut and burned. This is how the life of a little tree ends. This story can teach your kids to appreciate the little things in life and be happy with what they have.
4. The Polar Express
‘The Polar Express’ is a children’s book written by Chris Van Allsburg. This story is considered a classic Christmas story. The story begins on the night of the Christmas Eve-. A young boy wakes up in the middle of the night to the sound of a train, that which is waiting for him outside his house. He gets on the train and is surprised to see other children aboard. The train takes them to the North Pole, where they see Christmas elves and meet Santa Claus. The boy is handpicked by Santa to ask for a Christmas gift first. He can choose anything he wants – the boy asks for a bell from one of the reindeer’s harnesses.
When he returns home, the train pulls away, but his bell is lost. The next morning on Christmas, his sister finds a small gift for him under the tree. On opening the present, he finds that it is the same bell that was given to him by Santa. On shaking the bell, the little boy and his sister hear its sound, but his parents cannot. Years pass and the little boy grows up. The boy recalls that over the years, his sister and everyone else stopped hearing the sound of the bell, but he did not, and it was only because his belief in the magic of Christmas remained as is.
Read this story to your kids to teach them that if they wish for something from their heart, they will find it.
5. Santa Claus Does Not Forget
This story is about a little boy who lives with his father and mother. He is kind and obedient and shares all his toys with his friends. However, he has one fault: he always forgets to carry out errands and other important work he is told to do. Every time he is is asked to do something and later questioned, he has one answer, “I forgot.” If he is sent to the tailor to remind him of an urgent alteration, he would forget to tell the tailor about it. If he is given money to pay the electricity bill, his mother would find the money and the bill in his pocket that night. The reason for not doing a particular job remains the same. You guessed it right – “I forgot.”
His parents are worried that this habit of forgetting to do things would spill over into his adult life too, which would prove to be difficult for him. They decide to do something about it to make him remember things. Christmas was nearing, and like other children, he also got busy preparing notes for Santa, asking for his favourite things. His mother says, “Santa may forget to bring those things for you.” But the little boy is sure that Santa wouldn’t as he would put them in his stockings so he wouldn’t miss the list.
On Christmas morning, he wakes up early and rushes to check his stockings, pretty sure that Santa Claus would have delivered all that he wanted. His mother knew what was going to happen and keep away from him. The boy stands in front of his mother holding a long list of all the errands he was asked to run during the past year. At the end of the list, in bold letters was written, “I FORGOT.”
The little boy is heartbroken and drags himself to visit his grandfather with the rest of his family. On his grandfather’s Christmas tree, the boy finds all the things he had wished for! Though he does not change immediately, his mother reminds him when things got out of hand – “Santa Claus does not forget!” He slowly understood why it is so important to remember one’s duties and responsibilities in life.
6. The Gift of the Magi
‘The Gift of the Magi’ is a popular Christmas story by American writer ‘O. Henry’, which was first published in the year 1905. This story is about a young married couple, Jim and Della, who are poor but very much in love. It’s Christmas time and Della wants to buy a nice Christmas present for her husband- however, she has very little money. One of Della’s prized possessions was her beautiful, cascading hair – but because she did not have enough money saved for Jim’s Christmas present, she cuts and sells her hair for $20 and buys the perfect gift for Jim. Jim too sells his grandfather’s precious gold pocket watch – something he held close to his heart – to buy a gift for her.
On returning home, Jim is dumbstruck on finding the new haircut of Della. Della buys a watch chain for Jim’s favourite pocket watch, and he buys precious hair combs for her long hair. On receiving the gifts, they realise they are no longer useful for them. They had both sold their prized possessions to make the other happy, which shows their love for each other. They sit for dinner together but aren’t angry with each other. The story ends there, but the narrator compares the gifts Jim and Della got for each other with those of the Biblical Magi. This story is about the personal sacrifices that people make for their loved ones.
7. Papa Panov’s Special Christmas
This story is about Papa Panov, who is an elderly cobbler living alone in a tiny village of Russia. His wife is dead, and his sons and daughters are all grown up, living far away from his home. It’s Christmas time and since his wife is dead, he sits alone and sad in his little shop. He decides to read the Bible and the story of the birth of Jesus.
He reads the Christmas story but reading it continuously, he feels tired. The further he reads, the sleeping he becomes. Finally, he falls asleep and has a dream. In his dream, he notices a man in his room; he realises that it is Jesus. The Lord tells him that he can come and visit him the next day. However, Jesus would not reveal his identity to him. The next day is Christmas. Papa Panov wakes up early and is excited about meeting the Lord in person.
He notices an old sweeper cleaning the street diligently, despite the cold weather. Touched by his hard work, Papa Panov calls out to him and offers him a hot cup of coffee with a plateful of cookies. Later on, he notices a young mother with her baby in a sad mood, looking dejected with life in general. He calls them and shares his lunch with them. While they wait, he crafts a beautiful pair of tiny shoes for the baby.
The day passes quickly, but there is no sight of the holy visitor whom he was so eager to meet. Beggars came and went too, and Papa Panov fed them without having second thoughts. As the night approaches, he returns home, disappointed that Jesus did not come to meet him. Just as he was about to say that it was only a dream, he heard Jesus’s voice. “I did come to meet you,” said Jesus. Jesus had visited him in the guise of every person whom Papa Panov helped, right from the sweeper to the young mother to the beggars! Papa Panov is very happy that Jesus came to visit him after all.
This is a wonderful story to teach kids that it is our duty to serve those who are in need. Serving mankind is the most important task of our lives, and through this service alone, we can meet the Lord.
Reading stories to kids is a great way to teach them about good things of life and the right way to treat people. So this Christmas, read some engaging stories to your kids from the above list. Read these stories to your kids and watch their faces as they get engrossed in the story. We are sure that kids being inquisitive in nature will ask your many questions about the characters of the stories. So, be prepared with the answers to feed your little ones’ curiosity. Most of all, enjoy this special time with your kids. | 3,503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Skeleton one of earliest humans ever
For Darryl Granger, a little more than a decade has felt like millions of years.
In 2003, Granger estimated a hominid skeleton known as "Little Foot," found 21 years ago in a cave in South Africa, was about 4 million years old. But his method of dating the remains was widely questioned by the scientific community.
"There was quite a bit of controversy around the first age we published," said the Purdue University professor of earth, atmospheric and planetary sciences.
A new process, however, confirms with little doubt the remains are about 3.7 million years old, which is several hundred thousand years older than "Lucy," a skeleton found in Ethiopia believed to be among the oldest early ancestors to humans.
"This represents a long-standing problem that has been bugging me for years and years," Granger said in a phone interview Thursday. "But we haven't had the technology required to answer the question until just this year."
Granger said Little Foot met his demise after falling through a vertical shaft onto a pile of rocks. When he originally dated the skeleton, the process limited him to measuring the fine sands around the fossil, he said, which he estimated were 4 million years old, much older than other artifacts found in the same cave.
"People were skeptical of that," he said, "and because we dated just the fine sand, there was always the possibility that the skeleton and the large rocks had fallen into the entrance, but the fine sand had washed in from somewhere else."
Then a group of scientists dated stones near the burial site at about 2 million years old, casting more doubt on Granger's findings. But the new paper meticulously maps the cave sediments, showing "beyond doubt" that younger specimens had washed or fallen into the burial site through voids in the cave, according to a media release from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Multiple samples from the same site were measured in Purdue's PRIME lab in 2014, the release states, using a new process to more accurately separate and date aluminum and beryllium from unwanted properties in the sediment.
"The new results are going to be much more robust," Granger said, "and they're very difficult to criticize on either geologic or dating grounds."
The new research could open the door for even more ground-breaking discoveries, he noted.
"We hope that our research and our methods will lead to better dating at other sites, helping to anchor the timing of human evolution in places that remain poorly dated," he said. "This includes many South African sites as well as others around the world." | <urn:uuid:400ffe83-097e-499d-8970-7e29d770d1c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jconline.com/story/news/college/2015/04/03/early-human-remains-found/25239797/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.981171 | 546 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.57830440998... | 1 | Skeleton one of earliest humans ever
For Darryl Granger, a little more than a decade has felt like millions of years.
In 2003, Granger estimated a hominid skeleton known as "Little Foot," found 21 years ago in a cave in South Africa, was about 4 million years old. But his method of dating the remains was widely questioned by the scientific community.
"There was quite a bit of controversy around the first age we published," said the Purdue University professor of earth, atmospheric and planetary sciences.
A new process, however, confirms with little doubt the remains are about 3.7 million years old, which is several hundred thousand years older than "Lucy," a skeleton found in Ethiopia believed to be among the oldest early ancestors to humans.
"This represents a long-standing problem that has been bugging me for years and years," Granger said in a phone interview Thursday. "But we haven't had the technology required to answer the question until just this year."
Granger said Little Foot met his demise after falling through a vertical shaft onto a pile of rocks. When he originally dated the skeleton, the process limited him to measuring the fine sands around the fossil, he said, which he estimated were 4 million years old, much older than other artifacts found in the same cave.
"People were skeptical of that," he said, "and because we dated just the fine sand, there was always the possibility that the skeleton and the large rocks had fallen into the entrance, but the fine sand had washed in from somewhere else."
Then a group of scientists dated stones near the burial site at about 2 million years old, casting more doubt on Granger's findings. But the new paper meticulously maps the cave sediments, showing "beyond doubt" that younger specimens had washed or fallen into the burial site through voids in the cave, according to a media release from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Multiple samples from the same site were measured in Purdue's PRIME lab in 2014, the release states, using a new process to more accurately separate and date aluminum and beryllium from unwanted properties in the sediment.
"The new results are going to be much more robust," Granger said, "and they're very difficult to criticize on either geologic or dating grounds."
The new research could open the door for even more ground-breaking discoveries, he noted.
"We hope that our research and our methods will lead to better dating at other sites, helping to anchor the timing of human evolution in places that remain poorly dated," he said. "This includes many South African sites as well as others around the world." | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chicano Power: stories of Latino involvement in the nationwide fight for race equality
December 20, 2019
Students taking any type of history class in the United States can obviously see that the majority of the main historical figures, events, etc. taught, deal with people who fall under the “straight, white male” category. For years, minority students asked for change and more representation in the curriculum presented in schools across the country. People of different backgrounds fought, and continue to fight for this country to become a better place but the history taught in schools erases their presence or depicts them as unimportant.
Although Latinos/Hispanics make up the largest minority in the United States’ population with 18%, students only learn about one piece of what they accomplished in this country. Schools teach a brief section about activist Cesar Chaves and move on, leaving the rich history that one can find in the Latino civil rights movement forgotten, and erasing the oppression faced and resistance created by Latinos during that time.
The Black Civil Rights movement in the south and the Latino Civil Rights movement in the west, also known as the Chicano Movement, echoed one another in myriad ways. They both inspired each other and experienced most of the same things, however, the Chicano movement remains overlooked or forgotten, making the link between them disappear over time. The desegregation of public establishments, such as schools, exemplifies this.
When asked about desegregation and what started it, people usually think of Brown v. Board of Education, when in reality, seven years before that a group of Mexican parents, specifically The Mendez family, took action. In California, cities were segregated towards Mexicans and Mexican-Americans but in comparison to the segregation of African-Americans, people with a lighter complexion or an Anglo-Saxon or European sounding last names were allowed the use of these establishments.
Schools in some parts of California segregated Mexican children from white children. They claimed that they fell under special needs criteria because of their inability to speak English and they intended to prepare them for American education. The problem became that whether or not they spoke English, school officials would sort them to these schools just because of race. The Mendez family moved to Westminster, Southern California in 1943. Gonzalo Mendez asked his sister Sally to enroll their children at the school they were supposed to attend.
When Sally Mendez tried to enroll them, the school told her that they allowed her children to attend because of their lighter skin tone and Basque last name, but Gonzalo’s kids would attend Mexican school. When Sally told Gonzalo, he became furious because the last school his children attended had no problem and allowed them to receive their education alongside white children. Gonzalo, along with four other Hispanic fathers (Thomas Estrada, William Guzman, Frank Palomino, and Lorenzo Ramirez) went to court and challenged Mexican school segregation.
In 1945 the case came to a conclusion in which the state overturned the law that allowed segregation, causing a ripple effect in the whole state. Laws that segregated Japanese-American and Native American students were soon after “abolished”. Mendez v. Westminster set a base for the Brown vs. Board of Education case and created a tremendous impact in American history yet never received the credit it deserves.
The Chicano movement began in 1848, right after the U.S.-Mexican war when the current border between both countries was created. Mexicans living in the new U.S. states were discriminated against in their own land. The movement gained momentum after WW2 but reached its peak in the 1960s and 70s. Throughout the west side of the United States, Mexicans and Chicanos demanded fair treatment in the fields, political/voting rights, equal education, and restoration of their ancestors’ land.
The American agricultural industry, in the past and present, heavily depends on mostly Latino labor. Though they contributed greatly to the stability of the industry, farmworkers had terrible working conditions. Growers, who were the people that owned the land and company these people worked for, paid them $1 per hour, did not provide them with restrooms, and only gave them a single can of water where all workers would have to share from.
Filipino farmworkers faced the same injustices and started a strike, led by Larry Itiliong, way before Chicanos did and by the time it arrived in Delano, California, Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, founders of the National Farm Workers Association, were gathering its members to decide whether or not they would join these protests.
They agreed and shortly after put everyone to work. Strikers would stand near fields of workers and shouted for them to “Stop working”. While there were workers that followed along and left their jobs, a majority of them stayed in place in fear of losing their income. To try and advert this, growers would use loudspeakers to block out the protests so their own workers would not hear them. The movement requested the aid of more people to help end these work conditions but even though vast amounts of people arrived, the impact these strikes were creating barely scraped the surface so they decided to use a different method. Inspired by the Montgomery bus boycotts, the farmworkers started their own by boycotting Schenley liquor. This started to get the attention of various people including Robert Kennedy, who flew down to California to see the events unfold and endorsed the movement. The Farmworkers planned a pilgrimage from Delano to Sacramento, California’s capital, to pressure the government and growers into finally answering their demands for better conditions. This pilgrimage which was almost 300 miles lasted 25 days and by the time they arrived in Sacramento, Schenley gave in and was open for negotiations.
The movement did not see enough improvement after its first year so they turned to boycotts again and since those boycotts did not do as much as activists thought they would people began to consider violent protests. To prevent this, Chavez took a 25-day fast which caused more members to join the union and the talks of violence disappeared. After the assassination of Robert Kennedy, Huerta and Chavez decided to double the effort the union was putting forth. The union sent people to over 40 cities in the U.S. and Canada with one mission in mind, to boycott all grapes until a change was made. Picketers protested in front of supermarkets 12-13 hours a day to expose consumers to everything regarding the farmworkers’ mistreatment.
The boycotts pressured supermarkets and the number of picketers multiplied. Thousands of people followed, from high school students to priests and nuns, a significant amount of Americans joined the protest and it was estimated that 17 million people stopped buying grapes causing a loss of $25 million. After the Coachella valley growers endorsed the movement, people started to purchase only grapes that had the union black eagle. On July 29,1970, growers succumbed and agreed to sign a series of contracts in which they met the workers’ demands and provided them with new resources almost instantly. After five years, their constant fight finally paid off.
Numerous issues made up the goals of the Chicano movement and while the majority benefitted the Mexican-American community as a whole, one major group was often left out. Women in most cultures around the world are mostly seen as housekeepers, child bearers, etc., and Mexican culture was no exception. Throughout the movement, women realized that they did not benefit from the changes as they faced their “prescribed” role in the family.
Chicanas and other women of color criticized second-wave feminism for their inability to include classism and racism into their political coverage which lead to the creation of a sub movement within the Chicano movement known as Chicana Feminism where they started to fight for their rights as women within and outside of their own community.
The majority of schools, textbooks and, sometimes teachers throughout the United States include the Latino civil rights movement in a very minimal way. “We look at standards and clearly it would fit in U.S. History and it is part of our curriculum but its very brief. Other Cesar Chavez there isn’t a ton of specific standards but based on the timing of the End of Course test there sometimes isn’t an opportunity to investigate it further. Said N.C. Social Studies teacher Tom Callahan.
“We have some materials like D.B.Q.s (Document-based questions) and documentaries that go along with it but in some semesters we don’t have enough time to include it. It certainly should be included with the unit in the social change of the 60s.”
This leaves many students frustrated since they don’t get to learn about what their ancestors did for this country.
“I feel like in our educational system we tend to turn a blind eye to situations like that. They tell us that we are taught history so we don’t repeat mistakes, but how are we supposed to learn if we are not being taught about these situations. We are not using history in the correct way.” Magnet Junior Yamille Farias said.
As time moved on, the image of the American people changed and continues to diversify, and students merit a curriculum that reflects their diversity. | <urn:uuid:537c6ac4-906b-4170-b280-73c2470811e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nchschant.com/17711/investigative/chicano-power-stories-of-latino-involvement-in-the-nationwide-fight-for-race-equality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.980151 | 1,911 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.07169997692108... | 5 | Chicano Power: stories of Latino involvement in the nationwide fight for race equality
December 20, 2019
Students taking any type of history class in the United States can obviously see that the majority of the main historical figures, events, etc. taught, deal with people who fall under the “straight, white male” category. For years, minority students asked for change and more representation in the curriculum presented in schools across the country. People of different backgrounds fought, and continue to fight for this country to become a better place but the history taught in schools erases their presence or depicts them as unimportant.
Although Latinos/Hispanics make up the largest minority in the United States’ population with 18%, students only learn about one piece of what they accomplished in this country. Schools teach a brief section about activist Cesar Chaves and move on, leaving the rich history that one can find in the Latino civil rights movement forgotten, and erasing the oppression faced and resistance created by Latinos during that time.
The Black Civil Rights movement in the south and the Latino Civil Rights movement in the west, also known as the Chicano Movement, echoed one another in myriad ways. They both inspired each other and experienced most of the same things, however, the Chicano movement remains overlooked or forgotten, making the link between them disappear over time. The desegregation of public establishments, such as schools, exemplifies this.
When asked about desegregation and what started it, people usually think of Brown v. Board of Education, when in reality, seven years before that a group of Mexican parents, specifically The Mendez family, took action. In California, cities were segregated towards Mexicans and Mexican-Americans but in comparison to the segregation of African-Americans, people with a lighter complexion or an Anglo-Saxon or European sounding last names were allowed the use of these establishments.
Schools in some parts of California segregated Mexican children from white children. They claimed that they fell under special needs criteria because of their inability to speak English and they intended to prepare them for American education. The problem became that whether or not they spoke English, school officials would sort them to these schools just because of race. The Mendez family moved to Westminster, Southern California in 1943. Gonzalo Mendez asked his sister Sally to enroll their children at the school they were supposed to attend.
When Sally Mendez tried to enroll them, the school told her that they allowed her children to attend because of their lighter skin tone and Basque last name, but Gonzalo’s kids would attend Mexican school. When Sally told Gonzalo, he became furious because the last school his children attended had no problem and allowed them to receive their education alongside white children. Gonzalo, along with four other Hispanic fathers (Thomas Estrada, William Guzman, Frank Palomino, and Lorenzo Ramirez) went to court and challenged Mexican school segregation.
In 1945 the case came to a conclusion in which the state overturned the law that allowed segregation, causing a ripple effect in the whole state. Laws that segregated Japanese-American and Native American students were soon after “abolished”. Mendez v. Westminster set a base for the Brown vs. Board of Education case and created a tremendous impact in American history yet never received the credit it deserves.
The Chicano movement began in 1848, right after the U.S.-Mexican war when the current border between both countries was created. Mexicans living in the new U.S. states were discriminated against in their own land. The movement gained momentum after WW2 but reached its peak in the 1960s and 70s. Throughout the west side of the United States, Mexicans and Chicanos demanded fair treatment in the fields, political/voting rights, equal education, and restoration of their ancestors’ land.
The American agricultural industry, in the past and present, heavily depends on mostly Latino labor. Though they contributed greatly to the stability of the industry, farmworkers had terrible working conditions. Growers, who were the people that owned the land and company these people worked for, paid them $1 per hour, did not provide them with restrooms, and only gave them a single can of water where all workers would have to share from.
Filipino farmworkers faced the same injustices and started a strike, led by Larry Itiliong, way before Chicanos did and by the time it arrived in Delano, California, Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, founders of the National Farm Workers Association, were gathering its members to decide whether or not they would join these protests.
They agreed and shortly after put everyone to work. Strikers would stand near fields of workers and shouted for them to “Stop working”. While there were workers that followed along and left their jobs, a majority of them stayed in place in fear of losing their income. To try and advert this, growers would use loudspeakers to block out the protests so their own workers would not hear them. The movement requested the aid of more people to help end these work conditions but even though vast amounts of people arrived, the impact these strikes were creating barely scraped the surface so they decided to use a different method. Inspired by the Montgomery bus boycotts, the farmworkers started their own by boycotting Schenley liquor. This started to get the attention of various people including Robert Kennedy, who flew down to California to see the events unfold and endorsed the movement. The Farmworkers planned a pilgrimage from Delano to Sacramento, California’s capital, to pressure the government and growers into finally answering their demands for better conditions. This pilgrimage which was almost 300 miles lasted 25 days and by the time they arrived in Sacramento, Schenley gave in and was open for negotiations.
The movement did not see enough improvement after its first year so they turned to boycotts again and since those boycotts did not do as much as activists thought they would people began to consider violent protests. To prevent this, Chavez took a 25-day fast which caused more members to join the union and the talks of violence disappeared. After the assassination of Robert Kennedy, Huerta and Chavez decided to double the effort the union was putting forth. The union sent people to over 40 cities in the U.S. and Canada with one mission in mind, to boycott all grapes until a change was made. Picketers protested in front of supermarkets 12-13 hours a day to expose consumers to everything regarding the farmworkers’ mistreatment.
The boycotts pressured supermarkets and the number of picketers multiplied. Thousands of people followed, from high school students to priests and nuns, a significant amount of Americans joined the protest and it was estimated that 17 million people stopped buying grapes causing a loss of $25 million. After the Coachella valley growers endorsed the movement, people started to purchase only grapes that had the union black eagle. On July 29,1970, growers succumbed and agreed to sign a series of contracts in which they met the workers’ demands and provided them with new resources almost instantly. After five years, their constant fight finally paid off.
Numerous issues made up the goals of the Chicano movement and while the majority benefitted the Mexican-American community as a whole, one major group was often left out. Women in most cultures around the world are mostly seen as housekeepers, child bearers, etc., and Mexican culture was no exception. Throughout the movement, women realized that they did not benefit from the changes as they faced their “prescribed” role in the family.
Chicanas and other women of color criticized second-wave feminism for their inability to include classism and racism into their political coverage which lead to the creation of a sub movement within the Chicano movement known as Chicana Feminism where they started to fight for their rights as women within and outside of their own community.
The majority of schools, textbooks and, sometimes teachers throughout the United States include the Latino civil rights movement in a very minimal way. “We look at standards and clearly it would fit in U.S. History and it is part of our curriculum but its very brief. Other Cesar Chavez there isn’t a ton of specific standards but based on the timing of the End of Course test there sometimes isn’t an opportunity to investigate it further. Said N.C. Social Studies teacher Tom Callahan.
“We have some materials like D.B.Q.s (Document-based questions) and documentaries that go along with it but in some semesters we don’t have enough time to include it. It certainly should be included with the unit in the social change of the 60s.”
This leaves many students frustrated since they don’t get to learn about what their ancestors did for this country.
“I feel like in our educational system we tend to turn a blind eye to situations like that. They tell us that we are taught history so we don’t repeat mistakes, but how are we supposed to learn if we are not being taught about these situations. We are not using history in the correct way.” Magnet Junior Yamille Farias said.
As time moved on, the image of the American people changed and continues to diversify, and students merit a curriculum that reflects their diversity. | 1,884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Alice Paul (Library of Congress)
A little girl in the late nineteenth century once had a big dream for her future. She was dreaming of going to college, studying science, and voting one day. However, because she was a woman, voting was out of the question. This girl's name was Alice Paul, and she would grow up to ensure that every woman in the United States would be able to vote. On January 11, 1885 in New Jersey, Alice Paul was born into a Quaker family that encouraged her to stand up for her beliefs and to think of all people as equals (Mendoza). When she was older, Alice Paul attended Swarthmore College wanting to work in the new field of social science (Fry). Soon after, she went to London, and she realized that she had a desire to have equal rights with men, which did not exist at the time. She wanted to vote but was unable to, so she focused on the women's suffrage movement in order to achieve her goals. After returning from London with a new ally, Lucy Burns, Alice Paul went to great lengths to ensure that women would have fair treatment for centuries to come. Some of those lengths included organizing numerous pickets. To picket was to stand silently in a public area, such as in front of the White House, with a banner covered with propaganda slogans for hours. Because of Paul's acts of bravery and sacrifice, women gained the right to vote in 1920. A hero must be courageous when no one else will. A hero must will step up to the challenge instead of backing down. A hero must defy authority, their enemies, and their peers; they know to do so even when they are terrified. Finally, a hero must make sacrifices to make sure others will have a better future. By this definition, Alice Paul proved she was a hero by demonstrating she had the courage to stand up for herself and a willingness to make sacrifices for the betterment of others.
|Women's Suffrage Parade (Library of Congress)
Alice Paul showed her courage when she stood up for herself and others, even though she knew she would be punished for her assertiveness. For instance, after Paul won the vote, she articulated why she was so compelled to fight for the rights of all American women (Mendoza). She said, "... women 'probably are going to do a lot of things that I wish they wouldn't do; but it seems to me that it isn't our business, to say what they should do with it [their liberty]. It is our business to see that they are free'"(qtd. in Mendoza). Paul believed that both men and women should be able to do what they want with their freedom, no matter what their peers think. She also did not want other people's opinions to be oppressed because of their gender. She had the idea that no one should have the power to silence a fellow human being's thoughts and emotions about topics which impacted their daily lives. Paul showed courage because she openly and actively supported her beliefs, even when there were naysayers. Instead of retreating before she put her reputation in jeopardy, she stood up for those who did not know how to stand up for themselves. However, Paul did not only stand up for her inferiors. She also valiantly fought the ideas of her fellow suffragists, whom she deemed too conservative; she broke off from their organization so she could employ new and more radical strategies (Fry). One such strategy was this: "On January 11, 1917, the first militants took up their positions around the White House, where they stayed from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. five days a week, ignoring rain, snow, and sleet. Their placards, mounted on three-foot wooden boards, were clear enough: 'Mr. Wilson: You promise democracy for the World and Half the Population of the United States cannot vote. America is not a democracy'"(Baker). Alice Paul was courageous to both organize a protest that her peers thought too radical and to stand for hours in harsh weather conditions, knowing she would be assaulted by anti-suffragist onlookers and eventually be arrested. She believed that to make the world a better place, she had to defy authority and take a stand on what she believed. During her time, a simple, peaceful protest was enough to land a suffragist in prison or a mental institution, making her acts of protest even more brave. In the face of all odds, Alice Paul had courage when others had none, the mark of a true hero.
Alice Paul was known for the sacrifices she made in order to achieve her goal of suffrage and complete political equality. For example, Paul was perpetually moving in and out of prison because of political reasons. Picketing was a perfectly legal form of peaceful protesting, but anti-suffragists were able to get away with throwing suffragists into prison and torturing them on the charge of "obstruction of traffic"(Bausum). "In a political climate increasingly intolerant of dissent, the suffragists were harassed, physically assaulted, and then arrested. Paul herself was arrested in October. Sent to the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia, she was placed in solitary confinement"(Fry). Even though Alice Paul knew she would be arrested and tortured for taking such a radical stance on women's suffrage, she fought anyway. When she was eventually arrested, she went on a hunger strike. In response, she was force-fed by having raw eggs shoved down her nostril with a tube, but she still would not give up her strike (Bausum). This was both "dangerous and humiliating"(Fry). She believed that no one should be thrown into prison for voicing their opinions peacefully, so she made herself a martyr for suffragists everywhere. She sacrificed her own health and well being to make sure women would be able to vote, something that very few people would do. However, the sacrifices she made in her fight for women's suffrage were not the only sacrifices she made in her life. She dedicated her entire life to achieving total political equality, and worked until she died late in life. Amelia Fry stated,"Although some suffragists dropped out of politics after 1920, [Alice] Paul entered phase two of her political career: securing passage of a federal equal rights amendment to the U.S. Constitution to complete women's legal equality"(Fry).
Once women's suffrage was achieved, Paul she dedicated the rest of her life to achieving total political equality with men. She continued fighting until she was 92; even near the end of her life, Paul was still involved in politics and earning complete equality as ever. This includes helping pass multiple acts, drafting up the Equal Rights Amendment, and creating charms commemorating the courage of women's rights activists (Graddy). She sacrificed her retirement and dedicated her entire life to helping women in the U.S. live better lives. She could have enjoyed the last decades of her life without working, but she sacrificed that time in order to benefit the masses. In the end, Paul was a hero partly because she made major sacrifices for the well being of all American women, including her own health, free time, retirement, and well-being
All in all, Alice Paul showed heroism by having the courage to protect her inferiors while challenging her peers, and by sacrificing herself for the greater good. She fought her enemies with words, questioned the modern suffrage strategies, and eventually was punished for her radical new beliefs. She gave up her good health and her freedom for her cause. She was a martyr, empowering other women to fight harder because of her hellish treatment in jail. Even after she won the vote, she kept advocating for women's rights well after when most would have retired. She was an inspiration because she fought hard for her entire life, even when others would give up. Her hard work also paid off, since she managed to pass the amendment necessary for full suffrage and was involved in passing multiple acts afterwards (Fry). During her entire life, she never aimed for glory or fame, only wanting to achieve her goal of making the world a better place. "Her militancy in the fight for woman suffrage" was also a major reason in why she was an inspiration ("Paul, Alice"). Most people, including myself, would have shied away at the thought of organizing massive peaceful protests and being tortured in prison, but Alice Paul took up the challenge. Her bravery and sacrifice were what made her a real life heroine.
Baker, Jean H. "1919: placards at the White House: fed up with the inaction of conservative
suffragists, Alice Paul decided on the highly unorthodox strategy of pressuring the president."
American Heritage Winter 2010: 74+. Biography in Context. Web. 1 May 2016.
Fry, Amelia Roberts. "PAUL, Alice." Notable American Women, A Biographical Dictionary:
Completing The Twentieth Century (Vol.5) (2004): 500. Biography Reference Center. Web. 28
Graddy, Lisa Kathleen. "Alice Paul: Champion of Women's Suffrage." O Say Can You See? Ed.
Rebecca Kokinda. Smithsonian, 8 May 2012. Web. 2 May 2016.
Mendoza, Jessica. "Alice Paul: How her Quaker roots shaped her gender activism." Christian
Science Monitor 11 Jan. 2016. Biography in Context. Web. 1 May 2016
"Paul, Alice." Britannica Biographies (2012): 1. Biography Reference Center. Web. 28 Apr.
Bausum, Ann. With Courage and Cloth: Winning the Fight for a Woman's Right to Vote.
Washington D.C.: National Geographic, 2004. Print.
Page created on 5/27/2016 12:00:00 AM
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-0.258880555629... | 2 | |Alice Paul (Library of Congress)
A little girl in the late nineteenth century once had a big dream for her future. She was dreaming of going to college, studying science, and voting one day. However, because she was a woman, voting was out of the question. This girl's name was Alice Paul, and she would grow up to ensure that every woman in the United States would be able to vote. On January 11, 1885 in New Jersey, Alice Paul was born into a Quaker family that encouraged her to stand up for her beliefs and to think of all people as equals (Mendoza). When she was older, Alice Paul attended Swarthmore College wanting to work in the new field of social science (Fry). Soon after, she went to London, and she realized that she had a desire to have equal rights with men, which did not exist at the time. She wanted to vote but was unable to, so she focused on the women's suffrage movement in order to achieve her goals. After returning from London with a new ally, Lucy Burns, Alice Paul went to great lengths to ensure that women would have fair treatment for centuries to come. Some of those lengths included organizing numerous pickets. To picket was to stand silently in a public area, such as in front of the White House, with a banner covered with propaganda slogans for hours. Because of Paul's acts of bravery and sacrifice, women gained the right to vote in 1920. A hero must be courageous when no one else will. A hero must will step up to the challenge instead of backing down. A hero must defy authority, their enemies, and their peers; they know to do so even when they are terrified. Finally, a hero must make sacrifices to make sure others will have a better future. By this definition, Alice Paul proved she was a hero by demonstrating she had the courage to stand up for herself and a willingness to make sacrifices for the betterment of others.
|Women's Suffrage Parade (Library of Congress)
Alice Paul showed her courage when she stood up for herself and others, even though she knew she would be punished for her assertiveness. For instance, after Paul won the vote, she articulated why she was so compelled to fight for the rights of all American women (Mendoza). She said, "... women 'probably are going to do a lot of things that I wish they wouldn't do; but it seems to me that it isn't our business, to say what they should do with it [their liberty]. It is our business to see that they are free'"(qtd. in Mendoza). Paul believed that both men and women should be able to do what they want with their freedom, no matter what their peers think. She also did not want other people's opinions to be oppressed because of their gender. She had the idea that no one should have the power to silence a fellow human being's thoughts and emotions about topics which impacted their daily lives. Paul showed courage because she openly and actively supported her beliefs, even when there were naysayers. Instead of retreating before she put her reputation in jeopardy, she stood up for those who did not know how to stand up for themselves. However, Paul did not only stand up for her inferiors. She also valiantly fought the ideas of her fellow suffragists, whom she deemed too conservative; she broke off from their organization so she could employ new and more radical strategies (Fry). One such strategy was this: "On January 11, 1917, the first militants took up their positions around the White House, where they stayed from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. five days a week, ignoring rain, snow, and sleet. Their placards, mounted on three-foot wooden boards, were clear enough: 'Mr. Wilson: You promise democracy for the World and Half the Population of the United States cannot vote. America is not a democracy'"(Baker). Alice Paul was courageous to both organize a protest that her peers thought too radical and to stand for hours in harsh weather conditions, knowing she would be assaulted by anti-suffragist onlookers and eventually be arrested. She believed that to make the world a better place, she had to defy authority and take a stand on what she believed. During her time, a simple, peaceful protest was enough to land a suffragist in prison or a mental institution, making her acts of protest even more brave. In the face of all odds, Alice Paul had courage when others had none, the mark of a true hero.
Alice Paul was known for the sacrifices she made in order to achieve her goal of suffrage and complete political equality. For example, Paul was perpetually moving in and out of prison because of political reasons. Picketing was a perfectly legal form of peaceful protesting, but anti-suffragists were able to get away with throwing suffragists into prison and torturing them on the charge of "obstruction of traffic"(Bausum). "In a political climate increasingly intolerant of dissent, the suffragists were harassed, physically assaulted, and then arrested. Paul herself was arrested in October. Sent to the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia, she was placed in solitary confinement"(Fry). Even though Alice Paul knew she would be arrested and tortured for taking such a radical stance on women's suffrage, she fought anyway. When she was eventually arrested, she went on a hunger strike. In response, she was force-fed by having raw eggs shoved down her nostril with a tube, but she still would not give up her strike (Bausum). This was both "dangerous and humiliating"(Fry). She believed that no one should be thrown into prison for voicing their opinions peacefully, so she made herself a martyr for suffragists everywhere. She sacrificed her own health and well being to make sure women would be able to vote, something that very few people would do. However, the sacrifices she made in her fight for women's suffrage were not the only sacrifices she made in her life. She dedicated her entire life to achieving total political equality, and worked until she died late in life. Amelia Fry stated,"Although some suffragists dropped out of politics after 1920, [Alice] Paul entered phase two of her political career: securing passage of a federal equal rights amendment to the U.S. Constitution to complete women's legal equality"(Fry).
Once women's suffrage was achieved, Paul she dedicated the rest of her life to achieving total political equality with men. She continued fighting until she was 92; even near the end of her life, Paul was still involved in politics and earning complete equality as ever. This includes helping pass multiple acts, drafting up the Equal Rights Amendment, and creating charms commemorating the courage of women's rights activists (Graddy). She sacrificed her retirement and dedicated her entire life to helping women in the U.S. live better lives. She could have enjoyed the last decades of her life without working, but she sacrificed that time in order to benefit the masses. In the end, Paul was a hero partly because she made major sacrifices for the well being of all American women, including her own health, free time, retirement, and well-being
All in all, Alice Paul showed heroism by having the courage to protect her inferiors while challenging her peers, and by sacrificing herself for the greater good. She fought her enemies with words, questioned the modern suffrage strategies, and eventually was punished for her radical new beliefs. She gave up her good health and her freedom for her cause. She was a martyr, empowering other women to fight harder because of her hellish treatment in jail. Even after she won the vote, she kept advocating for women's rights well after when most would have retired. She was an inspiration because she fought hard for her entire life, even when others would give up. Her hard work also paid off, since she managed to pass the amendment necessary for full suffrage and was involved in passing multiple acts afterwards (Fry). During her entire life, she never aimed for glory or fame, only wanting to achieve her goal of making the world a better place. "Her militancy in the fight for woman suffrage" was also a major reason in why she was an inspiration ("Paul, Alice"). Most people, including myself, would have shied away at the thought of organizing massive peaceful protests and being tortured in prison, but Alice Paul took up the challenge. Her bravery and sacrifice were what made her a real life heroine.
Baker, Jean H. "1919: placards at the White House: fed up with the inaction of conservative
suffragists, Alice Paul decided on the highly unorthodox strategy of pressuring the president."
American Heritage Winter 2010: 74+. Biography in Context. Web. 1 May 2016.
Fry, Amelia Roberts. "PAUL, Alice." Notable American Women, A Biographical Dictionary:
Completing The Twentieth Century (Vol.5) (2004): 500. Biography Reference Center. Web. 28
Graddy, Lisa Kathleen. "Alice Paul: Champion of Women's Suffrage." O Say Can You See? Ed.
Rebecca Kokinda. Smithsonian, 8 May 2012. Web. 2 May 2016.
Mendoza, Jessica. "Alice Paul: How her Quaker roots shaped her gender activism." Christian
Science Monitor 11 Jan. 2016. Biography in Context. Web. 1 May 2016
"Paul, Alice." Britannica Biographies (2012): 1. Biography Reference Center. Web. 28 Apr.
Bausum, Ann. With Courage and Cloth: Winning the Fight for a Woman's Right to Vote.
Washington D.C.: National Geographic, 2004. Print.
Page created on 5/27/2016 12:00:00 AM
Last edited 1/8/2020 9:44:15 PM | 2,104 | ENGLISH | 1 |
25 Jun Oscar Wilde
Dead: 30 November 1900
In: Parigi, Francia
He was an Irish poet and playwright.
After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s.
He is best remembered for his epigrams and plays, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, and the circumstances of his criminal conviction for "gross indecency", imprisonment, and early death at age 46.
Wilde's parents were successful Anglo-Irish intellectuals in Dublin.
Their son became fluent in French and German early in life.
At university, Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Trinity College Dublin, then at Oxford.
He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin.
After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles.
At the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into what would be his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890).
The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama.
He wrote Salome (1891) in French while in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to an absolute prohibition on the portrayal of Biblical subjects on the English stage.
Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late-Victorian London.
At the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) was still being performed in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for criminal libel.
The Marquess was the father of Wilde's lover, Lord Alfred Douglas.
The libel trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men.
After two more trials he was convicted and sentenced to two years' hard labour, the maximum penalty, and was jailed from 1895 to 1897.
During his last year in prison, he wrote De Profundis (published posthumously in 1905), a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure.
On his release, he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain.
There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46. | <urn:uuid:2c1e3333-10d3-4730-b005-8f81fda0edb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://memoryou.it/persona/oscar-wilde/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.982993 | 578 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.44486182928... | 1 | 25 Jun Oscar Wilde
Dead: 30 November 1900
In: Parigi, Francia
He was an Irish poet and playwright.
After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s.
He is best remembered for his epigrams and plays, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, and the circumstances of his criminal conviction for "gross indecency", imprisonment, and early death at age 46.
Wilde's parents were successful Anglo-Irish intellectuals in Dublin.
Their son became fluent in French and German early in life.
At university, Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Trinity College Dublin, then at Oxford.
He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin.
After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles.
At the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into what would be his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890).
The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama.
He wrote Salome (1891) in French while in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to an absolute prohibition on the portrayal of Biblical subjects on the English stage.
Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late-Victorian London.
At the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) was still being performed in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for criminal libel.
The Marquess was the father of Wilde's lover, Lord Alfred Douglas.
The libel trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men.
After two more trials he was convicted and sentenced to two years' hard labour, the maximum penalty, and was jailed from 1895 to 1897.
During his last year in prison, he wrote De Profundis (published posthumously in 1905), a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure.
On his release, he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain.
There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46. | 609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“It’s hog-killin' weather.” That once was a common way to describe a time of sharply, persistently cold weather. That sort of weather is now uncommon and the descriptor even more so. During the decades when farm families depended on that which was provided by their fields, flocks and the natural environment, the sentence made perfect sense. Harvesting their hogs for meat and lard to last most of the year required cold weather and hard labor.
Cold weather was necessary to keep meat from spoiling. Lacking electricity for refrigeration and storage, people relied on January’s arctic blasts. Man-handling the hogs' carcasses of 200 to 300 pounds meant hard labor.
Preparation began in advance. Animals to be butchered were selected, moved into a pen and fed plenty of corn to “clean out their system.” Wood for the big boiler and wash pot was brought to the site. The 60-gallon boiler used to wash clothes, make syrup and scald hog carcasses to remove hair was filled with water the day before. Knives and a hatchet were sharpened and cleaned. January days are too short to get the job done unless everything was ready as soon as it gets “light enough to see good.”
Killing was simple — a short-range 22-caliber rifle bullet into the brain, even a sharp hammer blow, followed by slitting a neck artery to drain blood, an important step in preservation. Four strong men moved the carcass to a low platform at the rim of the big boiler in which water had been heated to just the right temperature to loosen the hair. Too cold or too hot would “set the hair,” making it necessary to shave the skin. They worked fast, pulling hair with bare hands or scraping it with dull knives or designed scrapers. One end of the carcass, head or tail, was immersed until ready for cleaning on the platform and then the other end was slid into the boiler. It was heavy work. The water was hot, but clothes soaked in it soon cooled because of the chilled air.
The next step was to take the carcass to the hog gallows, a sturdy post with dual cross arms near the top on which carcasses were hung, up to four at a time. Here a skilled butcher removed all internal organs into wash tubs, separating parts that were to be used from the rest. Not many things were discarded. An old saying goes that the only things that escaped were the hair and the squeal, but that is an exaggeration.
After carcasses had been washed down with cold water and wiped with clean cloths, they were moved to a butcher table, preferably located in a spot sheltered from the wind. Armed with sharp knives and hatchet (maybe a light ax), the butcher separated the parts to be cured — hams, shoulders and middlings — leaving spare ribs and backbone. He removed from all parts as much fat as possible to be rendered into lard and some lean pieces to be ground up and made into sausage.
My father, noted for his skill as a butcher, liked sausage both fresh and smoked. When cutting up his own meat, he usually dedicated a shoulder cut up into the sausage meat collection.
The meat to be cured was rubbed liberally with salt and placed in a big meat box, each layer separated from the next with a worn sheet or fresh pine boughs. It remained there for several days while the salt drew out liquids, mainly water. Then it was hung in the smokehouse and smoked for days with slow burning green hardwood limbs of the preparer's choosing — hickory, oak, sweet bay.
Women did not escape this hard labor and cold. They had the worst job, “ridding chitluns.” The small intestines (“chitterlings”) were used by some as food after serious preparation, but the main use was as sausage casings. First, the contents had to be emptied (ridding them of partly-digested food) into a tub or bucket. Then they were washed out with hot water. Next, they were turned inside out with a wooden rod and the exposed inner lining scraped with a dull knife and rinsed in cold water. Recall that the weather was cold and few country women wore pants back then, but they borrowed britches from male family members to wear under layers of dresses and coats.
Women also rendered the lard. Smaller quantities were cooked in the squat fat wash pot. The other option was to clean the big boiler thoroughly and use it. This work was not difficult, but it could be tricky. From start to finish, the cooking fat had to be stirred constantly with a wooden paddle lest it stick to the metal and scorch, potentially ruining the lard. The fire had to be hot enough to keep the fat bubbling but not so hot as to scorch it. The brisker the boil the more active the stirring. When the cooked-out “cracklins” floated at the top, they were skimmed off and the lard was strained into special lard cans, the family’s cooking oil for months.
Sausage making was an important near-final step. Cuts of meat set aside for that purpose were fed through a hand-turned grinder. Salt, peppers and selected spices were mixed with the ground meat to taste as determined by samples fried on the spot. An adapter on the grinder transformed it into a stuffer, pressing the sausage meat into the casings prepared earlier. Some of the sausage would be eaten fresh in the near future and the rest smoked for later consumption.
At the end of the day, those who had helped were paid with pork. Backbone, spare ribs and sausage were wonderfully good to eat, but would not “keep” and were obvious good payment. Many people also enjoyed less coveted parts, like livers, hearts, heads and cracklins. Daddy often threw in a pork shoulder because the work was hard and hog-killing weather was cold.
Roger G. Branch Sr. is professor emeritus of sociology at Georgia Southern University and is a retired pastor. | <urn:uuid:c254fc2d-5bcf-4eee-9798-3a516849cddb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.statesboroherald.com/life/its-hog-killing-weather/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.987239 | 1,287 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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... | 5 | “It’s hog-killin' weather.” That once was a common way to describe a time of sharply, persistently cold weather. That sort of weather is now uncommon and the descriptor even more so. During the decades when farm families depended on that which was provided by their fields, flocks and the natural environment, the sentence made perfect sense. Harvesting their hogs for meat and lard to last most of the year required cold weather and hard labor.
Cold weather was necessary to keep meat from spoiling. Lacking electricity for refrigeration and storage, people relied on January’s arctic blasts. Man-handling the hogs' carcasses of 200 to 300 pounds meant hard labor.
Preparation began in advance. Animals to be butchered were selected, moved into a pen and fed plenty of corn to “clean out their system.” Wood for the big boiler and wash pot was brought to the site. The 60-gallon boiler used to wash clothes, make syrup and scald hog carcasses to remove hair was filled with water the day before. Knives and a hatchet were sharpened and cleaned. January days are too short to get the job done unless everything was ready as soon as it gets “light enough to see good.”
Killing was simple — a short-range 22-caliber rifle bullet into the brain, even a sharp hammer blow, followed by slitting a neck artery to drain blood, an important step in preservation. Four strong men moved the carcass to a low platform at the rim of the big boiler in which water had been heated to just the right temperature to loosen the hair. Too cold or too hot would “set the hair,” making it necessary to shave the skin. They worked fast, pulling hair with bare hands or scraping it with dull knives or designed scrapers. One end of the carcass, head or tail, was immersed until ready for cleaning on the platform and then the other end was slid into the boiler. It was heavy work. The water was hot, but clothes soaked in it soon cooled because of the chilled air.
The next step was to take the carcass to the hog gallows, a sturdy post with dual cross arms near the top on which carcasses were hung, up to four at a time. Here a skilled butcher removed all internal organs into wash tubs, separating parts that were to be used from the rest. Not many things were discarded. An old saying goes that the only things that escaped were the hair and the squeal, but that is an exaggeration.
After carcasses had been washed down with cold water and wiped with clean cloths, they were moved to a butcher table, preferably located in a spot sheltered from the wind. Armed with sharp knives and hatchet (maybe a light ax), the butcher separated the parts to be cured — hams, shoulders and middlings — leaving spare ribs and backbone. He removed from all parts as much fat as possible to be rendered into lard and some lean pieces to be ground up and made into sausage.
My father, noted for his skill as a butcher, liked sausage both fresh and smoked. When cutting up his own meat, he usually dedicated a shoulder cut up into the sausage meat collection.
The meat to be cured was rubbed liberally with salt and placed in a big meat box, each layer separated from the next with a worn sheet or fresh pine boughs. It remained there for several days while the salt drew out liquids, mainly water. Then it was hung in the smokehouse and smoked for days with slow burning green hardwood limbs of the preparer's choosing — hickory, oak, sweet bay.
Women did not escape this hard labor and cold. They had the worst job, “ridding chitluns.” The small intestines (“chitterlings”) were used by some as food after serious preparation, but the main use was as sausage casings. First, the contents had to be emptied (ridding them of partly-digested food) into a tub or bucket. Then they were washed out with hot water. Next, they were turned inside out with a wooden rod and the exposed inner lining scraped with a dull knife and rinsed in cold water. Recall that the weather was cold and few country women wore pants back then, but they borrowed britches from male family members to wear under layers of dresses and coats.
Women also rendered the lard. Smaller quantities were cooked in the squat fat wash pot. The other option was to clean the big boiler thoroughly and use it. This work was not difficult, but it could be tricky. From start to finish, the cooking fat had to be stirred constantly with a wooden paddle lest it stick to the metal and scorch, potentially ruining the lard. The fire had to be hot enough to keep the fat bubbling but not so hot as to scorch it. The brisker the boil the more active the stirring. When the cooked-out “cracklins” floated at the top, they were skimmed off and the lard was strained into special lard cans, the family’s cooking oil for months.
Sausage making was an important near-final step. Cuts of meat set aside for that purpose were fed through a hand-turned grinder. Salt, peppers and selected spices were mixed with the ground meat to taste as determined by samples fried on the spot. An adapter on the grinder transformed it into a stuffer, pressing the sausage meat into the casings prepared earlier. Some of the sausage would be eaten fresh in the near future and the rest smoked for later consumption.
At the end of the day, those who had helped were paid with pork. Backbone, spare ribs and sausage were wonderfully good to eat, but would not “keep” and were obvious good payment. Many people also enjoyed less coveted parts, like livers, hearts, heads and cracklins. Daddy often threw in a pork shoulder because the work was hard and hog-killing weather was cold.
Roger G. Branch Sr. is professor emeritus of sociology at Georgia Southern University and is a retired pastor. | 1,244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New Delhi: Obesity, or being overweight comes with its own set of disadvantages. The risk of various disorders and diseases increases manifold, just because of unhealthy body weight. Excess fat stored in the body can interfere with body functions, causing them to become less efficient, or slow them down.
A healthy lifestyle, nutritious and balanced diet, and regular exercise are very important to keep your weight in check. However, a new drug or mechanism has been found by researchers that can not only help prevent obesity but may also reverse it and help you avoid the risk of diseases and disorders.
A study, published in the journal International Journal of Obesity found that when a drug named NF, known to block AHR was added to a high-fat diet, mice did not become any fatter than the mice on a low-fat control diet. Mice with the same diet, without the NF, became obese in the same time span. No ill or side effects of the drug were observed on the animal model.
Researchers said that blocking the AHR with NF could not just prevent obesity, but could also prevent it. This was proved after an experiment was conducted where the mice were allowed to become obese on a high-fat diet, and half of them were then switched to a high-fat diet containing NF to block AHR.
It was found that the mice consumed a high-fat diet with NF had the same bodyweight as the mice on the low-fat diet, over a few next weeks.
Previous researches and studies have proved that AHR regulates key genes in fat metabolism. It was found that in liver and fat cells, the AHR when blocked by NF, fails to lead to fat storage and synthesis as several genes required for the process are not induced.
The research also aims to find out the dietary compounds in the food we eat that activate AHR and cause obesity, and how it can be prevented. The study has initiated a trial to find out if this process can work as a way to reduce obesity in humans, all around the world. | <urn:uuid:e2ca815d-e7e0-4c9d-a21a-4b4f1b1c41f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timesnownews.com/health/article/new-mechanism-may-safely-prevent-reverse-obesity-here-is-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-weight-loss-drug/541023 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.982765 | 417 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.2605974972248... | 1 | New Delhi: Obesity, or being overweight comes with its own set of disadvantages. The risk of various disorders and diseases increases manifold, just because of unhealthy body weight. Excess fat stored in the body can interfere with body functions, causing them to become less efficient, or slow them down.
A healthy lifestyle, nutritious and balanced diet, and regular exercise are very important to keep your weight in check. However, a new drug or mechanism has been found by researchers that can not only help prevent obesity but may also reverse it and help you avoid the risk of diseases and disorders.
A study, published in the journal International Journal of Obesity found that when a drug named NF, known to block AHR was added to a high-fat diet, mice did not become any fatter than the mice on a low-fat control diet. Mice with the same diet, without the NF, became obese in the same time span. No ill or side effects of the drug were observed on the animal model.
Researchers said that blocking the AHR with NF could not just prevent obesity, but could also prevent it. This was proved after an experiment was conducted where the mice were allowed to become obese on a high-fat diet, and half of them were then switched to a high-fat diet containing NF to block AHR.
It was found that the mice consumed a high-fat diet with NF had the same bodyweight as the mice on the low-fat diet, over a few next weeks.
Previous researches and studies have proved that AHR regulates key genes in fat metabolism. It was found that in liver and fat cells, the AHR when blocked by NF, fails to lead to fat storage and synthesis as several genes required for the process are not induced.
The research also aims to find out the dietary compounds in the food we eat that activate AHR and cause obesity, and how it can be prevented. The study has initiated a trial to find out if this process can work as a way to reduce obesity in humans, all around the world. | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the second of the three essays and discusses symbolism in the novel. Throughout the novel, The Scarlet Letter, the author, Nathaniel Hawthorne uses a few key symbols to represent major themes in the book. The most obvious and well known, as it is in the title, is the scarlet letter Hester is forced to wear.
His earliest American ancestor, William Hathorne Nathaniel added the w to the name when he began to writewas a magistrate who had sentenced a Quaker woman to public whipping. She moved in with her affluent brothers, the Mannings.
Hawthorne grew up in their house in Salem and, for extensive periods during his teens, in Raymond, Maine, on the shores of Sebago Lake. Hawthorne did not distinguish himself as a young man. Instead, he spent nearly a dozen years reading and trying to master the art of writing fiction. First works In college Hawthorne had excelled only in composition and had determined to become a writer.
Upon graduation, he had written an amateurish novelFanshawewhich he published at his own expense—only to decide that it was unworthy of him and to try to destroy all copies. A Discussion of Nathaniel Hawthorne's Dr. His increasing success in placing his stories brought him a little fame.
Even when his first signed book, Twice-Told Tales, was published inthe work had brought gratifying recognition but no dependable income. Hawthorne welcomed the companionship of his Transcendentalist neighbours, but he had little to say to them.
Artists and intellectuals never inspired his full confidence, but he thoroughly enjoyed the visit of his old college friend and classmate Franklin Piercelater to become president of the United States. At the Old Manse, Hawthorne continued to write stories, with the same result as before: His new short-story collection, Mosses from an Old Manse, appeared in Three years later the presidential election brought the Whigs into power under Zachary Taylorand Hawthorne lost his job; but in a few months of concentrated effort, he produced his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter.
The book made Hawthorne famous and was eventually recognized as one of the greatest of American novels. Determined to leave Salem forever, Hawthorne moved to Lenoxlocated in the mountain scenery of the Berkshires in western Massachusetts. There he began work on The House of the Seven Gablesthe story of the Pyncheon family, who for generations had lived under a curse until it was removed at last by love.
At Lenox he enjoyed the stimulating friendship of Herman Melvillewho lived in nearby Pittsfield. This friendship, although important for the younger writer and his work, was much less so for Hawthorne.
But eventually Melville came to feel that the friendship he so ardently pursued was one-sided.
In the autumn of Hawthorne moved his family to another temporary residence, this time in West Newton, near Boston. There he quickly wrote The Blithedale Romancewhich was based on his disenchantment with Brook Farm.
Blithedale was disappointingly received and did not produce the income Hawthorne had expected. He was hoping for a lucrative political appointment that would bolster his finances; in the meantime, he wrote a campaign biography of his old friend Franklin Pierce.
When Pierce won the presidency, Hawthorne was in rewarded with the consulship in Liverpool, Lancashire, a position he hoped would enable him in a few years to leave his family financially secure. He performed his consular duties faithfully and effectively until his position was terminated inand then he spent a year and a half sight-seeing in Italy.
Determined to produce yet another romance, he finally retreated to a seaside town in England and quickly produced The Marble Faun. In writing it, he drew heavily upon the experiences and impressions he had recorded in a notebook kept during his Italian tour to give substance to an allegory of the Fall of man, a theme that had usually been assumed in his earlier works but that now received direct and philosophic treatment.
Back in the Wayside once more inHawthorne devoted himself entirely to his writing but was unable to make any progress with his plans for a new novel. The drafts of unfinished works he left are mostly incoherent and show many signs of a psychic regression, already foreshadowed by his increasing restlessness and discontent of the preceding half dozen years.
Some two years before his death he began to age very suddenly. He died in his sleep on a trip in search of health with his friend Pierce.
Major novels The main character of The Scarlet Letter is Hester Prynnea young married woman who has borne an illegitimate child while living away from her husband in a village in Puritan New England. Hester herself is revealed to be a compassionate and splendidly self-reliant heroine who is never truly repentant for the act of adultery committed with the minister; she feels that their act was consecrated by their deep love for each other.
Only Hester can face the future optimistically, as she plans to ensure the future of her beloved little girl by taking her to Europe. First, he was a skillful craftsman with an impressive arthitectonic sense of form.
The structure of The Scarlet Letter, for example, is so tightly integrated that no chapter, no paragraph, even, could be omitted without doing violence to the whole.
He inherited the Puritan tradition of moral earnestness, and he was deeply concerned with the concepts of original sin and guilt and the claims of law and conscience. Instead he looked more deeply and perhaps more honestly into life, finding in it much suffering and conflict but also finding the redeeming power of love.
There is no Romantic escape in his works, but rather a firm and resolute scrutiny of the psychological and moral facts of the human condition. But with Hawthorne this leads not to unconvincing pasteboard figures with explanatory labels attached but to a sombre, concentrated emotional involvement with his characters that has the power, the gravity, and the inevitability of true tragedy.
His use of symbolism in The Scarlet Letter is particularly effective, and the scarlet letter itself takes on a wider significance and application that is out of all proportion to its literal character as a scrap of cloth. His greatest short stories and The Scarlet Letter are marked by a depth of psychological and moral insight seldom equaled by any American writer.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:The Scarlet Letter: A Romance, an novel, is a work of historical fiction written by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne. It is considered his "masterwork". Set in 17th-century Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony, during the years to , it tells the story of Hester Prynne, who conceives a daughter through an affair and struggles to create a new life of repentance and dignity.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (–).The Scarlet Letter. The Custom-House Introductory to “The Scarlet Letter”. Hester Prynne - Hester is the book’s protagonist and the wearer of the scarlet letter that gives the book its torosgazete.com letter, a patch of fabric in the shape of an “A,” signifies that Hester is an “adulterer.” As a young woman, Hester married an elderly scholar, Chillingworth, .
quotes from The Scarlet Letter: ‘We dream in our waking moments, and walk in our sleep.’ ― Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter. tags: hate, heart, love. likes.
that Arthur Dimmesdale put forth his hand, chill as death, and touched the chill hand of Hester Prynne. The grasp, cold as it was, took away what was the. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most well known pieces of literature, and it definitely deserves its title as an American classic.
Here are some examples of Nathaniel Hawthorne's most familiar quotes from The Scarlet Letter. In these examples, you will see how the author touches on deep psychological and romantic themes, heavily inspired by Puritan New England. | <urn:uuid:95aa4920-65f1-4dcb-85c1-25bfb231bd2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bimewukuxetuvokeh.torosgazete.com/the-important-life-of-hester-prynne-in-the-scarlet-letter-by-nathaniel-hawthorne-24286uz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00428.warc.gz | en | 0.981746 | 1,670 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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-0.0232166703790426... | 1 | This is the second of the three essays and discusses symbolism in the novel. Throughout the novel, The Scarlet Letter, the author, Nathaniel Hawthorne uses a few key symbols to represent major themes in the book. The most obvious and well known, as it is in the title, is the scarlet letter Hester is forced to wear.
His earliest American ancestor, William Hathorne Nathaniel added the w to the name when he began to writewas a magistrate who had sentenced a Quaker woman to public whipping. She moved in with her affluent brothers, the Mannings.
Hawthorne grew up in their house in Salem and, for extensive periods during his teens, in Raymond, Maine, on the shores of Sebago Lake. Hawthorne did not distinguish himself as a young man. Instead, he spent nearly a dozen years reading and trying to master the art of writing fiction. First works In college Hawthorne had excelled only in composition and had determined to become a writer.
Upon graduation, he had written an amateurish novelFanshawewhich he published at his own expense—only to decide that it was unworthy of him and to try to destroy all copies. A Discussion of Nathaniel Hawthorne's Dr. His increasing success in placing his stories brought him a little fame.
Even when his first signed book, Twice-Told Tales, was published inthe work had brought gratifying recognition but no dependable income. Hawthorne welcomed the companionship of his Transcendentalist neighbours, but he had little to say to them.
Artists and intellectuals never inspired his full confidence, but he thoroughly enjoyed the visit of his old college friend and classmate Franklin Piercelater to become president of the United States. At the Old Manse, Hawthorne continued to write stories, with the same result as before: His new short-story collection, Mosses from an Old Manse, appeared in Three years later the presidential election brought the Whigs into power under Zachary Taylorand Hawthorne lost his job; but in a few months of concentrated effort, he produced his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter.
The book made Hawthorne famous and was eventually recognized as one of the greatest of American novels. Determined to leave Salem forever, Hawthorne moved to Lenoxlocated in the mountain scenery of the Berkshires in western Massachusetts. There he began work on The House of the Seven Gablesthe story of the Pyncheon family, who for generations had lived under a curse until it was removed at last by love.
At Lenox he enjoyed the stimulating friendship of Herman Melvillewho lived in nearby Pittsfield. This friendship, although important for the younger writer and his work, was much less so for Hawthorne.
But eventually Melville came to feel that the friendship he so ardently pursued was one-sided.
In the autumn of Hawthorne moved his family to another temporary residence, this time in West Newton, near Boston. There he quickly wrote The Blithedale Romancewhich was based on his disenchantment with Brook Farm.
Blithedale was disappointingly received and did not produce the income Hawthorne had expected. He was hoping for a lucrative political appointment that would bolster his finances; in the meantime, he wrote a campaign biography of his old friend Franklin Pierce.
When Pierce won the presidency, Hawthorne was in rewarded with the consulship in Liverpool, Lancashire, a position he hoped would enable him in a few years to leave his family financially secure. He performed his consular duties faithfully and effectively until his position was terminated inand then he spent a year and a half sight-seeing in Italy.
Determined to produce yet another romance, he finally retreated to a seaside town in England and quickly produced The Marble Faun. In writing it, he drew heavily upon the experiences and impressions he had recorded in a notebook kept during his Italian tour to give substance to an allegory of the Fall of man, a theme that had usually been assumed in his earlier works but that now received direct and philosophic treatment.
Back in the Wayside once more inHawthorne devoted himself entirely to his writing but was unable to make any progress with his plans for a new novel. The drafts of unfinished works he left are mostly incoherent and show many signs of a psychic regression, already foreshadowed by his increasing restlessness and discontent of the preceding half dozen years.
Some two years before his death he began to age very suddenly. He died in his sleep on a trip in search of health with his friend Pierce.
Major novels The main character of The Scarlet Letter is Hester Prynnea young married woman who has borne an illegitimate child while living away from her husband in a village in Puritan New England. Hester herself is revealed to be a compassionate and splendidly self-reliant heroine who is never truly repentant for the act of adultery committed with the minister; she feels that their act was consecrated by their deep love for each other.
Only Hester can face the future optimistically, as she plans to ensure the future of her beloved little girl by taking her to Europe. First, he was a skillful craftsman with an impressive arthitectonic sense of form.
The structure of The Scarlet Letter, for example, is so tightly integrated that no chapter, no paragraph, even, could be omitted without doing violence to the whole.
He inherited the Puritan tradition of moral earnestness, and he was deeply concerned with the concepts of original sin and guilt and the claims of law and conscience. Instead he looked more deeply and perhaps more honestly into life, finding in it much suffering and conflict but also finding the redeeming power of love.
There is no Romantic escape in his works, but rather a firm and resolute scrutiny of the psychological and moral facts of the human condition. But with Hawthorne this leads not to unconvincing pasteboard figures with explanatory labels attached but to a sombre, concentrated emotional involvement with his characters that has the power, the gravity, and the inevitability of true tragedy.
His use of symbolism in The Scarlet Letter is particularly effective, and the scarlet letter itself takes on a wider significance and application that is out of all proportion to its literal character as a scrap of cloth. His greatest short stories and The Scarlet Letter are marked by a depth of psychological and moral insight seldom equaled by any American writer.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:The Scarlet Letter: A Romance, an novel, is a work of historical fiction written by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne. It is considered his "masterwork". Set in 17th-century Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony, during the years to , it tells the story of Hester Prynne, who conceives a daughter through an affair and struggles to create a new life of repentance and dignity.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (–).The Scarlet Letter. The Custom-House Introductory to “The Scarlet Letter”. Hester Prynne - Hester is the book’s protagonist and the wearer of the scarlet letter that gives the book its torosgazete.com letter, a patch of fabric in the shape of an “A,” signifies that Hester is an “adulterer.” As a young woman, Hester married an elderly scholar, Chillingworth, .
quotes from The Scarlet Letter: ‘We dream in our waking moments, and walk in our sleep.’ ― Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter. tags: hate, heart, love. likes.
that Arthur Dimmesdale put forth his hand, chill as death, and touched the chill hand of Hester Prynne. The grasp, cold as it was, took away what was the. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most well known pieces of literature, and it definitely deserves its title as an American classic.
Here are some examples of Nathaniel Hawthorne's most familiar quotes from The Scarlet Letter. In these examples, you will see how the author touches on deep psychological and romantic themes, heavily inspired by Puritan New England. | 1,638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While we may all be familiar with the unicycle, a single-wheeled vehicle that was invented as a spin-off of the Penny Farthing bicycle back during the eighteenth century, there has yet to be another one-wheeled vehicle in working existence. However, that doesn’t mean that inventors didn’t try, as the 1930s saw the Dynasphere, a one-wheeled vehicle that was set to revolutionize the automobile industry.
Who Made It & Why?
The Dynasphere was invented by Dr. J.H Purves in hopes of revolutionizing modern transportation, calling his invention the spherical locomotion. It was considered a remarkable invention at the time and had two iterations made via prototypes. The larger of the two Dynaspheres was meant to have a gasoline motor that could run 2.5-horsepower, while the other was meant to be run on electricity. The Dynasphere had a large enough interior for at least two people to sit, presumably the driver and one passenger. Dr. J.H. Purves demonstrated how the prototypes worked on a beach in Weston and can be seen in the following video, while an issue of Modern Mechanics explained how it worked in an interview with Dr. J.H. Purves.
According to Modern Mechanics, the Dynasphere worked by having a track that ran completely around the wheel on the inside. The motor was fastened to the track so that the track would be pulled towards it when the engine was started. This is what allowed the wheel to move forward.
How Did It Not Tip?
The gravity of the apparatus was low enough to the ground to help prevent it from tipping unnecessarily. Then combine the weight of the driver and the fastened motor and the Dynasphere would stay parallel and upright.
How Did You See with the Lattice?
Apparently, since the wheel could reach up to 25 miles per hour, the latticework would simply disappear as if it was not there due to how quickly the wheel would be in motion. The driver would end up with a clear view of the road as the latticework would blend seamlessly away.
How Come It Did Not Catch On?
While there isn’t really any particular reason as to why the one-wheeled wonder didn’t catch on, it wasn’t for a lack of trying on Dr. J.H. Purves’s part. Not only did he design two prototypes of the Dynasphere, but he also developed a version of it to hold more passengers in 1935 – a one-wheeled bus if you will. It contained a stabilizing fin, roller bearings, and side wheels that were controlled by steering. Unfortunately, it was a lot more difficult to steer and brake. | <urn:uuid:2db979c0-c040-4fd1-91cf-30936e3442c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowledgenuts.com/1930s-modern-invention-a-one-wheeled-car-set-to-revolutionize-the-industry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.983538 | 570 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.18303780... | 4 | While we may all be familiar with the unicycle, a single-wheeled vehicle that was invented as a spin-off of the Penny Farthing bicycle back during the eighteenth century, there has yet to be another one-wheeled vehicle in working existence. However, that doesn’t mean that inventors didn’t try, as the 1930s saw the Dynasphere, a one-wheeled vehicle that was set to revolutionize the automobile industry.
Who Made It & Why?
The Dynasphere was invented by Dr. J.H Purves in hopes of revolutionizing modern transportation, calling his invention the spherical locomotion. It was considered a remarkable invention at the time and had two iterations made via prototypes. The larger of the two Dynaspheres was meant to have a gasoline motor that could run 2.5-horsepower, while the other was meant to be run on electricity. The Dynasphere had a large enough interior for at least two people to sit, presumably the driver and one passenger. Dr. J.H. Purves demonstrated how the prototypes worked on a beach in Weston and can be seen in the following video, while an issue of Modern Mechanics explained how it worked in an interview with Dr. J.H. Purves.
According to Modern Mechanics, the Dynasphere worked by having a track that ran completely around the wheel on the inside. The motor was fastened to the track so that the track would be pulled towards it when the engine was started. This is what allowed the wheel to move forward.
How Did It Not Tip?
The gravity of the apparatus was low enough to the ground to help prevent it from tipping unnecessarily. Then combine the weight of the driver and the fastened motor and the Dynasphere would stay parallel and upright.
How Did You See with the Lattice?
Apparently, since the wheel could reach up to 25 miles per hour, the latticework would simply disappear as if it was not there due to how quickly the wheel would be in motion. The driver would end up with a clear view of the road as the latticework would blend seamlessly away.
How Come It Did Not Catch On?
While there isn’t really any particular reason as to why the one-wheeled wonder didn’t catch on, it wasn’t for a lack of trying on Dr. J.H. Purves’s part. Not only did he design two prototypes of the Dynasphere, but he also developed a version of it to hold more passengers in 1935 – a one-wheeled bus if you will. It contained a stabilizing fin, roller bearings, and side wheels that were controlled by steering. Unfortunately, it was a lot more difficult to steer and brake. | 557 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andrew Jackson Biography
Seventh President of the United States
Years Served as President: 1829-1837
Vice President: John Caldwell Calhoun, Martin Van Buren
Age at Inauguration: 61
Home State: South Carolina
Date of Birth: March 15, 1767
Died: June 18, 1845
Married: Rachel Donelson
Children: Three adopted sons, legal guardian for eight more children
Nickname: Old Hickory
What is Andrew Jackson known for?
Andrew Jackson was a war hero from the War of 1812. He was born in poverty, orphaned young, and known as the first “common man” to be elected president.
Andrew Jackson was born in a backwoods region on the border between North and South Carolina.
The exact location of his birth is unknown, and the two Carolinas have debated over which is his home state. However, Andrew himself said that he was from South Carolina.
He was the son of two Irish immigrants and lived a life of poverty. His father (also named Andrew) died before his birth. Growing up, Andrew received little formal schooling.
When the British invaded the Carolinas in 1780-1781, all three of the Jackson brothers volunteered to fight in the Revolutionary War. Andrew was only about 13 and probably served as a courier (messenger).
Before the war was over, both of Andrew’s brothers and his mother died. One brother died of heatstroke, another of smallpox, and his mother of cholera.
Andrew himself was also taken prisoner by the British. He was struck with a saber when he refused to shine one officer’s boots, leaving lasting scars.
In his late teens, Andrew began studying law. He became a lawyer in North Carolina and soon moved to the settlement that would become Nashville, Tennessee.
In Tennessee, Andrew met and married Rachel Donelson. Rachel was the daughter of a local colonel. Andrew earned enough money through his private law practice to build a mansion, the Hermitage.
Rachel and Andrew were not able to have children of their own. Over the years, however, they adopted three boys and became the guardians of several other children.
Political and Military Career
In 1796, Andrew Jackson helped create the new Tennessee state constitution. He became the first man from Tennessee to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Andrew was then elected to the U.S. Senate, and later became the judge of Tennessee’s superior court. After that, he was chosen to lead the state militia.
When the War of 1812 broke out against the British, Andrew Jackson served as a major general. He led a successful five-month campaign against the Creek Indians, who were allies of the British.
He also led American troops to victory in the famous Battle of New Orleans, which cemented his fame as a national war hero.
Because Andrew was so popular, many people started suggesting that he run for president. The first time he ran, it was a five-way race. As predicted, Andrew did receive the most popular votes.
But for the first time in U.S. history, none of the candidates received the required majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives had to decide the president.
After Speaker of the House Henry Clay announced his support for John Quincy Adams, Adams won the presidency. Adams then appointed Henry Clay as his Secretary of State.
Many of Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain” between Adams and Clay, and Andrew himself resigned from the Senate.
Four years later, Andrew Jackson ran for president again. This time, he won.
He was considered the first common man to rise to the United States presidency. As president, Andrew was known for his strong personality and for making it clear that he was in charge.
He didn’t hesitate to use his presidential veto power, and he didn’t consult with others about many of his decisions. His opponents called him “King Andrew I.”
Two new political parties grew out of the old Democratic Republican Party. The Democrats supported Andrew Jackson, and the National Republicans (also called the Whigs) did not.
Still, he remained popular throughout his presidency. He easily won re-election and received about 56% of the popular vote.
Andrew suggested getting rid of the electoral college, and he opposed the national bank. He saw it as “an enemy of the common people.”
Although he did support states’ rights, he made it clear that states should be expected to follow most federal laws. He believed in a small but relatively powerful federal government.
After the Presidency
By the time Andrew Jackson left the White House, he was even more popular than when he entered it.
He may even have been able to win a third term, but he chose not to run again.
Andrew retired to the Hermitage, where he died at the age of 78.
Fun Facts About Andrew Jackson
He was also the first president born to immigrant parents, the only president to serve in both the American Revolution and the War of 1812, and the first president to have been a prisoner of war.
Andrew Jackson hated paper money, but his picture appears on the $20 bill.
After Andrew’s wife Rachel died a few weeks before his inauguration, he asked his niece Emily Donelson to serve as his hostess in the White House.
His nickname “Old Hickory” was earned during the Battle of New Orleans, when the soldiers said that their general was “as tough as old hickory.”
Andrew Jackson was involved in several duels. During one duel, he was shot in the chest but managed to remain standing and kill his opponent.
The bullet couldn’t be safely removed and stayed in his chest for the next 40 years.
Andrew was also the target of the first presidential assassination attempt. Luckily, both the assassin’s pistols misfired. The president was fine, and the assassin was captured.
Andrew’s pet parrot, Poll, attended his funeral. He had to be removed from the funeral for cursing. | <urn:uuid:fcec2568-f973-4090-b2ae-3a93f626be4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coolkidfacts.com/andrew-jackson-facts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.988874 | 1,284 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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Seventh President of the United States
Years Served as President: 1829-1837
Vice President: John Caldwell Calhoun, Martin Van Buren
Age at Inauguration: 61
Home State: South Carolina
Date of Birth: March 15, 1767
Died: June 18, 1845
Married: Rachel Donelson
Children: Three adopted sons, legal guardian for eight more children
Nickname: Old Hickory
What is Andrew Jackson known for?
Andrew Jackson was a war hero from the War of 1812. He was born in poverty, orphaned young, and known as the first “common man” to be elected president.
Andrew Jackson was born in a backwoods region on the border between North and South Carolina.
The exact location of his birth is unknown, and the two Carolinas have debated over which is his home state. However, Andrew himself said that he was from South Carolina.
He was the son of two Irish immigrants and lived a life of poverty. His father (also named Andrew) died before his birth. Growing up, Andrew received little formal schooling.
When the British invaded the Carolinas in 1780-1781, all three of the Jackson brothers volunteered to fight in the Revolutionary War. Andrew was only about 13 and probably served as a courier (messenger).
Before the war was over, both of Andrew’s brothers and his mother died. One brother died of heatstroke, another of smallpox, and his mother of cholera.
Andrew himself was also taken prisoner by the British. He was struck with a saber when he refused to shine one officer’s boots, leaving lasting scars.
In his late teens, Andrew began studying law. He became a lawyer in North Carolina and soon moved to the settlement that would become Nashville, Tennessee.
In Tennessee, Andrew met and married Rachel Donelson. Rachel was the daughter of a local colonel. Andrew earned enough money through his private law practice to build a mansion, the Hermitage.
Rachel and Andrew were not able to have children of their own. Over the years, however, they adopted three boys and became the guardians of several other children.
Political and Military Career
In 1796, Andrew Jackson helped create the new Tennessee state constitution. He became the first man from Tennessee to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Andrew was then elected to the U.S. Senate, and later became the judge of Tennessee’s superior court. After that, he was chosen to lead the state militia.
When the War of 1812 broke out against the British, Andrew Jackson served as a major general. He led a successful five-month campaign against the Creek Indians, who were allies of the British.
He also led American troops to victory in the famous Battle of New Orleans, which cemented his fame as a national war hero.
Because Andrew was so popular, many people started suggesting that he run for president. The first time he ran, it was a five-way race. As predicted, Andrew did receive the most popular votes.
But for the first time in U.S. history, none of the candidates received the required majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives had to decide the president.
After Speaker of the House Henry Clay announced his support for John Quincy Adams, Adams won the presidency. Adams then appointed Henry Clay as his Secretary of State.
Many of Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain” between Adams and Clay, and Andrew himself resigned from the Senate.
Four years later, Andrew Jackson ran for president again. This time, he won.
He was considered the first common man to rise to the United States presidency. As president, Andrew was known for his strong personality and for making it clear that he was in charge.
He didn’t hesitate to use his presidential veto power, and he didn’t consult with others about many of his decisions. His opponents called him “King Andrew I.”
Two new political parties grew out of the old Democratic Republican Party. The Democrats supported Andrew Jackson, and the National Republicans (also called the Whigs) did not.
Still, he remained popular throughout his presidency. He easily won re-election and received about 56% of the popular vote.
Andrew suggested getting rid of the electoral college, and he opposed the national bank. He saw it as “an enemy of the common people.”
Although he did support states’ rights, he made it clear that states should be expected to follow most federal laws. He believed in a small but relatively powerful federal government.
After the Presidency
By the time Andrew Jackson left the White House, he was even more popular than when he entered it.
He may even have been able to win a third term, but he chose not to run again.
Andrew retired to the Hermitage, where he died at the age of 78.
Fun Facts About Andrew Jackson
He was also the first president born to immigrant parents, the only president to serve in both the American Revolution and the War of 1812, and the first president to have been a prisoner of war.
Andrew Jackson hated paper money, but his picture appears on the $20 bill.
After Andrew’s wife Rachel died a few weeks before his inauguration, he asked his niece Emily Donelson to serve as his hostess in the White House.
His nickname “Old Hickory” was earned during the Battle of New Orleans, when the soldiers said that their general was “as tough as old hickory.”
Andrew Jackson was involved in several duels. During one duel, he was shot in the chest but managed to remain standing and kill his opponent.
The bullet couldn’t be safely removed and stayed in his chest for the next 40 years.
Andrew was also the target of the first presidential assassination attempt. Luckily, both the assassin’s pistols misfired. The president was fine, and the assassin was captured.
Andrew’s pet parrot, Poll, attended his funeral. He had to be removed from the funeral for cursing. | 1,251 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, a pastor and theologian martyred through his resistance to Adolf Hitler and Nazism, was born on this day in 1906. It was the begining of one of the more significant - if tragically short - lives of the 20th-century.
There was nothing cloistered about this cleric. He attended college in his native Germany, earning a PhD in theology at the age of 21, and took to traveling. He studied at a seminary in New York City, and attended Baptist church in Harlem, where he was introduced to the African-American spirituals that he collected and took back to Germany. He also traveled in India where he met Gandhi and studied the principle of non-violent resistance.
Non-violent, perhaps ... but serious nonetheless, as he returned to his native Germany, co-founded the Confessing Church, and ended up joining a resistance movement that opposed Adolf Hitler and the Nazis. "Cheap grace is the mortal enemy of our church," Bonhoeffer once wrote. "Our struggle today is for costly grace."
And it did, indeed, prove to be costly. Bonhoeffer was arrested in 1943, and again - for the final time - in 1944, after a failed assassination attempt on Hitler's life. He was imprisoned in a series of concentration camps. Bonhoeffer was tortured, then executed under brutal circumstances in the camp at Flossenbürg on April 9, 1945 ... ending a life, but not a legacy that endures and inspires to this day.
Online resources include this page devoted to Bonhoeffer created by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the website of the International Bonhoeffer Society, the Bonhoeffer Reading Room at Tyndale College & Seminary and Bonhoeffer's Wikipedia entry. | <urn:uuid:8b23cb77-fa9b-4060-a495-354009329c3e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://archaeotex.blogspot.com/2009/02/marking-birth-of-martyr.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.982657 | 364 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.00505538936704... | 1 | Dietrich Bonhoeffer, a pastor and theologian martyred through his resistance to Adolf Hitler and Nazism, was born on this day in 1906. It was the begining of one of the more significant - if tragically short - lives of the 20th-century.
There was nothing cloistered about this cleric. He attended college in his native Germany, earning a PhD in theology at the age of 21, and took to traveling. He studied at a seminary in New York City, and attended Baptist church in Harlem, where he was introduced to the African-American spirituals that he collected and took back to Germany. He also traveled in India where he met Gandhi and studied the principle of non-violent resistance.
Non-violent, perhaps ... but serious nonetheless, as he returned to his native Germany, co-founded the Confessing Church, and ended up joining a resistance movement that opposed Adolf Hitler and the Nazis. "Cheap grace is the mortal enemy of our church," Bonhoeffer once wrote. "Our struggle today is for costly grace."
And it did, indeed, prove to be costly. Bonhoeffer was arrested in 1943, and again - for the final time - in 1944, after a failed assassination attempt on Hitler's life. He was imprisoned in a series of concentration camps. Bonhoeffer was tortured, then executed under brutal circumstances in the camp at Flossenbürg on April 9, 1945 ... ending a life, but not a legacy that endures and inspires to this day.
Online resources include this page devoted to Bonhoeffer created by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the website of the International Bonhoeffer Society, the Bonhoeffer Reading Room at Tyndale College & Seminary and Bonhoeffer's Wikipedia entry. | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Jr. was born as Michael King, Jr. on January 15th, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. Both his marital grandfather and father were ministers of the Baptist Church, and as such he grew up in a very religious environment. He entered public school at the age of 5, and attended Booker T. Washington High School. He was an exceptional student and skipped two grades, entering Morehouse College in Atlanta when he was only 15 years old. In 1948, King graduated with a Sociology Degree, and subsequently attended the Crozer Theological Seminary. Upon graduation, he enrolled in Boston University and earned his Ph.D. by the time he was 25 years old.
King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church of Montgomery, Alabama in 1954. After receiving this position, he soon became more and more involved in local civil rights struggles and with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). After Rosa Parks was arrested because she refused to give up her seat on a public city bus to a white person, local NAACP leader E.D Nixon met with King to plan a citywide bus boycott. King was chosen to lead the boycott, and he made a series of important speeches during the boycott. The event, which lasted 381 days, ultimately forced the city of Montgomery to lift many of its racial segregation laws. After that, King helped facilitate and support many boycott movements and protests in a number of other cities, and in doing so he became a famous figure in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement.
Starting in 1963, King organized a series of large demonstrations, the first of which was held in downtown Birmingham, Alabama. King was imprisoned along with many of his supporters for his involvement with it, and during his time in jail that followed he wrote the famous "Letter from the Birmingham Jail". This letter expressed his theories of non-violence and civil disobedience, both of which became theoretical foundations and guiding lights of other civil rights efforts to follow, not only in the U.S. but also across the world. Later on in that year, King and many other civil rights activists organized the historic "March on Washington", which directly involved more than 200,000 participants. There, he delivered the famous speech "I Have a Dream". King's dedicated and effective efforts directly contributed to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination in all publicly-owned facilitates, and authorized the Federal government to desegregate all public accommodations.
Although the Civil Rights Movement achieved major successes and received more and more support as time went on, King and his fellow activists were also met with growing hostilities and aggression with those people who were unhappy with the changes. Demonstrations and marches were sometimes met with police violence and riots. The church also issued restraining orders to stop marches from taking place. Facing such challenges, King did not back off, though he changed into more mild tactics, which unintentionally alienated many of the younger and more aggressive members of the movement. His non-violent approach and appeal to white middle-class citizens also irritated many black militants, who thought his methods to be ineffective and weak. Facing such criticism, King sought to draw connections between discrimination and poverty, and to tackle economic problems faced by all people, black, white, or otherwise, as well.
Death and Legacy
Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on April 4th, 1968, on a balcony outside of his room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He was only 39. Although his death aroused riots and demonstrations across the country, King ultimately left a profound legacy of peace behind him. He is the most well-known African American activist and civil rights leader. Hundreds of public places and a U.S. National Holiday are named after him today, and he was awarded more than fifty honorary degrees. He was by no means an perfect man who solved all of his country's problem, but his dedication, courage, eloquence, and faith helped bring about significant changes in the conditions and perceptions of African-Americans in the U.S. His commitment to non-violence and civil disobedience still inspire people who fight injustice and oppression worldwide to this very day.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:29757638-b804-4c6e-9a5e-a93c22f20040> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/martin-luther-king-jr-important-figures-in-us-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.983584 | 882 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-... | 2 | Martin Luther King Jr. was born as Michael King, Jr. on January 15th, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. Both his marital grandfather and father were ministers of the Baptist Church, and as such he grew up in a very religious environment. He entered public school at the age of 5, and attended Booker T. Washington High School. He was an exceptional student and skipped two grades, entering Morehouse College in Atlanta when he was only 15 years old. In 1948, King graduated with a Sociology Degree, and subsequently attended the Crozer Theological Seminary. Upon graduation, he enrolled in Boston University and earned his Ph.D. by the time he was 25 years old.
King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church of Montgomery, Alabama in 1954. After receiving this position, he soon became more and more involved in local civil rights struggles and with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). After Rosa Parks was arrested because she refused to give up her seat on a public city bus to a white person, local NAACP leader E.D Nixon met with King to plan a citywide bus boycott. King was chosen to lead the boycott, and he made a series of important speeches during the boycott. The event, which lasted 381 days, ultimately forced the city of Montgomery to lift many of its racial segregation laws. After that, King helped facilitate and support many boycott movements and protests in a number of other cities, and in doing so he became a famous figure in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement.
Starting in 1963, King organized a series of large demonstrations, the first of which was held in downtown Birmingham, Alabama. King was imprisoned along with many of his supporters for his involvement with it, and during his time in jail that followed he wrote the famous "Letter from the Birmingham Jail". This letter expressed his theories of non-violence and civil disobedience, both of which became theoretical foundations and guiding lights of other civil rights efforts to follow, not only in the U.S. but also across the world. Later on in that year, King and many other civil rights activists organized the historic "March on Washington", which directly involved more than 200,000 participants. There, he delivered the famous speech "I Have a Dream". King's dedicated and effective efforts directly contributed to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination in all publicly-owned facilitates, and authorized the Federal government to desegregate all public accommodations.
Although the Civil Rights Movement achieved major successes and received more and more support as time went on, King and his fellow activists were also met with growing hostilities and aggression with those people who were unhappy with the changes. Demonstrations and marches were sometimes met with police violence and riots. The church also issued restraining orders to stop marches from taking place. Facing such challenges, King did not back off, though he changed into more mild tactics, which unintentionally alienated many of the younger and more aggressive members of the movement. His non-violent approach and appeal to white middle-class citizens also irritated many black militants, who thought his methods to be ineffective and weak. Facing such criticism, King sought to draw connections between discrimination and poverty, and to tackle economic problems faced by all people, black, white, or otherwise, as well.
Death and Legacy
Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on April 4th, 1968, on a balcony outside of his room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He was only 39. Although his death aroused riots and demonstrations across the country, King ultimately left a profound legacy of peace behind him. He is the most well-known African American activist and civil rights leader. Hundreds of public places and a U.S. National Holiday are named after him today, and he was awarded more than fifty honorary degrees. He was by no means an perfect man who solved all of his country's problem, but his dedication, courage, eloquence, and faith helped bring about significant changes in the conditions and perceptions of African-Americans in the U.S. His commitment to non-violence and civil disobedience still inspire people who fight injustice and oppression worldwide to this very day.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 911 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Influence of Women on Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe was a 19th century writer who, unlike most of his peers, wrote stories that were morbid and the macabre. It wasn’t until after his death that it was revealed why this was so. Poe stories focused on the supernatural and macabre, making sure his true emotions would show through his words. He was not a believer of covering up the truth as he saw it just to appeal to the faint hearted. During this time of Poe’s almost perpetual down slope until his death, tuberculosis was taking the lives of many American people. It killed approximately 10,000 people per day, out of these thousands dead Poe lost many loved ones to this ravenous disease including his biological mother, his brother and his angel upon the earth, Virginia Clemm (his wife and cousin).
This idea of women being “angels”? began at an early age subsequent to his mother’s death, when Poe was age three, and it left him exceedingly vulnerable. This is where it is believed Poe’s infatuation with women and his belief of their angelic characteristics came from. All through life Poe courted women, sometimes more than one at a time, this is why in many of Poe’s literary pieces he speaks of women or the sorrows of love. On the other hand Poe wrote of death, disease, and supernatural occurrences either side by side or separate from his romantic pieces. Some of these supernatural pieces were much more personal for Poe such as “The Raven”? and “The Fall of the House of Usher.”? Although both poems reflect his personal life in some way “The Raven”? is a much more accurate portrayal of his personal experiences.
The death of Virginia Clemm, his cousin – and later wife – was one of the most difficult deaths he had to endure. Her death led to a period of hard drinking and staying up all hours to watch over her grave, sometimes even sleeping on her grave to be closer to her. This period of despair and disorientation followed the creation of “The Raven.”? Although “The Raven”? brought him a small quantity of fourteen dollars and a short period of fame, it could not compete with the complete and utter happiness he knew his wife would bring him if her health had been better. “The Raven”? is the poem of a man mourning his beloved Lenore, his “radiant maiden”? (page 154, line 11). A raven, which symbolizes the devil, cries “nevermore,”? forever taunting him, a living reminder of the death of his wife. Poe’s own experience of watching over Virginia as she died had a tremendous influence on how “The Raven”? was written and how its contents unfolded, it is a forecast of Poe’s own despair that he knows will come when his wife dies. In the poem he shows the world his pain of having his beloved wife Virginia taken away from him and compares death to the raven and how the raven reminds him of the misery he endured after the death of his wife.
“The Raven”? provided an insight to what Poe was dealing with during this time of depression. This made it a direct and individual experience that Poe knew well, unlike other works. “The Raven”? was a more personal experience and more immediate to Poe because it talked about something that touched him deeply and affected his life unlike “The Fall of the House of Usher”? which was just a supernatural short story. “The Raven” is a poem about his own actual life. In this way “The Raven”? is a prime example of the true Poe and how his life affected his writing.
One of his most famous short stories is “The Fall of the House of Usher.”? Although this story was not an actual account of his life, it does define some of the peculiar characteristics of his that can help clarify his works. In “The Fall of the House of Usher,”? Mr. Usher has a fear of being alone. This fear of being alone is depicted in the “extensive decay”? (page 138) of the house. The imagery the narrator creates about the neglected conditions of the house leads one to believe that the house has been shut up for years. Even the air gave a feeling of “stern, deep, and irredeemable gloom” ?(page 138). This manner in which the house is kept only helps build the case that Mr. Usher has locked himself into his house and succumbed to his imagination and has lost his touch with reality. He believes that he cannot live without the house and that they are almost one in the same. Since Mr. Usher has lost touch with reality he has completely shut himself off from society. In the story it is stated that even the curtains are drawn and “Dark tapestries hung on the walls” ?(page 138).
Other than the fear of being alone Mr. Usher deals with other mental tribulations. His state of mind leads to him burying his twin sister alive in a vault below the house. Poe had a fear of loneliness and of being buried alive. He believed he could not survive without a family or a feminine figure in his life. Women in his eyes were angels upon earth. Poe’s fear of being buried alive was only one of many fears. This fear was not only presented in only one of Poe’s works but scores of them such as the “Cask of Amontillado”? with the oubliette. Fear is what drove Poe so that every story had that touch of insanity in it whether that insanity was about love or just a distraught person. Although this fear was very typical of Poe his poem “The Raven”? was much more related to his personal life than “The Fall of the House of Usher. ?
In conclusion all of what Edgar Allan Poe went through his life was in some way depicted in his works. It seems besides his heavy drinking problem writing was his only way for him to release and put his thoughts and feelings to rest, such as “The Raven”? and “The Fall of the House of Usher.” ? Even though they both explain important parts of Poe, “The Raven”? is a much more accurate display of his inner feelings, it allowed him to write down how the slow death of his wife was affecting him and what he foretells in his own future. This expression of thought through words is an excellent indicator of how despair, grief, and isolation can shape a person’s world. His accurate and amazing detail only came from his own personal knowledge of them, and his only way to release and not become completely submerged in his own imagination was to write his thoughts and feelings down for others to read. | <urn:uuid:9b5e3a29-0084-4cf7-bc0d-a6ff1cd69639> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-influence-of-women-on-edgar-allan-poe-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.992204 | 1,448 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Edgar Allan Poe was a 19th century writer who, unlike most of his peers, wrote stories that were morbid and the macabre. It wasn’t until after his death that it was revealed why this was so. Poe stories focused on the supernatural and macabre, making sure his true emotions would show through his words. He was not a believer of covering up the truth as he saw it just to appeal to the faint hearted. During this time of Poe’s almost perpetual down slope until his death, tuberculosis was taking the lives of many American people. It killed approximately 10,000 people per day, out of these thousands dead Poe lost many loved ones to this ravenous disease including his biological mother, his brother and his angel upon the earth, Virginia Clemm (his wife and cousin).
This idea of women being “angels”? began at an early age subsequent to his mother’s death, when Poe was age three, and it left him exceedingly vulnerable. This is where it is believed Poe’s infatuation with women and his belief of their angelic characteristics came from. All through life Poe courted women, sometimes more than one at a time, this is why in many of Poe’s literary pieces he speaks of women or the sorrows of love. On the other hand Poe wrote of death, disease, and supernatural occurrences either side by side or separate from his romantic pieces. Some of these supernatural pieces were much more personal for Poe such as “The Raven”? and “The Fall of the House of Usher.”? Although both poems reflect his personal life in some way “The Raven”? is a much more accurate portrayal of his personal experiences.
The death of Virginia Clemm, his cousin – and later wife – was one of the most difficult deaths he had to endure. Her death led to a period of hard drinking and staying up all hours to watch over her grave, sometimes even sleeping on her grave to be closer to her. This period of despair and disorientation followed the creation of “The Raven.”? Although “The Raven”? brought him a small quantity of fourteen dollars and a short period of fame, it could not compete with the complete and utter happiness he knew his wife would bring him if her health had been better. “The Raven”? is the poem of a man mourning his beloved Lenore, his “radiant maiden”? (page 154, line 11). A raven, which symbolizes the devil, cries “nevermore,”? forever taunting him, a living reminder of the death of his wife. Poe’s own experience of watching over Virginia as she died had a tremendous influence on how “The Raven”? was written and how its contents unfolded, it is a forecast of Poe’s own despair that he knows will come when his wife dies. In the poem he shows the world his pain of having his beloved wife Virginia taken away from him and compares death to the raven and how the raven reminds him of the misery he endured after the death of his wife.
“The Raven”? provided an insight to what Poe was dealing with during this time of depression. This made it a direct and individual experience that Poe knew well, unlike other works. “The Raven”? was a more personal experience and more immediate to Poe because it talked about something that touched him deeply and affected his life unlike “The Fall of the House of Usher”? which was just a supernatural short story. “The Raven” is a poem about his own actual life. In this way “The Raven”? is a prime example of the true Poe and how his life affected his writing.
One of his most famous short stories is “The Fall of the House of Usher.”? Although this story was not an actual account of his life, it does define some of the peculiar characteristics of his that can help clarify his works. In “The Fall of the House of Usher,”? Mr. Usher has a fear of being alone. This fear of being alone is depicted in the “extensive decay”? (page 138) of the house. The imagery the narrator creates about the neglected conditions of the house leads one to believe that the house has been shut up for years. Even the air gave a feeling of “stern, deep, and irredeemable gloom” ?(page 138). This manner in which the house is kept only helps build the case that Mr. Usher has locked himself into his house and succumbed to his imagination and has lost his touch with reality. He believes that he cannot live without the house and that they are almost one in the same. Since Mr. Usher has lost touch with reality he has completely shut himself off from society. In the story it is stated that even the curtains are drawn and “Dark tapestries hung on the walls” ?(page 138).
Other than the fear of being alone Mr. Usher deals with other mental tribulations. His state of mind leads to him burying his twin sister alive in a vault below the house. Poe had a fear of loneliness and of being buried alive. He believed he could not survive without a family or a feminine figure in his life. Women in his eyes were angels upon earth. Poe’s fear of being buried alive was only one of many fears. This fear was not only presented in only one of Poe’s works but scores of them such as the “Cask of Amontillado”? with the oubliette. Fear is what drove Poe so that every story had that touch of insanity in it whether that insanity was about love or just a distraught person. Although this fear was very typical of Poe his poem “The Raven”? was much more related to his personal life than “The Fall of the House of Usher. ?
In conclusion all of what Edgar Allan Poe went through his life was in some way depicted in his works. It seems besides his heavy drinking problem writing was his only way for him to release and put his thoughts and feelings to rest, such as “The Raven”? and “The Fall of the House of Usher.” ? Even though they both explain important parts of Poe, “The Raven”? is a much more accurate display of his inner feelings, it allowed him to write down how the slow death of his wife was affecting him and what he foretells in his own future. This expression of thought through words is an excellent indicator of how despair, grief, and isolation can shape a person’s world. His accurate and amazing detail only came from his own personal knowledge of them, and his only way to release and not become completely submerged in his own imagination was to write his thoughts and feelings down for others to read. | 1,376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Germany was beforehand isolated into a wide range of german urban areas and states under the Heavenly Roman Realm in which the domain was not brought together under an administration and common wars between the sovereign and the dukes devastated any expectation of joining it into a country. At the point when Napoleon vanquished the realm, Franz II of Habsburg which was the head around then needed to cancel it to keep Napoleon from guaranteeing his acquired crownlands and he made his new austrian domain. German patriotism started to take shape as they were impacted by the french transformation and to safeguard against french hostility in their territories. After the finish of Napoleon, another german confederation was shaped amid the congress of Vienna with previous electorates progressed toward becoming kingdoms and many free urban areas were attached. Both Prussia and Austria had arrives inside and outside of the german union and this made clashes between them as the austrian ruler was the president yet his part was progressively being tested by the prussian lord. The germans amid the Walk Transformation of 1848 made a parliament in Frankfurt however it was fleeting as no other german states needed to help them. Prussia started to industrialize with its recently attached land around Westphalia as it was rich in assets. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck started a sans toll approach to diminish taxes and advance unhindered commerce in the union and prussian populace incredibly extended which incorporated their military. As Austria had numerous non-germans settled in the terrains of Hungary, Croatia, Galicia and so on, Prussia utilized this chance to battle against Austria and they won leaving Austria secluded. France under Napoleon III needed a bargain for his nonpartisanship and Bismarck intentionally altered the substance of the Telegramm called the Ems Dispatch which maddened France. France pronounced war on prussia and southern german states like Bavaria joined the war to counteract french development past the rhine. France lost and another german realm was announced with the prussian ruler from Berlin turned into the german head. | <urn:uuid:4d4e6daa-e236-48b8-97b1-dd641673229a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scientifictimes.org/germany-in-the-union-and-prussian-populace-incredibly-extended/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.984769 | 408 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.41683855... | 1 | Germany was beforehand isolated into a wide range of german urban areas and states under the Heavenly Roman Realm in which the domain was not brought together under an administration and common wars between the sovereign and the dukes devastated any expectation of joining it into a country. At the point when Napoleon vanquished the realm, Franz II of Habsburg which was the head around then needed to cancel it to keep Napoleon from guaranteeing his acquired crownlands and he made his new austrian domain. German patriotism started to take shape as they were impacted by the french transformation and to safeguard against french hostility in their territories. After the finish of Napoleon, another german confederation was shaped amid the congress of Vienna with previous electorates progressed toward becoming kingdoms and many free urban areas were attached. Both Prussia and Austria had arrives inside and outside of the german union and this made clashes between them as the austrian ruler was the president yet his part was progressively being tested by the prussian lord. The germans amid the Walk Transformation of 1848 made a parliament in Frankfurt however it was fleeting as no other german states needed to help them. Prussia started to industrialize with its recently attached land around Westphalia as it was rich in assets. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck started a sans toll approach to diminish taxes and advance unhindered commerce in the union and prussian populace incredibly extended which incorporated their military. As Austria had numerous non-germans settled in the terrains of Hungary, Croatia, Galicia and so on, Prussia utilized this chance to battle against Austria and they won leaving Austria secluded. France under Napoleon III needed a bargain for his nonpartisanship and Bismarck intentionally altered the substance of the Telegramm called the Ems Dispatch which maddened France. France pronounced war on prussia and southern german states like Bavaria joined the war to counteract french development past the rhine. France lost and another german realm was announced with the prussian ruler from Berlin turned into the german head. | 407 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A. Plan of Investigation
The focus of this investigation was to understand and determine to what extent D.C. Stephenson affected the fall of the Ku Klux Klan during the 1920s. During the 1920s the Klan had an all time high of membership across the United States and was a large part of American society. The Klan was prevalent in everyday society and in politics, and was a positive presence for many Americans. However, the Klan was pushed into a negative light due to Stephenson kidnapping and raping Madge Oberholtzer. Membership in the Klan dropped shortly after, and many blame Stephenson. In order to decide whether or not Stephenson was responsible, the Klan was examined during Stephenson’s involvement, and the aftermath of his involvement. D.C. Stephenson was also examined to better understand how he could have changed the course of the KKK. Sources that discussed the Klan and Stephenson were looked at, like They Called Themselves the KKK, and. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. Those sources, among others, helped give a better understanding of D.C. Stephenson and how he affected the KKK.
B. Summary of Evidence
The Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865 (Martin). It started out as a group of men creating a social club, mainly for confederate soldiers who had fought in the war. Its name is derived from kuklos, meaning circle of friends (Martin). It was a secret society with rules and codes, and men were given special titles (Bartoletti,25). The nature of the Klan was not originally to be destructive, but as it began to grow and more white men and confederate soldiers joined, the purpose changed. Tension grew across the country as Reconstruction went under way and white southerners were unhappy. The Klansmen began to ride around at night trying to scare the freedmen, but then things became more serious. The men would patrol roads and force the blacks to stay in their homes at night. (Bartolleti 31). The Klan ran amuck and stayed very powerful for a time but Congress passed anti-Klan laws in 1870 that temporarily put an end to the KKK (Martin).
However, in 1915 the Klan was reborn. William Joseph Simmons resurrected the Klan, and this rebirth led to the largest Klan following in history (Martin). The movie The Birth of a Nation, released in 1915, also helped increase the Klan’s popularity at this time (Ku Klux Klan). This second KKK was still against African Americans but now “Catholics, Jews, Immigrants, liberals, welfare recipients, and labor unions” were added as well (Bartoletti 31). This was partly due to World War 1, but also other factors, including the Klan feeling endangered due to all the immigrants. At this time Klan ideals became “State, School, Home, and Church” (McDonnell). The Klan’s membership began to grow throughout the 20s, exceeding 4 million at one point (Ku Klux Klan). In Indiana, where Stephenson was Grand Dragon, 30 percent of the white men were Klansmen (Lutholtz).
As this increase in... | <urn:uuid:bb82e7e2-bc05-45df-94e7-5f461f464b21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/to-what-level-did-d-c-stephenson-affect-the-fall-associated-with-ku-klux-klan-throughout-the-1920s | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.98243 | 654 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.026640854775... | 1 | A. Plan of Investigation
The focus of this investigation was to understand and determine to what extent D.C. Stephenson affected the fall of the Ku Klux Klan during the 1920s. During the 1920s the Klan had an all time high of membership across the United States and was a large part of American society. The Klan was prevalent in everyday society and in politics, and was a positive presence for many Americans. However, the Klan was pushed into a negative light due to Stephenson kidnapping and raping Madge Oberholtzer. Membership in the Klan dropped shortly after, and many blame Stephenson. In order to decide whether or not Stephenson was responsible, the Klan was examined during Stephenson’s involvement, and the aftermath of his involvement. D.C. Stephenson was also examined to better understand how he could have changed the course of the KKK. Sources that discussed the Klan and Stephenson were looked at, like They Called Themselves the KKK, and. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. Those sources, among others, helped give a better understanding of D.C. Stephenson and how he affected the KKK.
B. Summary of Evidence
The Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865 (Martin). It started out as a group of men creating a social club, mainly for confederate soldiers who had fought in the war. Its name is derived from kuklos, meaning circle of friends (Martin). It was a secret society with rules and codes, and men were given special titles (Bartoletti,25). The nature of the Klan was not originally to be destructive, but as it began to grow and more white men and confederate soldiers joined, the purpose changed. Tension grew across the country as Reconstruction went under way and white southerners were unhappy. The Klansmen began to ride around at night trying to scare the freedmen, but then things became more serious. The men would patrol roads and force the blacks to stay in their homes at night. (Bartolleti 31). The Klan ran amuck and stayed very powerful for a time but Congress passed anti-Klan laws in 1870 that temporarily put an end to the KKK (Martin).
However, in 1915 the Klan was reborn. William Joseph Simmons resurrected the Klan, and this rebirth led to the largest Klan following in history (Martin). The movie The Birth of a Nation, released in 1915, also helped increase the Klan’s popularity at this time (Ku Klux Klan). This second KKK was still against African Americans but now “Catholics, Jews, Immigrants, liberals, welfare recipients, and labor unions” were added as well (Bartoletti 31). This was partly due to World War 1, but also other factors, including the Klan feeling endangered due to all the immigrants. At this time Klan ideals became “State, School, Home, and Church” (McDonnell). The Klan’s membership began to grow throughout the 20s, exceeding 4 million at one point (Ku Klux Klan). In Indiana, where Stephenson was Grand Dragon, 30 percent of the white men were Klansmen (Lutholtz).
As this increase in... | 698 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I have picked this topic as it is of great interest to me. The reason being that South Africa was a big contributor to the way the Gold Standard played out in world finance. This was because of South Africa being one of the leading suppliers of Gold in the world As a result of its huge mining interests. This is important to me as I feel it is a big part of South African history and thus important to write learn about.
Thesis: The classical gold standard, the method of basing a country’s currency on a value of gold. It was this theory which was the driving force behind the World economy for over 40 year. What was this economic theory about?
- Prior to the First World War, most countries were usually on what was called the gold standard. This meant that gold was the official money, and paper monies were redeemable in gold. Which in today?s society is unrealistic.
- In the 18th century some people, now called mercantilists, believed that the road to riches for a nation was to accumulate gold. They thought that just as an individual who had more gold was richer than one who had less, so a nation, which had more gold in its vaults, would be richer than a nation, which had less.
What was the Gold Standard?
a) A gold value must be fixed for the currency of every country within the system.
b) There must be free movement of gold between countries within the system.
c) The monetary system of all member countries must be such that the domestic money supply is linked more or less automatically to movements of gold in and out of the country.
By following the above three rules, the adjustment function of the standard will be satisfied. However, if this is to be accompanied by domestic balance, a fourth rule is necessary:
d) That within each country there must be a high degree of wage flexibility.
Problems with the Standard
- The quantity theory, however, suggested that this policy was self-defeating. Suppose a nation was accumulating gold. This gold would be used as money domestically, or it would be used to support paper money. In either case M would rise, and the quantity theory predicted that this would raise the domestic price level.
- This could be looked at a different way. The loss of gold from foreign nations would reduce their money stock, causing prices to drop. The higher prices (relative to prices in foreign nations) in the nation gaining gold would mean that imports would be more attractive because foreign products were now lower-priced. Thus exports would be harder to sell because they would have risen in price relative to foreign substitutes. This change in relative prices would work to stop the gold inflow. | <urn:uuid:076f03c9-e190-4d30-9913-77eca95e5736> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Gold_Standard | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.985709 | 557 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.48549741506576... | 2 | I have picked this topic as it is of great interest to me. The reason being that South Africa was a big contributor to the way the Gold Standard played out in world finance. This was because of South Africa being one of the leading suppliers of Gold in the world As a result of its huge mining interests. This is important to me as I feel it is a big part of South African history and thus important to write learn about.
Thesis: The classical gold standard, the method of basing a country’s currency on a value of gold. It was this theory which was the driving force behind the World economy for over 40 year. What was this economic theory about?
- Prior to the First World War, most countries were usually on what was called the gold standard. This meant that gold was the official money, and paper monies were redeemable in gold. Which in today?s society is unrealistic.
- In the 18th century some people, now called mercantilists, believed that the road to riches for a nation was to accumulate gold. They thought that just as an individual who had more gold was richer than one who had less, so a nation, which had more gold in its vaults, would be richer than a nation, which had less.
What was the Gold Standard?
a) A gold value must be fixed for the currency of every country within the system.
b) There must be free movement of gold between countries within the system.
c) The monetary system of all member countries must be such that the domestic money supply is linked more or less automatically to movements of gold in and out of the country.
By following the above three rules, the adjustment function of the standard will be satisfied. However, if this is to be accompanied by domestic balance, a fourth rule is necessary:
d) That within each country there must be a high degree of wage flexibility.
Problems with the Standard
- The quantity theory, however, suggested that this policy was self-defeating. Suppose a nation was accumulating gold. This gold would be used as money domestically, or it would be used to support paper money. In either case M would rise, and the quantity theory predicted that this would raise the domestic price level.
- This could be looked at a different way. The loss of gold from foreign nations would reduce their money stock, causing prices to drop. The higher prices (relative to prices in foreign nations) in the nation gaining gold would mean that imports would be more attractive because foreign products were now lower-priced. Thus exports would be harder to sell because they would have risen in price relative to foreign substitutes. This change in relative prices would work to stop the gold inflow. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After reading story called “Courage to fear,” class will respond to twenty-one tale discussion questions.
Story description: Coyote is up to his old tricks again. He brags and bullies Eagle and Bear. He’s on his way to bully Wolf when he gets caught in a hunter’s snare. Discover what happens to him next. Afterward, click on the link to answer the discussion questions that accompany the tale.
Tale is most appropriate for grades 2 to 6.
This story was written back in 2006 by the new-deceased Terry Gardner. He was a clinical social worker all the way up to the time of his death. He also was a published author. This Four Directions story, as he called them, is shared in his memory and with permission of his widow, Lin Gardner. The discussion questions were created by Debbie Dunn.
To print a free PDF file of the story comprehension discussion questions for the four directions tale about coyote, scroll to the bottom of this article.
Courage to fear
© 2006 by Terry & Lin Gardner; Story re-told and reformatted with the permission of his widow, Lin Gardner, by Debbie Dunn
To read story, click link:
- Printable four directions tale: Courage to fear
Twenty-One Story Comprehension Questions
1. What kind of things did Coyote brag about to Eagle?
Students Respond: Coyote said that Eagle couldn’t dance like him, run like him, leap like or him. He also said that he was so much better than Eagle.
2. How did Eagle respond to Coyote’s bragging and bullying?
Students Respond: Eagle calmly agreed that she was not able to dance, run, or leap. Coyote took that to mean that she agreed that he was better than her. She simply said. That is your belief.”
3. Why did Coyote stop calling Eagle names?
Students Respond: Since he was not able to get Eagle upset, he said that she was boring and not worth the trouble to even call her names.
4. Who did Coyote make fun of next?
Students Respond: Coyote made fun of Ben Bear.
5. In what ways did Coyote bully Ben Bear?
* He called him Sneaky Sam since he was apparently not capable of sneaking around anywhere.
* Coyote told Bear he was clumsy.
* Coyote stuck out his tongue at Ben Bear.
* He told him he was clumsy.
* He told him he couldn’t move fast.
* He told him he stumbles and bumbles through the woods.
* Coyote tried to convince Bear that everything he was saying was the truth.
* After Bear began to cry, he called Bear a cry baby.
* Coyote told Bear that it was no wonder he had no friends.
* Coyote finally tried to convince Bear that he had told them all these things himself and that Coyote was simply reminding him of these truths, as he called them.
6. How did Bear react to all of Coyote’s bullying?
Students Respond: He sobbed. He said, ‘NO! NO! NO! I won’t listen to you anymore, Coyote.” He covered his ears. Then he ran away.
7. What did Coyote say to Eagle after Bear ran away?
Students Respond: Coyote bragged that he, a much smaller animal than Bear, managed to easily chase off a huge bear who thought he was so tough. Coyote said that Bear is a baby.
8. How did Eagle react to Coyote’s words about Bear?
Students Respond: Eagle said that she refused to talk to Bear. She said that Coyote needed somebody to bully in order to feel good. She then flew away as she refused to allow Coyote the chance to try to bully her.
9. How did Coyote react when Eagle flew away?
Students Respond: He was puzzled about Eagle’s words when she stated that he needed to feel good about himself. He didn’t allow himself time to think about it. He rationalized that it was his duty to help Eagle and Bear know what they really are. But then Coyote felt sad that he was alone once again. He didn’t like being alone.
10. How did Coyote plan to do about his cousin, Wendy Wolf?
Students Respond: Coyote intended to find his cousin, Wendy Wolf, and tell her a few negative “truths” about herself.
11. In what way did Coyote get trapped?
Students Respond: Coyote got caught in a hunter’s snare that sent him into the air. He was now attached by a rope to a nearby tree.
12. What did Coyote do when he saw the two hunters?
Students Respond: Coyote used coyote language to call for help that rang through the forest.
13. What did the hunters plan to do about Coyote?
Students Respond: The hunters debated whether they would get the most money either by selling his hide to the city guys or by getting him stuffed. They also considered selling him to the zoo. They were trying to figure out how to transport Coyote without hurting him or themselves when help for Coyote arrived.
14. Who came to Coyote’s rescue?
Students Respond: Ellen Eagle, Ben Bear, and Wendy Wolf.
15. What happened to the two hunters?
* They dropped their rifles and ran in the opposite direction from Ben Bear.
* Eagle made a dive and snatched off Jake’s hat and tore it to shreds.
* Eagle dived again and tore off Billy Joe’s wig.
* Wendy Wolf tore off a huge piece of the rear end of Billy Joe’s pants.
* Jake was running away so fast from Wolf that he ran right into Ben Bear so hard that he fell back and was out cold.
* Billy Joe picked up Jake, threw him over his shoulder and ran all the way to his SUV and drove off.
16. What did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf conclude about the hunters?
Students Respond: They concluded that the hunters would probably not return to the forest for a long time.
17. How did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf handle it when they returned to Coyote?
Students Respond: They were planning to set him free. Then they waited to hear what Coyote was going to say.
18. What did Coyote say to Eagle, Bear, and Wolf?
Students Respond: Coyote apologized for calling them names. He told them they none of the things he said was true. He explained that he felt good right after he said them but not later on. Plus, he felt awful being alone.
19. How did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf react to his apologies?
Students Respond: They accepted his apologies. They reassured him that they were still his friends, but told him he couldn’t keep trying to tear them or others down.
20. How did the story end?
Students Respond: Coyote approached Eagle, Bear, and Wolf. They each gave him a hug.
21. Why do you think Eagle, Bear, and Wolf agreed to still be Coyote’s friend?
Students Respond: (Accept Reasonable Answers.)
Print a free PDF file of these tale discussion questions. Click link below:
- Tale discussion questions: Courage to fear
Other Stories by Terry Gardner
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote meets his master
- Printable four directions tale: Courage to fear
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote travels inside
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote becomes mindful
See Debbie Dunn’s articles on | K-8 Classroom Activities | School Conflict Resolution | Women’s Health | Storytelling Website
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For comments or questions, e-mail: email@example.com | <urn:uuid:bd21e204-8591-4341-b693-ed8a95203b7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yeahstub.com/printable-four-directions-tale-discussion-questions-courage-to-fear/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.981053 | 1,696 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.1182948052... | 1 | After reading story called “Courage to fear,” class will respond to twenty-one tale discussion questions.
Story description: Coyote is up to his old tricks again. He brags and bullies Eagle and Bear. He’s on his way to bully Wolf when he gets caught in a hunter’s snare. Discover what happens to him next. Afterward, click on the link to answer the discussion questions that accompany the tale.
Tale is most appropriate for grades 2 to 6.
This story was written back in 2006 by the new-deceased Terry Gardner. He was a clinical social worker all the way up to the time of his death. He also was a published author. This Four Directions story, as he called them, is shared in his memory and with permission of his widow, Lin Gardner. The discussion questions were created by Debbie Dunn.
To print a free PDF file of the story comprehension discussion questions for the four directions tale about coyote, scroll to the bottom of this article.
Courage to fear
© 2006 by Terry & Lin Gardner; Story re-told and reformatted with the permission of his widow, Lin Gardner, by Debbie Dunn
To read story, click link:
- Printable four directions tale: Courage to fear
Twenty-One Story Comprehension Questions
1. What kind of things did Coyote brag about to Eagle?
Students Respond: Coyote said that Eagle couldn’t dance like him, run like him, leap like or him. He also said that he was so much better than Eagle.
2. How did Eagle respond to Coyote’s bragging and bullying?
Students Respond: Eagle calmly agreed that she was not able to dance, run, or leap. Coyote took that to mean that she agreed that he was better than her. She simply said. That is your belief.”
3. Why did Coyote stop calling Eagle names?
Students Respond: Since he was not able to get Eagle upset, he said that she was boring and not worth the trouble to even call her names.
4. Who did Coyote make fun of next?
Students Respond: Coyote made fun of Ben Bear.
5. In what ways did Coyote bully Ben Bear?
* He called him Sneaky Sam since he was apparently not capable of sneaking around anywhere.
* Coyote told Bear he was clumsy.
* Coyote stuck out his tongue at Ben Bear.
* He told him he was clumsy.
* He told him he couldn’t move fast.
* He told him he stumbles and bumbles through the woods.
* Coyote tried to convince Bear that everything he was saying was the truth.
* After Bear began to cry, he called Bear a cry baby.
* Coyote told Bear that it was no wonder he had no friends.
* Coyote finally tried to convince Bear that he had told them all these things himself and that Coyote was simply reminding him of these truths, as he called them.
6. How did Bear react to all of Coyote’s bullying?
Students Respond: He sobbed. He said, ‘NO! NO! NO! I won’t listen to you anymore, Coyote.” He covered his ears. Then he ran away.
7. What did Coyote say to Eagle after Bear ran away?
Students Respond: Coyote bragged that he, a much smaller animal than Bear, managed to easily chase off a huge bear who thought he was so tough. Coyote said that Bear is a baby.
8. How did Eagle react to Coyote’s words about Bear?
Students Respond: Eagle said that she refused to talk to Bear. She said that Coyote needed somebody to bully in order to feel good. She then flew away as she refused to allow Coyote the chance to try to bully her.
9. How did Coyote react when Eagle flew away?
Students Respond: He was puzzled about Eagle’s words when she stated that he needed to feel good about himself. He didn’t allow himself time to think about it. He rationalized that it was his duty to help Eagle and Bear know what they really are. But then Coyote felt sad that he was alone once again. He didn’t like being alone.
10. How did Coyote plan to do about his cousin, Wendy Wolf?
Students Respond: Coyote intended to find his cousin, Wendy Wolf, and tell her a few negative “truths” about herself.
11. In what way did Coyote get trapped?
Students Respond: Coyote got caught in a hunter’s snare that sent him into the air. He was now attached by a rope to a nearby tree.
12. What did Coyote do when he saw the two hunters?
Students Respond: Coyote used coyote language to call for help that rang through the forest.
13. What did the hunters plan to do about Coyote?
Students Respond: The hunters debated whether they would get the most money either by selling his hide to the city guys or by getting him stuffed. They also considered selling him to the zoo. They were trying to figure out how to transport Coyote without hurting him or themselves when help for Coyote arrived.
14. Who came to Coyote’s rescue?
Students Respond: Ellen Eagle, Ben Bear, and Wendy Wolf.
15. What happened to the two hunters?
* They dropped their rifles and ran in the opposite direction from Ben Bear.
* Eagle made a dive and snatched off Jake’s hat and tore it to shreds.
* Eagle dived again and tore off Billy Joe’s wig.
* Wendy Wolf tore off a huge piece of the rear end of Billy Joe’s pants.
* Jake was running away so fast from Wolf that he ran right into Ben Bear so hard that he fell back and was out cold.
* Billy Joe picked up Jake, threw him over his shoulder and ran all the way to his SUV and drove off.
16. What did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf conclude about the hunters?
Students Respond: They concluded that the hunters would probably not return to the forest for a long time.
17. How did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf handle it when they returned to Coyote?
Students Respond: They were planning to set him free. Then they waited to hear what Coyote was going to say.
18. What did Coyote say to Eagle, Bear, and Wolf?
Students Respond: Coyote apologized for calling them names. He told them they none of the things he said was true. He explained that he felt good right after he said them but not later on. Plus, he felt awful being alone.
19. How did Eagle, Bear, and Wolf react to his apologies?
Students Respond: They accepted his apologies. They reassured him that they were still his friends, but told him he couldn’t keep trying to tear them or others down.
20. How did the story end?
Students Respond: Coyote approached Eagle, Bear, and Wolf. They each gave him a hug.
21. Why do you think Eagle, Bear, and Wolf agreed to still be Coyote’s friend?
Students Respond: (Accept Reasonable Answers.)
Print a free PDF file of these tale discussion questions. Click link below:
- Tale discussion questions: Courage to fear
Other Stories by Terry Gardner
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote meets his master
- Printable four directions tale: Courage to fear
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote travels inside
- Printable four directions tale: Coyote becomes mindful
See Debbie Dunn’s articles on | K-8 Classroom Activities | School Conflict Resolution | Women’s Health | Storytelling Website
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For comments or questions, e-mail: email@example.com | 1,588 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recently, you may have heard someone state that we need to fight the stigma against mental health, but what exactly does that mean, and how can you help?
Overall, stigma is defined as negative beliefs associated with a particular circumstance. In regards to mental health, often times people believe that those with mental illness can be dismissed as “weak,” “crazy,” or “dangerous.” These views are inaccurate and damaging, and show a misunderstanding of mental illness. This leads us to your very first step, and a few more!
Educate yourself and others.
Be aware of the language you use.
Be understanding and supportive of others.
Know a person is more than their illness, and treat them as such.
You may not understand or be able to imagine the problems someone is suffering because of their mental illness, but instead of being dismissive, you should let them know that you are there to listen and that you support them in their journey.
Refuse to stigmatize yourself! | <urn:uuid:c9ca7004-1059-4926-a437-a343e2d88af2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.innerconnectionsts.com/single-post/2018/06/28/Crazy-Dangerous-WeakFight-the-Stigma | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.981779 | 210 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.06139... | 3 | Recently, you may have heard someone state that we need to fight the stigma against mental health, but what exactly does that mean, and how can you help?
Overall, stigma is defined as negative beliefs associated with a particular circumstance. In regards to mental health, often times people believe that those with mental illness can be dismissed as “weak,” “crazy,” or “dangerous.” These views are inaccurate and damaging, and show a misunderstanding of mental illness. This leads us to your very first step, and a few more!
Educate yourself and others.
Be aware of the language you use.
Be understanding and supportive of others.
Know a person is more than their illness, and treat them as such.
You may not understand or be able to imagine the problems someone is suffering because of their mental illness, but instead of being dismissive, you should let them know that you are there to listen and that you support them in their journey.
Refuse to stigmatize yourself! | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mansions and manors are both physical houses, usually large houses with many bedrooms.
Mansion tends to be used more in North America, Manor more in the UK.
A manor also refers to the house of landed gentry, or People Who Owned Land.
Some people call the house the estate.
What’s the difference between a mansion in a manor?
The main difference between Manor and Mansion is that the Manor is a an estate in land to which is incident the right to hold a manorial court and Mansion is a large dwelling house.
What makes a house a manor?
A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is today loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era, which formerly housed the gentry. They were sometimes fortified, but this was frequently intended more for show than for defence.
What qualifies as a manor?
Charlie Cheever of quora.com writes, “Technically, realtors term mansions as houses that have at least 8,000 square feet of floor space.” Merriam-Webster’s definition is less definitive, simply stating that a mansion is “a large and impressive house: the large house of a wealthy person.”
What is the difference between a hall and a manor house?
Manor has the faults of Court and Hall, but bespeaks something less of a house – even a parish may have three or four manors in it. Mansion is dreadful, we should not speak of it. Palace is for princes and bishops and has no part in any other place. | <urn:uuid:94ed59fb-4c2f-4bd3-a9c7-6d17136eb58b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ezgesports.com/qa/what-is-the-difference-between-a-mansion-and-a-manor.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.980068 | 348 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.1703757345676422,
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-0.0965325534343719... | 3 | Mansions and manors are both physical houses, usually large houses with many bedrooms.
Mansion tends to be used more in North America, Manor more in the UK.
A manor also refers to the house of landed gentry, or People Who Owned Land.
Some people call the house the estate.
What’s the difference between a mansion in a manor?
The main difference between Manor and Mansion is that the Manor is a an estate in land to which is incident the right to hold a manorial court and Mansion is a large dwelling house.
What makes a house a manor?
A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is today loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era, which formerly housed the gentry. They were sometimes fortified, but this was frequently intended more for show than for defence.
What qualifies as a manor?
Charlie Cheever of quora.com writes, “Technically, realtors term mansions as houses that have at least 8,000 square feet of floor space.” Merriam-Webster’s definition is less definitive, simply stating that a mansion is “a large and impressive house: the large house of a wealthy person.”
What is the difference between a hall and a manor house?
Manor has the faults of Court and Hall, but bespeaks something less of a house – even a parish may have three or four manors in it. Mansion is dreadful, we should not speak of it. Palace is for princes and bishops and has no part in any other place. | 327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eyes were the primary visual organ of many sentient and animal species. Most species possessed a single pair of eyes located on their head, although some species, such as Abyssin, had only one eye, and others, like the Harch, possessed several pairs. Yet other species, like the Melitto from Li-Toran, had no eyes at all, relying on other organs to navigate. The droid equivalent to an eye was a photoreceptor.
When tutoring Luke Skywalker in the use of the Force, Obi-Wan Kenobi warned him that his eyes could deceive him and suggested not to trust them. To prove his point, he blindfolded Skywalker, after which Skywalker was successful in deflecting shots from a training remote with his lightsaber by drawing upon the power of the Force. | <urn:uuid:47c32073-8532-454e-a1fe-fc49ac9616e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://starwars.fandom.com/wiki/Eye | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.987453 | 160 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3979847729206... | 1 | Eyes were the primary visual organ of many sentient and animal species. Most species possessed a single pair of eyes located on their head, although some species, such as Abyssin, had only one eye, and others, like the Harch, possessed several pairs. Yet other species, like the Melitto from Li-Toran, had no eyes at all, relying on other organs to navigate. The droid equivalent to an eye was a photoreceptor.
When tutoring Luke Skywalker in the use of the Force, Obi-Wan Kenobi warned him that his eyes could deceive him and suggested not to trust them. To prove his point, he blindfolded Skywalker, after which Skywalker was successful in deflecting shots from a training remote with his lightsaber by drawing upon the power of the Force. | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Middle Kingdom was a time period between 1975 B.C. and 1640 B.C.
This was a period of time where Egypt had one ruler and the ruler was the pharaoh.
The Dynasties that ruled during the Middle Kingdom were the Eleventh Dynasty, Twelfth Dynasty, Thirteenth Dynasty and some believe the Fourteenth Dynasty was part of this time period.
How Did the Middle Kingdom Form?
When the First Intermediate Period was happening, Egypt was a divided nation.
There was a lot of problems in their politics and in their culture and this caused a lot of confusion.
When the Tenth Dynasty took over, they ruled the northern part of Egypt, but the Eleventh Dynasty ruled the southern part of Egypt.
A new leader took over, and his name was and he became the pharaoh of Southern Egypt.
He attacked northern Egypt and then they became one nation. When they became one nation, he ruled them, and this was the start of the Middle Kingdom.
During the leadership of Mentuhotep II, Thebes was the capital of Egypt.
The city of Thebes was a powerful area and it would stay a powerful area throughout all of Egyptian history.
Thebes was known because it was strong both in religion and in politics. Mentuhotep II was a very popular pharaoh and when he had his tomb built, he built it near Thebes because he thought this area was very strong and wanted to live close to it.
Later on, many pharaohs would be buried near Mentuhotep II and this area would become known as the “Valley of the Kings.”
Mentuhotep II was very powerful, and he lived to rule for 51 years. He made being a pharaoh an important thing and the Egyptians once again began to believe that pharaohs were gods.
During the reign of Mentuhotep II, the government was very powerful.
The central government went beyond the borders of Egypt and many people respected and feared the Egyptians because they had such a powerful leader.
During this time, Mentuhotep II build a powerful army that would stay on the borders and would protect Egypt from any type of invaders.
He kept the government strong and this allowed there to be more wealth in the nation.
The nation became very powerful and wealthy during the next pharaoh, Pharaoh Amenemhat II. Pharaoh Amenemhat II ruled for 45 years in Egypt.
Art continued to get stronger during this time and there was a specific type of art that people used when they built statues and it was called “block statue.”
This was when they would make a block and would sculpt it into a person or a god.
This type of art would stay popular for thousands of years and it became popular to sculpt a single piece of rock into a person or some type of writing.
Writing became stronger as well and there were more and more symbols that were used. People begin to write stories and write down things about religion.
During the Middle Kingdom, literature and reading became important and people would read about history and would use it mostly for entertainment instead of learning.
End of the Middle Kingdom
When the pharaoh from the Thirteenth Dynasty was in control, this was a period of time where the government became weak and they were no longer protecting the borders.
During this dynasty, foreign people called the Hyksos begin to come in the borders and they eventually took over the northern Egypt and changed the capital from Thebes to Avaris.
Facts About the Middle Kingdom:
- Most of the time during the Middle Kingdom, the pharaoh would appoint their son to be a coregent which was like a vice-president. So basically, they were second in command.
- Pharaoh Senusret III was one leader pharaoh from the Middle Kingdom. His nickname is “Warrior-King” because when his soldiers would go into war, he would fight with them.
- During the Twelfth Dynasty, the capital was called Itj Tawy.
- The Middle Kingdom is sometimes called the “Classical Age.”
- The Middle Kingdom is sometimes called the “Period of Reunification,” because people became united and the place was no longer divided.
What Did You Learn?
- What was the time period between 1975 B.C. to 1640 B.C. called? This period of time was called the Middle Kingdom.
- Who was one of the powerful rulers during the Middle Kingdom that attacked the southern Egypt and made Egypt under one ruler? The king that became the powerful ruler of one Egypt was called Mentuhotep II.
- What did the capital change to when Mentuhotep II became the king?W The capital changed to Thebes when Mentuhotep II became king.
- Who was the pharaoh that brought riches and power to Egypt and ruled for 45 years? The pharaoh that brought riches and power to Egypt was Pharaoh Amenemhat III.
- Who took over the rule at the end of the Middle Kingdom? During the end of the Middle Kingdom was when Hyksos took over the power.
- Who were the Hyksos? The Hyksos were a group of foreign people that took over parts of Egypt. | <urn:uuid:05cf5288-2748-432c-a88b-959cb6656177> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/middle-kingdom.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.990665 | 1,096 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.0562116466462612... | 14 | The Middle Kingdom was a time period between 1975 B.C. and 1640 B.C.
This was a period of time where Egypt had one ruler and the ruler was the pharaoh.
The Dynasties that ruled during the Middle Kingdom were the Eleventh Dynasty, Twelfth Dynasty, Thirteenth Dynasty and some believe the Fourteenth Dynasty was part of this time period.
How Did the Middle Kingdom Form?
When the First Intermediate Period was happening, Egypt was a divided nation.
There was a lot of problems in their politics and in their culture and this caused a lot of confusion.
When the Tenth Dynasty took over, they ruled the northern part of Egypt, but the Eleventh Dynasty ruled the southern part of Egypt.
A new leader took over, and his name was and he became the pharaoh of Southern Egypt.
He attacked northern Egypt and then they became one nation. When they became one nation, he ruled them, and this was the start of the Middle Kingdom.
During the leadership of Mentuhotep II, Thebes was the capital of Egypt.
The city of Thebes was a powerful area and it would stay a powerful area throughout all of Egyptian history.
Thebes was known because it was strong both in religion and in politics. Mentuhotep II was a very popular pharaoh and when he had his tomb built, he built it near Thebes because he thought this area was very strong and wanted to live close to it.
Later on, many pharaohs would be buried near Mentuhotep II and this area would become known as the “Valley of the Kings.”
Mentuhotep II was very powerful, and he lived to rule for 51 years. He made being a pharaoh an important thing and the Egyptians once again began to believe that pharaohs were gods.
During the reign of Mentuhotep II, the government was very powerful.
The central government went beyond the borders of Egypt and many people respected and feared the Egyptians because they had such a powerful leader.
During this time, Mentuhotep II build a powerful army that would stay on the borders and would protect Egypt from any type of invaders.
He kept the government strong and this allowed there to be more wealth in the nation.
The nation became very powerful and wealthy during the next pharaoh, Pharaoh Amenemhat II. Pharaoh Amenemhat II ruled for 45 years in Egypt.
Art continued to get stronger during this time and there was a specific type of art that people used when they built statues and it was called “block statue.”
This was when they would make a block and would sculpt it into a person or a god.
This type of art would stay popular for thousands of years and it became popular to sculpt a single piece of rock into a person or some type of writing.
Writing became stronger as well and there were more and more symbols that were used. People begin to write stories and write down things about religion.
During the Middle Kingdom, literature and reading became important and people would read about history and would use it mostly for entertainment instead of learning.
End of the Middle Kingdom
When the pharaoh from the Thirteenth Dynasty was in control, this was a period of time where the government became weak and they were no longer protecting the borders.
During this dynasty, foreign people called the Hyksos begin to come in the borders and they eventually took over the northern Egypt and changed the capital from Thebes to Avaris.
Facts About the Middle Kingdom:
- Most of the time during the Middle Kingdom, the pharaoh would appoint their son to be a coregent which was like a vice-president. So basically, they were second in command.
- Pharaoh Senusret III was one leader pharaoh from the Middle Kingdom. His nickname is “Warrior-King” because when his soldiers would go into war, he would fight with them.
- During the Twelfth Dynasty, the capital was called Itj Tawy.
- The Middle Kingdom is sometimes called the “Classical Age.”
- The Middle Kingdom is sometimes called the “Period of Reunification,” because people became united and the place was no longer divided.
What Did You Learn?
- What was the time period between 1975 B.C. to 1640 B.C. called? This period of time was called the Middle Kingdom.
- Who was one of the powerful rulers during the Middle Kingdom that attacked the southern Egypt and made Egypt under one ruler? The king that became the powerful ruler of one Egypt was called Mentuhotep II.
- What did the capital change to when Mentuhotep II became the king?W The capital changed to Thebes when Mentuhotep II became king.
- Who was the pharaoh that brought riches and power to Egypt and ruled for 45 years? The pharaoh that brought riches and power to Egypt was Pharaoh Amenemhat III.
- Who took over the rule at the end of the Middle Kingdom? During the end of the Middle Kingdom was when Hyksos took over the power.
- Who were the Hyksos? The Hyksos were a group of foreign people that took over parts of Egypt. | 1,063 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Algonquian is the primary language that the Shawnee individuals use to speak to each other. Before the coming of the colonialists, the Shawnee tribe had inhabited the Ohio Valley, and they spread to other parts as well. Apart from Ohio Valley, there are other places such as South Carolina, Texas, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Oklahoma, and Kansas that have been confirmed as some of the other tribal territories of the Shawnee tribe. Oklahoma and Missouri were the territories that have a significant number of the Shawnee tribe, and that was so because of the competition of natural resources in the places they were in originally. There are some Shawnee individuals that did not relocate to Oklahoma until after the civil war. The population of the tribe that was later witnessed after the colonization were not the ones that were previously available because they reduced. One of the reasons of the lessening of the population was the civil war. Ailments like flu, smallpox, and fever also greatly led to the reduction in the population of Shawnee tribe.
The Piqua Shawnee tribe is among the five total sub-nations that are available. The Piqua, Mequachake, Hathawekela, Kispoko, and Chillicothe are the sub-nations that are incorporated in the Shawnee tribe. The name Piqua was derived from a man who is believed to have existed and he led a group in agreement with an extreme spirit. The manifestation of the man was through fire. The Shawnee have always maintained a good sense of tribal identity.
Tasks such as fishing, fighting battles and hunting were only for the men. The Shawnee also practiced farming, and that was mainly done by women. Cooking and taking of the kids was also done by the women. A majority of ceremonies that the Shawnee tribe undertook were related to the agricultural cycle. The tribe relocated from one area to another, and in the course of that they intermingled with others. Trade for services and goods used to happen between the Shawnee tribe and other tribes that were around.
The territory that was inhabited after the civil war was Oklahoma. The way of life of the larger Shawnee tribe is manifested through the Piqua Shawnee who does what, the larger entity does. There are different areas where you can get the sub-nations of the Shawnee tribe. The grouping has been formally recognized in some countries like Alabama and Kentucky. The principal chief, clan elders, clan men, and women make up the tribal council that is tasked with the running of the tribal affairs of the Shawnee. The tribe is creative, and they make items like pots, wood carvings, and beads. The other items that were crafted were wampum beads that were as well used in the market. | <urn:uuid:307aab08-ee1e-4057-885c-cde4649767d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rord.net/a-brief-rundown-of-tribes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.986739 | 568 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.17164853215... | 3 | The Algonquian is the primary language that the Shawnee individuals use to speak to each other. Before the coming of the colonialists, the Shawnee tribe had inhabited the Ohio Valley, and they spread to other parts as well. Apart from Ohio Valley, there are other places such as South Carolina, Texas, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Oklahoma, and Kansas that have been confirmed as some of the other tribal territories of the Shawnee tribe. Oklahoma and Missouri were the territories that have a significant number of the Shawnee tribe, and that was so because of the competition of natural resources in the places they were in originally. There are some Shawnee individuals that did not relocate to Oklahoma until after the civil war. The population of the tribe that was later witnessed after the colonization were not the ones that were previously available because they reduced. One of the reasons of the lessening of the population was the civil war. Ailments like flu, smallpox, and fever also greatly led to the reduction in the population of Shawnee tribe.
The Piqua Shawnee tribe is among the five total sub-nations that are available. The Piqua, Mequachake, Hathawekela, Kispoko, and Chillicothe are the sub-nations that are incorporated in the Shawnee tribe. The name Piqua was derived from a man who is believed to have existed and he led a group in agreement with an extreme spirit. The manifestation of the man was through fire. The Shawnee have always maintained a good sense of tribal identity.
Tasks such as fishing, fighting battles and hunting were only for the men. The Shawnee also practiced farming, and that was mainly done by women. Cooking and taking of the kids was also done by the women. A majority of ceremonies that the Shawnee tribe undertook were related to the agricultural cycle. The tribe relocated from one area to another, and in the course of that they intermingled with others. Trade for services and goods used to happen between the Shawnee tribe and other tribes that were around.
The territory that was inhabited after the civil war was Oklahoma. The way of life of the larger Shawnee tribe is manifested through the Piqua Shawnee who does what, the larger entity does. There are different areas where you can get the sub-nations of the Shawnee tribe. The grouping has been formally recognized in some countries like Alabama and Kentucky. The principal chief, clan elders, clan men, and women make up the tribal council that is tasked with the running of the tribal affairs of the Shawnee. The tribe is creative, and they make items like pots, wood carvings, and beads. The other items that were crafted were wampum beads that were as well used in the market. | 563 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At its peak in the second world war, Lodge Moor camp near Sheffield held more than 11,000 mostly German captives.
Its extraordinary stories have been overlooked for more than 60 years as its moss-covered remains were shrouded in thick woodland.
Research by archaeology students shows the camp was used to hold the most fanatical of prisoners during the second world war, many of whom were from Germany, Italy and the Ukraine.
Analysing camp records, witness statements and surveying the prison’s weathered remains for the first time, the University of Sheffield students found the camp held more than 11,000 people at its peak in 1944.
But it was during the first world war that the prison, formally known as Prisoner of War Camp 17, held its most infamous inmate. Admiral Karl Dönitz was the captain of several German U-boats who was captured by Allied forces when his vessel, U-boat 68, was forced to surface in October 1918.
The admiral spent about six weeks at the Sheffield camp, according to the research, before feigning mental illness to avoid being treated as a war criminal. Dönitz was released back to Germany, where he rose to become commander of Hitler’s U-boats and head of the German navy, before going on to succeed Hitler as president of the German Reich.
Lodge Moor was one of about 1,500 prisoner of war camps in Britain during the second world war but its significance, in terms of its huge size and type of prisoner, was not widely known.
Only partial remains exist of the site, now a popular dog-walking spot about five miles west of Sheffield on the edge of the Peak District.
Its history is occasionally discussed by local residents on internet forums but this research, by the University of Sheffield and the Sheffield Lakeland Landscape Partnership, is thought to be the first study of its kind of Lodge Moor.
At the beginning of the second world war, the camp was occupied mostly by Italian prisoners, who were put to work on local farms and appeared to enjoy good relations with their Yorkshire neighbours, who would share with them their limited supplies of tea.
However, quality of life in the camp deteriorated sharply with the sudden influx of German prisoners.
Rob Johnson, one of the archaeology students who surveyed the site, said: “The prisoners were fed food out of galvanised dustbins, had to stand outside in the mud, rain and cold for several hours a day during roll call, and since it was so overpopulated as a transit camp, they were squashed into tents or the barracks with little personal space.”
The study unearthed investigations into conditions at the camp by the International Committee for the Red Cross, which, in 1944, described it as “insufficient/uninhabitable” with half of the captives in huts and the other half in tents. The researchers found witness testimony suggesting there were more than 70 prisoners per barrack, more than double the official number of 30.
In common with other prisoner of war camps in Britain, Lodge Moor saw its share of drama. On 20 December 1944 a group of German prisoners managed to escape the site – but were captured in nearby Rotherham just 24 hours later.
Another escape plan ended in grisly fashion. One prisoner, Gerhardt Rettig, was chased around the Nissen huts by hundreds of inmates and beaten to a pulp after being suspected of tipping off Allied guards about a planned break-out in March 1945. Rettig later died in prison and his alleged killers were put on trial in London later that year. Two men, Armin Keuhne, 18, and Emil Schmittendorf, 31, were found guilty of his murder and executed by hanging at Pentonville prison in November 1945.
The students involved in the study said they hoped their findings would be used to preserve and restore the site and the surrounding woodland. Georgina Goodison, an archaeology student involved in the project, said: “It was a big eye opener for me, as I didn’t realise that Lodge Moor camp even exists. The woodland hides it well. It hides the secrets of all the thousands of men who were housed there merely decades ago.” | <urn:uuid:136b2af8-fbd1-4012-9592-255292696515> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.azvision.az/news/108181/uks-biggest-ww2-prisoner-camp-unearthed-in-yorkshire.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.986574 | 871 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.74508666992... | 1 | At its peak in the second world war, Lodge Moor camp near Sheffield held more than 11,000 mostly German captives.
Its extraordinary stories have been overlooked for more than 60 years as its moss-covered remains were shrouded in thick woodland.
Research by archaeology students shows the camp was used to hold the most fanatical of prisoners during the second world war, many of whom were from Germany, Italy and the Ukraine.
Analysing camp records, witness statements and surveying the prison’s weathered remains for the first time, the University of Sheffield students found the camp held more than 11,000 people at its peak in 1944.
But it was during the first world war that the prison, formally known as Prisoner of War Camp 17, held its most infamous inmate. Admiral Karl Dönitz was the captain of several German U-boats who was captured by Allied forces when his vessel, U-boat 68, was forced to surface in October 1918.
The admiral spent about six weeks at the Sheffield camp, according to the research, before feigning mental illness to avoid being treated as a war criminal. Dönitz was released back to Germany, where he rose to become commander of Hitler’s U-boats and head of the German navy, before going on to succeed Hitler as president of the German Reich.
Lodge Moor was one of about 1,500 prisoner of war camps in Britain during the second world war but its significance, in terms of its huge size and type of prisoner, was not widely known.
Only partial remains exist of the site, now a popular dog-walking spot about five miles west of Sheffield on the edge of the Peak District.
Its history is occasionally discussed by local residents on internet forums but this research, by the University of Sheffield and the Sheffield Lakeland Landscape Partnership, is thought to be the first study of its kind of Lodge Moor.
At the beginning of the second world war, the camp was occupied mostly by Italian prisoners, who were put to work on local farms and appeared to enjoy good relations with their Yorkshire neighbours, who would share with them their limited supplies of tea.
However, quality of life in the camp deteriorated sharply with the sudden influx of German prisoners.
Rob Johnson, one of the archaeology students who surveyed the site, said: “The prisoners were fed food out of galvanised dustbins, had to stand outside in the mud, rain and cold for several hours a day during roll call, and since it was so overpopulated as a transit camp, they were squashed into tents or the barracks with little personal space.”
The study unearthed investigations into conditions at the camp by the International Committee for the Red Cross, which, in 1944, described it as “insufficient/uninhabitable” with half of the captives in huts and the other half in tents. The researchers found witness testimony suggesting there were more than 70 prisoners per barrack, more than double the official number of 30.
In common with other prisoner of war camps in Britain, Lodge Moor saw its share of drama. On 20 December 1944 a group of German prisoners managed to escape the site – but were captured in nearby Rotherham just 24 hours later.
Another escape plan ended in grisly fashion. One prisoner, Gerhardt Rettig, was chased around the Nissen huts by hundreds of inmates and beaten to a pulp after being suspected of tipping off Allied guards about a planned break-out in March 1945. Rettig later died in prison and his alleged killers were put on trial in London later that year. Two men, Armin Keuhne, 18, and Emil Schmittendorf, 31, were found guilty of his murder and executed by hanging at Pentonville prison in November 1945.
The students involved in the study said they hoped their findings would be used to preserve and restore the site and the surrounding woodland. Georgina Goodison, an archaeology student involved in the project, said: “It was a big eye opener for me, as I didn’t realise that Lodge Moor camp even exists. The woodland hides it well. It hides the secrets of all the thousands of men who were housed there merely decades ago.” | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the Norton Reader by Linda H Peterson there are many short stories that are combined by different authors using different styles depending on the message that they would like to pass on to the readers of their work. In the collection we find The Pyramids by Samuel Johnson and the 'Of Youth and Age' by Francis Bacon. The two authors have diverse styles that they have applied in their work. Some styles that they have applied are completely the same while others are quite different. This is because they are independent of each other and as such the presentation of their work is different. 'Of Youth and Age is a story that is generally about the way young people are different from the old for instance in terms of the opportunities that present themselves before these two groups of people. The Pyramids is a story that mainly talks about visiting the historical pyramids in Egypt and the discoveries made about this wonder of the world.
Buy Work of Fiction essay paper online
In both stories the authors have adapted narration as their way or style of passing message and this is clear as the third person is used to refer to the events that took place in the past and are being narrated. In The Pyramids there is a narration about the tour to view the pyramids up close and the recount of how they also need to see the Great Wall of China.
Francis Bacon uses irony when he talks about the youth are inexperienced and dreamers yet that the only thing they can manage to do because they are learners who gain experience in every day's life and as such they mu8st be ignorant and experienced. After al it is widely known that experience is the best teacher and the youths are no exception despite of their age and shallow mindedness. The author also reiterates about the way young people do not take up opportunities that present themselves to them yet the old are only people who are experienced enough so as to be able to take up such opportunities.
On the other hand, Samuel Johnson uses symbolism as he tries to pass on his message. This is for example when talking about the pyramids they are compared to royalty and riches and even happiness. It was believed that the pyramids were high and respected just as much as the royalties. It was also a belief that the riches associated with it brought happiness. This is because we are all aware that money can not buy love or happiness, it is built and felt from within. The author has therefore assumed that the pyramids symbolize the riches or material things that one may have.
Symbolism is also very evident in n the work Francis Bacon. This is evident because he classifies the youth and the aged and aging into groups depending on their character and the mannerism in which they carry themselves. The youth are considered to be the lazy lot that is always looking up to the aging generation so as to use the knowledge, they are too dependant on their parents and as such they are not worth all that they are accredited by their ever loving parents.
Personification is also largely applied in The Pyramids is also applied when referring to them as they all get mesmerized by the view of the pyramids and as they are so overjoyed about seeing the pyramids for themselves and hence satisfying their inner need so as to be able to achieve everything that they want in life. The two authors have a huge diversification of the styles that they have used and as such the message they intend to pass to the people reading their work is rightfully passed. They are very descriptive and have also included dialogue in their work so as to break the monotony to the reader so as to make them remain interested in the work that they are doing. Dialogue is used as a tool that enables to completely capture the mind of the reader and also so as to try and make the fictional work appear real. This has been well utilized in the two stories by both authors of the short stories.
The two works of fiction have also relied on factual material so as to be able to come with a flowing captivating story. These works of fiction is very central when it comes to educating people about the features around the world, they also help in answering questions such as why do the youths act the way they do and the aged also. UI gives answers to the rhetorical questions. 'Of Youth and Age' also helps the reader understand the nature of different kinds of human beings that is dependant on the age of a particular person. Both authors have applied various styles in presenting their work. Some are the same while others are different depending on the target of the author. Generally both books are educative and they are an important leisure tools. People of all aspects of lives can use them to their own satisfaction. The most important thing in fiction work is that the intended message is passed eventually and hence the styles of presentation presented by the different authors may differ provided they pass the main idea or concept.
Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:11a7907c-88a1-4e32-952c-86406935cd1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/compare-and-contrast/work-of-fiction.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00423.warc.gz | en | 0.984767 | 992 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.096812233328... | 1 | In the Norton Reader by Linda H Peterson there are many short stories that are combined by different authors using different styles depending on the message that they would like to pass on to the readers of their work. In the collection we find The Pyramids by Samuel Johnson and the 'Of Youth and Age' by Francis Bacon. The two authors have diverse styles that they have applied in their work. Some styles that they have applied are completely the same while others are quite different. This is because they are independent of each other and as such the presentation of their work is different. 'Of Youth and Age is a story that is generally about the way young people are different from the old for instance in terms of the opportunities that present themselves before these two groups of people. The Pyramids is a story that mainly talks about visiting the historical pyramids in Egypt and the discoveries made about this wonder of the world.
Buy Work of Fiction essay paper online
In both stories the authors have adapted narration as their way or style of passing message and this is clear as the third person is used to refer to the events that took place in the past and are being narrated. In The Pyramids there is a narration about the tour to view the pyramids up close and the recount of how they also need to see the Great Wall of China.
Francis Bacon uses irony when he talks about the youth are inexperienced and dreamers yet that the only thing they can manage to do because they are learners who gain experience in every day's life and as such they mu8st be ignorant and experienced. After al it is widely known that experience is the best teacher and the youths are no exception despite of their age and shallow mindedness. The author also reiterates about the way young people do not take up opportunities that present themselves to them yet the old are only people who are experienced enough so as to be able to take up such opportunities.
On the other hand, Samuel Johnson uses symbolism as he tries to pass on his message. This is for example when talking about the pyramids they are compared to royalty and riches and even happiness. It was believed that the pyramids were high and respected just as much as the royalties. It was also a belief that the riches associated with it brought happiness. This is because we are all aware that money can not buy love or happiness, it is built and felt from within. The author has therefore assumed that the pyramids symbolize the riches or material things that one may have.
Symbolism is also very evident in n the work Francis Bacon. This is evident because he classifies the youth and the aged and aging into groups depending on their character and the mannerism in which they carry themselves. The youth are considered to be the lazy lot that is always looking up to the aging generation so as to use the knowledge, they are too dependant on their parents and as such they are not worth all that they are accredited by their ever loving parents.
Personification is also largely applied in The Pyramids is also applied when referring to them as they all get mesmerized by the view of the pyramids and as they are so overjoyed about seeing the pyramids for themselves and hence satisfying their inner need so as to be able to achieve everything that they want in life. The two authors have a huge diversification of the styles that they have used and as such the message they intend to pass to the people reading their work is rightfully passed. They are very descriptive and have also included dialogue in their work so as to break the monotony to the reader so as to make them remain interested in the work that they are doing. Dialogue is used as a tool that enables to completely capture the mind of the reader and also so as to try and make the fictional work appear real. This has been well utilized in the two stories by both authors of the short stories.
The two works of fiction have also relied on factual material so as to be able to come with a flowing captivating story. These works of fiction is very central when it comes to educating people about the features around the world, they also help in answering questions such as why do the youths act the way they do and the aged also. UI gives answers to the rhetorical questions. 'Of Youth and Age' also helps the reader understand the nature of different kinds of human beings that is dependant on the age of a particular person. Both authors have applied various styles in presenting their work. Some are the same while others are different depending on the target of the author. Generally both books are educative and they are an important leisure tools. People of all aspects of lives can use them to their own satisfaction. The most important thing in fiction work is that the intended message is passed eventually and hence the styles of presentation presented by the different authors may differ provided they pass the main idea or concept.
Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays
Most popular orders | 983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prime Minister Padma Shamsher inherited the hereditary title of the prime minister when his uncle Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher abdicated in his favour in November 1945.
The nephew, Padma Shamsher, as opposed to his uncle, Juddha Shamsher, wanted to transform the feudal Rana system by somehow democratizing it. He recognized that in modern times, it was impossible to rule without the people's help and cooperation, and, as soon as he came to power, he turned his attention to the necessary constitutional reforms. However, he was considered a weak Prime Minister who faced a multitude of challenges, including weak familial background, inheriting a financially insufficient treasury, and the British's withdrawal from India.
The founder of the Rana rule, Jung Bahadur, had resorted to coup d'êtat in 1846, as the story goes, to end multiple contenders of powers and emerging instabilities in the country. The Rana rule however fell into the same trap. The Rana rulers married several wives or had relationships with concubines and allegedly low caste women. Because many such women gave birth to several children, the potential contenders for the hereditary prime ministership, a solo position, on the Roll of Succession grew. Consequently, Ranas who were legitimate sons began begrudging the sons of concubines and other lower caste wives with whom they had to contend the hereditary position.
According to John Whelpton, in 1920, Chandra Shamsher, the sixth of the seventeen sons of Dhir Shamsher Rana (the youngest brother of Jung Bahadur Rana), attempted to tackle this problem by creating a threefold classification of the family. As such, the A-Class Ranas were ones whose mothers were of equal caste status to the father and had been married with full religious rites; B-Class Ranas were those whose mothers were high caste (e.g. Thakuri and Chhetri), but had been married by a simpler ceremony (often the result of an existing relationship before marriage); and C-Class Ranas were illegitimate sons of mothers who often belonged to lower castes.
Chandra Shamsher declared that while the existing names on the Roll of Succession would be preserved, only A-Class Ranas would be added to the Roll from the time the decree went into effect. Thus, Bir Shamsher's illegitimate sons retained their place on the Roll (added by their father in 1885-1901) and were in contention to the prime ministership. Bhim Shamsher, Padma Shamsher's father, however, contradicting Chandra Shamsher's decree, added his C-Class sons and grandsons to the list, as he had many children but only a single legitimate son.
During the time he assumed prime ministership, as Ludwig Stiller described, Padma Shamsher was sixty-two years old, with a small family, a simple life and a steady work ethic; he was an unlikely candidate for the position of prime minister. He additionally lacked two important components of maintaining his grip on power: wealth and a powerful family base, as Adrian Sever stated. Bhim Shamsher, Padma Shamsher's father and himself a prime minister, was a wealthy man, but had not given Padma, his eldest son, his share of the properties. Padma Shamsher did not enjoy his father's favor and confidence.
Adrian Sever argues that from the time he assumed office, Shamsher had a precarious hold on the supreme executive office. The treasury he inherited from his predecessor, Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher, was depleted, which kept him from becoming powerful and wealthy. Juddha had requisitioned private and public lands and spent much of his wealth from the government exchequer to provide for his 40 children from different wives.
Additionally, Juddha Shumsher had removed many of Bhim Shamsher's wealthy half-brothers from the Roll of Succession. Because they had little prospect for power, they were in and out of Kathmandu without much vision or interest in ongoing politics. Additionally, his single A-Class son, Basant Shamsher, although democratic-minded, was too weak to help him with his quest. In this scenario, Padma Shamsher did not have strong support for constitutional reforms from his family.
Yet, Padma Shamsher understood the paradigm shift that was at work around the region, and his humble mannerisms allowed him to accommodate this change. He was effortful in trying to build his relations with the Chandra Shamsher and Juddha branches of the Rana family by sharing power with them in order to appeal for the necessary assistance and build his power base. Additionally, although his cousins had no intention of supporting him, Padma Shamsher tried to accommodate them. Thus, in a commendable gesture, Padma Shamsher reconfirmed Juddha’s eldest son, Bahadur Shumsher, in his position of the Hazuria General (ADC General) deputed to keep the King under surveillance under the Rana regime.
However, Bahadur Shumsher resigned his position as Hazuria General, and Padma Shamsher appointed Chandra's son, Krishna Shamsher as replacement. Another of Chandra’s sons, Shankar Shamsher, was appointed Director General of Police. However, Krishna Shumsher also relinquished his position. He also withdrew from the Roll of Succession and left the country. Chandra's other son, Keshar Shamsher, who was a strong claimant of a similar senior position, was not interested in politics, and preferred being appointed as the Ambassador to the Court of St. James, the royal court of the United Kingdom. On the other hand, Mohan Shamsher and Babar Shamsher, Chandra's other sons, remained impatient for power, but had to wait until Padma Shamsher handed over his prime ministership.
Additionally, by the time Padma Shamsher became prime minister, the British in India had already become weak. The meeting between Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, and the major political leaders had just been convened in Simla to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government. The last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, assumed the viceregal throne in New Delhi in February 1947 with a clear purpose of closing the chapter of colonial rule. As Leo E. Rose, in Nepal: Strategy for Survival (1971), has pointed out, the Ranas had difficulty accepting the reality that the British would withdraw from India and that major policy adjustments would also become necessary in Nepal, per the new scenario.
Still, the Ranas expected that, given the Hindu-Muslim riots taking place in northern India in 1946, the transfer of power from the British to Indians would be delayed. However, this expectation was shattered as, in August of that year, an interim government under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress was formed. The situation disabled Padma Shamsher from requesting the British to provide support in his constitution reform process.
Moreover, the Nepalese opposition movement in Indian soil against the Ranas did not seek British support or mediation in working out a democratic deal with the Ranas. Rather, the opposition movement found common interests with the Indians fighting against the British. This gave a golden opportunity to Jawaharlal Nehru to broker a deal between the Ranas and the opposition leaders. The move had several consequences for the future of Nepal. Because the parties relied on Nehru and Padma Shamsher realized there is no escaping Nehru's good office, both the Ranas and opposition leaders also lost the opportunity to ask the British before their return to restore the Nepalese territories lost to Britain during Anglo Nepal War 1814-16.
Thus, writing a new constitution in the hotbed of such a scenario was certainly not an easy affair. Given that a weak prime minister, who faced many other challenges as highlighted above, was attempting this feat proved to be even more challenging. | <urn:uuid:a48c4ebe-81d5-4e6c-98ed-37c58927ed17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2019/12/12/padma-shamsher-first-constitution-maker-nepal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.984603 | 1,668 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.233356699347496... | 3 | Prime Minister Padma Shamsher inherited the hereditary title of the prime minister when his uncle Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher abdicated in his favour in November 1945.
The nephew, Padma Shamsher, as opposed to his uncle, Juddha Shamsher, wanted to transform the feudal Rana system by somehow democratizing it. He recognized that in modern times, it was impossible to rule without the people's help and cooperation, and, as soon as he came to power, he turned his attention to the necessary constitutional reforms. However, he was considered a weak Prime Minister who faced a multitude of challenges, including weak familial background, inheriting a financially insufficient treasury, and the British's withdrawal from India.
The founder of the Rana rule, Jung Bahadur, had resorted to coup d'êtat in 1846, as the story goes, to end multiple contenders of powers and emerging instabilities in the country. The Rana rule however fell into the same trap. The Rana rulers married several wives or had relationships with concubines and allegedly low caste women. Because many such women gave birth to several children, the potential contenders for the hereditary prime ministership, a solo position, on the Roll of Succession grew. Consequently, Ranas who were legitimate sons began begrudging the sons of concubines and other lower caste wives with whom they had to contend the hereditary position.
According to John Whelpton, in 1920, Chandra Shamsher, the sixth of the seventeen sons of Dhir Shamsher Rana (the youngest brother of Jung Bahadur Rana), attempted to tackle this problem by creating a threefold classification of the family. As such, the A-Class Ranas were ones whose mothers were of equal caste status to the father and had been married with full religious rites; B-Class Ranas were those whose mothers were high caste (e.g. Thakuri and Chhetri), but had been married by a simpler ceremony (often the result of an existing relationship before marriage); and C-Class Ranas were illegitimate sons of mothers who often belonged to lower castes.
Chandra Shamsher declared that while the existing names on the Roll of Succession would be preserved, only A-Class Ranas would be added to the Roll from the time the decree went into effect. Thus, Bir Shamsher's illegitimate sons retained their place on the Roll (added by their father in 1885-1901) and were in contention to the prime ministership. Bhim Shamsher, Padma Shamsher's father, however, contradicting Chandra Shamsher's decree, added his C-Class sons and grandsons to the list, as he had many children but only a single legitimate son.
During the time he assumed prime ministership, as Ludwig Stiller described, Padma Shamsher was sixty-two years old, with a small family, a simple life and a steady work ethic; he was an unlikely candidate for the position of prime minister. He additionally lacked two important components of maintaining his grip on power: wealth and a powerful family base, as Adrian Sever stated. Bhim Shamsher, Padma Shamsher's father and himself a prime minister, was a wealthy man, but had not given Padma, his eldest son, his share of the properties. Padma Shamsher did not enjoy his father's favor and confidence.
Adrian Sever argues that from the time he assumed office, Shamsher had a precarious hold on the supreme executive office. The treasury he inherited from his predecessor, Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher, was depleted, which kept him from becoming powerful and wealthy. Juddha had requisitioned private and public lands and spent much of his wealth from the government exchequer to provide for his 40 children from different wives.
Additionally, Juddha Shumsher had removed many of Bhim Shamsher's wealthy half-brothers from the Roll of Succession. Because they had little prospect for power, they were in and out of Kathmandu without much vision or interest in ongoing politics. Additionally, his single A-Class son, Basant Shamsher, although democratic-minded, was too weak to help him with his quest. In this scenario, Padma Shamsher did not have strong support for constitutional reforms from his family.
Yet, Padma Shamsher understood the paradigm shift that was at work around the region, and his humble mannerisms allowed him to accommodate this change. He was effortful in trying to build his relations with the Chandra Shamsher and Juddha branches of the Rana family by sharing power with them in order to appeal for the necessary assistance and build his power base. Additionally, although his cousins had no intention of supporting him, Padma Shamsher tried to accommodate them. Thus, in a commendable gesture, Padma Shamsher reconfirmed Juddha’s eldest son, Bahadur Shumsher, in his position of the Hazuria General (ADC General) deputed to keep the King under surveillance under the Rana regime.
However, Bahadur Shumsher resigned his position as Hazuria General, and Padma Shamsher appointed Chandra's son, Krishna Shamsher as replacement. Another of Chandra’s sons, Shankar Shamsher, was appointed Director General of Police. However, Krishna Shumsher also relinquished his position. He also withdrew from the Roll of Succession and left the country. Chandra's other son, Keshar Shamsher, who was a strong claimant of a similar senior position, was not interested in politics, and preferred being appointed as the Ambassador to the Court of St. James, the royal court of the United Kingdom. On the other hand, Mohan Shamsher and Babar Shamsher, Chandra's other sons, remained impatient for power, but had to wait until Padma Shamsher handed over his prime ministership.
Additionally, by the time Padma Shamsher became prime minister, the British in India had already become weak. The meeting between Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, and the major political leaders had just been convened in Simla to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government. The last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, assumed the viceregal throne in New Delhi in February 1947 with a clear purpose of closing the chapter of colonial rule. As Leo E. Rose, in Nepal: Strategy for Survival (1971), has pointed out, the Ranas had difficulty accepting the reality that the British would withdraw from India and that major policy adjustments would also become necessary in Nepal, per the new scenario.
Still, the Ranas expected that, given the Hindu-Muslim riots taking place in northern India in 1946, the transfer of power from the British to Indians would be delayed. However, this expectation was shattered as, in August of that year, an interim government under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress was formed. The situation disabled Padma Shamsher from requesting the British to provide support in his constitution reform process.
Moreover, the Nepalese opposition movement in Indian soil against the Ranas did not seek British support or mediation in working out a democratic deal with the Ranas. Rather, the opposition movement found common interests with the Indians fighting against the British. This gave a golden opportunity to Jawaharlal Nehru to broker a deal between the Ranas and the opposition leaders. The move had several consequences for the future of Nepal. Because the parties relied on Nehru and Padma Shamsher realized there is no escaping Nehru's good office, both the Ranas and opposition leaders also lost the opportunity to ask the British before their return to restore the Nepalese territories lost to Britain during Anglo Nepal War 1814-16.
Thus, writing a new constitution in the hotbed of such a scenario was certainly not an easy affair. Given that a weak prime minister, who faced many other challenges as highlighted above, was attempting this feat proved to be even more challenging. | 1,657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The French Revolution was the first major upheaval of state run institutions that resulted in the under appreciated getting what they desired. As a result of the turnover from a Kingdom to a Republic, the first and second estate were brought to its knees by the populace, who in turn were able to demand a change in how they were governed. This transitionary period modified everything about French culture – everything had become more secular and new-age. The populace began to think for itself instead of being roped in with what the clergy and monarchs wanted them to believe. The tax system was thrown out the window as it unfairly put the burden on the poor and kept them under the foot of the rich in terms of finances. People began to realize that they deserved those “inalienable rights”, and if they fought for them, they would be able to live as freely as they desired. The fact that those people were beginning to think for themselves was the most important facet of the revolution – they began to realize that they didn’t need to be under they tyrannical system of government that they had suffered through so long.
This Age of Enlightenment allowed many great ideas to flow through Europe. Since they were encouraged to think freely and “outside of the box”, great minds (Locke, Voltaire, Newton, etc.) were able to express their new age ideas in public forums, making the community a more conscious set of individuals. As they were now able to come up with their own ideas and spread them without the threat of persecution or death, many people invented tools that we use today (metric system, art, scientific method). Being able to think freely allowed these special people to spur on the most revolutionary time period since the Renaissance, and we thank them for it. | <urn:uuid:c550a724-95a4-4a07-85c7-cbf1abd32ca3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/quallsk/2014/01/30/the-great-french-transition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.989296 | 360 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.24009343981742... | 6 | The French Revolution was the first major upheaval of state run institutions that resulted in the under appreciated getting what they desired. As a result of the turnover from a Kingdom to a Republic, the first and second estate were brought to its knees by the populace, who in turn were able to demand a change in how they were governed. This transitionary period modified everything about French culture – everything had become more secular and new-age. The populace began to think for itself instead of being roped in with what the clergy and monarchs wanted them to believe. The tax system was thrown out the window as it unfairly put the burden on the poor and kept them under the foot of the rich in terms of finances. People began to realize that they deserved those “inalienable rights”, and if they fought for them, they would be able to live as freely as they desired. The fact that those people were beginning to think for themselves was the most important facet of the revolution – they began to realize that they didn’t need to be under they tyrannical system of government that they had suffered through so long.
This Age of Enlightenment allowed many great ideas to flow through Europe. Since they were encouraged to think freely and “outside of the box”, great minds (Locke, Voltaire, Newton, etc.) were able to express their new age ideas in public forums, making the community a more conscious set of individuals. As they were now able to come up with their own ideas and spread them without the threat of persecution or death, many people invented tools that we use today (metric system, art, scientific method). Being able to think freely allowed these special people to spur on the most revolutionary time period since the Renaissance, and we thank them for it. | 351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historical Facts in the Territory
Welcome to the Unceded territory of the Anishinaabe, Cree, Dakota and Nakota people. There are several historical facts that need to be taken into consideration regarding rights and interests to lands in Treaty 2 Territory.
Treaty 2 itself notes that there were several communities who were not represented at Manitoba House, and in the Treaty, it provides that Mekis, a son of Okanese, would represent those communities in the Treaty 2 process.
Note also that persons who became Chiefs of First Nations and who after the Manitoba House Treaty Gathering received reserves in Treaty 2 Territory appear on the paylists of what was then “Dauphin Lake/Riding Mountain Band”, and according to those paylists, received their Treaty payment as Treaty 2 persons, three years before Treaty 4 had been entered into.
Note that these same persons and communities subsequently had reserves set apart for them in Treaty 2 Territory. However, the adhesion to Treaty they signed happened to be Treaty 4.
Peguis’ people entered into Treaty 1 but later after the theft of their reserve by government officials, were provided with another reserve in Treaty 2 Territory, without the consent of the First Nations in Treaty 2 Territory.
When Treaty 5 was entered into at Norway House, the people who today are at Fisher River stipulated they wanted farm lands. Lt. Gov. Alexander Morris granted their wish by giving them only 100 acres per family of five and placing the reserve in Treaty 2 Territory without bothering to obtain the consent of Treaty 2 First Nations.
First Nations on the shores of Lake Winnipeg were included in Treaty 2 Territory when the Chiefs at Manitoba House drew the map of their territory including that section of Lake Winnipeg. Isolated and distant from the other Treaty 2 First Nations, they eventually began to identify themselves with closer Treaty 5 First Nations, even though the portion of the Lake they depend upon for their livelihood is in Treaty 2 Territory.
The boundaries of Treaty 2 had been set when Sandy Bay, part of the Treaty 1 collection of First Nations, was forced to move from its reserve in Treaty 1 territory to Township 18 in 1876. That township lies split half and half by the boundary between Treaty 1 and Treaty 2. Likely no one noticed at the time. As well, the Sandy Bay people, who had been in the area since at least 1808, had intermarried many times with the people at Ebb and Flow and Riding Mountain was a frequent location, as is indicated on their paylists, “Absent at Riding Mountain.”
The Chiefs at Manitoba House in 1871 insisted that their exclusive territory was to be determined by a line which went southwestward to the northwestern corner of Moose Mountain. In 1904 when the province of Saskatchewan was established, the line separating it from Manitoba placed three First Nations in Treaty 2 Territory in Saskatchewan.
When it was noted that the Anishinaabe community at Duck Bay, squarely within the boundaries stated in Treaty 2, had not entered Treaty, they were sent to another First Nation in Saskatchewan and Treaty 4 Territory and entered into an adhesion there. They later moved into Camperville, still deeper into Treaty 2 Territory.
No other Treaty area in Canada has had this mixture of complicated historical circumstances which raise questions as to “who is Treaty 2 and who isn’t.” | <urn:uuid:576defff-d6f3-40f3-aa67-0496bf19e0bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://treaty2.com/index.php/historical-facts-in-the-territory-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.985801 | 684 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.33266201615333557,... | 1 | Historical Facts in the Territory
Welcome to the Unceded territory of the Anishinaabe, Cree, Dakota and Nakota people. There are several historical facts that need to be taken into consideration regarding rights and interests to lands in Treaty 2 Territory.
Treaty 2 itself notes that there were several communities who were not represented at Manitoba House, and in the Treaty, it provides that Mekis, a son of Okanese, would represent those communities in the Treaty 2 process.
Note also that persons who became Chiefs of First Nations and who after the Manitoba House Treaty Gathering received reserves in Treaty 2 Territory appear on the paylists of what was then “Dauphin Lake/Riding Mountain Band”, and according to those paylists, received their Treaty payment as Treaty 2 persons, three years before Treaty 4 had been entered into.
Note that these same persons and communities subsequently had reserves set apart for them in Treaty 2 Territory. However, the adhesion to Treaty they signed happened to be Treaty 4.
Peguis’ people entered into Treaty 1 but later after the theft of their reserve by government officials, were provided with another reserve in Treaty 2 Territory, without the consent of the First Nations in Treaty 2 Territory.
When Treaty 5 was entered into at Norway House, the people who today are at Fisher River stipulated they wanted farm lands. Lt. Gov. Alexander Morris granted their wish by giving them only 100 acres per family of five and placing the reserve in Treaty 2 Territory without bothering to obtain the consent of Treaty 2 First Nations.
First Nations on the shores of Lake Winnipeg were included in Treaty 2 Territory when the Chiefs at Manitoba House drew the map of their territory including that section of Lake Winnipeg. Isolated and distant from the other Treaty 2 First Nations, they eventually began to identify themselves with closer Treaty 5 First Nations, even though the portion of the Lake they depend upon for their livelihood is in Treaty 2 Territory.
The boundaries of Treaty 2 had been set when Sandy Bay, part of the Treaty 1 collection of First Nations, was forced to move from its reserve in Treaty 1 territory to Township 18 in 1876. That township lies split half and half by the boundary between Treaty 1 and Treaty 2. Likely no one noticed at the time. As well, the Sandy Bay people, who had been in the area since at least 1808, had intermarried many times with the people at Ebb and Flow and Riding Mountain was a frequent location, as is indicated on their paylists, “Absent at Riding Mountain.”
The Chiefs at Manitoba House in 1871 insisted that their exclusive territory was to be determined by a line which went southwestward to the northwestern corner of Moose Mountain. In 1904 when the province of Saskatchewan was established, the line separating it from Manitoba placed three First Nations in Treaty 2 Territory in Saskatchewan.
When it was noted that the Anishinaabe community at Duck Bay, squarely within the boundaries stated in Treaty 2, had not entered Treaty, they were sent to another First Nation in Saskatchewan and Treaty 4 Territory and entered into an adhesion there. They later moved into Camperville, still deeper into Treaty 2 Territory.
No other Treaty area in Canada has had this mixture of complicated historical circumstances which raise questions as to “who is Treaty 2 and who isn’t.” | 705 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first king of Bavaria was Max Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach. He’s considered the creator of the modern Bavarian state. His subjects valued his honest and modest nature, although he came from a rather illustrious household that gave him a somewhat chaotic childhood.
Max Joseph was the son of Count Palatine Michael of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld and Maria Francisca Dorothea of Palatine-Sulzbach. He came from an illustrious household. His mother had a love affair, which meant she was only allowed to move to her residence at Sulzbach Castle after her husband’s death. Due to the absence of his mother, Max was mainly educated under the supervision of his uncle. Elector Charles Theodore acted as his guardian. As his heir, the boy was to take control of the government in 1799 – over 40 years later – and would become the first ever King of Bavaria.
The state was in a difficult situation at the time: Bavaria was facing a political crushing at the hands of its Austrian and French neighbours, and Charles Theodore had left behind a country in serious debt. The new Bavarian ruler and his minister Maximilian von Montgelas were well prepared for both of these problems.
As regards its foreign policy, Bavaria fully sided with France in 1805. Bavaria was made a kingdom as a token of its allegiance. The French emperor Napoleon named Max Joseph king. This increase in rank gave Max greater political freedom. A short time later, however, he changed sides again as Napoleon became less important. This was a purely political manoeuvre, as King Max was actually quite fond of France through his background and education.
Max I Joseph and Minister Montgelas then reformed all areas of domestic life. And this was much needed as well, as the Bavarian territory had grown significantly in size. They established posts for civil servants and created an efficient state administration. They divided the state into 15 administrative districts, which later became eight, introduced compulsory education and created a unified economic area by standardising measures, weights and currencies, abolishing internal duties and relaxing the mandatory membership of guilds.
That’s why Max I Joseph is considered the creator of the modern Bavarian state. By the time he died at Nymphenburg Palace in 1825, Bavaria had become a constitutional monarchy with a modern government. Bavaria’s borders were largely the same as they are today. Munich’s Max-Joseph-Platz square and Maxvorstadt district were named after the king.
“Father Max” was the people’s favourite. He was seen as an honest, good-natured and humble person. He only occupied smaller chambers in the Munich Residenz next to his children’s rooms. Max Joseph had married Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1785 when he was still the Duke of Zweibrücken, and she died in 1796. Their marriage produced five children, including Ludwig, the future heir to the Bavarian throne. Max fell in love with Princess Caroline of Baden in the very same year, and the two had eight children together. | <urn:uuid:a747ed62-f0e4-4473-8bad-89d40a7cb3b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.munich.travel/en-gb/pois/arts-culture/bavaria-s-first-king | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.988961 | 659 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.405610... | 9 | The first king of Bavaria was Max Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach. He’s considered the creator of the modern Bavarian state. His subjects valued his honest and modest nature, although he came from a rather illustrious household that gave him a somewhat chaotic childhood.
Max Joseph was the son of Count Palatine Michael of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld and Maria Francisca Dorothea of Palatine-Sulzbach. He came from an illustrious household. His mother had a love affair, which meant she was only allowed to move to her residence at Sulzbach Castle after her husband’s death. Due to the absence of his mother, Max was mainly educated under the supervision of his uncle. Elector Charles Theodore acted as his guardian. As his heir, the boy was to take control of the government in 1799 – over 40 years later – and would become the first ever King of Bavaria.
The state was in a difficult situation at the time: Bavaria was facing a political crushing at the hands of its Austrian and French neighbours, and Charles Theodore had left behind a country in serious debt. The new Bavarian ruler and his minister Maximilian von Montgelas were well prepared for both of these problems.
As regards its foreign policy, Bavaria fully sided with France in 1805. Bavaria was made a kingdom as a token of its allegiance. The French emperor Napoleon named Max Joseph king. This increase in rank gave Max greater political freedom. A short time later, however, he changed sides again as Napoleon became less important. This was a purely political manoeuvre, as King Max was actually quite fond of France through his background and education.
Max I Joseph and Minister Montgelas then reformed all areas of domestic life. And this was much needed as well, as the Bavarian territory had grown significantly in size. They established posts for civil servants and created an efficient state administration. They divided the state into 15 administrative districts, which later became eight, introduced compulsory education and created a unified economic area by standardising measures, weights and currencies, abolishing internal duties and relaxing the mandatory membership of guilds.
That’s why Max I Joseph is considered the creator of the modern Bavarian state. By the time he died at Nymphenburg Palace in 1825, Bavaria had become a constitutional monarchy with a modern government. Bavaria’s borders were largely the same as they are today. Munich’s Max-Joseph-Platz square and Maxvorstadt district were named after the king.
“Father Max” was the people’s favourite. He was seen as an honest, good-natured and humble person. He only occupied smaller chambers in the Munich Residenz next to his children’s rooms. Max Joseph had married Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1785 when he was still the Duke of Zweibrücken, and she died in 1796. Their marriage produced five children, including Ludwig, the future heir to the Bavarian throne. Max fell in love with Princess Caroline of Baden in the very same year, and the two had eight children together. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The technique of ‘slap bass’ which involves plucking the strings to produce a strong rhythmic click as well as the tone has a surprisingly long history. Although
the technique has not been attributed to one player it seems that the sound developed and spread in the dance halls of New Orleans around 1916.
The string bass had become a part of the ‘jazz’ sound and was replacing the tuba and
sousaphone (except on the street where brass still reigned supreme.) In the late 1890s the bass was still predominantly bowed but as popular music became more driving the bass was made to adapt.
Bill Johson was born in 1872 and was touring the vaudeville circuit when, legend has it, his bow broke. He claims to have invented the slap technique that night. Wether or not that was the case he was an early master of the style and spread it north when he relocated to Chicago in the 1920s.
Part of the difficulty in pinning down the origins of this technique is that early recording
technology was very poor at capturing low frequencies. As the band gathered around a seashell like horn to capture the sound and transfer it to a needle to cut the master, the string bass player might be asked to sit it out and be replaced by tuba for the recording. With advent of the electric microphone bass was able to be captured much more accurately but home devices were still unable to reproduce it properly for many more years.
During the first half of the 20th century the slap bass style began to show up in country swing and rhythm and blues eventually finding its way into rockabilly and early rock and roll. Modern offshoots of rockabilly have continued to use the slap bass sound as part of an aesthetic even though the bass can now easily be heard through amplification.
Once again we see that from the swampy mix of people and culture in NOLA a piece of the musical puzzle is created and then goes on to effect art well outside of where it began. | <urn:uuid:5ec35c30-a4fb-426c-9b5a-153d25b1103c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.soggypoboys.com/single-post/2016/05/25/The-Low-Down-on-the-Down-Low-Slap-bass%E2%80%99-NOLA-origins | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.988066 | 415 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.33562204241752625,
-0.11593717336654663,
-0.0248799230... | 4 | The technique of ‘slap bass’ which involves plucking the strings to produce a strong rhythmic click as well as the tone has a surprisingly long history. Although
the technique has not been attributed to one player it seems that the sound developed and spread in the dance halls of New Orleans around 1916.
The string bass had become a part of the ‘jazz’ sound and was replacing the tuba and
sousaphone (except on the street where brass still reigned supreme.) In the late 1890s the bass was still predominantly bowed but as popular music became more driving the bass was made to adapt.
Bill Johson was born in 1872 and was touring the vaudeville circuit when, legend has it, his bow broke. He claims to have invented the slap technique that night. Wether or not that was the case he was an early master of the style and spread it north when he relocated to Chicago in the 1920s.
Part of the difficulty in pinning down the origins of this technique is that early recording
technology was very poor at capturing low frequencies. As the band gathered around a seashell like horn to capture the sound and transfer it to a needle to cut the master, the string bass player might be asked to sit it out and be replaced by tuba for the recording. With advent of the electric microphone bass was able to be captured much more accurately but home devices were still unable to reproduce it properly for many more years.
During the first half of the 20th century the slap bass style began to show up in country swing and rhythm and blues eventually finding its way into rockabilly and early rock and roll. Modern offshoots of rockabilly have continued to use the slap bass sound as part of an aesthetic even though the bass can now easily be heard through amplification.
Once again we see that from the swampy mix of people and culture in NOLA a piece of the musical puzzle is created and then goes on to effect art well outside of where it began. | 423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Using Classroom Experiments for Outreach Activities: a Public Goods Game Example
Laura A. Harvey, University of East Anglia
Published January 2020
This case study relates to implementation of classroom experiments for taster sessions for local school students rather than current undergraduate students to highlight economics as a discipline rather than to teach a specific topic or idea. The classroom experiment discussed here is the public goods game initially discussed in Holt & Laury (1997). There were a number of changes made compared to when the activity is ran in the classroom. The main one being that I asked the students to work in pairs versus independently. There was a prize awarded for the team who made the most money. Recall the main trade-off of the game is whether to contribute to a common pool, which should others also, will yield a higher payoff than being purely selfish.
I will now go on to provide some context for the taster session before briefly discussing the main activity and finally closing with some remarks.
The participants in the taster session were boys in year 7 (ages 11-12) from schools in the region. The workshop was delivered twice with hear session having up to 15 students. The students were asked to work in pairs, which meant there was six groups of two and one group of three students. I asked them to sit separate from each other in order to minimise discussion between groups.
The session started with a short and relatively uninformative introduction, simply introducing myself and then immediately following a discussion around "what is economics?". They were allowed 2 minutes to discuss in partners before feeding back to the group. The responses were along the lines of “the world” or “business”; some students identified a link with Geography. The aim of this discussion was to get them thinking about what actually is economics and hopefully how this is related to the game they are going to play. Following this short introduction, I began to explain the game.
The main activity is a simplified public goods game modified from the format presented in Holt & Laury (1997). Here I will recap the game including any modifications that I made.
Student pairs were given an envelope, which contained the game instructions, their scorecard, four playing cards (two red and two black, the number on the cards does not matter) and a pen. I modified the initial instructions to include more steps and explanations for the students. This made them quite a bit longer. In addition to this, when talking through the instructions I also included an example scenario which went through how to fill in the scorecard. A possible addition might be to include this example on the physical copy of the scorecard they have so that they can easily refer to it whilst they learn the game.
Each round they needed to decide which two of their four cards to give me. If they decided to keep their red cards, they were worth £4 each to themselves. If they decided to contribute their red cards these were worth £1 to everyone. The black cards have no value and are purely to maintain anonymity during the game. Each round they took anonymous decisions and I collected and announced the number of red cards contributed and then gave each of their cards back to them for the next round.
Five rounds were played with the red cards being worth £4 if kept, then a further five rounds were played with the red cards being kept worth £2. After ten rounds, I allowed a short discussion for students to talk across teams. Followed by a final five rounds.
Students needed to record their decisions each round on a scorecard. This was then collected at the end of the game. The winner was announced and given the prize following the discussion of what was learned from the game. This delay in announcing the winner was to try to minimise the distraction during the discussion.
Given the age group, I added some structure to the discussion by presenting them with questions to think about. These included:
- What do you think the game represented?
- Did the change in the value of the red cards change your strategy?
- Why did you decide to keep/give the red cards?
- Why is this game important for economists?
Each question was discussed in turn, taking the opportunity to teach them what a public good is, and to think about how their behaviour influenced the provision of a public good. Students had their own motivations, mostly around being ‘selfish’ and wanting to win and make the most money. Moreover, they could not trust their classmates to also contribute; so did not want to lose money. These comments provided good discussion points to develop with the students.
Finally, I linked the game to three fields in economics, public, behavioural and experimental economics, explaining in turn what each field studies and how, linking back to the game that they just played for examples.
Students enjoyed the game, were able to identify why they chose the strategies that they did, and what can be learned from playing the game. There were some challenges around the amount of time it took the students to fully understand the game. Whilst I included an example scenario, a better way might be to extend the first section to include a practice round which might allow students to fully understand the game before introducing the competitive element. Teachers and ambassadors are hugely helpful and influential, not just for behaviour management but working with the students to understand the game and to work in teams to work out their strategy.
Given the somewhat competitive nature of the activity, students were quite reactive to the announcement of the number of red cards I had collected. Particularly if they had contributed where others hadn’t. This meant that the game was not played always with total anonymity. Whilst this didn’t matter for the points that I wanted to discuss and for them to learn from the game, it did mean that the value of the discussion point following round ten was diminished. This is something to keep in mind if the activity is to be replicated. However, the extent to which this will be a problem in terms of maintaining anonymity and creating valid discussion will vary with the age group.
Holt, Charles A., and Susan K. Laury. 1997. "Classroom Games: Voluntary Provision of a Public Good." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11 (4): 209-215. | <urn:uuid:f4c72b75-4492-4bac-90dd-fa319e5550fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/showcase/harvey_game | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.982346 | 1,278 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.0235228... | 5 | Using Classroom Experiments for Outreach Activities: a Public Goods Game Example
Laura A. Harvey, University of East Anglia
Published January 2020
This case study relates to implementation of classroom experiments for taster sessions for local school students rather than current undergraduate students to highlight economics as a discipline rather than to teach a specific topic or idea. The classroom experiment discussed here is the public goods game initially discussed in Holt & Laury (1997). There were a number of changes made compared to when the activity is ran in the classroom. The main one being that I asked the students to work in pairs versus independently. There was a prize awarded for the team who made the most money. Recall the main trade-off of the game is whether to contribute to a common pool, which should others also, will yield a higher payoff than being purely selfish.
I will now go on to provide some context for the taster session before briefly discussing the main activity and finally closing with some remarks.
The participants in the taster session were boys in year 7 (ages 11-12) from schools in the region. The workshop was delivered twice with hear session having up to 15 students. The students were asked to work in pairs, which meant there was six groups of two and one group of three students. I asked them to sit separate from each other in order to minimise discussion between groups.
The session started with a short and relatively uninformative introduction, simply introducing myself and then immediately following a discussion around "what is economics?". They were allowed 2 minutes to discuss in partners before feeding back to the group. The responses were along the lines of “the world” or “business”; some students identified a link with Geography. The aim of this discussion was to get them thinking about what actually is economics and hopefully how this is related to the game they are going to play. Following this short introduction, I began to explain the game.
The main activity is a simplified public goods game modified from the format presented in Holt & Laury (1997). Here I will recap the game including any modifications that I made.
Student pairs were given an envelope, which contained the game instructions, their scorecard, four playing cards (two red and two black, the number on the cards does not matter) and a pen. I modified the initial instructions to include more steps and explanations for the students. This made them quite a bit longer. In addition to this, when talking through the instructions I also included an example scenario which went through how to fill in the scorecard. A possible addition might be to include this example on the physical copy of the scorecard they have so that they can easily refer to it whilst they learn the game.
Each round they needed to decide which two of their four cards to give me. If they decided to keep their red cards, they were worth £4 each to themselves. If they decided to contribute their red cards these were worth £1 to everyone. The black cards have no value and are purely to maintain anonymity during the game. Each round they took anonymous decisions and I collected and announced the number of red cards contributed and then gave each of their cards back to them for the next round.
Five rounds were played with the red cards being worth £4 if kept, then a further five rounds were played with the red cards being kept worth £2. After ten rounds, I allowed a short discussion for students to talk across teams. Followed by a final five rounds.
Students needed to record their decisions each round on a scorecard. This was then collected at the end of the game. The winner was announced and given the prize following the discussion of what was learned from the game. This delay in announcing the winner was to try to minimise the distraction during the discussion.
Given the age group, I added some structure to the discussion by presenting them with questions to think about. These included:
- What do you think the game represented?
- Did the change in the value of the red cards change your strategy?
- Why did you decide to keep/give the red cards?
- Why is this game important for economists?
Each question was discussed in turn, taking the opportunity to teach them what a public good is, and to think about how their behaviour influenced the provision of a public good. Students had their own motivations, mostly around being ‘selfish’ and wanting to win and make the most money. Moreover, they could not trust their classmates to also contribute; so did not want to lose money. These comments provided good discussion points to develop with the students.
Finally, I linked the game to three fields in economics, public, behavioural and experimental economics, explaining in turn what each field studies and how, linking back to the game that they just played for examples.
Students enjoyed the game, were able to identify why they chose the strategies that they did, and what can be learned from playing the game. There were some challenges around the amount of time it took the students to fully understand the game. Whilst I included an example scenario, a better way might be to extend the first section to include a practice round which might allow students to fully understand the game before introducing the competitive element. Teachers and ambassadors are hugely helpful and influential, not just for behaviour management but working with the students to understand the game and to work in teams to work out their strategy.
Given the somewhat competitive nature of the activity, students were quite reactive to the announcement of the number of red cards I had collected. Particularly if they had contributed where others hadn’t. This meant that the game was not played always with total anonymity. Whilst this didn’t matter for the points that I wanted to discuss and for them to learn from the game, it did mean that the value of the discussion point following round ten was diminished. This is something to keep in mind if the activity is to be replicated. However, the extent to which this will be a problem in terms of maintaining anonymity and creating valid discussion will vary with the age group.
Holt, Charles A., and Susan K. Laury. 1997. "Classroom Games: Voluntary Provision of a Public Good." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11 (4): 209-215. | 1,271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pierre Curie'nin İngilizce Hayatı
Pierre Curie (May 15, 1859 - April 19, 1906) was a pioneer in the study of crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Pierre was educated at home by his father, and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. By the age of 18 he had completed the equivalent of a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead he worked as a laboratory instructor.
In 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed. Shortly afterwards, in 1881, they demonstrated the reverse effect: that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this phenomenon in the form of crystal oscillators
Prior to his famous doctoral studies on magnetism he designed and perfected an extremely sensitive torsion balance for measuring magnetic coefficients. Variations on this equipment were commonly used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, and discovered the effect of temperature on paramagnetism which is now known as Curie's law. The material constant in Curie's law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition, above which the substances lost their ferromagnetic behaviour. This is now known as the Curie point.
Pierre worked with his wife Marie Curie in isolating polonium and radium. They were the first to use the term 'radioactivity', and were pioneers in its study. Their work, including Marie's celebrated doctoral work, made use of a sensitive piezoelectric electrometer constructed by Pierre and his brother Jacques.
Pierre and one of his students made the first discovery of nuclear energy, by identifying the continuous emission of heat from radium particles. He also investigated the radiation emissions of radioactive substances, and through the use of magnetic fields was able to show that some of the emissions were positively charged, some were negative and some were neutral. These correspond to alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Together with his wife, Marie, Pierre was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1903: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."
The curie is a unit of radioactivity (3.7 x 1010 decays per second) originally named in honour of Pierre Curie by the Radiology Congress in 1910, after Pierre's death.
Pierre died as a result of a carriage accident in a rain storm while crossing the rue Dauphine in Paris during April 1906 after having his head crushed under the carriage wheel, thereby avoiding probable death by radiation poisoning, which later killed his wife. Both Pierre and Marie were enshrined in the crypt of the Pantheon in Paris in April 1995.
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Pierre Curie (May 15, 1859 - April 19, 1906) was a pioneer in the study of crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Pierre was educated at home by his father, and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. By the age of 18 he had completed the equivalent of a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead he worked as a laboratory instructor.
In 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed. Shortly afterwards, in 1881, they demonstrated the reverse effect: that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this phenomenon in the form of crystal oscillators
Prior to his famous doctoral studies on magnetism he designed and perfected an extremely sensitive torsion balance for measuring magnetic coefficients. Variations on this equipment were commonly used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, and discovered the effect of temperature on paramagnetism which is now known as Curie's law. The material constant in Curie's law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition, above which the substances lost their ferromagnetic behaviour. This is now known as the Curie point.
Pierre worked with his wife Marie Curie in isolating polonium and radium. They were the first to use the term 'radioactivity', and were pioneers in its study. Their work, including Marie's celebrated doctoral work, made use of a sensitive piezoelectric electrometer constructed by Pierre and his brother Jacques.
Pierre and one of his students made the first discovery of nuclear energy, by identifying the continuous emission of heat from radium particles. He also investigated the radiation emissions of radioactive substances, and through the use of magnetic fields was able to show that some of the emissions were positively charged, some were negative and some were neutral. These correspond to alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Together with his wife, Marie, Pierre was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1903: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."
The curie is a unit of radioactivity (3.7 x 1010 decays per second) originally named in honour of Pierre Curie by the Radiology Congress in 1910, after Pierre's death.
Pierre died as a result of a carriage accident in a rain storm while crossing the rue Dauphine in Paris during April 1906 after having his head crushed under the carriage wheel, thereby avoiding probable death by radiation poisoning, which later killed his wife. Both Pierre and Marie were enshrined in the crypt of the Pantheon in Paris in April 1995.
İlgili Diğer Konular | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About Maria Montessori
Born in 1870, Maria Montessori was an Italian physician, educator, and philosopher who became an innovative force for educational reform during her lifetime. She was the first woman in Italy to graduate from medical school and she continued on to graduate studies in education. While working in the University of Rome hospital, she treated and studied children deemed to have mental deficiencies. With intensive observation and experimentation, she developed methods which challenged the belief of the day that these children were incapable of being taught. She felt that her insights and methods would be suited to all children and began to look for such an opportunity.
When the city of Rome was grappling with the problem of under school-age children in the city’s new housing projects being left unsupervised by their working parents and generating disturbances in the neighborhood, Montessori offered a solution. In January 1907 she opened the first Casa dei Bambini. The improved behavior and the academic feats of these children were praised in the press as “miracles.” Her first book, The Discovery of the Child, was published in 1909 and she continued to write, train teachers, open schools, and advocate for education reflecting the learning style of a child until her death in 1952. In the 100 years since the first Children’s House, millions of children around the world have been educated using Maria Montessori’s insights and methods. | <urn:uuid:e0543f51-9ea6-4d11-b218-5dd67dd41b55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alpinemontessori.com/about/maria-montessori/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.986262 | 288 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.80098015069961... | 14 | About Maria Montessori
Born in 1870, Maria Montessori was an Italian physician, educator, and philosopher who became an innovative force for educational reform during her lifetime. She was the first woman in Italy to graduate from medical school and she continued on to graduate studies in education. While working in the University of Rome hospital, she treated and studied children deemed to have mental deficiencies. With intensive observation and experimentation, she developed methods which challenged the belief of the day that these children were incapable of being taught. She felt that her insights and methods would be suited to all children and began to look for such an opportunity.
When the city of Rome was grappling with the problem of under school-age children in the city’s new housing projects being left unsupervised by their working parents and generating disturbances in the neighborhood, Montessori offered a solution. In January 1907 she opened the first Casa dei Bambini. The improved behavior and the academic feats of these children were praised in the press as “miracles.” Her first book, The Discovery of the Child, was published in 1909 and she continued to write, train teachers, open schools, and advocate for education reflecting the learning style of a child until her death in 1952. In the 100 years since the first Children’s House, millions of children around the world have been educated using Maria Montessori’s insights and methods. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher who, with Socrates and Plato. is one of the founders of the discipline of Western Philosophy. His writings on physics, poetry, logic, rhetoric, politics, ethics, biology, government, and metaphysics, among other subjects reflect the scientific interests that were aroused by his father, a well known doctor. He was so knowledgeable and analytically sharp that he was nicknamed the “Brain” by his students at Plato’s Academy.
Aristotle was born in Stageira, Chalcidice and was raised with all the advantages of an aristocrat. At the age of eighteen, he left to study at Plato’s Academy, where he spent more than twenty years of study. He was greatly influenced by Plato, one of his mentors, who believed that poets who represented evil had to be countered with Sophocles’s belief in goodness. This laid the background for Aristotle’s defense of poetry in the Poetics. With this work, Aristotle took on the role of the defender of poetry. After Plato’s death, Aristotle traveled to Assos where under the patronage of Hermias, Aristotle founded his first philosophical school. At the court of Hermias he met Pythias whom he eventually married, and with whom he had a daughter, also named Pythias. After Hermias’s death, Philip II of Macedon invited Aristotle to tutor Alexander the Great.
Eventually, Aristotle returned to Athens, setting up an academy in 335 BC: the Lyceum. The Lyceum, a gymnasium just outside Athens, was an academy where Aristotle famously lectured while walking with his students, giving his philosophical school the name Peripatetics. After his wife’s death, he became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, with whom he had a son named after his father Nicomachus.
It was at this time that Aristotle composed many of his works, many of which were later lost. He wrote widely, according to his wide-ranging interests and expertise, works that included the Poetics, Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, and De Anima.
After the death of Alexander the Great, Aristotle faced increasing hostility, and was denounced by the people for not honoring the gods. He fled to Chalcis, famously explaining: “I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy.” He died the same year, in 322 BC.
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0.2161321491003036... | 7 | Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher who, with Socrates and Plato. is one of the founders of the discipline of Western Philosophy. His writings on physics, poetry, logic, rhetoric, politics, ethics, biology, government, and metaphysics, among other subjects reflect the scientific interests that were aroused by his father, a well known doctor. He was so knowledgeable and analytically sharp that he was nicknamed the “Brain” by his students at Plato’s Academy.
Aristotle was born in Stageira, Chalcidice and was raised with all the advantages of an aristocrat. At the age of eighteen, he left to study at Plato’s Academy, where he spent more than twenty years of study. He was greatly influenced by Plato, one of his mentors, who believed that poets who represented evil had to be countered with Sophocles’s belief in goodness. This laid the background for Aristotle’s defense of poetry in the Poetics. With this work, Aristotle took on the role of the defender of poetry. After Plato’s death, Aristotle traveled to Assos where under the patronage of Hermias, Aristotle founded his first philosophical school. At the court of Hermias he met Pythias whom he eventually married, and with whom he had a daughter, also named Pythias. After Hermias’s death, Philip II of Macedon invited Aristotle to tutor Alexander the Great.
Eventually, Aristotle returned to Athens, setting up an academy in 335 BC: the Lyceum. The Lyceum, a gymnasium just outside Athens, was an academy where Aristotle famously lectured while walking with his students, giving his philosophical school the name Peripatetics. After his wife’s death, he became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, with whom he had a son named after his father Nicomachus.
It was at this time that Aristotle composed many of his works, many of which were later lost. He wrote widely, according to his wide-ranging interests and expertise, works that included the Poetics, Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, and De Anima.
After the death of Alexander the Great, Aristotle faced increasing hostility, and was denounced by the people for not honoring the gods. He fled to Chalcis, famously explaining: “I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy.” He died the same year, in 322 BC.
Aristotle's Politics: Biography | 515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rosa Parks (1913—2005) helped initiate the civil rights movement in the United States when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955. Her actions inspired the leaders of the local black community to organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott began the day Parks was convicted of violating the segregation laws. Led by a young Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the boycott lasted more than a year—during which Parks not coincidentally lost her job—and ended only when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional. Over the next half-century, Parks became a nationally recognized symbol of dignity and strength in the struggle to end entrenched racial segregation.
Rosa Parks’ Early Life
Rosa Louise McCauley was born in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913. She moved with her parents, James and Leona McCauley, to Pine Level, Alabama, at age 2 to reside with Leona’s parents. Her brother, Sylvester, was born in 1915, and shortly after that her parents separated.
Rosa’s mother was a teacher, and the family valued education. Rosa moved to Montgomery, Alabama, at age 11 and eventually attended high school there, a laboratory school at the Alabama State Teachers’ College for Negroes. She left at 16, early in 11th grade, because she needed to care for her dying grandmother and, shortly thereafter, her chronically ill mother. In 1932, at 19, she married Raymond Parks, a self-educated man 10 years her senior who worked as a barber and was a long-time member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He supported Rosa in her efforts to earn her high-school diploma, which she ultimately did the following year.
Rosa Parks: Roots of Activism
Raymond and Rosa, who worked as a seamstress, became respected members of Montgomery’s large African American community. Co-existing with white people in a city governed by “Jim Crow” (segregation) laws, however, was fraught with daily frustrations: Blacks could attend only certain (inferior) schools, could drink only from specified water fountains and could borrow books only from the “black” library, among other restrictions.
Although Raymond had previously discouraged her out of fear for her safety, in December 1943, Rosa also joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and became chapter secretary. She worked closely with chapter president Edgar Daniel (E.D.) Nixon. Nixon was a railroad porter known in the city as an advocate for blacks who wanted to register to vote, and also as president of the local branch of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters union.
December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks’ Arrest
On Thursday, December 1, 1955, the 42-year-old Rosa Parks was commuting home from a long day of work at the Montgomery Fair department store by bus. Black residents of Montgomery often avoided municipal buses if possible because they found the Negroes-in-back policy so demeaning. Nonetheless, 70 percent or more riders on a typical day were black, and on this day Rosa Parks was one of them.
Segregation was written into law; the front of a Montgomery bus was reserved for white citizens, and the seats behind them for black citizens. However, it was only by custom that bus drivers had the authority to ask a black person to give up a seat for a white rider. There were contradictory Montgomery laws on the books: One said segregation must be enforced, but another, largely ignored, said no person (white or black) could be asked to give up a seat even if there were no other seat on the bus available.
Nonetheless, at one point on the route, a white man had no seat because all the seats in the designated “white” section were taken. So the driver told the riders in the four seats of the first row of the “colored” section to stand, in effect adding another row to the “white” section. The three others obeyed. Parks did not.
“People always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired,” wrote Parks in her autobiography, “but that isn’t true. I was not tired physically… No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.”
Eventually, two police officers approached the stopped bus, assessed the situation and placed Parks in custody.
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
Although Parks used her one phone call to contact her husband, word of her arrest had spread quickly and E.D. Nixon was there when Parks was released on bail later that evening. Nixon had hoped for years to find a courageous black person of unquestioned honesty and integrity to become the plaintiff in a case that might become the test of the validity of segregation laws. Sitting in Parks’ home, Nixon convinced Parks—and her husband and mother—that Parks was that plaintiff. Another idea arose as well: The blacks of Montgomery would boycott the buses on the day of Parks’ trial, Monday, December 5. By midnight, 35,000 flyers were being mimeographed to be sent home with black schoolchildren, informing their parents of the planned boycott.
On December 5, Parks was found guilty of violating segregation laws, given a suspended sentence and fined $10 plus $4 in court costs. Meanwhile, black participation in the boycott was much larger than even optimists in the community had anticipated. Nixon and some ministers decided to take advantage of the momentum, forming the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) to manage the boycott, and they elected Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.–new to Montgomery and just 26 years old—as the MIA’s president.
As appeals and related lawsuits wended their way through the courts, all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, the Montgomery Bus Boycott engendered anger in much of Montgomery’s white population as well as some violence, and Nixon’s and Dr. King’s homes were bombed. The violence didn’t deter the boycotters or their leaders, however, and the drama in Montgomery continued to gain attention from the national and international press.
On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional; the boycott ended December 20, a day after the Court’s written order arrived in Montgomery. Parks—who had lost her job and experienced harassment all year—became known as “the mother of the civil rights movement.”
Rosa Parks: After the Boycott
Facing continued harassment and threats in the wake of the boycott, Parks, along with her husband and mother, eventually decided to move to Detroit, where Parks’ brother resided. Parks became an administrative aide in the Detroit office of Congressman John Conyers Jr. in 1965, a post she held until her 1988 retirement. Her husband, brother and mother all died of cancer between 1977 and 1979. In 1987, she co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development, to serve Detroit’s youth.
In the years following her retirement, she traveled to lend her support to civil-rights events and causes and wrote an autobiography, “Rosa Parks: My Story.” In 1999, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honor the United States bestows on a civilian. (Other recipients have included George Washington, Thomas Edison, Betty Ford and Mother Teresa.) When she died at age 92 on October 24, 2005, she became the first woman in the nation’s history to lie in state at the U.S. Capitol. | <urn:uuid:7d26d196-b1a2-4611-ba62-d2351a2b7e86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/rosa-parks | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.980563 | 1,595 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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-0.003331903368234... | 1 | Rosa Parks (1913—2005) helped initiate the civil rights movement in the United States when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955. Her actions inspired the leaders of the local black community to organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott began the day Parks was convicted of violating the segregation laws. Led by a young Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the boycott lasted more than a year—during which Parks not coincidentally lost her job—and ended only when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional. Over the next half-century, Parks became a nationally recognized symbol of dignity and strength in the struggle to end entrenched racial segregation.
Rosa Parks’ Early Life
Rosa Louise McCauley was born in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913. She moved with her parents, James and Leona McCauley, to Pine Level, Alabama, at age 2 to reside with Leona’s parents. Her brother, Sylvester, was born in 1915, and shortly after that her parents separated.
Rosa’s mother was a teacher, and the family valued education. Rosa moved to Montgomery, Alabama, at age 11 and eventually attended high school there, a laboratory school at the Alabama State Teachers’ College for Negroes. She left at 16, early in 11th grade, because she needed to care for her dying grandmother and, shortly thereafter, her chronically ill mother. In 1932, at 19, she married Raymond Parks, a self-educated man 10 years her senior who worked as a barber and was a long-time member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He supported Rosa in her efforts to earn her high-school diploma, which she ultimately did the following year.
Rosa Parks: Roots of Activism
Raymond and Rosa, who worked as a seamstress, became respected members of Montgomery’s large African American community. Co-existing with white people in a city governed by “Jim Crow” (segregation) laws, however, was fraught with daily frustrations: Blacks could attend only certain (inferior) schools, could drink only from specified water fountains and could borrow books only from the “black” library, among other restrictions.
Although Raymond had previously discouraged her out of fear for her safety, in December 1943, Rosa also joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and became chapter secretary. She worked closely with chapter president Edgar Daniel (E.D.) Nixon. Nixon was a railroad porter known in the city as an advocate for blacks who wanted to register to vote, and also as president of the local branch of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters union.
December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks’ Arrest
On Thursday, December 1, 1955, the 42-year-old Rosa Parks was commuting home from a long day of work at the Montgomery Fair department store by bus. Black residents of Montgomery often avoided municipal buses if possible because they found the Negroes-in-back policy so demeaning. Nonetheless, 70 percent or more riders on a typical day were black, and on this day Rosa Parks was one of them.
Segregation was written into law; the front of a Montgomery bus was reserved for white citizens, and the seats behind them for black citizens. However, it was only by custom that bus drivers had the authority to ask a black person to give up a seat for a white rider. There were contradictory Montgomery laws on the books: One said segregation must be enforced, but another, largely ignored, said no person (white or black) could be asked to give up a seat even if there were no other seat on the bus available.
Nonetheless, at one point on the route, a white man had no seat because all the seats in the designated “white” section were taken. So the driver told the riders in the four seats of the first row of the “colored” section to stand, in effect adding another row to the “white” section. The three others obeyed. Parks did not.
“People always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired,” wrote Parks in her autobiography, “but that isn’t true. I was not tired physically… No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.”
Eventually, two police officers approached the stopped bus, assessed the situation and placed Parks in custody.
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
Although Parks used her one phone call to contact her husband, word of her arrest had spread quickly and E.D. Nixon was there when Parks was released on bail later that evening. Nixon had hoped for years to find a courageous black person of unquestioned honesty and integrity to become the plaintiff in a case that might become the test of the validity of segregation laws. Sitting in Parks’ home, Nixon convinced Parks—and her husband and mother—that Parks was that plaintiff. Another idea arose as well: The blacks of Montgomery would boycott the buses on the day of Parks’ trial, Monday, December 5. By midnight, 35,000 flyers were being mimeographed to be sent home with black schoolchildren, informing their parents of the planned boycott.
On December 5, Parks was found guilty of violating segregation laws, given a suspended sentence and fined $10 plus $4 in court costs. Meanwhile, black participation in the boycott was much larger than even optimists in the community had anticipated. Nixon and some ministers decided to take advantage of the momentum, forming the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) to manage the boycott, and they elected Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.–new to Montgomery and just 26 years old—as the MIA’s president.
As appeals and related lawsuits wended their way through the courts, all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, the Montgomery Bus Boycott engendered anger in much of Montgomery’s white population as well as some violence, and Nixon’s and Dr. King’s homes were bombed. The violence didn’t deter the boycotters or their leaders, however, and the drama in Montgomery continued to gain attention from the national and international press.
On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional; the boycott ended December 20, a day after the Court’s written order arrived in Montgomery. Parks—who had lost her job and experienced harassment all year—became known as “the mother of the civil rights movement.”
Rosa Parks: After the Boycott
Facing continued harassment and threats in the wake of the boycott, Parks, along with her husband and mother, eventually decided to move to Detroit, where Parks’ brother resided. Parks became an administrative aide in the Detroit office of Congressman John Conyers Jr. in 1965, a post she held until her 1988 retirement. Her husband, brother and mother all died of cancer between 1977 and 1979. In 1987, she co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development, to serve Detroit’s youth.
In the years following her retirement, she traveled to lend her support to civil-rights events and causes and wrote an autobiography, “Rosa Parks: My Story.” In 1999, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honor the United States bestows on a civilian. (Other recipients have included George Washington, Thomas Edison, Betty Ford and Mother Teresa.) When she died at age 92 on October 24, 2005, she became the first woman in the nation’s history to lie in state at the U.S. Capitol. | 1,606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How American women in the 1700s ran their businesses
When women in early America needed access to credit and payment tools, they turned to the Bank of North America in Philadelphia, America’s first commercial bank, and today Wells Fargo.
In the 1700s, women’s opportunities were limited by society and politics. This is perhaps best reflected in a famous exchange between Abigail Adams and her husband, and later U.S. president, John Adams. Although their marriage is remembered as being a partnership of mutual respect and affection, when Abigail wrote to John in 1776 to “remember the ladies” and ensure equality when creating the new government, he replied, “I cannot but laugh.”
The law at the time allowed women to carry money and debts in their own name, although women required the permission of their husband to own a business. A widow often had the independence to manage her own future.
Female merchants, shopkeepers, and tavern owners worked in industries that required frequent credit and the ability to quickly and easily move money. In Philadelphia, women went to the Bank of North America, now Wells Fargo, to find the financial tools they needed for success. Known as America’s first commercial bank, the Bank of North America started a powerful trend of making credit more accessible to early American businesses.
Despite the expectations society placed upon them, women learned to use the limited power available to them to run businesses and build fortunes of their own — as illustrated in the stories below.
Widowed in 1778, Rebecca Young needed to find a way to support her family. Like many women, she had experience sewing. She used her skill to make flags, blankets, drum cases, and other supplies for the Revolutionary Army. She became well-known for her flags, which sold for as much as 26 pounds and 9 shillings at a time when the American dollar was just starting to enter the economy. Her family pitched in to help Young start her business. Her daughter helped her sew and her brother — the commissary general of military stores in 1777 — purchased her products for the military. Even after the war ended, she continued selling flags for several years to a patriotic public.
Like many artisans, Young often needed credit to buy her supplies and cover upfront business expenses. When she needed money, she turned to the Bank of North America. Unlike loans today, Young got a “discount” loan. Instead of paying interest and principal at the end of her loan term, her interest was deducted from the loan total. When Young took out a 31-day loan for $320 on July 2, 1782, she received $318.30. Records show that Young paid back $320 when her loan ended in August.
Margaret Duncan had always helped her husband run his store in Philadelphia. When he died in 1770, she announced in the newspaper that she “carries on the Business as usual, and has a large Assortment of Goods, which she will sell on the lowest terms.” Fifteen years later, she continued to operate his store on Water Street. She sold at wholesale prices a variety of fabrics imported from Europe, offering everything from linens and calicos to silks and sewing threads.
Duncan used many of the services the Bank of North America had to offer. She received discount loans, and she wrote checks on the bank to pay her creditors. In 1784, the Bank of North America processed her payments to merchants Robertson & Co. and Lewis & Co., covering some of the costs until she added money to her account.
Duncan’s daughter Elizabeth learned from her mother and opened her own shop in her own name while she was married to the Rev. David Telfair, the pastor of the local Presbyterian church. When he died in 1789, she continued her trade until her own death in 1793. Like her mother, she did business with the Bank of North America.
Hannah Holland was married to shopkeeper Benjamin Holland. By 1797, she was a widow and had taken over the business. Holland had an extensive account at the Bank of North America. When she needed a loan to cover expenses, she took out a $1,000 discount loan, paying the interest in advance and receiving $994.67 — about $20,000 today.
She was remembered by other merchants for her success through low-pressure sales and was “very popular for her easy manner, and liberal allowance for an adverse opinion of a customer — always happy if they bought, and content if they did not.” Her business savvy earned her a good fortune, as her fellow merchants noted: “Wealth settled upon her, and she settled it upon her only child — a daughter — afterwards Mrs. Singleton.”
Born in 1730, Mary Rhea was married to a popular merchant named John Rhea. Together they had several children who went on to marry other merchants and become merchants themselves. In 1773, her husband died, and while she could have left the business to her children, Rhea ran the store herself until 1805. She wrote checks to her suppliers on her Bank of North America account, and she received frequent discount loans to operate her store.
Rhea’s daughter, also named Mary, married the successful merchant William Turnbull in 1778. While married, she managed her own business interests. She invested in the shipping trade of merchant John Nixon, who later went on to become president of the Bank of North America. In the 1770s, Nixon’s business relied upon frequent orders of rum, sugar, and other commodities from Mary Turnbull. In a series of letters, he notified her of the arrival of shipments and sought her approval for the quality of the shipments he arranged.
Hannah Laboyteaux lived in New York with her husband, John Laboyteaux, who worked as a tailor. When the British occupied the city, Laboyteaux and her husband fled to Philadelphia, where they set up shop again. As an economically modest family, the two found different ways to bring money into the house. They sold cloth, took in boarders, and offered tailoring services.
When John Laboyteaux died in 1780, Hannah Laboyteaux continued operating the family’s cloth store in Philadelphia until 1784, when she moved back to New York. When in Philadelphia, she used the Bank of North America’s commercial loan services, who gave her a 12-day loan for $166.60.
Preserving history for future generations
Women who operated businesses and managed finances in early America often left few records. The stories of the women shared here come from the records of their bank, the Bank of North America, and are preserved by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. The collection originally came to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in 1939 through a long-term loan made by a prominent Philadelphia bank, then called the Pennsylvania Company for Insurance on Lives and Granting Annuities, and today known as Wells Fargo. In 2012, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania received a grant from the Wells Fargo Foundation to preserve the collection of approximately 650 volumes, 400 graphics, and boxes of loose manuscripts. Through Wells Fargo’s funding and the hard work of the staff of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the records of this unique bank will provide new discoveries for future generations of researchers. | <urn:uuid:c8308ff1-6206-4e69-be58-89695eab750e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stories.wf.com/american-women-1700s-ran-businesses | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.983286 | 1,521 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.058396864682... | 4 | How American women in the 1700s ran their businesses
When women in early America needed access to credit and payment tools, they turned to the Bank of North America in Philadelphia, America’s first commercial bank, and today Wells Fargo.
In the 1700s, women’s opportunities were limited by society and politics. This is perhaps best reflected in a famous exchange between Abigail Adams and her husband, and later U.S. president, John Adams. Although their marriage is remembered as being a partnership of mutual respect and affection, when Abigail wrote to John in 1776 to “remember the ladies” and ensure equality when creating the new government, he replied, “I cannot but laugh.”
The law at the time allowed women to carry money and debts in their own name, although women required the permission of their husband to own a business. A widow often had the independence to manage her own future.
Female merchants, shopkeepers, and tavern owners worked in industries that required frequent credit and the ability to quickly and easily move money. In Philadelphia, women went to the Bank of North America, now Wells Fargo, to find the financial tools they needed for success. Known as America’s first commercial bank, the Bank of North America started a powerful trend of making credit more accessible to early American businesses.
Despite the expectations society placed upon them, women learned to use the limited power available to them to run businesses and build fortunes of their own — as illustrated in the stories below.
Widowed in 1778, Rebecca Young needed to find a way to support her family. Like many women, she had experience sewing. She used her skill to make flags, blankets, drum cases, and other supplies for the Revolutionary Army. She became well-known for her flags, which sold for as much as 26 pounds and 9 shillings at a time when the American dollar was just starting to enter the economy. Her family pitched in to help Young start her business. Her daughter helped her sew and her brother — the commissary general of military stores in 1777 — purchased her products for the military. Even after the war ended, she continued selling flags for several years to a patriotic public.
Like many artisans, Young often needed credit to buy her supplies and cover upfront business expenses. When she needed money, she turned to the Bank of North America. Unlike loans today, Young got a “discount” loan. Instead of paying interest and principal at the end of her loan term, her interest was deducted from the loan total. When Young took out a 31-day loan for $320 on July 2, 1782, she received $318.30. Records show that Young paid back $320 when her loan ended in August.
Margaret Duncan had always helped her husband run his store in Philadelphia. When he died in 1770, she announced in the newspaper that she “carries on the Business as usual, and has a large Assortment of Goods, which she will sell on the lowest terms.” Fifteen years later, she continued to operate his store on Water Street. She sold at wholesale prices a variety of fabrics imported from Europe, offering everything from linens and calicos to silks and sewing threads.
Duncan used many of the services the Bank of North America had to offer. She received discount loans, and she wrote checks on the bank to pay her creditors. In 1784, the Bank of North America processed her payments to merchants Robertson & Co. and Lewis & Co., covering some of the costs until she added money to her account.
Duncan’s daughter Elizabeth learned from her mother and opened her own shop in her own name while she was married to the Rev. David Telfair, the pastor of the local Presbyterian church. When he died in 1789, she continued her trade until her own death in 1793. Like her mother, she did business with the Bank of North America.
Hannah Holland was married to shopkeeper Benjamin Holland. By 1797, she was a widow and had taken over the business. Holland had an extensive account at the Bank of North America. When she needed a loan to cover expenses, she took out a $1,000 discount loan, paying the interest in advance and receiving $994.67 — about $20,000 today.
She was remembered by other merchants for her success through low-pressure sales and was “very popular for her easy manner, and liberal allowance for an adverse opinion of a customer — always happy if they bought, and content if they did not.” Her business savvy earned her a good fortune, as her fellow merchants noted: “Wealth settled upon her, and she settled it upon her only child — a daughter — afterwards Mrs. Singleton.”
Born in 1730, Mary Rhea was married to a popular merchant named John Rhea. Together they had several children who went on to marry other merchants and become merchants themselves. In 1773, her husband died, and while she could have left the business to her children, Rhea ran the store herself until 1805. She wrote checks to her suppliers on her Bank of North America account, and she received frequent discount loans to operate her store.
Rhea’s daughter, also named Mary, married the successful merchant William Turnbull in 1778. While married, she managed her own business interests. She invested in the shipping trade of merchant John Nixon, who later went on to become president of the Bank of North America. In the 1770s, Nixon’s business relied upon frequent orders of rum, sugar, and other commodities from Mary Turnbull. In a series of letters, he notified her of the arrival of shipments and sought her approval for the quality of the shipments he arranged.
Hannah Laboyteaux lived in New York with her husband, John Laboyteaux, who worked as a tailor. When the British occupied the city, Laboyteaux and her husband fled to Philadelphia, where they set up shop again. As an economically modest family, the two found different ways to bring money into the house. They sold cloth, took in boarders, and offered tailoring services.
When John Laboyteaux died in 1780, Hannah Laboyteaux continued operating the family’s cloth store in Philadelphia until 1784, when she moved back to New York. When in Philadelphia, she used the Bank of North America’s commercial loan services, who gave her a 12-day loan for $166.60.
Preserving history for future generations
Women who operated businesses and managed finances in early America often left few records. The stories of the women shared here come from the records of their bank, the Bank of North America, and are preserved by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. The collection originally came to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in 1939 through a long-term loan made by a prominent Philadelphia bank, then called the Pennsylvania Company for Insurance on Lives and Granting Annuities, and today known as Wells Fargo. In 2012, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania received a grant from the Wells Fargo Foundation to preserve the collection of approximately 650 volumes, 400 graphics, and boxes of loose manuscripts. Through Wells Fargo’s funding and the hard work of the staff of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the records of this unique bank will provide new discoveries for future generations of researchers. | 1,556 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
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If it wasn't for Stephen Crane and his visionary work than American Realism would not have taken hold of the USA during the eighteen hundreds. Through the years after the Civil War America was a melting pot of several different writing styles. Many scholars argue that at this time there was still no definite American writer or technique. Up to the stage writers in the Americas simply replicated techniques that were popular in regions of Europe. Stephen Crane came onto the scene with a rather different approach to many of his contemporaries. He had been a realist, and being so he explained actions at a real, unadorned way that portrayed scenarios in the way that they really occurred (Kaplan). He had numerous admired pieces but his most famous work has been that the Red Badge of Courage (Bentley 103). Within this novel he illustrates the reports of a Union soldier named Henry Fleming. In the beginning the writing was considered too graphic and many people didn't purchase the book. Finally the American people changed their remarks and started to gravitate towards Crane’s work. The viewers were fascinated with the realistic environment he creates even though he himself had never fought in a war (Bentley 103). By dispersing the effect of realistic composing Crane has become known as the very first American Realist. Stephen Crane was born on November 1, 1871, in Newark, New Jersey. He was the son of a Methodist minister, named Reverend Townley Crane. As a boy Crane was frequently ill and this feeling of jealousy is thought to have led to his realistic, chilly, challenging manner of writing he became famed four. So far as his schooling went, Crane went through a lengthy path of education through the years. During his academic career he also attended Pennington Seminar... | <urn:uuid:06c3b8df-8298-43c8-b789-a4d9af021ec3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1010158/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.988423 | 380 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2716326117515564... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
If it wasn't for Stephen Crane and his visionary work than American Realism would not have taken hold of the USA during the eighteen hundreds. Through the years after the Civil War America was a melting pot of several different writing styles. Many scholars argue that at this time there was still no definite American writer or technique. Up to the stage writers in the Americas simply replicated techniques that were popular in regions of Europe. Stephen Crane came onto the scene with a rather different approach to many of his contemporaries. He had been a realist, and being so he explained actions at a real, unadorned way that portrayed scenarios in the way that they really occurred (Kaplan). He had numerous admired pieces but his most famous work has been that the Red Badge of Courage (Bentley 103). Within this novel he illustrates the reports of a Union soldier named Henry Fleming. In the beginning the writing was considered too graphic and many people didn't purchase the book. Finally the American people changed their remarks and started to gravitate towards Crane’s work. The viewers were fascinated with the realistic environment he creates even though he himself had never fought in a war (Bentley 103). By dispersing the effect of realistic composing Crane has become known as the very first American Realist. Stephen Crane was born on November 1, 1871, in Newark, New Jersey. He was the son of a Methodist minister, named Reverend Townley Crane. As a boy Crane was frequently ill and this feeling of jealousy is thought to have led to his realistic, chilly, challenging manner of writing he became famed four. So far as his schooling went, Crane went through a lengthy path of education through the years. During his academic career he also attended Pennington Seminar... | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although not as brutal as their Red Army allies, soldiers of the Western nations mistreated and exploited European women after World War II.
Soviet troops raped, killed and mutilated about two million German women and about half a million more in Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, the French, American and British forces, while not acting as brutally, also abused the women of the occupied territories.
In addition, many citizens of nations formerly occupied by the Germans, singled out women as the perfect target to show their patriotism and hate toward the Nazis and collaborators. The ill treatment of women varied somewhat from nation to nation and according to military organization.
In France women charged with horizontal collaboration – taking on German lovers – were particularly abused. The main punishment was head shaving, a form of degradation dating back to the Middle Ages. Many of the women, were then paraded through the streets of cities frequently with very little clothes on, painted with swastikas and smeared in tar.
In many cases the French Resistance tried to prevent the reprisals, whch were, more often than not, performed by either former minor collaborators or those envious of the benefits the women received from their German lovers during the occupation. Countless prostitutes were punished for entertaining German clients. But some resistance groups were vindictive. Fully a third of the civilians executed in acts of vengeance at the end of the war in Brittany were women.
As many as 200,000 children were born of he unions between French women and German soldiers. In the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark the figure is in the tens of thousands. After the liberation the French Army accompanied the Allies into Germany. There, the French soldiers behaved very much in the same way the American soldiers did. French soldiers fathered over 10,000 children with German women.
American GIs set the pattern for Allied treatment of women, Their behavior toward women in the liberated countries and Germany was perhaps more benign but no less humilliating.
The rapes, beating and occasional murders were regularly reported. American soldiers usually gained the favors of women by enticing them with food and material goods not readily available in the territory. Cigarettes and chocolate bars were a particular popular brand of currency.
Some 36,500 children were fathered by American soldiers during the 10 year occupation of Germany. The GIs, however, took no responsibility because, under military policy, they denied paternity of the child and the German woman had no further recourse. It was the same in all occupied territories. Even in cases when the soldier took on the responsibility of fatherhood, an order to redeploy elsewhere would end all contacts between him and his partner.
Particular problems arose over the offspring of African-American troops and German women.
British and Canadians
About 8,500 children were born to British fathers and German mothers during the occupation. Clear figures do not exist regarding the offspring of Canadians in Germany, but while stationed in Britain, 22,000 children were fathered by them. In the Netherlands, some 4,000 babies were born of Canadian fathers and Dutch mothers. Authorities in London and Ottawa discouraged intimate relations, but if they happened, they ignored the relationships, fully protecting the soldier.
In Italy, Greece and many other European nations, women accused of collaboration were treated in the same manner as in France, prompting some American and British commanders to interfere.
Allied troops behaved in the same manner in the countries were they were stationed, such as Italy, France and Austria, using abundant material goods to buy companionship and sex. . Women in the sector of Austria occupied by the Soviets suffered much worse treatment.
Women and their children were treated as outcasts in their own countries for at least half a century. They suffered isolation and name calling (German whore and German kid were fairly common labels ), unemployment, beatings and harassment. Many ended up in interment camps, at least for the short term.
Official action was not taken to bring closure to the issue. However, most of the women who suffered ill treatment are now dead and their children are on their 60s. | <urn:uuid:e16583b5-e9d2-4c94-87ec-9070890e11cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldhistory.us/european-history/cruel-treatment-of-women-after-world-war-ii.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.986748 | 823 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.275526583194732... | 13 | Although not as brutal as their Red Army allies, soldiers of the Western nations mistreated and exploited European women after World War II.
Soviet troops raped, killed and mutilated about two million German women and about half a million more in Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, the French, American and British forces, while not acting as brutally, also abused the women of the occupied territories.
In addition, many citizens of nations formerly occupied by the Germans, singled out women as the perfect target to show their patriotism and hate toward the Nazis and collaborators. The ill treatment of women varied somewhat from nation to nation and according to military organization.
In France women charged with horizontal collaboration – taking on German lovers – were particularly abused. The main punishment was head shaving, a form of degradation dating back to the Middle Ages. Many of the women, were then paraded through the streets of cities frequently with very little clothes on, painted with swastikas and smeared in tar.
In many cases the French Resistance tried to prevent the reprisals, whch were, more often than not, performed by either former minor collaborators or those envious of the benefits the women received from their German lovers during the occupation. Countless prostitutes were punished for entertaining German clients. But some resistance groups were vindictive. Fully a third of the civilians executed in acts of vengeance at the end of the war in Brittany were women.
As many as 200,000 children were born of he unions between French women and German soldiers. In the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark the figure is in the tens of thousands. After the liberation the French Army accompanied the Allies into Germany. There, the French soldiers behaved very much in the same way the American soldiers did. French soldiers fathered over 10,000 children with German women.
American GIs set the pattern for Allied treatment of women, Their behavior toward women in the liberated countries and Germany was perhaps more benign but no less humilliating.
The rapes, beating and occasional murders were regularly reported. American soldiers usually gained the favors of women by enticing them with food and material goods not readily available in the territory. Cigarettes and chocolate bars were a particular popular brand of currency.
Some 36,500 children were fathered by American soldiers during the 10 year occupation of Germany. The GIs, however, took no responsibility because, under military policy, they denied paternity of the child and the German woman had no further recourse. It was the same in all occupied territories. Even in cases when the soldier took on the responsibility of fatherhood, an order to redeploy elsewhere would end all contacts between him and his partner.
Particular problems arose over the offspring of African-American troops and German women.
British and Canadians
About 8,500 children were born to British fathers and German mothers during the occupation. Clear figures do not exist regarding the offspring of Canadians in Germany, but while stationed in Britain, 22,000 children were fathered by them. In the Netherlands, some 4,000 babies were born of Canadian fathers and Dutch mothers. Authorities in London and Ottawa discouraged intimate relations, but if they happened, they ignored the relationships, fully protecting the soldier.
In Italy, Greece and many other European nations, women accused of collaboration were treated in the same manner as in France, prompting some American and British commanders to interfere.
Allied troops behaved in the same manner in the countries were they were stationed, such as Italy, France and Austria, using abundant material goods to buy companionship and sex. . Women in the sector of Austria occupied by the Soviets suffered much worse treatment.
Women and their children were treated as outcasts in their own countries for at least half a century. They suffered isolation and name calling (German whore and German kid were fairly common labels ), unemployment, beatings and harassment. Many ended up in interment camps, at least for the short term.
Official action was not taken to bring closure to the issue. However, most of the women who suffered ill treatment are now dead and their children are on their 60s. | 841 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Xenophon, after being exiled from Athens, spent the last years of his life hunting, writing, and recalling in his books the great days of the Persian expedition. This record of one of the most famous marches in history contains an account of the day-to-day life of ordinary men and soldiers. It demonstrates how Greek theories of government and morality worked out in practice—for with his admiration for the great, Xenophon had a rare ability to understand and describe the outlook of lesser men. His own fortunes, too, are intensely moving. Cool, calculating, brilliant, and intensely pious, he is one of the most fascinating characters of history, and his account of his own doings is so far from being self-conscious that he seems to be one of the very few Greeks whose ways and manners have been accurately documented. | <urn:uuid:b63c0045-9c97-4a03-b3ab-deab3e4bd880> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-persian-expedition-xenophon/1116703948 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.9841 | 167 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.5917858481407... | 1 | Xenophon, after being exiled from Athens, spent the last years of his life hunting, writing, and recalling in his books the great days of the Persian expedition. This record of one of the most famous marches in history contains an account of the day-to-day life of ordinary men and soldiers. It demonstrates how Greek theories of government and morality worked out in practice—for with his admiration for the great, Xenophon had a rare ability to understand and describe the outlook of lesser men. His own fortunes, too, are intensely moving. Cool, calculating, brilliant, and intensely pious, he is one of the most fascinating characters of history, and his account of his own doings is so far from being self-conscious that he seems to be one of the very few Greeks whose ways and manners have been accurately documented. | 165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The new committee was to provide for the defense of the nation against its enemies, foreign and domestic, and to oversee the already existing organs of executive government. The members of the committee, at first numbering 9 and later increased to 12, were elected by the National Convention representative assembly for a period of one month and were eligible for reelection. From April to July 10,the Committee of Public Safety was dominated by Georges Danton and his followers, who pursued a policy of moderation and reconciliation but who failed to deal adequately with the precarious military situation. These men were replaced in July by men more determined and more radical in the defense of the Revolution, among them Maximilien Robespierre.
Click here for a more detailed account of the French Revolution The French people overthrew their ancient government in Equality, or doing away with privilege, was the most important part of the slogan to the French revolutionists. For equality they were willing to sacrifice their political liberty.
They did this when they accepted the rule of Napoleon I. Fraternity, or brotherhood with all men, was also sacrificed.
However, they did win equality before the law. Before inequality was typical of the old government. The nobles and clergy were the privileged orders. They were exempt from such direct taxes as the taille, or land tax.
Most taxes were paid by the Third Estate--a class that included peasants, artisans, merchants, and professional men. Even among these groups taxes were not equal.
Some provinces were exempt from certain assessments, such as the gabelle, or salt tax. In addition, the collection of some taxes was made by contractors or tax farmers, and the tax gatherers collected whatever they could.
Other Inequalities There were social and economic inequalities as well as political ones. The peasant suffered under the burden of out-of-date feudal dues. These were collected with renewed vigor by the nobles in the latter part of the 18th century.
In addition to the dues to the king and the nobles, the peasants had to pay dues to the church. These and other obligations seemed senseless and unreasonable in an age when people were coming to believe in the rule of reason. The conditions were no worse in the latter part of the 18th century than they had been earlier.
Neither were they as bad in France as in some other parts of Europe.
Now, however, the people were beginning to think. The writers of the time helped stir up thought and discontent. Final Steps Before the Revolution At last the day of reckoning came. The national treasury had been exhausted by the wars of Louis XIV and by his extravagance and that of his successors.
The million dollars that it cost France to aid the Americans in their fight for independence was the last straw. Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker, ministers of finance, had tried to ward off bankruptcy by cutting court expenses.
The reckless court, led by the sprightly, frivolous, extravagant queen, Marie Antoinette, would not listen to the word "economy" see Marie Antoinette. Turgot and Necker were dismissed and other ministers took their place.
Finally foreign bankers refused to lend more money. Public opinion was deeply stirred by the Parlement of Paris, a judicial body which defied the king and refused to enforce new taxes.Dear Twitpic Community - thank you for all the wonderful photos you have taken over the years.
We have now placed Twitpic in an archived state. Jan 27, · The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars represented continuity in European diplomacy from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, but witnessed considerable change in the way that war was waged.
The influence of Revolutionary and Napoleonic France depended on the nature of its relationship with the other European states.
The French Revolution: A War of the Social Classes - The French Revolution was basically a war of the social classes.
The middle class believed that in order to gain equality they had to get rid of the privileges that were stopping the progress of their rise in society. Full Answer. The National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety to defend France from its domestic and foreign enemies, and to coordinate the French government's executive functions.
The French Revolution of had a momentous impact on neighboring countries. The French Revolutionary in the second half of the 19th century, this helped pave the way for future economic growth.
The evidence. The publisher of the Journal on European History of Law is the STS Science Centre Ltd. seated in London.
The European Society for History of Law closely cooperates with the STS Science Centre Ltd. and helps with editing the journal. | <urn:uuid:20f64465-96df-42fc-b52f-2fb9661b89c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sirerybazyca.monstermanfilm.com/an-overview-of-the-french-revolutionary-committee-of-public-safety-in-18th-century-36053af.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.981407 | 943 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2927759885787964,... | 1 | The new committee was to provide for the defense of the nation against its enemies, foreign and domestic, and to oversee the already existing organs of executive government. The members of the committee, at first numbering 9 and later increased to 12, were elected by the National Convention representative assembly for a period of one month and were eligible for reelection. From April to July 10,the Committee of Public Safety was dominated by Georges Danton and his followers, who pursued a policy of moderation and reconciliation but who failed to deal adequately with the precarious military situation. These men were replaced in July by men more determined and more radical in the defense of the Revolution, among them Maximilien Robespierre.
Click here for a more detailed account of the French Revolution The French people overthrew their ancient government in Equality, or doing away with privilege, was the most important part of the slogan to the French revolutionists. For equality they were willing to sacrifice their political liberty.
They did this when they accepted the rule of Napoleon I. Fraternity, or brotherhood with all men, was also sacrificed.
However, they did win equality before the law. Before inequality was typical of the old government. The nobles and clergy were the privileged orders. They were exempt from such direct taxes as the taille, or land tax.
Most taxes were paid by the Third Estate--a class that included peasants, artisans, merchants, and professional men. Even among these groups taxes were not equal.
Some provinces were exempt from certain assessments, such as the gabelle, or salt tax. In addition, the collection of some taxes was made by contractors or tax farmers, and the tax gatherers collected whatever they could.
Other Inequalities There were social and economic inequalities as well as political ones. The peasant suffered under the burden of out-of-date feudal dues. These were collected with renewed vigor by the nobles in the latter part of the 18th century.
In addition to the dues to the king and the nobles, the peasants had to pay dues to the church. These and other obligations seemed senseless and unreasonable in an age when people were coming to believe in the rule of reason. The conditions were no worse in the latter part of the 18th century than they had been earlier.
Neither were they as bad in France as in some other parts of Europe.
Now, however, the people were beginning to think. The writers of the time helped stir up thought and discontent. Final Steps Before the Revolution At last the day of reckoning came. The national treasury had been exhausted by the wars of Louis XIV and by his extravagance and that of his successors.
The million dollars that it cost France to aid the Americans in their fight for independence was the last straw. Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker, ministers of finance, had tried to ward off bankruptcy by cutting court expenses.
The reckless court, led by the sprightly, frivolous, extravagant queen, Marie Antoinette, would not listen to the word "economy" see Marie Antoinette. Turgot and Necker were dismissed and other ministers took their place.
Finally foreign bankers refused to lend more money. Public opinion was deeply stirred by the Parlement of Paris, a judicial body which defied the king and refused to enforce new taxes.Dear Twitpic Community - thank you for all the wonderful photos you have taken over the years.
We have now placed Twitpic in an archived state. Jan 27, · The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars represented continuity in European diplomacy from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, but witnessed considerable change in the way that war was waged.
The influence of Revolutionary and Napoleonic France depended on the nature of its relationship with the other European states.
The French Revolution: A War of the Social Classes - The French Revolution was basically a war of the social classes.
The middle class believed that in order to gain equality they had to get rid of the privileges that were stopping the progress of their rise in society. Full Answer. The National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety to defend France from its domestic and foreign enemies, and to coordinate the French government's executive functions.
The French Revolution of had a momentous impact on neighboring countries. The French Revolutionary in the second half of the 19th century, this helped pave the way for future economic growth.
The evidence. The publisher of the Journal on European History of Law is the STS Science Centre Ltd. seated in London.
The European Society for History of Law closely cooperates with the STS Science Centre Ltd. and helps with editing the journal. | 935 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ruthlessness of Nazi rule and the barbarities of war forced some children to mature beyond their years. One child survivor described them as “old people with children's faces, without a trace of joy, happiness, or childish innocence.” Adapting to their abnormal circumstances, Jewish boys and girls in hiding improvised games, took advantage of the scant educational opportunities available, and eked out a precarious existence through their own labor.
The daily experiences of hidden children varied, depending upon whether they could live openly and perhaps attend school and socialize with others their age, or had to be physically concealed. For those who were not permitted to journey outside, life in hiding was often filled with pain, torment, and boredom. Reading, playing, and creative expression could help to fill seemingly endless hours and temporarily divert the child's attention from his or her desperate situation.
Toys and Play
I didn't have anything to play. I was at that time six years old, and I didn't know...I used to play with the chickens and play with the straws...
Sarah (Sheila) Peretz Etons
Play is an essential part of a child's life experience, fostering creativity, social interaction, and mental development. Even in the ghettos and concentration camps, Jewish children sought solace in games. For hidden children who often had few personal belongings, toys took on special meaning. They could help forge a bond between the children and rescuers or reaffirm a tie to their missing parents or family. Just as importantly, playthings and games helped to restore some semblance of normal childhood to youngsters living under abnormal circumstances.
Since ancient times, education has been an important element of Jewish culture. As Germany took control of Europe, however, opportunities for Jews to attend schools and universities were initially limited severely and eventually eliminated entirely.
For “Aryan”-looking school-age children in hiding, the routines of going to class and studying helped to restore some sense of normality in their lives, and perhaps their new-made friends gave them much needed solace. Children who were physically concealed had few opportunities for formal study, but when possible, they too tried to educate themselves through reading and writing.
Jewish hidden children frequently shared in their foster families' household chores and work responsibilities. In rural areas, they often tended animals and helped with planting and harvesting crops. In urban settings, Jewish children worked in factories or sold foodstuffs or other items on the open and black markets. In some cases, older youths fled to the forests to eke out an existence or to join the partisans in combating the Nazis.
As Jews were forced to move into ghettos or were deported to concentration camps, the Nazis deprived them of most of their possessions by drastically limiting the amount of moveable property that they could take. Once the Jews were moved, the Nazis then restricted the flow of goods to them.
Children who went into hiding had to move quickly and inconspicuously and as a consequence, were forced to leave behind even the few possessions they owned. Most took little more than the clothes on their backs. Due to wartime shortages, obtaining new clothing was generally difficult, so rescuers made children's clothing from scraps or dressed the youngsters in hand-me-down garments.
Series: Children during the Holocaust
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were children especially vulnerable to Nazi persecution?
- What risks, pressures, and motivations confronted rescuers when they tried to help children?
- What parts of childhood could a hidden child try to preserve?
- Do children continue to be especially vulnerable in times of upheaval? | <urn:uuid:cd0ffcd8-54fb-45b2-ad68-794821acd0bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/hidden-children-daily-life?series=19126 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.982725 | 735 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.312869668006897... | 9 | The ruthlessness of Nazi rule and the barbarities of war forced some children to mature beyond their years. One child survivor described them as “old people with children's faces, without a trace of joy, happiness, or childish innocence.” Adapting to their abnormal circumstances, Jewish boys and girls in hiding improvised games, took advantage of the scant educational opportunities available, and eked out a precarious existence through their own labor.
The daily experiences of hidden children varied, depending upon whether they could live openly and perhaps attend school and socialize with others their age, or had to be physically concealed. For those who were not permitted to journey outside, life in hiding was often filled with pain, torment, and boredom. Reading, playing, and creative expression could help to fill seemingly endless hours and temporarily divert the child's attention from his or her desperate situation.
Toys and Play
I didn't have anything to play. I was at that time six years old, and I didn't know...I used to play with the chickens and play with the straws...
Sarah (Sheila) Peretz Etons
Play is an essential part of a child's life experience, fostering creativity, social interaction, and mental development. Even in the ghettos and concentration camps, Jewish children sought solace in games. For hidden children who often had few personal belongings, toys took on special meaning. They could help forge a bond between the children and rescuers or reaffirm a tie to their missing parents or family. Just as importantly, playthings and games helped to restore some semblance of normal childhood to youngsters living under abnormal circumstances.
Since ancient times, education has been an important element of Jewish culture. As Germany took control of Europe, however, opportunities for Jews to attend schools and universities were initially limited severely and eventually eliminated entirely.
For “Aryan”-looking school-age children in hiding, the routines of going to class and studying helped to restore some sense of normality in their lives, and perhaps their new-made friends gave them much needed solace. Children who were physically concealed had few opportunities for formal study, but when possible, they too tried to educate themselves through reading and writing.
Jewish hidden children frequently shared in their foster families' household chores and work responsibilities. In rural areas, they often tended animals and helped with planting and harvesting crops. In urban settings, Jewish children worked in factories or sold foodstuffs or other items on the open and black markets. In some cases, older youths fled to the forests to eke out an existence or to join the partisans in combating the Nazis.
As Jews were forced to move into ghettos or were deported to concentration camps, the Nazis deprived them of most of their possessions by drastically limiting the amount of moveable property that they could take. Once the Jews were moved, the Nazis then restricted the flow of goods to them.
Children who went into hiding had to move quickly and inconspicuously and as a consequence, were forced to leave behind even the few possessions they owned. Most took little more than the clothes on their backs. Due to wartime shortages, obtaining new clothing was generally difficult, so rescuers made children's clothing from scraps or dressed the youngsters in hand-me-down garments.
Series: Children during the Holocaust
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were children especially vulnerable to Nazi persecution?
- What risks, pressures, and motivations confronted rescuers when they tried to help children?
- What parts of childhood could a hidden child try to preserve?
- Do children continue to be especially vulnerable in times of upheaval? | 720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Odysseus is a Hero
There are countless ways to describe a hero. A hero is someone who fights for what they believe in. They fight with their men and are determined to come back home. In the Odyssey, Odysseus is a hero because he is a leader, very determined, and is extremely skillful.
Odysseus was a leader in various ways. He led his men through the Trojan War and many difficult challenges that faced them. Sometimes he didn't want so many men walking in on something unexpected, so he only took a few and made the rest stay at the ship. For example, "Old shipmates, friends, the rest of you stand by; I'll make the crossing in my own ship, with my own company, and find out what the mainland natives are-for they may be wild savages, in lawless,…show more content…
Antinous also threatened Odysseus son. Odysseus thought getting the leader out of the way, when he didn't expect it would make it easier. By Odysseus killing all the men trying out to take his place, then by Athena helping him, proved he's very determined enough to have a god help him.
Odysseus is very skillful. For him to survive traveling for twenty years through all that he had experienced is tough. There are many different ways to portray Odysseus as skillful. For example, “But the man skilled in all ways of contending, satisfied by the great bow’s look and heft, like a musician, like a harper…”(21. 197-199). Homer used this way to describe Odysseus because it’s true. Odysseus is a man that is skilled in many ways. Homer is describing Odysseus like that since he did it so smoothly and so naturally it looks “like a musician” because when a musician plays its natural and they play smoothly. Since Odysseus is so skillful he can do what most men can’t do. He can build beds that only gods can move and hit targets that most men can’t. For example, “So much for that. Your clean-cut game is over. Now watch me hit a target that no man has hit before…” (22. 236-237). Odysseus says this because the suitors were going to take his place. This is what Odysseus is angry about this. He was gone for years and when he comes back to his homeland he finds all the suitors trying out to take his place. For someone being so | <urn:uuid:9fc67fe5-b16a-4333-9af5-72d43d3a9064> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Loachus-A-Hero-Odysseus-As-A-Hero-P37X34TWL9P | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.983158 | 555 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.37890732288... | 1 | Odysseus is a Hero
There are countless ways to describe a hero. A hero is someone who fights for what they believe in. They fight with their men and are determined to come back home. In the Odyssey, Odysseus is a hero because he is a leader, very determined, and is extremely skillful.
Odysseus was a leader in various ways. He led his men through the Trojan War and many difficult challenges that faced them. Sometimes he didn't want so many men walking in on something unexpected, so he only took a few and made the rest stay at the ship. For example, "Old shipmates, friends, the rest of you stand by; I'll make the crossing in my own ship, with my own company, and find out what the mainland natives are-for they may be wild savages, in lawless,…show more content…
Antinous also threatened Odysseus son. Odysseus thought getting the leader out of the way, when he didn't expect it would make it easier. By Odysseus killing all the men trying out to take his place, then by Athena helping him, proved he's very determined enough to have a god help him.
Odysseus is very skillful. For him to survive traveling for twenty years through all that he had experienced is tough. There are many different ways to portray Odysseus as skillful. For example, “But the man skilled in all ways of contending, satisfied by the great bow’s look and heft, like a musician, like a harper…”(21. 197-199). Homer used this way to describe Odysseus because it’s true. Odysseus is a man that is skilled in many ways. Homer is describing Odysseus like that since he did it so smoothly and so naturally it looks “like a musician” because when a musician plays its natural and they play smoothly. Since Odysseus is so skillful he can do what most men can’t do. He can build beds that only gods can move and hit targets that most men can’t. For example, “So much for that. Your clean-cut game is over. Now watch me hit a target that no man has hit before…” (22. 236-237). Odysseus says this because the suitors were going to take his place. This is what Odysseus is angry about this. He was gone for years and when he comes back to his homeland he finds all the suitors trying out to take his place. For someone being so | 542 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Age of Caesar: Five Roman Lives
Andreas Kluth tells us that Plutarch, who lived from 46 CE to 120 CE, is widely acclaimed as the father of biography.
Although Plutarch lived after the people he wrote biographies about, material about them was readily available to him. For example both his grandfather and father lived during the period of the five men included in Dr. Mensch’s book. In addition, oral histories and written materials existed. Unfortunately, much of the written material has been lost to time.
In his original Lives, frequently referred to as Parallel Lives or Plutarch’s Lives, Plutarch selected a prominent Greek and then sought a Roman whom he thought was the Greek’s equal. Thus the notion of parallel lives.
Mensch’s brilliance is in taking Plutarch’s idea a step further. She selected five prominent Roman figures whose lives intertwined. The result is a very interesting discussion of these notable whose influence on Western history is profound.
This book is a collection of five well known Roman figures who lived during the same tumultuous period: Pompey 106–48 BCE, Julius Caesar 100–44 BCE, Cicero 106–43 BCE, Brutus 85–42 BCE, and Mark Antony 83–30 BCE.
This time period was one of great violence—faction against faction, friend against friend, and even family member against family member. Pax Romana? It was anything and everything but! The book begins as the Roman social and civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic were coming to an end. Strabo, a much hated general and Pompey’s father was now dead. Sulla had not yet become dictator, but was about to do so.
Dr. Mensch does a fantastic job of referencing back and forth between the five men, as required, so the reader can better understand the intertwining nuances of each biography. Dr. Mensch footnotes these instances and provides explanations where possible.
For example, she devotes over one-third of her book to Pompey’s biography and supports it with 225 footnotes. These footnotes not only clarify some of the things Plutarch wrote, they also relate the discussion of Pompey to the other four biographies. This was very helpful.
Noted British Historian Ian Morris, who currently teaches at Stanford, states that Dr. Mensch’s translation of those “five most tragic figures in ancient history” is brilliant and sets a high standard for such works.
Pompey, unlike his father, was, at this point well liked primarily because of “his temperate way of life, his military training, his persuasive speech, the trustworthiness of his character, and his affability when meeting people.” He was a young man then, but over the years he squandered his good will until it cost him his life.
Plutarch paints a great picture of his life from the time he stood trial before Antistius until his demise one day after his 58th birthday. Mensch’s translation is well done. | <urn:uuid:96d8072c-6c7f-4986-9528-de3d9f39903a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nyjournalofbooks.com/book-review/age-caesar | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.980884 | 645 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.232427299022... | 5 | The Age of Caesar: Five Roman Lives
Andreas Kluth tells us that Plutarch, who lived from 46 CE to 120 CE, is widely acclaimed as the father of biography.
Although Plutarch lived after the people he wrote biographies about, material about them was readily available to him. For example both his grandfather and father lived during the period of the five men included in Dr. Mensch’s book. In addition, oral histories and written materials existed. Unfortunately, much of the written material has been lost to time.
In his original Lives, frequently referred to as Parallel Lives or Plutarch’s Lives, Plutarch selected a prominent Greek and then sought a Roman whom he thought was the Greek’s equal. Thus the notion of parallel lives.
Mensch’s brilliance is in taking Plutarch’s idea a step further. She selected five prominent Roman figures whose lives intertwined. The result is a very interesting discussion of these notable whose influence on Western history is profound.
This book is a collection of five well known Roman figures who lived during the same tumultuous period: Pompey 106–48 BCE, Julius Caesar 100–44 BCE, Cicero 106–43 BCE, Brutus 85–42 BCE, and Mark Antony 83–30 BCE.
This time period was one of great violence—faction against faction, friend against friend, and even family member against family member. Pax Romana? It was anything and everything but! The book begins as the Roman social and civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic were coming to an end. Strabo, a much hated general and Pompey’s father was now dead. Sulla had not yet become dictator, but was about to do so.
Dr. Mensch does a fantastic job of referencing back and forth between the five men, as required, so the reader can better understand the intertwining nuances of each biography. Dr. Mensch footnotes these instances and provides explanations where possible.
For example, she devotes over one-third of her book to Pompey’s biography and supports it with 225 footnotes. These footnotes not only clarify some of the things Plutarch wrote, they also relate the discussion of Pompey to the other four biographies. This was very helpful.
Noted British Historian Ian Morris, who currently teaches at Stanford, states that Dr. Mensch’s translation of those “five most tragic figures in ancient history” is brilliant and sets a high standard for such works.
Pompey, unlike his father, was, at this point well liked primarily because of “his temperate way of life, his military training, his persuasive speech, the trustworthiness of his character, and his affability when meeting people.” He was a young man then, but over the years he squandered his good will until it cost him his life.
Plutarch paints a great picture of his life from the time he stood trial before Antistius until his demise one day after his 58th birthday. Mensch’s translation is well done. | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Can you give me some information on Henry of Bolingbrooko/Henry IV and Richard II?
I'm writing a term paper abuot henry v and i wanted to write about his family background. What happened between Henry IV and Richard II before Henry IV defeated Richard II in 1399?
- RetiredLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
Richard was a king who, as a boy, pacified The Peasants’ Revolt but, as an adult, was unable to solve disputes amongst the nobility and was deposed and murdered.
Richard was born on the Epiphany and, it is said, there were three kings present at his birth. This gave Richard the idea that he was exceptional and destined for greatness. When his elder brother died, Richard came in direct line for the throne. When his father, Edmund the Black Prince, died, Richard became Prince of Wales and when his grandfather, Edward III, died, Richard became king at the age of ten.
As Richard was not of full age, the government was vested in a council dominated by his uncle, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Gaunt was the richest man in the kingdom, far wealthier than the king and probably the richest person ever in Britain, if counting wealth as a proportion of total national wealth. Richard’s first major civic duty was to deal with the Peasant’s Revolt. When confronted by rebels marching on London, Richard rode out to the leaders and, with great presence of mind, pacified them with disingenuous promises.
When Richard grew to manhood, he confronted the council and often queried their decisions. On one occasion, Richard demanded to know how old he was and, being told that he was twenty-one, he dismissed the council and ruled in his own right.
Richard surrounded himself with frivolous and vain courtiers who were not popular in the country. He favoured a policy of peace with France, which was offensive to the warrior earls. His court was effete. He made spoons and other cutlery mandatory at table and even invented the handkerchief. He banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, son of John of Gaunt, on a pretext of fomenting rebellion. When Gaunt died, Richard illegally seized his assets and distributed his property amongst the flattering courtiers.
This was Richard’s downfall. The nobles were enraged, because if Richard could take Gaunt’s property, he could take theirs too. Henry Bolingbroke raised an army and landed in Yorkshire, claiming that he was coming to claim only what was his. He received such support from the nobility, that he realised he could take the crown. He captured Richard and led him to London, where the crowd cheered Henry and threw rubbish at Richard. Richard was deposed and Henry took the crown as Henry IV.
Richard was banished to Pontefract castle, where he died in mysterious circumstances. He was buried in an undignified manner in Kings Langley church. His coffin was full of cracks and could be interfered with. Some say that his jawbone was removed. Henry V later reburied his body in Westminster Abbey.
Richard’s successor, Henry IV, could not stop the bitter wrangling amongst the nobility, especially since he was not the true heir to the throne. The disputes continued in the reign of Henry’s son, Henry V, and into the reign of Henry VI, when the true heirs to the throne, the House of York, disputed the title of the Lancastrians. Thus began the war of the Roses, which was to plague England for centuries.Source(s): http://www.wardsbookofdays.com/6january.htm
- bellmonLv 43 years ago
a million) by technique of cutting-aspect criteria, Richard II had the superb declare to the throne. He became the son of Edward III's eldest son Edward (aka the Black Prince), even as Henry IV became son of Edward's 0.33 son, John of Gaunt. 2) The joint sovereigns were William III and Mary II.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
henry IV was the son of john of gaunt, duke of lancaster. richard II was the son the edward the black prince, who dies before he could reign. richard II had no children, and henry IV deposed richard and presumably had him murdered, due to being exiled to france for a number of years. he also skipped over the line of lionel of york, his uncle. this eventually led to the wars of the roses between henry VI (lancaster) and richard duke of york.
- 1 decade ago
These are two websites i use a lot . | <urn:uuid:7c1d017f-0e19-4d38-9775-3d1276871323> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070211181225AAgTUtA | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.98668 | 984 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.004716... | 1 | Can you give me some information on Henry of Bolingbrooko/Henry IV and Richard II?
I'm writing a term paper abuot henry v and i wanted to write about his family background. What happened between Henry IV and Richard II before Henry IV defeated Richard II in 1399?
- RetiredLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
Richard was a king who, as a boy, pacified The Peasants’ Revolt but, as an adult, was unable to solve disputes amongst the nobility and was deposed and murdered.
Richard was born on the Epiphany and, it is said, there were three kings present at his birth. This gave Richard the idea that he was exceptional and destined for greatness. When his elder brother died, Richard came in direct line for the throne. When his father, Edmund the Black Prince, died, Richard became Prince of Wales and when his grandfather, Edward III, died, Richard became king at the age of ten.
As Richard was not of full age, the government was vested in a council dominated by his uncle, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Gaunt was the richest man in the kingdom, far wealthier than the king and probably the richest person ever in Britain, if counting wealth as a proportion of total national wealth. Richard’s first major civic duty was to deal with the Peasant’s Revolt. When confronted by rebels marching on London, Richard rode out to the leaders and, with great presence of mind, pacified them with disingenuous promises.
When Richard grew to manhood, he confronted the council and often queried their decisions. On one occasion, Richard demanded to know how old he was and, being told that he was twenty-one, he dismissed the council and ruled in his own right.
Richard surrounded himself with frivolous and vain courtiers who were not popular in the country. He favoured a policy of peace with France, which was offensive to the warrior earls. His court was effete. He made spoons and other cutlery mandatory at table and even invented the handkerchief. He banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, son of John of Gaunt, on a pretext of fomenting rebellion. When Gaunt died, Richard illegally seized his assets and distributed his property amongst the flattering courtiers.
This was Richard’s downfall. The nobles were enraged, because if Richard could take Gaunt’s property, he could take theirs too. Henry Bolingbroke raised an army and landed in Yorkshire, claiming that he was coming to claim only what was his. He received such support from the nobility, that he realised he could take the crown. He captured Richard and led him to London, where the crowd cheered Henry and threw rubbish at Richard. Richard was deposed and Henry took the crown as Henry IV.
Richard was banished to Pontefract castle, where he died in mysterious circumstances. He was buried in an undignified manner in Kings Langley church. His coffin was full of cracks and could be interfered with. Some say that his jawbone was removed. Henry V later reburied his body in Westminster Abbey.
Richard’s successor, Henry IV, could not stop the bitter wrangling amongst the nobility, especially since he was not the true heir to the throne. The disputes continued in the reign of Henry’s son, Henry V, and into the reign of Henry VI, when the true heirs to the throne, the House of York, disputed the title of the Lancastrians. Thus began the war of the Roses, which was to plague England for centuries.Source(s): http://www.wardsbookofdays.com/6january.htm
- bellmonLv 43 years ago
a million) by technique of cutting-aspect criteria, Richard II had the superb declare to the throne. He became the son of Edward III's eldest son Edward (aka the Black Prince), even as Henry IV became son of Edward's 0.33 son, John of Gaunt. 2) The joint sovereigns were William III and Mary II.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
henry IV was the son of john of gaunt, duke of lancaster. richard II was the son the edward the black prince, who dies before he could reign. richard II had no children, and henry IV deposed richard and presumably had him murdered, due to being exiled to france for a number of years. he also skipped over the line of lionel of york, his uncle. this eventually led to the wars of the roses between henry VI (lancaster) and richard duke of york.
- 1 decade ago
These are two websites i use a lot . | 971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Britain's Foreign Minister arrived in the Brazilian capital for discussions with the Brazilian Government on a number of issues. Talks were on a mutual security Treaty and issues such as Africa and oil drilling near the Falkland islands.
Argentina was not at all happy with the fact that Brazil and Britain were developing a close relationship. Brazil Foreign Ministry called in the Ambassador from Argentina and informed him that Brazil found no merit to Argentina's claim to the Falkland Islands. There were no people from Argentina living on the Island and there had been none living there in more than 200 plus years. Thus Britain was the legal owner of the islands. In addition the residence of the Falkland Islands were all British Citizens. Brazil would then oppose any use of force to change the status. It then warned that if Argentina chose to ignore this warning Brazil would respond with force.
The United Stated had begun to Dredge the Rio Grande River making it deeper.Reports were that the US was considering building a massive project on the southern border as a competitor to the America Canal and to make entering the US much more difficult
Brazil had so far managed to prevent another conflict in South America. Diplomacy between Neuva Granada and the Empire of Brazil had stopped Neuva Granada from swallowing up he rest of Peru and in fact had seen Peru regain some land.
Argentina had ended its continued barrage of propaganda about the Falkland Islands. Even Bolivia and Paraguay had remained quiet.
Brazil was moving ahead with plans to strengthen it Navy and improve its army. It had one of the largest militarizes in Latin America. Neuva Granada had a larger army but Brazil had the largest Navy. Argentina was seeking to Modernize its army and Navy which in turned triggered Chile to look to purchase new capital ships.
Mexico was moving ahead as a result of the reforms that had been implemented after the Spanish-Neuva Granada Invasion. While Spain continued to keep a Visroy he had evolved into something resembling the British Governor General Model. More Political Power flowed into the hands of the Mexican Prime Minister with the Visroy being a check on the rise of any dictator.
The Americans had as a result of the war between the Mexican Dictator and the US had built a wall and a series of military post along the border. Both President Roosevelt and Pershing had pledged to never again allow the situtation to arise that would allow another threat to emerge. It was only in the last year of President Pershing's first term that relations with Mexico improved to allow a trade pact to be signed.
Brazil was now working on a trade agreement with the United States. Relations between the two nations had continued to improve during the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt and now President Pershing. Brazil was looking for some military equipment for its navy and was impressed with the American 5"/38 gun which was being developed for the US and Hawaiian Navies. It had requested that it be allowed to purchase the weapon. The Administration was considering the request and the need to push it through the Congress.
Brazil had over the past 20 years developed into a major industrial power in Latin America. Brazil supplied the steel used in construction in Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru. In addition it was now one of the suppliers of steel in Neuva Granada and the Central American Republic. Brazilian Steel was used to construct some of the improvements in the America Canal. It also provided construction material for the Portuguese colonies in Africa. The Royal Hawaiian Petroleum Corporation had partnered with Brazilians and Portuguese companies to drill for oil in Angola
Brazilian Newspapers reported that oil had been struck in Angola . TriStar Oil,which was the name of the three Partners oil company was now a success. The oil was being partly processed in the Colony but because of a lack of refining capacity more oil was shipped to Brazil and Portugal.
Brazil was beginning a reduction of forces in Southern Africa as Portuguese forces arrived in the two colonies. In addition Brazil began to remove its military engineer units from Portugal as the final projects were completed and they would with a few exceptions all be gone by 1920 from Portugal.
The Emperor of Brazil made a point of being there to welcome all of the Brazilian Army units returning home after working in either Portugal or Africa. The Emperor wanted to show how much he appreciated everything that they had done.
George spoke with his Brazilian counter part on the Phone at the Hawaiian Embassy in the US. He latter spoke with the Brazilian Emperor who was open to Brazil taking a position in the group trying to resolve the Russian Problem. Brazil would send a special working group to Hawaii. George received word from the Irish that Brazil had been approved by the Russians to be par of the group. | <urn:uuid:a332cc72-e59b-4916-9701-ea2b529b0c7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/peshawar-lancers-redux-latin-america.411933/page-15 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.987832 | 950 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.4959782958030... | 1 | Britain's Foreign Minister arrived in the Brazilian capital for discussions with the Brazilian Government on a number of issues. Talks were on a mutual security Treaty and issues such as Africa and oil drilling near the Falkland islands.
Argentina was not at all happy with the fact that Brazil and Britain were developing a close relationship. Brazil Foreign Ministry called in the Ambassador from Argentina and informed him that Brazil found no merit to Argentina's claim to the Falkland Islands. There were no people from Argentina living on the Island and there had been none living there in more than 200 plus years. Thus Britain was the legal owner of the islands. In addition the residence of the Falkland Islands were all British Citizens. Brazil would then oppose any use of force to change the status. It then warned that if Argentina chose to ignore this warning Brazil would respond with force.
The United Stated had begun to Dredge the Rio Grande River making it deeper.Reports were that the US was considering building a massive project on the southern border as a competitor to the America Canal and to make entering the US much more difficult
Brazil had so far managed to prevent another conflict in South America. Diplomacy between Neuva Granada and the Empire of Brazil had stopped Neuva Granada from swallowing up he rest of Peru and in fact had seen Peru regain some land.
Argentina had ended its continued barrage of propaganda about the Falkland Islands. Even Bolivia and Paraguay had remained quiet.
Brazil was moving ahead with plans to strengthen it Navy and improve its army. It had one of the largest militarizes in Latin America. Neuva Granada had a larger army but Brazil had the largest Navy. Argentina was seeking to Modernize its army and Navy which in turned triggered Chile to look to purchase new capital ships.
Mexico was moving ahead as a result of the reforms that had been implemented after the Spanish-Neuva Granada Invasion. While Spain continued to keep a Visroy he had evolved into something resembling the British Governor General Model. More Political Power flowed into the hands of the Mexican Prime Minister with the Visroy being a check on the rise of any dictator.
The Americans had as a result of the war between the Mexican Dictator and the US had built a wall and a series of military post along the border. Both President Roosevelt and Pershing had pledged to never again allow the situtation to arise that would allow another threat to emerge. It was only in the last year of President Pershing's first term that relations with Mexico improved to allow a trade pact to be signed.
Brazil was now working on a trade agreement with the United States. Relations between the two nations had continued to improve during the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt and now President Pershing. Brazil was looking for some military equipment for its navy and was impressed with the American 5"/38 gun which was being developed for the US and Hawaiian Navies. It had requested that it be allowed to purchase the weapon. The Administration was considering the request and the need to push it through the Congress.
Brazil had over the past 20 years developed into a major industrial power in Latin America. Brazil supplied the steel used in construction in Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru. In addition it was now one of the suppliers of steel in Neuva Granada and the Central American Republic. Brazilian Steel was used to construct some of the improvements in the America Canal. It also provided construction material for the Portuguese colonies in Africa. The Royal Hawaiian Petroleum Corporation had partnered with Brazilians and Portuguese companies to drill for oil in Angola
Brazilian Newspapers reported that oil had been struck in Angola . TriStar Oil,which was the name of the three Partners oil company was now a success. The oil was being partly processed in the Colony but because of a lack of refining capacity more oil was shipped to Brazil and Portugal.
Brazil was beginning a reduction of forces in Southern Africa as Portuguese forces arrived in the two colonies. In addition Brazil began to remove its military engineer units from Portugal as the final projects were completed and they would with a few exceptions all be gone by 1920 from Portugal.
The Emperor of Brazil made a point of being there to welcome all of the Brazilian Army units returning home after working in either Portugal or Africa. The Emperor wanted to show how much he appreciated everything that they had done.
George spoke with his Brazilian counter part on the Phone at the Hawaiian Embassy in the US. He latter spoke with the Brazilian Emperor who was open to Brazil taking a position in the group trying to resolve the Russian Problem. Brazil would send a special working group to Hawaii. George received word from the Irish that Brazil had been approved by the Russians to be par of the group. | 944 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In class, Year 6 discussed leadership. We agreed that whilst some leaders are elected or born into a position of leadership, others are inspired to become leaders, such as in the religion of Sikhism.
Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus (teachers), was recognised by many to have been marked by divine grace from birth. We learned one particular childhood account about him in which he slept under a tree. As the day passed, the sun moved until the tree could no longer shade Nanak from its hot rays. A hooded cobra saw Nanak sleeping, but instead of striking him, it sensed God's presence and shaded Nanak, protecting him from harm.
Guru Nanak taught that there is only one God and that all human beings can have direct access to him. He taught that everyone is equal regardless of class or gender. Millions of people follow the Sikh religion and are still inspired by Guru Nanak today. | <urn:uuid:89d4f8fe-58a9-40ec-870e-626f77b755d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freemansendowed.org/index.php/curriculum/class-blogs/re-blogs/150-year-6-how-sikhism-began | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.984231 | 202 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.2613606750965... | 2 | In class, Year 6 discussed leadership. We agreed that whilst some leaders are elected or born into a position of leadership, others are inspired to become leaders, such as in the religion of Sikhism.
Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus (teachers), was recognised by many to have been marked by divine grace from birth. We learned one particular childhood account about him in which he slept under a tree. As the day passed, the sun moved until the tree could no longer shade Nanak from its hot rays. A hooded cobra saw Nanak sleeping, but instead of striking him, it sensed God's presence and shaded Nanak, protecting him from harm.
Guru Nanak taught that there is only one God and that all human beings can have direct access to him. He taught that everyone is equal regardless of class or gender. Millions of people follow the Sikh religion and are still inspired by Guru Nanak today. | 199 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Soviet Union could have won WWII alone” – historian
9 May, 2011 10:18
The Soviet Union alone indeed could have won World War II, but would have done it at a much slower pace, believes British historian Professor Geoffrey Roberts.
“The Soviet Union could have defeated Nazi Germany on its own, but it would have taken it a lot longer and at much greater price and, of course, it would have taken the country much longer to recover after World War II,” he told RT. “Yes, the Soviet Union did not ultimately need its allies to win the war, but its alliance with particularly the United States and Great Britain helped it to win the war a lot quicker than it would have otherwise been the case,” he added. According to Roberts, following World War II, the Soviet Union was much less enthusiastic about the Cold War than its recent allies, the USA and Great Britain.“On the Western side, once the Cold War had broken out, there was a much more positive engagement with the Cold War, whereas on the Soviet side there was a reluctance to become involved in the Cold War and continuous efforts to revive the Grand Alliance,” he said. “One of the great themes of post-war Soviet foreign policy is a desire to return to the Grand Alliance,” Roberts added. | <urn:uuid:c1f3e54e-80c6-4b30-bf9d-e29fc1f2dd13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rt.com/news/wwii-soviet-union-role-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.987488 | 276 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.40120002627372... | 4 | “Soviet Union could have won WWII alone” – historian
9 May, 2011 10:18
The Soviet Union alone indeed could have won World War II, but would have done it at a much slower pace, believes British historian Professor Geoffrey Roberts.
“The Soviet Union could have defeated Nazi Germany on its own, but it would have taken it a lot longer and at much greater price and, of course, it would have taken the country much longer to recover after World War II,” he told RT. “Yes, the Soviet Union did not ultimately need its allies to win the war, but its alliance with particularly the United States and Great Britain helped it to win the war a lot quicker than it would have otherwise been the case,” he added. According to Roberts, following World War II, the Soviet Union was much less enthusiastic about the Cold War than its recent allies, the USA and Great Britain.“On the Western side, once the Cold War had broken out, there was a much more positive engagement with the Cold War, whereas on the Soviet side there was a reluctance to become involved in the Cold War and continuous efforts to revive the Grand Alliance,” he said. “One of the great themes of post-war Soviet foreign policy is a desire to return to the Grand Alliance,” Roberts added. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cosa was a Latincolonia founded under Roman influence in southwestern Tuscany in 273 BC, on land confiscated from the Etruscans. The Etruscan site (called Cusi or Cosia) may have been where modern Orbetello stands; a fortification wall in polygonal masonry at Orbetello's lagoon may be in phase with the walls of Cosa. The position of Cosa is distinct, rising some 113 metres above sea level and is sited 140km northwest of Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, on a hill near the small town of Ansedonia. The town experienced a hard life and was never truly a prosperous Roman city, although it has assumed a position of prominence in Roman archaeology owing to the circumstances of its excavation (cf. Dyson 2005, below). After the foundation, wars of the 3rd century BC affected the town. New colonists arrived in 197 BC. Cosa seems to have prospered until it was sacked in the 60s BC, perhaps by pirates - although an earthquake and unrest related to the Catilinarian Conspiracy have also been cited as reasons. This led to a re-foundation under Augustus and then life continued until the 3rd century. One of the last textual references to Cosa comes from the work of Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in his De reditu suo. In the passage 1.285-90, Rutilius remarks that by AD 416 the site of Cosa was deserted and could be seen to be in ruins. He further suggests that a plague of mice had driven the people of Cosa away.
Cosa was a Latin colony founded along the Tyrrhenian coast to solidify the control of the Romans and offer the Republic a protected port. the 3rd century BC marked a period of expansion for the Roman Republic. Cosa, located near modern-day Tuscany, came under Roman control in 273 BC after Rome took the territory from the Etruscans. The settlement transformed over time from a colony to a large maritime export center. According to Livy, following its foundation the colony was affected by the wars of the 3rd century BC and received an influx of new colonists in the early 2nd century BC, but was eventually abandoned by the 1st century BC. Various excavations on the site reveal that, after its sacking and abandonment, Cosa was reestablished under Augustus. The site was again abandoned by the 5th century AD, according to Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, but had seasonal occupation as late as the 18th and 19th centuries AD by farmers and herdsmen.
The site at Cosa has proved to be an extremely valuable source of evidence for colonial architecture during the Republican period, even though many of the houses at Cosa remain unexcavated. Although the large blocks of housing, such as the East and West Blocks excavated by Russell T. Scott, are sized and planned like the many houses of the Roman Republican period (i.e. the housing of Pompeii), the larger houses located near the forum give us insight as to the complex nature of housing in Cosa. Furthermore, the excavations of the houses show us how the colony developed over time. | <urn:uuid:6b31b154-1760-4e16-817b-cdbae1e88557> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ro.wn.com/Per_Cosa_Elio | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.982049 | 667 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.40237939... | 9 | Cosa was a Latincolonia founded under Roman influence in southwestern Tuscany in 273 BC, on land confiscated from the Etruscans. The Etruscan site (called Cusi or Cosia) may have been where modern Orbetello stands; a fortification wall in polygonal masonry at Orbetello's lagoon may be in phase with the walls of Cosa. The position of Cosa is distinct, rising some 113 metres above sea level and is sited 140km northwest of Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, on a hill near the small town of Ansedonia. The town experienced a hard life and was never truly a prosperous Roman city, although it has assumed a position of prominence in Roman archaeology owing to the circumstances of its excavation (cf. Dyson 2005, below). After the foundation, wars of the 3rd century BC affected the town. New colonists arrived in 197 BC. Cosa seems to have prospered until it was sacked in the 60s BC, perhaps by pirates - although an earthquake and unrest related to the Catilinarian Conspiracy have also been cited as reasons. This led to a re-foundation under Augustus and then life continued until the 3rd century. One of the last textual references to Cosa comes from the work of Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in his De reditu suo. In the passage 1.285-90, Rutilius remarks that by AD 416 the site of Cosa was deserted and could be seen to be in ruins. He further suggests that a plague of mice had driven the people of Cosa away.
Cosa was a Latin colony founded along the Tyrrhenian coast to solidify the control of the Romans and offer the Republic a protected port. the 3rd century BC marked a period of expansion for the Roman Republic. Cosa, located near modern-day Tuscany, came under Roman control in 273 BC after Rome took the territory from the Etruscans. The settlement transformed over time from a colony to a large maritime export center. According to Livy, following its foundation the colony was affected by the wars of the 3rd century BC and received an influx of new colonists in the early 2nd century BC, but was eventually abandoned by the 1st century BC. Various excavations on the site reveal that, after its sacking and abandonment, Cosa was reestablished under Augustus. The site was again abandoned by the 5th century AD, according to Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, but had seasonal occupation as late as the 18th and 19th centuries AD by farmers and herdsmen.
The site at Cosa has proved to be an extremely valuable source of evidence for colonial architecture during the Republican period, even though many of the houses at Cosa remain unexcavated. Although the large blocks of housing, such as the East and West Blocks excavated by Russell T. Scott, are sized and planned like the many houses of the Roman Republican period (i.e. the housing of Pompeii), the larger houses located near the forum give us insight as to the complex nature of housing in Cosa. Furthermore, the excavations of the houses show us how the colony developed over time. | 703 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is safe to say that Hemingway’s family was fairly wealthy. They had enough money to house, feed, and...
... middle of paper ...
... known as a very descriptive writer and this story shows how he could push his own boundaries to the limit (Stukas).
Ernest Hemingway was an immensely skilled writer that left his everlasting mark on the writing community. He is an inspiration to young and old writers everywhere. Hemingway was taken away from the world too soon (at the age of 61) when he was killed by “self-inflicted gun wounds.” It is still unclear today whether it was suicide or accidental while cleaning his favorite shotgun. It is also unclear what stories Hemingway still had to offer the world and what writing would be like today if he released a couple more novels and short stories to the public. One things for certain, Hemingway had a way with words that turned ordinary things, like leopards or goats or elephants, into things unimaginable that can only be experience while reading his works.
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- An Inspiration “Just try it. It couldn’t hurt to try,” my high-school advertising teacher constantly reminded me. Mrs. Panarelli wanted me to apply for a scholarship given by the business department in my school. I thought about all the other applicants; I had no chance whatsoever. I decided to express my feelings to her. In doing so I noticed a solemn look come across her face. I asked her what was wrong, and she said, “I don’t want you to be intimidated by the other students, their averages, or their SAT scores; this is a very good opportunity for you.” Finally, she convinced me to apply for it.... [tags: Personal Narrative Writing]
1173 words (3.4 pages) | <urn:uuid:b0be8e3e-947c-4f6c-8e66-86f06d77f48b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/an-inspiration-to-young-writers-ernest-hemingway-preview.asp?id=298616 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.983017 | 1,704 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... middle of paper ...
... known as a very descriptive writer and this story shows how he could push his own boundaries to the limit (Stukas).
Ernest Hemingway was an immensely skilled writer that left his everlasting mark on the writing community. He is an inspiration to young and old writers everywhere. Hemingway was taken away from the world too soon (at the age of 61) when he was killed by “self-inflicted gun wounds.” It is still unclear today whether it was suicide or accidental while cleaning his favorite shotgun. It is also unclear what stories Hemingway still had to offer the world and what writing would be like today if he released a couple more novels and short stories to the public. One things for certain, Hemingway had a way with words that turned ordinary things, like leopards or goats or elephants, into things unimaginable that can only be experience while reading his works.
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- Ernest Hemingway (1899- 1961) and Sylvia Beach (1887-1962) both came to Paris from America with goals of reaching success. Although drastically different, each managed to achieve his or her goal on their own and with the support that the other gave, their goals became much easier to accomplish. Through the opportunities Beach provided, Hemingway transformed from an aspiring writer to a Nobel Prize winner in Literature. The influence of Sylvia Beach and her bookstore, Shakespeare and Company, provided to be the stepping-stone—through readily available novels to study and opportunities to meet other notable authors—Hemingway needed as a young, novice writer in Paris to flourish into the great... [tags: Writers, America, London, Literature]
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- The Life of Ernest Miller Hemingway There were several writers in the twentieth century, and among them was Ernest Miller Hemingway. Hemingway had a interesting, but strange life. By analyzing and exploring the literature and biographies of Ernest Hemingway, one will be able to understand the life of Ernest Hemingway and see the major contributions he had to literature. He was born on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemingway was born in the Hemingway family home, which was built by his grandfather Ernest Hall.... [tags: Ernest Hemingway Writers Essays]
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- Even though Dante and Chaucer never met, Dante having died 19 years before Chaucer was born, Dante inadvertently became Chaucer’s life long mentor. Dante’s severe spirit turned out to be far more harsh than Chaucer’s nature, however Dante’s protégé, Boccaccio, became one of Chaucer’s greatest inspirations. Looking back at both Dante and Chaucer’s works, experts now see striking similarities in their writing. Whether Chaucer ever meant to use Dante’s materials or not, he is now closely compared with his contrary counter part.... [tags: writers]
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- Michelle Young: Leading a Life of Inspiration Being an interpreter is hard enough on its own, but when a family and a life of mission is added to the mix, the product is an astounding woman. Michelle Young, a woman of thirty-one has achieved more than some people in her life. She attends Atascosita Community Church and works for Accessible Signs, as a sign language interpreter. Through her husband, Dale, she was introduced to sign language. Dale’s sister is deaf and his mother is an interpreter as well.... [tags: High school, College, Sign language]
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- Ernest Hemingway was born on July 21st, 1899. Until at least age six, Ernest’s mother dressed him as a girl, and made him appear to be the twin of his older sister. In high school, he attempted to play sports but found that his athleticism was lacking. With the women he was generally well-liked, and he won others over with his charisma. He would take any dare and, when he injured himself, he’d act as if everything was fine and walk it off. In 1917, young Hemingway joined the army and hoped to fight in World War I.... [tags: Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms]
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- Americans were reading books before the first printing press was even invented. As people were reading, writers were forming. Ernest Hemingway was a man with a unique imagination, which was obsessed with violence, but with that and his fascination for the act of courage in a dangerous situation, it served as a basis for his most memorable books. Ernest Hemingway led a riveting life from birth to death. It had many ups and downs but his experiences are what made him the great author he became known to be.... [tags: imagination, American writers, violence, courage]
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- Ernest Hemingway The writer/artist that I chose to enlighten you with has inspired many writers as well as literature majors for many years. He continues to tickle our imaginations with the legacy that he has left us with. This man was as genuine as you can get. He was loved by many. He made an impact on any life that he came across. This man is non other than, Ernest Hemingway. Hemingway was a free spirit in an unattached sense. He loved adventure, as well as the drink. He was somewhat enterprising and approached life with added enthusiasm.... [tags: Ernest Hemingway Authors Essays]
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- An Inspiration “Just try it. It couldn’t hurt to try,” my high-school advertising teacher constantly reminded me. Mrs. Panarelli wanted me to apply for a scholarship given by the business department in my school. I thought about all the other applicants; I had no chance whatsoever. I decided to express my feelings to her. In doing so I noticed a solemn look come across her face. I asked her what was wrong, and she said, “I don’t want you to be intimidated by the other students, their averages, or their SAT scores; this is a very good opportunity for you.” Finally, she convinced me to apply for it.... [tags: Personal Narrative Writing]
1173 words (3.4 pages) | 1,707 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It's time now for this week's edition of Czechs in History, and this week Nick Carey takes a look at the life of nineteenth century historian and politician, Frantisek Palacky.
Frantisek Palacky is often called the Father of the Czech Nation. He pleayed an important role in Czech National Revival in the nineteenth century. He also defended the rights of the Czechs, the Slovaks, and many other Slavonic peoples, including the people in his native region of Moravia...
Frantisek Palacky was born in the East Moravian village of Hodslavice on June 14th 1798, the son of an evangelist teacher. His family was part of the very small Protestant minority in Moravia, which was predominantly Catholic, and it was due to a lack of Protestant educational facilities in Moravia, says historian Doctor Jiri Koralka, that he was sent away to study:
Frantisek Palacky originally promised his father that he would become a priest, and he studied theology at university in Bratislava. He was, however, a man with a strong Czech national conscientious. At the time, the Czech National Revival, a movement which aimed to revive the Czech language, culture and history, was in full swing. He decided to become a historian to aid this process, even though this was not a field he had had much experience in.
In 1823, aged twenty-five, Palacky moved to Prague, where he began his career as a historian. He worked first as the chronicler for individual noble families, such as the Counts of Sternberk. These chronicles met with great success. During the 1920s, the Austrian Habsburg Empire worked on centralising power. As a counter-measure, the nobles in various countries around the empire appointed their own historians to further their national interests. The nobles in the Czech Lands approached Palacky, and offered him the post of historian of the Bohemian estates. He accepted, and held the post until his death in 1876.
This post gave Frantisek Palacky a prominent role in the Czech National Revival, but there were rivalries within the movement. Out of all of the leading figures in the Czech National Revival, Palacky was the only Protestant, and the Catholic members mistrusted him to a certain extent. One of Palacky's advantages over the other figures in the Czech National Revival, according to Jiri Koralka, was his Protestant education:
Another source of tensions between Palacky and the other members of the Czech National Revival was the fact that although he himself was not a nobleman, he moved in aristocratic circles.
In 1825, at the age of twenty-seven, Palacky petitioned various members of the aristocracy for support for a significant project for the Czechs. Jiri Koralka:
Frantisek Palacky was always a hard working man, both in his historical research, and his work to promote Czech sciences and culture, both at home and abroad, plus informing the Czechs of world events. This brought his academic career to its high point:
Frantisek Palacky began work on a Czech language version of his history of the Czech Lands in 1948. This was the year of revolutions and national uprisings across Europe. Due to his importance as a prominent academic, Palacky took a leading role in the Czech uprising, but not at first. Historian Jiri Koralka again:
This brought Palacky to the forefront of active politics in Central Europe. He was invited to attend the German National Assembly in late 1848, but as the German national movement was in favour of making Germany and the Habsburg Empire into one large German state, his answer was negative:
Frantisek Palacky put forward his own plan for a federal Austrian state. This placed him in a unique position, not only for the Czechs, but for many of the other Slav nations in the empire:
The political freedoms that started in 1848 were brought to an end in 1850, when the Habsburg Empire restricted national aspirations in Central Europe, during another period of centralisation. Palacky was banned from all of his public activities, except his post as the historian of the Bohemian estates, and he was constantly followed by the Austrian secret police. Forced to retire from public life, he devoted himself to research. Historian Jiri Koralka:
In 1860, when the political situation relaxed once more, Frantisek Palacky was offered a seat in the Upper House of Parliament in Vienna, and a title. He refused both, and preferred to remain in Prague, where his position was more of a spiritual one than a political one.
Throughout the 1860s and the early 1870s, Palacky continued to work on his history of the Czech Lands, completing first the German version in the 1860s, and then the Czech version, which he finished a few months before his death. Frantisek Palacky passed away on May 26, 1876, aged seventy-eight.
With so much activity throughout his life, as both a historian and politician in a crucial period in Czech history, there is one question that needs to be asked:
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CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
Screenshot: a hybrid English-friendly Prague art-house cinema where screenings are events | <urn:uuid:39f9474b-cc36-4db3-879e-2b1037c08a4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.radio.cz/en/section/czechs/frantisek-palacky | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00428.warc.gz | en | 0.985317 | 1,184 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.0786784365... | 1 | It's time now for this week's edition of Czechs in History, and this week Nick Carey takes a look at the life of nineteenth century historian and politician, Frantisek Palacky.
Frantisek Palacky is often called the Father of the Czech Nation. He pleayed an important role in Czech National Revival in the nineteenth century. He also defended the rights of the Czechs, the Slovaks, and many other Slavonic peoples, including the people in his native region of Moravia...
Frantisek Palacky was born in the East Moravian village of Hodslavice on June 14th 1798, the son of an evangelist teacher. His family was part of the very small Protestant minority in Moravia, which was predominantly Catholic, and it was due to a lack of Protestant educational facilities in Moravia, says historian Doctor Jiri Koralka, that he was sent away to study:
Frantisek Palacky originally promised his father that he would become a priest, and he studied theology at university in Bratislava. He was, however, a man with a strong Czech national conscientious. At the time, the Czech National Revival, a movement which aimed to revive the Czech language, culture and history, was in full swing. He decided to become a historian to aid this process, even though this was not a field he had had much experience in.
In 1823, aged twenty-five, Palacky moved to Prague, where he began his career as a historian. He worked first as the chronicler for individual noble families, such as the Counts of Sternberk. These chronicles met with great success. During the 1920s, the Austrian Habsburg Empire worked on centralising power. As a counter-measure, the nobles in various countries around the empire appointed their own historians to further their national interests. The nobles in the Czech Lands approached Palacky, and offered him the post of historian of the Bohemian estates. He accepted, and held the post until his death in 1876.
This post gave Frantisek Palacky a prominent role in the Czech National Revival, but there were rivalries within the movement. Out of all of the leading figures in the Czech National Revival, Palacky was the only Protestant, and the Catholic members mistrusted him to a certain extent. One of Palacky's advantages over the other figures in the Czech National Revival, according to Jiri Koralka, was his Protestant education:
Another source of tensions between Palacky and the other members of the Czech National Revival was the fact that although he himself was not a nobleman, he moved in aristocratic circles.
In 1825, at the age of twenty-seven, Palacky petitioned various members of the aristocracy for support for a significant project for the Czechs. Jiri Koralka:
Frantisek Palacky was always a hard working man, both in his historical research, and his work to promote Czech sciences and culture, both at home and abroad, plus informing the Czechs of world events. This brought his academic career to its high point:
Frantisek Palacky began work on a Czech language version of his history of the Czech Lands in 1948. This was the year of revolutions and national uprisings across Europe. Due to his importance as a prominent academic, Palacky took a leading role in the Czech uprising, but not at first. Historian Jiri Koralka again:
This brought Palacky to the forefront of active politics in Central Europe. He was invited to attend the German National Assembly in late 1848, but as the German national movement was in favour of making Germany and the Habsburg Empire into one large German state, his answer was negative:
Frantisek Palacky put forward his own plan for a federal Austrian state. This placed him in a unique position, not only for the Czechs, but for many of the other Slav nations in the empire:
The political freedoms that started in 1848 were brought to an end in 1850, when the Habsburg Empire restricted national aspirations in Central Europe, during another period of centralisation. Palacky was banned from all of his public activities, except his post as the historian of the Bohemian estates, and he was constantly followed by the Austrian secret police. Forced to retire from public life, he devoted himself to research. Historian Jiri Koralka:
In 1860, when the political situation relaxed once more, Frantisek Palacky was offered a seat in the Upper House of Parliament in Vienna, and a title. He refused both, and preferred to remain in Prague, where his position was more of a spiritual one than a political one.
Throughout the 1860s and the early 1870s, Palacky continued to work on his history of the Czech Lands, completing first the German version in the 1860s, and then the Czech version, which he finished a few months before his death. Frantisek Palacky passed away on May 26, 1876, aged seventy-eight.
With so much activity throughout his life, as both a historian and politician in a crucial period in Czech history, there is one question that needs to be asked:
Jana Ciglerová: Americans say their lives are fantastic, Czechs say everything is terrible – neither is true
“There is good, better and then there is the USSR.” – New book depicts life in communist Czechoslovakia through memories of people who experienced it
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
Screenshot: a hybrid English-friendly Prague art-house cinema where screenings are events | 1,223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Japan’s dances and dramas as they are seen today contain 1300 years of continuous uninterrupted history. This prodigious feat of conservation, theatrically speaking, makes Japan an extraordinary and unique country. In all of Asia, where tradition generally is sanctified and change eschewed, Japan stands as the only country whose theatre is its entirety has never suffered an eclipse nor undergone any drastic revivification or renovation. The most traditional form of Japanese theatre is kabuki. Its origin goes back to the latter part of the 16th century and, with extensive and continuous evolution, it has now been perfected into a state of classical refinement. Though not as flourishing as it once was, the kabuki theatre retains wide popularity among the people, and is in fact drawing quite large audiences even now.
During the period generally referred to as the Edo Era, during which much of the development of kabuki took place, distinctions between the warrior class and the commoners was more rigidly observed than at any other time in Japan’s history. Mainly the merchants cultivated the art of kabuki in those days. They had become increasingly powerful economically, but had to remain socially inferior as they belonged to the commoner class. To them kabuki was most significant as the artistic means by which to express their emotions under the prevailing conditions. Thus, the fundamental themes of kabuki plays are conflicts between humanity and the feudalistic system. It is largely due to this humanistic quality of the art that it gained such an enduring popularity among the general public of those days and remains this way today.
A unique feature of the kabuki art, and possibly the most significant detail and in keeping with the kabuki spirit of unusualness, is the fact that it has no actresses whatsoever (Bowers 325). Male impersonators known as onnagata play all female parts. The players of the kabuki drama in its primitive stage were principally women, and with the increasing popularity of kabuki, many of the actresses began to attract undue attention from male admirers. The authorities felt that this would lead to a serious demoralization of the public and in 1629 the theatrical appearance of women was officially banned.
However, since the public already accepted kabuki, men immediately took over and have continued performing to the present. The ban on actresses was in effect for about 250 years. In the mean time kabuki brought to perfection the art of the onnagata. As a result, there was no room for actresses in kabuki when the ban was lifted. Moreover, the art of onnagata had become such an integral part of kabuki that, if deprived of this element, the traditional quality of kabuki could be lost forever.
Another important characteristic of kabuki is that it is a wide-ranging and accumulative theatre (Hsu, 73). Born at the turn of the 16th century, it incorporated parts of all the preceding theatre forms of Japan. Among the traditional arts from which kabuki has drawn from, stage techniques and repertoire are the noh drama and the kyogen play. The kyogen plays are the comic interludes presented between the noh performances. Today, the number of Japanese who appreciate noh proper is far smaller than that of those who favor kabuki, but those kabuki plays adapted from or inspired by noh plays enjoy a wide popularity and constitute an essential portion of the entire kabuki repertoire (Mackerras, 132).
Another area from which kabuki has borrowed elements is the puppet theatre, often referred to as bunraku. The development of bunraku roughly paralleled that of earlier kabuki. In kabuki, the primary importance has always been placed on the actor rather than on any other aspect of the art, such as literary value of a play. During the early 17th century, some of the great writers, including Monzaemon Chikamatsu, often called the “Shakespeare of Japan”, left kabuki with its actors’ domination and turned to the puppet theatre where their creative genius was more or less unrestricted. As a result, there was a period when puppets overshadowed actors and the puppet theatre was more popular than kabuki. To meet this competition, kabuki adopted virtually all the puppet plays. Thus, today more than half of the | <urn:uuid:24f86b85-9226-4552-a59d-98efbabdd388> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/kabuki-a-japanese-form/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.980292 | 901 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.450274944... | 1 | Japan’s dances and dramas as they are seen today contain 1300 years of continuous uninterrupted history. This prodigious feat of conservation, theatrically speaking, makes Japan an extraordinary and unique country. In all of Asia, where tradition generally is sanctified and change eschewed, Japan stands as the only country whose theatre is its entirety has never suffered an eclipse nor undergone any drastic revivification or renovation. The most traditional form of Japanese theatre is kabuki. Its origin goes back to the latter part of the 16th century and, with extensive and continuous evolution, it has now been perfected into a state of classical refinement. Though not as flourishing as it once was, the kabuki theatre retains wide popularity among the people, and is in fact drawing quite large audiences even now.
During the period generally referred to as the Edo Era, during which much of the development of kabuki took place, distinctions between the warrior class and the commoners was more rigidly observed than at any other time in Japan’s history. Mainly the merchants cultivated the art of kabuki in those days. They had become increasingly powerful economically, but had to remain socially inferior as they belonged to the commoner class. To them kabuki was most significant as the artistic means by which to express their emotions under the prevailing conditions. Thus, the fundamental themes of kabuki plays are conflicts between humanity and the feudalistic system. It is largely due to this humanistic quality of the art that it gained such an enduring popularity among the general public of those days and remains this way today.
A unique feature of the kabuki art, and possibly the most significant detail and in keeping with the kabuki spirit of unusualness, is the fact that it has no actresses whatsoever (Bowers 325). Male impersonators known as onnagata play all female parts. The players of the kabuki drama in its primitive stage were principally women, and with the increasing popularity of kabuki, many of the actresses began to attract undue attention from male admirers. The authorities felt that this would lead to a serious demoralization of the public and in 1629 the theatrical appearance of women was officially banned.
However, since the public already accepted kabuki, men immediately took over and have continued performing to the present. The ban on actresses was in effect for about 250 years. In the mean time kabuki brought to perfection the art of the onnagata. As a result, there was no room for actresses in kabuki when the ban was lifted. Moreover, the art of onnagata had become such an integral part of kabuki that, if deprived of this element, the traditional quality of kabuki could be lost forever.
Another important characteristic of kabuki is that it is a wide-ranging and accumulative theatre (Hsu, 73). Born at the turn of the 16th century, it incorporated parts of all the preceding theatre forms of Japan. Among the traditional arts from which kabuki has drawn from, stage techniques and repertoire are the noh drama and the kyogen play. The kyogen plays are the comic interludes presented between the noh performances. Today, the number of Japanese who appreciate noh proper is far smaller than that of those who favor kabuki, but those kabuki plays adapted from or inspired by noh plays enjoy a wide popularity and constitute an essential portion of the entire kabuki repertoire (Mackerras, 132).
Another area from which kabuki has borrowed elements is the puppet theatre, often referred to as bunraku. The development of bunraku roughly paralleled that of earlier kabuki. In kabuki, the primary importance has always been placed on the actor rather than on any other aspect of the art, such as literary value of a play. During the early 17th century, some of the great writers, including Monzaemon Chikamatsu, often called the “Shakespeare of Japan”, left kabuki with its actors’ domination and turned to the puppet theatre where their creative genius was more or less unrestricted. As a result, there was a period when puppets overshadowed actors and the puppet theatre was more popular than kabuki. To meet this competition, kabuki adopted virtually all the puppet plays. Thus, today more than half of the | 885 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An artificial heart, also known as a cardiac implant, was a device able to completely replace a heart in case of a major injury. Artificial hearts were more susceptible to weapon blasts, such as those caused by a compressed teryon beam, than the Human heart.
The procedure of replacing a parthenogenetic cardiac implant was performed conforming to Van Doren's technique and had a mortality rate of 2.4%; any well-equipped medical facility could perform this procedure. Placing a cardiac implant was performed by a medical team of six:
Prior to the operation, a neural caliper was used to anesthetize the patient, after which the operation began. The cardiac implant was placed via a mid-line entry. When the operation was finished, the patient had to stay in post-op for at least four hours. (TNG: "Samaritan Snare")
In 2365, Picard needed to have it replaced for maintenance reasons, so he traveled to Starbase 515, not wanting the crew to know by having the operation performed aboard the USS Enterprise-D, despite the fact that Doctor Pulaski was more than capable of performing the surgery. After a complication, she was required to perform the surgery anyway. (TNG: "Samaritan Snare") | <urn:uuid:45acedb5-7696-4015-9d40-a495839998c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Artificial_heart | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.980711 | 262 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.35349... | 1 | An artificial heart, also known as a cardiac implant, was a device able to completely replace a heart in case of a major injury. Artificial hearts were more susceptible to weapon blasts, such as those caused by a compressed teryon beam, than the Human heart.
The procedure of replacing a parthenogenetic cardiac implant was performed conforming to Van Doren's technique and had a mortality rate of 2.4%; any well-equipped medical facility could perform this procedure. Placing a cardiac implant was performed by a medical team of six:
Prior to the operation, a neural caliper was used to anesthetize the patient, after which the operation began. The cardiac implant was placed via a mid-line entry. When the operation was finished, the patient had to stay in post-op for at least four hours. (TNG: "Samaritan Snare")
In 2365, Picard needed to have it replaced for maintenance reasons, so he traveled to Starbase 515, not wanting the crew to know by having the operation performed aboard the USS Enterprise-D, despite the fact that Doctor Pulaski was more than capable of performing the surgery. After a complication, she was required to perform the surgery anyway. (TNG: "Samaritan Snare") | 263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A few weeks ago, we discussed some fun facts about modern-day dogs. You can read it here. Today, let’s take a look back on where those dogs came from by talking about some little-known facts about dogs’ ancestors, not only wolves but species which are ancestral to all canines who live today.
1. The very first ancestor of all, the bone-crushing dogs and bear dogs and wolves, was Miacis, who lived 55 million years ago, and who ate like a weasel, climbed trees, and had a fluffy tail like a squirrel.
2. It has been found that prehistoric humans in Japan treated dogs as family members and gave them distinct names.
3. Cynodictis was small and didn’t look very much like a dog, but they were the ancestor of not only dogs, but foxes and jackals, as well.
4. The first recognizably canid ancestor to dogs was Hesperocyon, who lived in groups among the trees or in underground burrows. They were about the size of foxes.
5. The transition from wolves to domestic dogs happened over so short a time frame that it is nearly impossible for researchers to study it thoroughly.
6. Dogs are probably descended from two different groups of wolves that were domesticated. These two groups then interbred to create the Canis familiaris we know today.
7. The ancestral canid Epicyon could have grown to 300 pounds, and had a tremendously strong bite due to their large teeth.
8. A “dog genome project” is underway, named after the Human Genome Project, which hopes to map differences across different dog breeds to understand the threats of disease and find the genes which lead to the vastly different behaviors across different breeds. This is possible because all dog breeds are the same species and have artificially been altered by humans.
9. Aelurodon was a “bone-crushing” dog, a family of scavengers who lived in North America. Interestingly, though, the name Aelurodon means “cat-toothed”.
10. It is thought by some that dogs became domesticated 130,000 years ago. That’s even before humans began to transition from hunter-gatherer societies into settled agricultural ones.
11. Some evidence from Europe shows that humans lived alongside dogs in a sentimental and symbolic way, and that they were cohabitating before the relationship was mutually beneficial, as in before the dogs were guarding or hunting for humans. They were around because the humans liked being with them.
12. Eucyon, the first member of the caninae family, which are “true dogs”, evolved in North America, crossed the Bering Land Bridge into Asia, and then crossed back over into North America at a later time.
Thank you for reading. If you have a question or request, please leave it in the comments down below. We publish a new blog every Tuesday and Friday so, until next time, goodbye! | <urn:uuid:8c250873-b3d0-43c4-8eab-03ecea22a75e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lightfutureart.com/puppy-ancestors-ancient-dogs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.980165 | 633 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.191225394606590... | 4 | A few weeks ago, we discussed some fun facts about modern-day dogs. You can read it here. Today, let’s take a look back on where those dogs came from by talking about some little-known facts about dogs’ ancestors, not only wolves but species which are ancestral to all canines who live today.
1. The very first ancestor of all, the bone-crushing dogs and bear dogs and wolves, was Miacis, who lived 55 million years ago, and who ate like a weasel, climbed trees, and had a fluffy tail like a squirrel.
2. It has been found that prehistoric humans in Japan treated dogs as family members and gave them distinct names.
3. Cynodictis was small and didn’t look very much like a dog, but they were the ancestor of not only dogs, but foxes and jackals, as well.
4. The first recognizably canid ancestor to dogs was Hesperocyon, who lived in groups among the trees or in underground burrows. They were about the size of foxes.
5. The transition from wolves to domestic dogs happened over so short a time frame that it is nearly impossible for researchers to study it thoroughly.
6. Dogs are probably descended from two different groups of wolves that were domesticated. These two groups then interbred to create the Canis familiaris we know today.
7. The ancestral canid Epicyon could have grown to 300 pounds, and had a tremendously strong bite due to their large teeth.
8. A “dog genome project” is underway, named after the Human Genome Project, which hopes to map differences across different dog breeds to understand the threats of disease and find the genes which lead to the vastly different behaviors across different breeds. This is possible because all dog breeds are the same species and have artificially been altered by humans.
9. Aelurodon was a “bone-crushing” dog, a family of scavengers who lived in North America. Interestingly, though, the name Aelurodon means “cat-toothed”.
10. It is thought by some that dogs became domesticated 130,000 years ago. That’s even before humans began to transition from hunter-gatherer societies into settled agricultural ones.
11. Some evidence from Europe shows that humans lived alongside dogs in a sentimental and symbolic way, and that they were cohabitating before the relationship was mutually beneficial, as in before the dogs were guarding or hunting for humans. They were around because the humans liked being with them.
12. Eucyon, the first member of the caninae family, which are “true dogs”, evolved in North America, crossed the Bering Land Bridge into Asia, and then crossed back over into North America at a later time.
Thank you for reading. If you have a question or request, please leave it in the comments down below. We publish a new blog every Tuesday and Friday so, until next time, goodbye! | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of Miami Florida is brief by the standards of the rest of America, but it has traveled a long way in a short time.
The area was first settled by Tequesta Indians. They lived near the mouth of the Miami River until the Spanish came along and constructed a mission there in 1567.
During the Second Seminole War, the U.S. built Fort Dallas in 1836 at the mouth of the Miami River near the location of the former mission. This war was the beginning of the modern history of Miami Florida.
Books on the history of Miami Florida consider Julia Tuttle to be the founder of the modern city. She was a rich woman who originally came from Cleveland, Ohio, toward the end of the 1800's and planted citrus groves in the Miami area.
After Florida's Great Freeze of 1894-1895, most of the state's citrus industry was destroyed. The only citrus that survived was in the south Florida area around Miami.
This good fortune was to be the turning point in the history of Miami Florida.
Julia Tuttle was able to convince Henry Flagler to expand his Florida East Coast Railroad to Miami. The rumor is that she sent him a nice fresh orange blossom after the freeze.
Flagler was convinced, the railroad came to town, and that's when Miami Florida began to boom.
The little settlement of Miami, with a population of slightly more than 300, was officially incorporated as a city on July 28, 1896. The official history of Miami Florida begins with that date.
Miami grew quickly through the 1920's with a huge increase in population. This was the era of the Florida Land Boom, and places like Coral Gables, Hialeah, Miami Springs, Miami Beach and Opa-Locka became household names around America.
People got rich flipping real estate. They'd buy a building lot before lunch and sell it for a huge profit before dark, day after day. The stories of quick wealth became a prominent part of the history of Miami.
Hurricanes have also been part of Miami history. Click on this link for video scenes from the devastating 1926 hurricane.
The 1926 Miami Hurricane, the 1928 hurricane and the Great Depression ended the Florida Land Boom with a crash. To this day, the history of Miami Florida is linked to the hurricane and subsequent crash.
Miami was devastated economically and would take a long time coming back. By the early 1940's, Miami was on the way back. Many new hotels had been built, especially in Miami Beach, and the city was growing.
World War II was responsible for accelerating the area's comeback.
The history of Miami still resonates with the activities that took place here during the war. Almost every hotel room in Miami and Miami Beach became barracks for military men and women who were being trained for the war.
The City was also well located to play a role in the search and destruction of German submarines operating off the South Florida coast in the gulf stream.
During the war, about 175,000 people lived in Miami. The history of Miami was changed forever by these people.
After the war, many military people came back to work and live in Miami. Miami once again became a thriving city. It was the headquarters of Eastern Airlines and Pan American Airlines.
Understanding the history of Miami would not be possible without studying a bit of the history of modern Cuba, our neighbor 90 miles to the south.
When Fidel Castro overthrew Batista and took over Cuba in 1959, many Cubans fled to Miami, increasing the population even more.
The Cubans were not welcomed with open arms. Signs appeared on apartments for rent in all areas of Miami-Dade County that said "No Dogs Or Cubans Allowed".
This was not the brightest period in the history of Miami.
The Anglo business and political power structure did not make things easy for the displaced Cubans. By sticking together, and with diligence, time and hard work, the Cuban population came to be the most powerful political and economic force in Miami.
In the 1970's, 1980s and 1990s one crisis after another buffeted Miami as badly as hurricanes had done in the past. In fact, one of the crises was another hurricane.
These crises - along with one morale boosting event in between - are important to understand the history of Miami and the resilience of its people.
The Cuban Refugee Crisis.The 1960's saw hundreds of thousands of refugees flood into Miami from Castro's Cuba.
There was a shortage of housing for them, the city's utility and educational systems were badly strained, and it took most of the decade for the crisis to settle down and for the community to adjust to the new residents and for the new residents to become part of the community.
The "Cocaine Cowboys" emerged in the 1970's. The "cowboys" were an assortment of merciless murdering merciless murdering drug dealing gangs and syndicates, many of them Colombian.
Murders and violence became the norm. Floridians from the rest of the state became afraid to even visit Miami, let alone do business there.
I was having lunch one day in 1979 with a client at Neon Leon's, a then popular restaurant in South Miami. During lunch, the owner was posting prices on a bulletin board by the front door when he was killed by gunfire from a hit man riding a motorcycle.
It was a war and it seemed like the bad guys were winning. The good guys finally got it under control, but they were scary times.
The Miami Race Riot of early 1980 was triggered by the Arthur McDuffie incident. McDuffie was a Black insurance salesman and a former U.S. Marine.
Early one morning in December 1979, police were chasing the 33 year old McDuffie on his motorcycle. McDuffie had several outstanding traffic citations and was driving with a suspended license.
The consequences of this arrest, including the police beating of McDuffie, resulted in one of the worst race riots in the history of Miami and America.
The Mariel Boatlift between April and October 1980 was another crisis for Miami. People were starving in Cuba, and riots were taking place in Havana and elsewhere.
Fidel Castro then announced that anybody who wanted to leave Cuba could do so. The boats started back and forth between Miami and Cuba immediately. The Miami Cuban-American community did most of the work in helping the refugees leave Cuba.
After as many as 125,000 Cubans had made the trip to Florida, it was discovered that Castro had also gotten rid of many hardened criminals from his jails, along with patients from his mental health hospitals.
The U.S. government stopped further boat lifts, but not before altering the history of Miami Florida forever.
"Marielitos" became a bad name, even though not all of them were bad. Most Cubans - Marielitos and non-Marielitos alike - did not want to be associated with this designation.
The Mariel Boatlift, along with the Iranian hostage crisis, did not help the political career of then President Jimmy Carter.
Christos Surrounded Islands was a good thing that seemed frivolous at the time.
After the misery, violence and bloodshed of the 1970's and 1980's, Miami received a morale boost in 1983. This was the year that "the surrounded islands" project was completed. There was something healing and unifying about this project that wrapped several islands in Biscayne Bay with pink plastic.
The Eastern Airlines Bankruptcy. In 1991, after years of declining revenues and labor union problems, the historic airline finally closed its doors. It was a huge shock to the community and a tragedy in the history of Miami.
The city was the headquarters of Eastern Airlines.The airline had been founded in the early days by Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, a World War One flying ace and genuine American hero.
Eastern filed for bankruptcy protection on March 9, 1989. With the airline collapsing from debt, it ran out of money to operate on January 18, 1991.
Over 18,000 employees lost their jobs and pensions in one day, not including the thousands laid off in the years prior to the final collapse.It was a black page in the history of Miami Florida.
Hurricane Andrew crashed into the Kendall, Homestead and Florida City areas south of Miami on August 24, 1992. It kept on going across the state and Gulf of Mexico and finally hit Louisiana.
Andrew caused $26.5 billion in damage ($40 billion in 2009 dollars), with most of that damage in south Florida.
I moved to Miami a few weeks after Andrew, and the devastation I saw was unbelievable.Over 250,000 thousand people were homeless. 82,000 business were destroyed. Electricity and water were not available to hundreds of thousands of people who still had some of their home left to live in.
I was lucky to have a boat I could live aboard at the Miami Beach Marina.It took years for the damage to be repaired. More than 100,000 people abandoned the area when they got their insurance checks, and moved to south Broward County. The demographics of south Miami-Dade County changed dramatically.
Andrew also had a severe impact on the environment. It damaged 33 percent of the coral reefs at Biscayne National Park, and 90 percent of South Dade's native pinelands, mangroves and tropical hardwood hammocks.
It also produced a 30 year supply of debris for South Florida's landfills.
The Elian Gonzalez affair in 2000 galvanized the Cuban Americans of Miami, along with many other anti-Castro and anti-communist people in the community and the United States.
In November 1999, Elian, his mother, and twelve others left Cuba on a small boat with a bad engine. Elian's mother and ten others died in the crossing.
Elian and the other two survivors floated at sea on an inner tube until they were rescued by two fishermen who turned him over to the U.S. Coast Guard.
Attorney General Janet Reno decided that Elian should be returned to his father in Cuba. Federal agents stormed the house of Elian's relatives and took him into custody, then sent him back to Cuba. It was a public relations triumph for Castro.
Another continuing crisis during the 1980's and 1990's was the large homeless community camped out in makeshift shelters under the various interstate bridges in the downtown area, and under the Julia Tuttle and MacArthur Causeways.
The beauty of Miami's people and the strength of Miami is that they not only endured these crises, they solved them and became stronger because of them.
The history of Miami Florida continues to be written by these strong people. | <urn:uuid:0191aa47-de98-47d1-9958-6228aa1095a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.florida-backroads-travel.com/history-of-miami-florida.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00139.warc.gz | en | 0.982929 | 2,196 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.50751173496246... | 7 | The history of Miami Florida is brief by the standards of the rest of America, but it has traveled a long way in a short time.
The area was first settled by Tequesta Indians. They lived near the mouth of the Miami River until the Spanish came along and constructed a mission there in 1567.
During the Second Seminole War, the U.S. built Fort Dallas in 1836 at the mouth of the Miami River near the location of the former mission. This war was the beginning of the modern history of Miami Florida.
Books on the history of Miami Florida consider Julia Tuttle to be the founder of the modern city. She was a rich woman who originally came from Cleveland, Ohio, toward the end of the 1800's and planted citrus groves in the Miami area.
After Florida's Great Freeze of 1894-1895, most of the state's citrus industry was destroyed. The only citrus that survived was in the south Florida area around Miami.
This good fortune was to be the turning point in the history of Miami Florida.
Julia Tuttle was able to convince Henry Flagler to expand his Florida East Coast Railroad to Miami. The rumor is that she sent him a nice fresh orange blossom after the freeze.
Flagler was convinced, the railroad came to town, and that's when Miami Florida began to boom.
The little settlement of Miami, with a population of slightly more than 300, was officially incorporated as a city on July 28, 1896. The official history of Miami Florida begins with that date.
Miami grew quickly through the 1920's with a huge increase in population. This was the era of the Florida Land Boom, and places like Coral Gables, Hialeah, Miami Springs, Miami Beach and Opa-Locka became household names around America.
People got rich flipping real estate. They'd buy a building lot before lunch and sell it for a huge profit before dark, day after day. The stories of quick wealth became a prominent part of the history of Miami.
Hurricanes have also been part of Miami history. Click on this link for video scenes from the devastating 1926 hurricane.
The 1926 Miami Hurricane, the 1928 hurricane and the Great Depression ended the Florida Land Boom with a crash. To this day, the history of Miami Florida is linked to the hurricane and subsequent crash.
Miami was devastated economically and would take a long time coming back. By the early 1940's, Miami was on the way back. Many new hotels had been built, especially in Miami Beach, and the city was growing.
World War II was responsible for accelerating the area's comeback.
The history of Miami still resonates with the activities that took place here during the war. Almost every hotel room in Miami and Miami Beach became barracks for military men and women who were being trained for the war.
The City was also well located to play a role in the search and destruction of German submarines operating off the South Florida coast in the gulf stream.
During the war, about 175,000 people lived in Miami. The history of Miami was changed forever by these people.
After the war, many military people came back to work and live in Miami. Miami once again became a thriving city. It was the headquarters of Eastern Airlines and Pan American Airlines.
Understanding the history of Miami would not be possible without studying a bit of the history of modern Cuba, our neighbor 90 miles to the south.
When Fidel Castro overthrew Batista and took over Cuba in 1959, many Cubans fled to Miami, increasing the population even more.
The Cubans were not welcomed with open arms. Signs appeared on apartments for rent in all areas of Miami-Dade County that said "No Dogs Or Cubans Allowed".
This was not the brightest period in the history of Miami.
The Anglo business and political power structure did not make things easy for the displaced Cubans. By sticking together, and with diligence, time and hard work, the Cuban population came to be the most powerful political and economic force in Miami.
In the 1970's, 1980s and 1990s one crisis after another buffeted Miami as badly as hurricanes had done in the past. In fact, one of the crises was another hurricane.
These crises - along with one morale boosting event in between - are important to understand the history of Miami and the resilience of its people.
The Cuban Refugee Crisis.The 1960's saw hundreds of thousands of refugees flood into Miami from Castro's Cuba.
There was a shortage of housing for them, the city's utility and educational systems were badly strained, and it took most of the decade for the crisis to settle down and for the community to adjust to the new residents and for the new residents to become part of the community.
The "Cocaine Cowboys" emerged in the 1970's. The "cowboys" were an assortment of merciless murdering merciless murdering drug dealing gangs and syndicates, many of them Colombian.
Murders and violence became the norm. Floridians from the rest of the state became afraid to even visit Miami, let alone do business there.
I was having lunch one day in 1979 with a client at Neon Leon's, a then popular restaurant in South Miami. During lunch, the owner was posting prices on a bulletin board by the front door when he was killed by gunfire from a hit man riding a motorcycle.
It was a war and it seemed like the bad guys were winning. The good guys finally got it under control, but they were scary times.
The Miami Race Riot of early 1980 was triggered by the Arthur McDuffie incident. McDuffie was a Black insurance salesman and a former U.S. Marine.
Early one morning in December 1979, police were chasing the 33 year old McDuffie on his motorcycle. McDuffie had several outstanding traffic citations and was driving with a suspended license.
The consequences of this arrest, including the police beating of McDuffie, resulted in one of the worst race riots in the history of Miami and America.
The Mariel Boatlift between April and October 1980 was another crisis for Miami. People were starving in Cuba, and riots were taking place in Havana and elsewhere.
Fidel Castro then announced that anybody who wanted to leave Cuba could do so. The boats started back and forth between Miami and Cuba immediately. The Miami Cuban-American community did most of the work in helping the refugees leave Cuba.
After as many as 125,000 Cubans had made the trip to Florida, it was discovered that Castro had also gotten rid of many hardened criminals from his jails, along with patients from his mental health hospitals.
The U.S. government stopped further boat lifts, but not before altering the history of Miami Florida forever.
"Marielitos" became a bad name, even though not all of them were bad. Most Cubans - Marielitos and non-Marielitos alike - did not want to be associated with this designation.
The Mariel Boatlift, along with the Iranian hostage crisis, did not help the political career of then President Jimmy Carter.
Christos Surrounded Islands was a good thing that seemed frivolous at the time.
After the misery, violence and bloodshed of the 1970's and 1980's, Miami received a morale boost in 1983. This was the year that "the surrounded islands" project was completed. There was something healing and unifying about this project that wrapped several islands in Biscayne Bay with pink plastic.
The Eastern Airlines Bankruptcy. In 1991, after years of declining revenues and labor union problems, the historic airline finally closed its doors. It was a huge shock to the community and a tragedy in the history of Miami.
The city was the headquarters of Eastern Airlines.The airline had been founded in the early days by Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, a World War One flying ace and genuine American hero.
Eastern filed for bankruptcy protection on March 9, 1989. With the airline collapsing from debt, it ran out of money to operate on January 18, 1991.
Over 18,000 employees lost their jobs and pensions in one day, not including the thousands laid off in the years prior to the final collapse.It was a black page in the history of Miami Florida.
Hurricane Andrew crashed into the Kendall, Homestead and Florida City areas south of Miami on August 24, 1992. It kept on going across the state and Gulf of Mexico and finally hit Louisiana.
Andrew caused $26.5 billion in damage ($40 billion in 2009 dollars), with most of that damage in south Florida.
I moved to Miami a few weeks after Andrew, and the devastation I saw was unbelievable.Over 250,000 thousand people were homeless. 82,000 business were destroyed. Electricity and water were not available to hundreds of thousands of people who still had some of their home left to live in.
I was lucky to have a boat I could live aboard at the Miami Beach Marina.It took years for the damage to be repaired. More than 100,000 people abandoned the area when they got their insurance checks, and moved to south Broward County. The demographics of south Miami-Dade County changed dramatically.
Andrew also had a severe impact on the environment. It damaged 33 percent of the coral reefs at Biscayne National Park, and 90 percent of South Dade's native pinelands, mangroves and tropical hardwood hammocks.
It also produced a 30 year supply of debris for South Florida's landfills.
The Elian Gonzalez affair in 2000 galvanized the Cuban Americans of Miami, along with many other anti-Castro and anti-communist people in the community and the United States.
In November 1999, Elian, his mother, and twelve others left Cuba on a small boat with a bad engine. Elian's mother and ten others died in the crossing.
Elian and the other two survivors floated at sea on an inner tube until they were rescued by two fishermen who turned him over to the U.S. Coast Guard.
Attorney General Janet Reno decided that Elian should be returned to his father in Cuba. Federal agents stormed the house of Elian's relatives and took him into custody, then sent him back to Cuba. It was a public relations triumph for Castro.
Another continuing crisis during the 1980's and 1990's was the large homeless community camped out in makeshift shelters under the various interstate bridges in the downtown area, and under the Julia Tuttle and MacArthur Causeways.
The beauty of Miami's people and the strength of Miami is that they not only endured these crises, they solved them and became stronger because of them.
The history of Miami Florida continues to be written by these strong people. | 2,297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
contain traces of life. These first remains are of the simplest description; they are the vestiges of simple plants, called algæ, or marks like the tracks made by worms in the sea mud. There are also the skeletons of the microscopic creatures called Radiolaria. This second series of rocks is called the Proterozoic (beginning of life) series, and marks a long age in the world's history. Lying over and above the Proterozoic rocks is a third series, which is found to contain a considerable number and variety of traces of living things. First comes the evidence of a diversity of shellfish, crabs, and such-like crawling things, worms, seaweeds, and the like; then of a multitude of fishes and of the beginnings of land plants and land creatures. These rocks are called the Palæozoic (ancient life) rocks. They mark a vast era, during which life was slowly spreading, increasing, and developing in the seas of our world. Through long ages, through the earliest Palæozoic time, it was no more than a proliferation of such swimming and creeping things in the water. There were creatures called trilobites; they were crawling things like big sea woodlice that were probably related to the American king-crab of to-day. There were also sea-scorpions, the prefects of that early world. The individuals of certain species of these were nine feet long. These were the very highest sorts of life. There were abundant different sorts of an order of shellfish called brachiopods. There were plant animals, rooted and joined together like plants, and loose weeds that waved in the waters.
It was not a display of life to excite our imaginations. There was nothing that ran or flew or even swam swiftly or skilfully. Except for the size of some of the creatures, it was not very different from, and rather less various than, the kind of life a student would gather from any summer-time ditch nowadays for microscopic examination. Such was the life of the shallow seas through a hundred million years or more in the early Palæozoic period. The land during that time was apparently absolutely barren. We find no trace nor hint of land life. Everything that lived in those days lived under water for most or all of its life.
Between the formation of these Lower Palæozoic rocks in which the sea scorpion and trilobite ruled, and our own time, there have intervened almost immeasurable ages, represented by layers | <urn:uuid:39bb4456-1991-491b-995e-936ff69e3a66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/34 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.980966 | 526 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.131270781159... | 1 | contain traces of life. These first remains are of the simplest description; they are the vestiges of simple plants, called algæ, or marks like the tracks made by worms in the sea mud. There are also the skeletons of the microscopic creatures called Radiolaria. This second series of rocks is called the Proterozoic (beginning of life) series, and marks a long age in the world's history. Lying over and above the Proterozoic rocks is a third series, which is found to contain a considerable number and variety of traces of living things. First comes the evidence of a diversity of shellfish, crabs, and such-like crawling things, worms, seaweeds, and the like; then of a multitude of fishes and of the beginnings of land plants and land creatures. These rocks are called the Palæozoic (ancient life) rocks. They mark a vast era, during which life was slowly spreading, increasing, and developing in the seas of our world. Through long ages, through the earliest Palæozoic time, it was no more than a proliferation of such swimming and creeping things in the water. There were creatures called trilobites; they were crawling things like big sea woodlice that were probably related to the American king-crab of to-day. There were also sea-scorpions, the prefects of that early world. The individuals of certain species of these were nine feet long. These were the very highest sorts of life. There were abundant different sorts of an order of shellfish called brachiopods. There were plant animals, rooted and joined together like plants, and loose weeds that waved in the waters.
It was not a display of life to excite our imaginations. There was nothing that ran or flew or even swam swiftly or skilfully. Except for the size of some of the creatures, it was not very different from, and rather less various than, the kind of life a student would gather from any summer-time ditch nowadays for microscopic examination. Such was the life of the shallow seas through a hundred million years or more in the early Palæozoic period. The land during that time was apparently absolutely barren. We find no trace nor hint of land life. Everything that lived in those days lived under water for most or all of its life.
Between the formation of these Lower Palæozoic rocks in which the sea scorpion and trilobite ruled, and our own time, there have intervened almost immeasurable ages, represented by layers | 515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator
Born around 69 BC, Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator, popularly known as Cleopatra, is one of the most famous female rulers in history. She was the last queen of the Macedonian dynasty that ruled Egypt, following the death of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemaic dynasty in ancient Egypt began when Alexander's general, Ptolemy, took over as the ruler of Egypt and declared himself as ‘King Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt’, (saviour of Egypt). During its height, Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the world's great powers. Cleopatra was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes, in 70 or 69 BC. Details about her mother are not very clear, however, it is presumed that, she may have been her father's sister, Cleopatra V Tryphaena.
c. 69-30 BCE, Temple of Hathor, Dandarah
After the death of her father in 51BC, the Egyptian throne passed to 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII. It is possible that, the two siblings married, as was the custom of the country. However, within no time, Cleopatra dropped the name of Ptolemy XIII from all official documents, and started to rule the country alone. But soon, Ptolemy’s advisers also started to play against Cleopatra, and finally, she was forced to flee Egypt for Syria in 49 B.C. While in exile, Cleopatra assembled an army of mercenaries and returned the following year to face her brother at Pelusium, on the eastern border of Egypt.
She traced her family origins to Macedonian Greece.
At about this same time, the Roman general Pompey the Great was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus. Since Pompey was once the state-appointed guardian of the younger Ptolemy children and had spent a considerable time in Egypt, Pompey was under the impression that he can safely take refuge in Egypt. So he fled from Pharsalus to Egypt. However, instead of safety, he was murdered under the gaze of Ptolemy XIII, as he came on shore at Alexandra. But, Caesar was not happy at this. He was allegedly outraged at the killing of a Roman general, declared martial law, and set himself up in the royal palace. Ptolemy XIII fled to Pelusium with his court, but Caesar brought him back to Alexandria.
Caesar had the intention to recover the money, the repayment of the debts incurred by Cleopatra’s father, Auletes, as he struggled to retain his throne. On the other hand, Cleopatra knew that, if she was to regain her throne, she must have Roman support, or, more specifically Caesar’s support to defeat her rival brother. She was confident and clever enough to use her sexual charm and intelligence to woo her potential allies. She knew that she only needs the access to Caesar if she was to regain her power. She was still in exile and knew that, there was no way she could simply walk into the palace and meet Caesar directly. So she wrapped herself in a carpet, or a linen sack, and carried through the enemy lines into Caesar’s quarters. Caesar was instantly dazzled by the glamour and beauty of the young queen in her royal garb, and the two soon became allies and lovers. Eventually, she became Caesar’s mistress and gave birth to their son Ptolemy Caesar in 47 BC, nine months after their first meeting. He was nicknamed Caesarion, means ‘little Caesar’.
Ptolemy XIII, in the mean time, teamed with his general, Achillas, to fight against the Roman force in Alexandria. Caesar and Cleopatra had to spend the winter besieged in the royal palace of Alexandria for six months, until Roman reinforcements arrived the following spring. At the end of the war, Ptolemy XIII was forced to flee and was believed to have drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra, now married to her brother Ptolemy XIV, was restored to her throne by Caesar.
Before leaving Egypt, Caesar stationed a Roman occupying army there of three legions under the command of Rufio. As he returned to Rome, in 46 bce, he celebrated a four-day triumph, the ceremonial in honour of a general after his victory over a foreign enemy, in which Arsinoe, Cleopatra’s younger and hostile sister, was paraded.
Cleopatra traveled to Rome with Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion to visit Caesar, sometime in 46-45 BC. However, the relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar caused a scandal among the Romans, as Caesar was already married to Calpurnia. As a foreign head of state, Cleopatra was not even allowed inside Rome's Pomerium. Instead, she was accommodated in one of Caesar's country houses, beyond the Tiber River. Yet, Caesar erected a golden statue of Cleopatra representing her as the goddess Isis, in the temple of Venus Genetri, the mythical ancestress of Caesar's family, situated at the Forum Julium. Cleopatra was still in Rome, when Caesar was assassinated on the 15th day of March, 44 BC, and after his death, she returned to Egypt with her brother-husband and son. Ptolemy XIV died soon after, allegedly poisoned by Cleopatra and the three-year-old Caesarion was named co-regent with his mother, as Ptolemy XV. At this point, in accordance with the ancient Egyptian tradition of associating royalty with divinity to reinforce the position of kings and queens, Cleopatra had strongly identified herself with the goddess Isis, the sister-wife of Osiris and mother of Horus.
At that point of time, an internal conflict was brewing in Rome between Caesar’s allies, comprising of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus, and his assassins, Brutus and Cassius. Finally, in 42 B.C, after defeating the forces of Brutus and Cassius in the battles of Phillippi, Mark Antony and Octavian divided power in Rome. Mark Antony, controller of Rome’s eastern territories, soon summoned Cleopatra to the Sicilian city of Tarsus, in the south of modern Turkey, to answer questions about her loyalty. It was alleged that, during the Roman civil war, she had paid much money to Cassius. But, in all probability, Antony wanted Cleopatra’s promise to support his intended war against the Parthians.
This time again, Cleopatra exploited her sharp intelligence and lethal feminine charm to cast her magic spell on Mark Antony. According to the Greek biographer Plutarch, when she was summoned to meet Antony, Cleopatra arrived on a majestic golden barge decorated with purple sails and rowed with silver oars. Looking gracefully dignified in the attire of the goddess Isis, Cleopatra was beneath a gilded canopy in the barge, while the attendants dressed as cupids, were engaged in fanning her and burning sweet-smelling incense. Antony, who considered himself as the Greek deity Dionysus, was instantly mesmerized by the exotic beauty of Cleopatra.
The legendary love affair between Cleopatra and Mark Antony began in 41 BC. However, their relationship was based on their political interests. Cleopatra needed the assured assistance from the Roman General to protect her crown and the return of Egypt's eastern empire, which included large areas of Lebanon and Syria. On the other hand, Antony needed her support in his intended war against the Parthians and at the same time, the access to Egypt’s riches and resources.
After successfully completing her chore, Cleopatra returned to Egypt and shortly thereafter, Antony followed her, leaving behind his third wife, Fulvia, and their children in Rome. Antony spent the winter of 41-40 BC in Alexandria, and it is said that during this period he and Cleopatra formed the ‘Inimitable Livers’, a controversial drinking society. Some historians have interpreted the lives of its members as a life of promiscuity, while others have interpreted them as lives dedicated to the cult of the Greek god Dionysus.
After Antony’s return to Rome in 49BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, Alexander Helios (sun) and Cleopatra Selene (moon). However, Antony’s Parthian campaign was a costly failure, as was his temporary conquest of Armenia. In the year 34 BC, he celebrated a triumphal return to Alexandria with Cleopatra. Thousands of people crowded to get a glimpse of the monarchical couple seated on the golden thrones, elevated on silver platforms. Beside them sat their children on slightly lower thrones. Before the gathering Antony declared Caesarion as Caesar’s son and rightful heir and awarded land to each of his children with Cleopatra. Cleopatra was accosted as queen of the kings, Caesarion as king of kings. This proclamation of Caesarion antagonised Octavian, whom the revered Roman leader had adopted. It was presumed that, Antony was under complete control of Cleopatra and soon he would abandon Rome and find a new capital in Egypt. As a result, late in 32 BC, the Roman Senate stripped Antony of all his titles, and declared war on Cleopatra.
On the 2nd day of September, 31 BC, in the famous naval battle of Actium, Cleopatra personally led several dozen Egyptian warships into the fray, side by side with the fleet of Antony. However, in that raging battle on the west coast of Greece, the combined fleet of Cleopatra and Antony was completely routed by Octavian’s fleet. It is believed that before the onset of the battle, Quintus Dellius, one of the generals of Antony, defected to Octavian and briefed him about the details of Antony’s strategy. This may be a vital reason for the defeat, despite leading a larger army. In any event, Cleopatra and Antony were forced to break through the Roman line and flee to Egypt. While Cleopatra was in her safe refuge, Antony went off to fight his last battle. There, he was falsely informed that Cleopatra had committed suicide. It was too much for the distressed lover. He stabbed himself fatally and just before his death was informed that the news about Cleopatra’s death was a rumor.
Mark Antony was buried on the 12th day of August, 30 BC. After his burial, Cleopatra had a brief meeting with victorious Octavian, and then closed herself in her room with two of her maids. It is said that, she followed her lover by ending her life by being bitten by a poisonous snake, known as ‘asp’, a symbol of divine royalty. However, what happened behind those closed doors, are really unknown. The ancient biographer Plutarch pointed out that, Cleopatra was known to conceal a deadly poison in one of her hair combs and she might have used that potent toxin to end her life, with the help of the pin. The lovers were buried together, as they had wished, and Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.
In an era when Egypt was in turmoil by internal and external battles, Cleopatra held the country together and proved to be as powerful a leader as any of her male counterparts. Though she was not an ethnically Egyptian, Cleopatra was the first member of the Ptolemaic line to learn the Egyptian language, and though she traced her family origins to Macedonian Greece, she embraced many of her country’s ancient customs,
The official Roman version of a predatory painted Cleopatra as an immoral woman. She was painted as a debauched temptress who used her sex appeal as a political weapon. It is a fact that, for political reasons, she styled herself as the reincarnation of the Egyptian goddess Isis. But, she was not as physically striking as commonly believed. Coins with her portrait show the lively facial expression of a lady, with a sensitive mouth, firm chin, liquid eyes, broad forehead, and a prominent nose, which is not that beautiful. According to Plutarch, her beauty was not altogether incomparable. However, it was her sweet melodious voice and irresistible charm that made her so desirable. Cleopatra was not really a stunning beauty, rather she was a captivating, persuasive and charming leader.
Cleopatra was well conversant in dozens of languages and was highly educated in difficult subjects like, mathematics, philosophy, oratory and astronomy. According to the Muslim scholars, writing after the Arab conquest of Egypt about 640 CE, Cleopatra was first and foremost a scholar and a scientist, a gifted philosopher and a chemist. In a papyrus dated 35 BC, Cleopatra is referred to as ‘Philopatris’, means ‘she who loves her country’.
Even after centuries following her death, the enigmatic life of Cleopatra and her affairs with the two powerful rulers of her time have ignited the lyrical inspiration of the artists, painters, storytellers and filmmakers of the world. Her affair with Marc Antony and its end became the inspiration for William Shakespeare’s play ‘Antony and Cleopatra’ (1607). In films the role of Cleopatra has been played by eminent actresses such as Theda Bara (1917), Claudette Colbert (1934) and Elizabeth Taylor (1963). | <urn:uuid:563e9c8b-969c-43cd-8d54-25cf75d47360> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tutorialathome.in/history/cleopatra-vii-thea-philopator-egypt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.983199 | 2,879 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.0890988111495971... | 4 | Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator
Born around 69 BC, Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator, popularly known as Cleopatra, is one of the most famous female rulers in history. She was the last queen of the Macedonian dynasty that ruled Egypt, following the death of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemaic dynasty in ancient Egypt began when Alexander's general, Ptolemy, took over as the ruler of Egypt and declared himself as ‘King Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt’, (saviour of Egypt). During its height, Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the world's great powers. Cleopatra was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes, in 70 or 69 BC. Details about her mother are not very clear, however, it is presumed that, she may have been her father's sister, Cleopatra V Tryphaena.
c. 69-30 BCE, Temple of Hathor, Dandarah
After the death of her father in 51BC, the Egyptian throne passed to 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII. It is possible that, the two siblings married, as was the custom of the country. However, within no time, Cleopatra dropped the name of Ptolemy XIII from all official documents, and started to rule the country alone. But soon, Ptolemy’s advisers also started to play against Cleopatra, and finally, she was forced to flee Egypt for Syria in 49 B.C. While in exile, Cleopatra assembled an army of mercenaries and returned the following year to face her brother at Pelusium, on the eastern border of Egypt.
She traced her family origins to Macedonian Greece.
At about this same time, the Roman general Pompey the Great was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus. Since Pompey was once the state-appointed guardian of the younger Ptolemy children and had spent a considerable time in Egypt, Pompey was under the impression that he can safely take refuge in Egypt. So he fled from Pharsalus to Egypt. However, instead of safety, he was murdered under the gaze of Ptolemy XIII, as he came on shore at Alexandra. But, Caesar was not happy at this. He was allegedly outraged at the killing of a Roman general, declared martial law, and set himself up in the royal palace. Ptolemy XIII fled to Pelusium with his court, but Caesar brought him back to Alexandria.
Caesar had the intention to recover the money, the repayment of the debts incurred by Cleopatra’s father, Auletes, as he struggled to retain his throne. On the other hand, Cleopatra knew that, if she was to regain her throne, she must have Roman support, or, more specifically Caesar’s support to defeat her rival brother. She was confident and clever enough to use her sexual charm and intelligence to woo her potential allies. She knew that she only needs the access to Caesar if she was to regain her power. She was still in exile and knew that, there was no way she could simply walk into the palace and meet Caesar directly. So she wrapped herself in a carpet, or a linen sack, and carried through the enemy lines into Caesar’s quarters. Caesar was instantly dazzled by the glamour and beauty of the young queen in her royal garb, and the two soon became allies and lovers. Eventually, she became Caesar’s mistress and gave birth to their son Ptolemy Caesar in 47 BC, nine months after their first meeting. He was nicknamed Caesarion, means ‘little Caesar’.
Ptolemy XIII, in the mean time, teamed with his general, Achillas, to fight against the Roman force in Alexandria. Caesar and Cleopatra had to spend the winter besieged in the royal palace of Alexandria for six months, until Roman reinforcements arrived the following spring. At the end of the war, Ptolemy XIII was forced to flee and was believed to have drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra, now married to her brother Ptolemy XIV, was restored to her throne by Caesar.
Before leaving Egypt, Caesar stationed a Roman occupying army there of three legions under the command of Rufio. As he returned to Rome, in 46 bce, he celebrated a four-day triumph, the ceremonial in honour of a general after his victory over a foreign enemy, in which Arsinoe, Cleopatra’s younger and hostile sister, was paraded.
Cleopatra traveled to Rome with Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion to visit Caesar, sometime in 46-45 BC. However, the relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar caused a scandal among the Romans, as Caesar was already married to Calpurnia. As a foreign head of state, Cleopatra was not even allowed inside Rome's Pomerium. Instead, she was accommodated in one of Caesar's country houses, beyond the Tiber River. Yet, Caesar erected a golden statue of Cleopatra representing her as the goddess Isis, in the temple of Venus Genetri, the mythical ancestress of Caesar's family, situated at the Forum Julium. Cleopatra was still in Rome, when Caesar was assassinated on the 15th day of March, 44 BC, and after his death, she returned to Egypt with her brother-husband and son. Ptolemy XIV died soon after, allegedly poisoned by Cleopatra and the three-year-old Caesarion was named co-regent with his mother, as Ptolemy XV. At this point, in accordance with the ancient Egyptian tradition of associating royalty with divinity to reinforce the position of kings and queens, Cleopatra had strongly identified herself with the goddess Isis, the sister-wife of Osiris and mother of Horus.
At that point of time, an internal conflict was brewing in Rome between Caesar’s allies, comprising of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus, and his assassins, Brutus and Cassius. Finally, in 42 B.C, after defeating the forces of Brutus and Cassius in the battles of Phillippi, Mark Antony and Octavian divided power in Rome. Mark Antony, controller of Rome’s eastern territories, soon summoned Cleopatra to the Sicilian city of Tarsus, in the south of modern Turkey, to answer questions about her loyalty. It was alleged that, during the Roman civil war, she had paid much money to Cassius. But, in all probability, Antony wanted Cleopatra’s promise to support his intended war against the Parthians.
This time again, Cleopatra exploited her sharp intelligence and lethal feminine charm to cast her magic spell on Mark Antony. According to the Greek biographer Plutarch, when she was summoned to meet Antony, Cleopatra arrived on a majestic golden barge decorated with purple sails and rowed with silver oars. Looking gracefully dignified in the attire of the goddess Isis, Cleopatra was beneath a gilded canopy in the barge, while the attendants dressed as cupids, were engaged in fanning her and burning sweet-smelling incense. Antony, who considered himself as the Greek deity Dionysus, was instantly mesmerized by the exotic beauty of Cleopatra.
The legendary love affair between Cleopatra and Mark Antony began in 41 BC. However, their relationship was based on their political interests. Cleopatra needed the assured assistance from the Roman General to protect her crown and the return of Egypt's eastern empire, which included large areas of Lebanon and Syria. On the other hand, Antony needed her support in his intended war against the Parthians and at the same time, the access to Egypt’s riches and resources.
After successfully completing her chore, Cleopatra returned to Egypt and shortly thereafter, Antony followed her, leaving behind his third wife, Fulvia, and their children in Rome. Antony spent the winter of 41-40 BC in Alexandria, and it is said that during this period he and Cleopatra formed the ‘Inimitable Livers’, a controversial drinking society. Some historians have interpreted the lives of its members as a life of promiscuity, while others have interpreted them as lives dedicated to the cult of the Greek god Dionysus.
After Antony’s return to Rome in 49BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, Alexander Helios (sun) and Cleopatra Selene (moon). However, Antony’s Parthian campaign was a costly failure, as was his temporary conquest of Armenia. In the year 34 BC, he celebrated a triumphal return to Alexandria with Cleopatra. Thousands of people crowded to get a glimpse of the monarchical couple seated on the golden thrones, elevated on silver platforms. Beside them sat their children on slightly lower thrones. Before the gathering Antony declared Caesarion as Caesar’s son and rightful heir and awarded land to each of his children with Cleopatra. Cleopatra was accosted as queen of the kings, Caesarion as king of kings. This proclamation of Caesarion antagonised Octavian, whom the revered Roman leader had adopted. It was presumed that, Antony was under complete control of Cleopatra and soon he would abandon Rome and find a new capital in Egypt. As a result, late in 32 BC, the Roman Senate stripped Antony of all his titles, and declared war on Cleopatra.
On the 2nd day of September, 31 BC, in the famous naval battle of Actium, Cleopatra personally led several dozen Egyptian warships into the fray, side by side with the fleet of Antony. However, in that raging battle on the west coast of Greece, the combined fleet of Cleopatra and Antony was completely routed by Octavian’s fleet. It is believed that before the onset of the battle, Quintus Dellius, one of the generals of Antony, defected to Octavian and briefed him about the details of Antony’s strategy. This may be a vital reason for the defeat, despite leading a larger army. In any event, Cleopatra and Antony were forced to break through the Roman line and flee to Egypt. While Cleopatra was in her safe refuge, Antony went off to fight his last battle. There, he was falsely informed that Cleopatra had committed suicide. It was too much for the distressed lover. He stabbed himself fatally and just before his death was informed that the news about Cleopatra’s death was a rumor.
Mark Antony was buried on the 12th day of August, 30 BC. After his burial, Cleopatra had a brief meeting with victorious Octavian, and then closed herself in her room with two of her maids. It is said that, she followed her lover by ending her life by being bitten by a poisonous snake, known as ‘asp’, a symbol of divine royalty. However, what happened behind those closed doors, are really unknown. The ancient biographer Plutarch pointed out that, Cleopatra was known to conceal a deadly poison in one of her hair combs and she might have used that potent toxin to end her life, with the help of the pin. The lovers were buried together, as they had wished, and Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.
In an era when Egypt was in turmoil by internal and external battles, Cleopatra held the country together and proved to be as powerful a leader as any of her male counterparts. Though she was not an ethnically Egyptian, Cleopatra was the first member of the Ptolemaic line to learn the Egyptian language, and though she traced her family origins to Macedonian Greece, she embraced many of her country’s ancient customs,
The official Roman version of a predatory painted Cleopatra as an immoral woman. She was painted as a debauched temptress who used her sex appeal as a political weapon. It is a fact that, for political reasons, she styled herself as the reincarnation of the Egyptian goddess Isis. But, she was not as physically striking as commonly believed. Coins with her portrait show the lively facial expression of a lady, with a sensitive mouth, firm chin, liquid eyes, broad forehead, and a prominent nose, which is not that beautiful. According to Plutarch, her beauty was not altogether incomparable. However, it was her sweet melodious voice and irresistible charm that made her so desirable. Cleopatra was not really a stunning beauty, rather she was a captivating, persuasive and charming leader.
Cleopatra was well conversant in dozens of languages and was highly educated in difficult subjects like, mathematics, philosophy, oratory and astronomy. According to the Muslim scholars, writing after the Arab conquest of Egypt about 640 CE, Cleopatra was first and foremost a scholar and a scientist, a gifted philosopher and a chemist. In a papyrus dated 35 BC, Cleopatra is referred to as ‘Philopatris’, means ‘she who loves her country’.
Even after centuries following her death, the enigmatic life of Cleopatra and her affairs with the two powerful rulers of her time have ignited the lyrical inspiration of the artists, painters, storytellers and filmmakers of the world. Her affair with Marc Antony and its end became the inspiration for William Shakespeare’s play ‘Antony and Cleopatra’ (1607). In films the role of Cleopatra has been played by eminent actresses such as Theda Bara (1917), Claudette Colbert (1934) and Elizabeth Taylor (1963). | 2,833 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Zhu Yuanzhang — A Beggar, Monk, Soldier, and Founder Emperor of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang (1328 — 1398), honored as Emperor Taizu of Ming or Hongwu Emperor, was the founder of the Ming Dynasty.
As a kid born into a poverty peasant family, he suffered from hunger and being an orphan, had experienced years of being a monk that begged for food, and started fighting as an ordinary soldier.
In the end, he overthrew the powerful Yuan Dynasty (1271 — 1368), defeated other strong forces, and established the Ming Dynasty.
After having gained paramount of power, he implemented a series of policies that took good care of poor people, and fought against corruption and unqualified officials.
In Chinese history, Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was an extraordinary monarch with quite special characteristics, remarkable accomplishments, and legendary experiences.
Sad and Poor Childhood of Zhu Yuanzhang
Born into a very poor family, Zhu had been working as a peasant for a rich family.
When he was 15 years old, his parents and older brothers all passed away because of hunger and disease.
He and another brother poorly buried their late family members and left their home separately, trying to stay alive.
Then Zhu came into a temple to be a monk, where he learned some reading and writing.
Later, the temple couldn’t afford to feed them any more, so he and other monks started to beg for food.
Three Years of Begging Life Around the Country
Zhu then had beggared for food around different places in China for 3 years.
At that time, the Yuan Dynasty’s ruling had been already in danger, plus years of natural disasters and racial unfairness, many uprising armies had been fighting for a long time.
In these 3 years of walking around the nation, Zhu had seen lots of injured, hungry, homeless and dead people; in addition, he witnessed the cruel treatment of poor civilians, and endless fights and blood.
No one could exactly tell what he had suffered during that period, as a poor kid living in a chaotic society.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's Self Description, Wrote on the Painting "Lin Weiyan Fang Mu Tu" of Artist Li Gongling (1049 — 1106) — Palace Museum
Joining Uprising Army and Marrying to The Love of His Life
When he was 25 years old, Zhu was invited to join an uprising army by his childhood friend; so he left the temple, and officially became a soldier.
Afterwards, he changed his name to Zhu Yuanzhang, a sharp and powerful weapon to perish the Yuan Empire.
As a common soldier, Zhu Yuanzhang was very brave and smart. Meanwhile, his ability to read and write soon got him his first promotion, to a group leader of ten warriors.
Some time later, his courage and personality was highly appreciated by his current general Guo, who then married his adoptive daughter Ma Xiuying to Zhu Yuanzhang.
This woman was the love of his life who accompanied him all the time, from an ordinary soldier to the emperor of a prosperous and powerful empire.
Zhu Yuanzhang’s First Troop and Constant Winnings
Later, Zhu Yuanzhang went back to his hometown, and recruited his first own army with about 700 people that included his childhood friends, refugees, and soldiers from other failed armies.
Since none of his soldiers were professional, Zhu Yuanzhang spent lots of time training his troop, from an inattentive army to a professional and aggressive one.
During this time, Zhu Yuanzhang encountered and recruited his most important and remarkable generals and officials of the Ming Dynasty; also, he and his wife had adopted many children, some of them grew up to be exceptional marshals.
Assisted by those intelligent officials and brave warriors, Zhu Yuanzhang's army kept winning.
Soon, his army expanded to a big troop with over 300, 000 soldiers, but he still respected Guo as his commander, until Guo passed away.
Establishment of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang was not only a remarkable general, he was also a thoughtful monarch.
Unlike other armies who would collect food from civilians of their occupied cities, Zhu Yuanzhang asked his army to do farm works themselves; they even helped local people to construct water conservancy projects.
By doing this, he gained civilians’ heartiest supports; his warriors became more responsible, competitive, and disciplined.
Zhu Yuanzhang defeated other strong uprising armies in the southern China, and established the Ming Empire, after years of intense wars.
Battle of Poyang Lake: the largest scale water battle in the Medieval Era, when Zhu Yuanzhang led 200, 000 warriors defeated his rival’s 650, 000 soldiers in the Poyang Lake. After this important battle, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his strongest rival in the south.
Then, he continued to march northward, under the name of expelling nomads and recovering ancestors’ reign, which effectively inspired most of the northern Han people that were still under Empire Yuan’s ruling.
A few months after the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang’s army marched toward Yuan Empire’s capital city Beijing.
The last emperor of the Yuan Dynasty Toghon Temür, an excellent engineer and astrologer, took his people, and escaped northward, after reading the divination from the stars.
Then, the Ming Empire occupied most places in China on south of the Great Wall.
Wars Against the Former Yuan Dynasty
The escape of Emperor Toghon Temür preserved most of his people and their powerful Mongolia cavalrymen troops; they built another government, the Northern Yuan, in the north of the Great Wall.
Therefore, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang initiated eight Northern Expedition wars against this new government, in the following 26 years, in order to perish their effective strength.
Except for a big failure of the second Northern Expeditions, Ming Empire’s army succeeded in all the other wars, while Mongol army kept losing and retreating.
In the sixth Northern Expedition, an excellent marshal named Lan Yu led 150,000 of the Ming’s soldiers, carried very little food and water, and arrived the current Bell Lake.
They ambushed the Northern Yuan government and captured about 80, 000 of their people, including many princes and princesses and other nobles.
This was the Battle of Buir Lake, after which Genghis Khan’s Golden Family officially lost control over the Mongolian Plateau; their kingdom was separated into three regimes.
Those three clans all complied and tribute Ming as monarch; they still had wars against Ming sometimes, but the tributary system and complied relationship had barely changed.
Because of Zhu Yuanzhang’s policy in regard to soldiers should do farm works and supply themselves, Empire Ming’s armies could almost be self-sufficient under his ruling period.
Consequently, despite of those long term and large scale wars, Zhu Yuanzhang never delayed development within his empire.
Cavalry Army of the Ming Dynasty in the Painting "Ping Fan De Sheng Tu", Painted Around 1573－1620 － National Museum of China
Great Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang and His Exceptional Policies
As one of the greatest emperors in the history of China, Zhu Yuanzhang’s policies and governances had very obvious personal characteristics.
In accordance with his poverty origin, his sad experiences in his childhood, and everything that he had suffered and witnessed during his 3 years of begging life, he truly cared about common people’s well being.
The best welfare system in the history of China was established under Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang’s reign:
The government offered free medication, foster care, houses and tombs;
People over 70 and people who respected their parents could get free food and money;
Childless old people would be taken care by the government;
The only child of old people would be exempted from national labor services.
Economically, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang exempted or lowered taxes, encouraged agriculture, suppressed business, and built many irrigation systems nationwide.
He also implemented a huge immigration activity, which evened the population between the north and the south, and cultivated more farmlands.
Meanwhile, the Imperial Examination and many Han etiquettes that were abolished in the Yuan Dynasty were reestablished.
Many smart people from poverty families were selected and supported to study in national college.
Part of the Painting (Qingming Shang He Tu) Along the River During the Qingming Festival, Genre Painting of the Capital City Nanjing of the Ming Dynasty by Artist Qiu Ying (1497 — 1552) — Liaoning Museum
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang’s Fights Against Corruption
Another feature of his governance was his great hatred for corruption.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was very frugal and diligent, and he tried his best to promote this lifestyle to his officials.
Everything that he had suffered in his early years, most of which, he believed, were caused by greedy officials and the corrupted system.
After Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor, he enhanced centralized power, and combated corruption with very strict penalties: about 150,000 officials were sentenced to death because of corruption, no matter how much they illegally occupied.
He encouraged civilians to learn about laws and specific terms in regard to the punishment of corrupted officials, and created a system which allowed civilians to sue officials directly to the emperor or other superior officers. The government would cover civilians’ travel cost if they wanted to escort law-breaking officials to the capital themselves.
He also established a famous military spy agency (Jin Yi Wei) to monitor officials, but this was abolished in his late years.
From Zhu Yuanzhang’s perspective, civilians’ interest triumphed bureaucrats’; all of those officials should be seen themselves as servants, instead of the ruling classes with privileges.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's Calligraphy Work "Da Jun Tie" — Palace Museum
Losing of His Beloved Crown Prince
Besides his wonderful queen, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang also had a perfect heir named Zhu Biao, he and his beloved queen’s first son.
Zhu Biao was a kind and talented crown prince, whom Zhu Yuanzhang loved and supported heartily.
Zhu Yuanzhang sent his best ministers and marshals to teach and serve him. Every time Yuanzhang was leading an army and fighting far away, he would trust his crown prince with everything in the home front.
Zhu Biao always managed everything well, and gained respect and support of all marshals and ministers of the Ming Empire, through his genuine kindness and exceptional political talent.
However, the capable and contributive crown prince, his favorite and beloved first son passed away, when Zhu Yuanzhang was 62 years old.
Besides the huge grief, this also left Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang a big problem, who should be his next heir.
Royal Nine-tasselled Crown (Jiu Liu Mian), Unearthed From Tomb of Prince Zhu Tan, the Tenth Son of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang — Shandong Museum (Photo by Dongmaiying)
Massacres For His New Heir of the Empire
Many of his other sons were mature and excel in the military, since most of them had followed Zhu Yuanzhang and fought in the battlefields for several times.
But Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang chose his late crown prince’s first son, his beloved grandson, as the legit heir of his empire, and commanded his other sons to support this young crown prince.
After having decided to nominate his young grandson as the heir, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang started a mass slaughter, the most controversial thing in his life.
At that time, there were many excellent generals with exceptional military accomplishments who were also related to other of Zhu Yuanzhang’s sons through marriage. Those people were, Zhu Yuanzhang believed, very possible to overthrow the young heir to support their related princes to be the new emperor, and then cause more wars.
Consequently, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang used some excuses to sentence many people, whom he suspected have the potentiality to rebel; tens of thousands people were executed in his late years.
As a great emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang probably had not expected this to be a big mistake for the flawless empire that he left to his grandson.
He believed that his other sons with excellent military skills were excellent enough to protect the Ming Empire, which was very correct.
However, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang overestimated the family bond, while severely underestimated the desire for power and the throne.
Years later, his beloved grandson's throne was snatched by his fourth son Zhu Di through a war, the Incident of Jingnan.
Remarkable Accomplishments of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang
Zhu Yuanzhang joined the uprising army as a common soldier when he was 25, and established the Ming Dynasty when he's 40.
Starting from a poverty orphan, to a monk who needed to beg for food, to an excellent general and then a monarch, his achievements were marvelous.
Under his 31 years of reign, he not only defeated the former powerful empire's effective strength decisively, but also established a brilliant and efficient system, and brought prosperous and stable lives to his people.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was criticized sometimes for his cruelness in slaughtering corrupted officials and contributive generals in his late years, however, he highly restrained power of the ruling class, and was always caring and thoughtful to his civilians, which made him an epic politician, as well as a magnificent monarch in the history of China.
After he departed, many of his strict policies which were aimed at restraining officials were gradually abolished; maybe, unlike Zhu Yuanzhang, most emperors still considered themselves as allies of the bureaucracy, which was important assistance of their reign.
The Mausoleum of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang and His Queen Ma Xiuying — Ming Xiao Ling in Nanjing City
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0.23733918368816... | 1 | Zhu Yuanzhang — A Beggar, Monk, Soldier, and Founder Emperor of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang (1328 — 1398), honored as Emperor Taizu of Ming or Hongwu Emperor, was the founder of the Ming Dynasty.
As a kid born into a poverty peasant family, he suffered from hunger and being an orphan, had experienced years of being a monk that begged for food, and started fighting as an ordinary soldier.
In the end, he overthrew the powerful Yuan Dynasty (1271 — 1368), defeated other strong forces, and established the Ming Dynasty.
After having gained paramount of power, he implemented a series of policies that took good care of poor people, and fought against corruption and unqualified officials.
In Chinese history, Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was an extraordinary monarch with quite special characteristics, remarkable accomplishments, and legendary experiences.
Sad and Poor Childhood of Zhu Yuanzhang
Born into a very poor family, Zhu had been working as a peasant for a rich family.
When he was 15 years old, his parents and older brothers all passed away because of hunger and disease.
He and another brother poorly buried their late family members and left their home separately, trying to stay alive.
Then Zhu came into a temple to be a monk, where he learned some reading and writing.
Later, the temple couldn’t afford to feed them any more, so he and other monks started to beg for food.
Three Years of Begging Life Around the Country
Zhu then had beggared for food around different places in China for 3 years.
At that time, the Yuan Dynasty’s ruling had been already in danger, plus years of natural disasters and racial unfairness, many uprising armies had been fighting for a long time.
In these 3 years of walking around the nation, Zhu had seen lots of injured, hungry, homeless and dead people; in addition, he witnessed the cruel treatment of poor civilians, and endless fights and blood.
No one could exactly tell what he had suffered during that period, as a poor kid living in a chaotic society.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's Self Description, Wrote on the Painting "Lin Weiyan Fang Mu Tu" of Artist Li Gongling (1049 — 1106) — Palace Museum
Joining Uprising Army and Marrying to The Love of His Life
When he was 25 years old, Zhu was invited to join an uprising army by his childhood friend; so he left the temple, and officially became a soldier.
Afterwards, he changed his name to Zhu Yuanzhang, a sharp and powerful weapon to perish the Yuan Empire.
As a common soldier, Zhu Yuanzhang was very brave and smart. Meanwhile, his ability to read and write soon got him his first promotion, to a group leader of ten warriors.
Some time later, his courage and personality was highly appreciated by his current general Guo, who then married his adoptive daughter Ma Xiuying to Zhu Yuanzhang.
This woman was the love of his life who accompanied him all the time, from an ordinary soldier to the emperor of a prosperous and powerful empire.
Zhu Yuanzhang’s First Troop and Constant Winnings
Later, Zhu Yuanzhang went back to his hometown, and recruited his first own army with about 700 people that included his childhood friends, refugees, and soldiers from other failed armies.
Since none of his soldiers were professional, Zhu Yuanzhang spent lots of time training his troop, from an inattentive army to a professional and aggressive one.
During this time, Zhu Yuanzhang encountered and recruited his most important and remarkable generals and officials of the Ming Dynasty; also, he and his wife had adopted many children, some of them grew up to be exceptional marshals.
Assisted by those intelligent officials and brave warriors, Zhu Yuanzhang's army kept winning.
Soon, his army expanded to a big troop with over 300, 000 soldiers, but he still respected Guo as his commander, until Guo passed away.
Establishment of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang was not only a remarkable general, he was also a thoughtful monarch.
Unlike other armies who would collect food from civilians of their occupied cities, Zhu Yuanzhang asked his army to do farm works themselves; they even helped local people to construct water conservancy projects.
By doing this, he gained civilians’ heartiest supports; his warriors became more responsible, competitive, and disciplined.
Zhu Yuanzhang defeated other strong uprising armies in the southern China, and established the Ming Empire, after years of intense wars.
Battle of Poyang Lake: the largest scale water battle in the Medieval Era, when Zhu Yuanzhang led 200, 000 warriors defeated his rival’s 650, 000 soldiers in the Poyang Lake. After this important battle, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his strongest rival in the south.
Then, he continued to march northward, under the name of expelling nomads and recovering ancestors’ reign, which effectively inspired most of the northern Han people that were still under Empire Yuan’s ruling.
A few months after the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang’s army marched toward Yuan Empire’s capital city Beijing.
The last emperor of the Yuan Dynasty Toghon Temür, an excellent engineer and astrologer, took his people, and escaped northward, after reading the divination from the stars.
Then, the Ming Empire occupied most places in China on south of the Great Wall.
Wars Against the Former Yuan Dynasty
The escape of Emperor Toghon Temür preserved most of his people and their powerful Mongolia cavalrymen troops; they built another government, the Northern Yuan, in the north of the Great Wall.
Therefore, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang initiated eight Northern Expedition wars against this new government, in the following 26 years, in order to perish their effective strength.
Except for a big failure of the second Northern Expeditions, Ming Empire’s army succeeded in all the other wars, while Mongol army kept losing and retreating.
In the sixth Northern Expedition, an excellent marshal named Lan Yu led 150,000 of the Ming’s soldiers, carried very little food and water, and arrived the current Bell Lake.
They ambushed the Northern Yuan government and captured about 80, 000 of their people, including many princes and princesses and other nobles.
This was the Battle of Buir Lake, after which Genghis Khan’s Golden Family officially lost control over the Mongolian Plateau; their kingdom was separated into three regimes.
Those three clans all complied and tribute Ming as monarch; they still had wars against Ming sometimes, but the tributary system and complied relationship had barely changed.
Because of Zhu Yuanzhang’s policy in regard to soldiers should do farm works and supply themselves, Empire Ming’s armies could almost be self-sufficient under his ruling period.
Consequently, despite of those long term and large scale wars, Zhu Yuanzhang never delayed development within his empire.
Cavalry Army of the Ming Dynasty in the Painting "Ping Fan De Sheng Tu", Painted Around 1573－1620 － National Museum of China
Great Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang and His Exceptional Policies
As one of the greatest emperors in the history of China, Zhu Yuanzhang’s policies and governances had very obvious personal characteristics.
In accordance with his poverty origin, his sad experiences in his childhood, and everything that he had suffered and witnessed during his 3 years of begging life, he truly cared about common people’s well being.
The best welfare system in the history of China was established under Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang’s reign:
The government offered free medication, foster care, houses and tombs;
People over 70 and people who respected their parents could get free food and money;
Childless old people would be taken care by the government;
The only child of old people would be exempted from national labor services.
Economically, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang exempted or lowered taxes, encouraged agriculture, suppressed business, and built many irrigation systems nationwide.
He also implemented a huge immigration activity, which evened the population between the north and the south, and cultivated more farmlands.
Meanwhile, the Imperial Examination and many Han etiquettes that were abolished in the Yuan Dynasty were reestablished.
Many smart people from poverty families were selected and supported to study in national college.
Part of the Painting (Qingming Shang He Tu) Along the River During the Qingming Festival, Genre Painting of the Capital City Nanjing of the Ming Dynasty by Artist Qiu Ying (1497 — 1552) — Liaoning Museum
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang’s Fights Against Corruption
Another feature of his governance was his great hatred for corruption.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was very frugal and diligent, and he tried his best to promote this lifestyle to his officials.
Everything that he had suffered in his early years, most of which, he believed, were caused by greedy officials and the corrupted system.
After Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor, he enhanced centralized power, and combated corruption with very strict penalties: about 150,000 officials were sentenced to death because of corruption, no matter how much they illegally occupied.
He encouraged civilians to learn about laws and specific terms in regard to the punishment of corrupted officials, and created a system which allowed civilians to sue officials directly to the emperor or other superior officers. The government would cover civilians’ travel cost if they wanted to escort law-breaking officials to the capital themselves.
He also established a famous military spy agency (Jin Yi Wei) to monitor officials, but this was abolished in his late years.
From Zhu Yuanzhang’s perspective, civilians’ interest triumphed bureaucrats’; all of those officials should be seen themselves as servants, instead of the ruling classes with privileges.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's Calligraphy Work "Da Jun Tie" — Palace Museum
Losing of His Beloved Crown Prince
Besides his wonderful queen, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang also had a perfect heir named Zhu Biao, he and his beloved queen’s first son.
Zhu Biao was a kind and talented crown prince, whom Zhu Yuanzhang loved and supported heartily.
Zhu Yuanzhang sent his best ministers and marshals to teach and serve him. Every time Yuanzhang was leading an army and fighting far away, he would trust his crown prince with everything in the home front.
Zhu Biao always managed everything well, and gained respect and support of all marshals and ministers of the Ming Empire, through his genuine kindness and exceptional political talent.
However, the capable and contributive crown prince, his favorite and beloved first son passed away, when Zhu Yuanzhang was 62 years old.
Besides the huge grief, this also left Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang a big problem, who should be his next heir.
Royal Nine-tasselled Crown (Jiu Liu Mian), Unearthed From Tomb of Prince Zhu Tan, the Tenth Son of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang — Shandong Museum (Photo by Dongmaiying)
Massacres For His New Heir of the Empire
Many of his other sons were mature and excel in the military, since most of them had followed Zhu Yuanzhang and fought in the battlefields for several times.
But Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang chose his late crown prince’s first son, his beloved grandson, as the legit heir of his empire, and commanded his other sons to support this young crown prince.
After having decided to nominate his young grandson as the heir, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang started a mass slaughter, the most controversial thing in his life.
At that time, there were many excellent generals with exceptional military accomplishments who were also related to other of Zhu Yuanzhang’s sons through marriage. Those people were, Zhu Yuanzhang believed, very possible to overthrow the young heir to support their related princes to be the new emperor, and then cause more wars.
Consequently, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang used some excuses to sentence many people, whom he suspected have the potentiality to rebel; tens of thousands people were executed in his late years.
As a great emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang probably had not expected this to be a big mistake for the flawless empire that he left to his grandson.
He believed that his other sons with excellent military skills were excellent enough to protect the Ming Empire, which was very correct.
However, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang overestimated the family bond, while severely underestimated the desire for power and the throne.
Years later, his beloved grandson's throne was snatched by his fourth son Zhu Di through a war, the Incident of Jingnan.
Remarkable Accomplishments of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang
Zhu Yuanzhang joined the uprising army as a common soldier when he was 25, and established the Ming Dynasty when he's 40.
Starting from a poverty orphan, to a monk who needed to beg for food, to an excellent general and then a monarch, his achievements were marvelous.
Under his 31 years of reign, he not only defeated the former powerful empire's effective strength decisively, but also established a brilliant and efficient system, and brought prosperous and stable lives to his people.
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was criticized sometimes for his cruelness in slaughtering corrupted officials and contributive generals in his late years, however, he highly restrained power of the ruling class, and was always caring and thoughtful to his civilians, which made him an epic politician, as well as a magnificent monarch in the history of China.
After he departed, many of his strict policies which were aimed at restraining officials were gradually abolished; maybe, unlike Zhu Yuanzhang, most emperors still considered themselves as allies of the bureaucracy, which was important assistance of their reign.
The Mausoleum of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang and His Queen Ma Xiuying — Ming Xiao Ling in Nanjing City
You Might Also Like: | 2,907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FARMING
By Tim Lambert
The Farming Revolution
After 9,000 BC a great change came over the world. Previously humans lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Then about 8,500 BC people began to grow wheat, barley, peas and lentils instead of gathering them wild. By 7,000 BC they domesticated sheep, pigs and goats. By 6,000 BC they also domesticated cattle.
Farming first began in the Fertile Crescent, which stretches from Israel north to southeast Turkey then curves southeast to the Persian Gulf. However agriculture was also invented independently in other parts of the world as well. Meanwhile farming spread from the Middle East to Europe. By about 4,000 BC people in central Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. About the same time people in the Middle East began using donkeys as beasts of burden. Also about 4,000 BC horses were domesticated on the steppes of Eurasia.
Farming in the Ancient World
Egypt was said to be the gift of the Nile. Each summer the Nile flooded and provided water to grow crops. For irrigation Egyptians used a device called shaduf. It was a 'see-saw' with a leather container at one end, which was filled with water and a counterweight at the other. When the Nile flooded it also deposited silt over the land near the banks, which made the land very fertile once the water had subsided.
Life in Ancient Egypt
In contrast farmers in Greece were hampered by rocky soil. Nevertheless, they grew barley and wheat. Greek farmers also grew olives (which were part of their staple diet) and they grew vines. Greek farmers also raised goats and sheep.
In France and England the Celts grew crops in rectangular fields. They raised pigs, sheep, and cattle. They stored grain in pits lined with stone or wicker and sealed with clay. The Celts also brewed beer from barley.
In Israel farmers grew olives. They also grew crops of flax (for linen), wheat and barley. The people planted vegetables. Grapes were also an important crop. So were pomegranates and figs. Meanwhile, shepherds looked after sheep and goats. Farmers also kept oxen and asses. Both were used for pulling plows. Oxen also threshed grain by walking on it.
The Chinese began farming about 5,000 BC. From about 5,000 BC rice was cultivated in southern China and millet was grown in the north. By 5,000 BC dogs and pigs were domesticated. By 3,000 BC sheep and (in the south) cattle were domesticated. Finally horses were introduced into China between 3,000 and 2,300 BC.
Under the Han Dynasty agriculture improved partly due to an increasing number of irrigation schemes, partly due to the increasing use of buffaloes to pull plows and partly due to crop rotation which was introduced into China about 100 BC.
Meanwhile in the Roman Empire most people continued to use the same methods of farming they had employed for centuries. The Romans grew, among other things, wheat, barley, grapes, and olives. There were some large estates worked by slaves. However, there were also many small farms worked by families. In Roman France, a harvesting machine called a gallus was invented. It was a box on wheels with horizontal blades at the front. The box was pushed by an ox. As it moved forward through the wheat the blades cut the heads of the crop and they fell into the box.
Farming in the Middle Ages
Farming improved in the Middle Ages. One big improvement was the heavy plow. Sometime before 900 a new kind of plow was invented which plowed the heavy, clay soil of northern Europe much more efficiently. Another important development was the 3-field system. The land was divided into 3 huge fields. Each year 2 were sown with crops while one was left fallow (unused) to allow it to recover. Each peasant had some strips of land in each field. Most peasants owned only one ox so they had to join with other families to obtain the team of oxen needed to pull a plow. After plowing the land was sown. Men sowed grain and women planted peas and beans.
Most Medieval peasants also owned cows, goats and sheep. Cows and goats gave milk and cheese. Most peasants also kept chickens for eggs. They also kept pigs. Peasants were allowed to graze their livestock on common land. In the autumn they let their pigs roam in the woods to eat acorns and beechnuts. However, they did not have enough food to keep many animals throughout the winter. Most of the livestock was slaughtered in autumn and the meat was salted to preserve it.
Life in the Middle Ages
There were no fundamental changes to farming in England the 16th century. Nor were there any in the 17th century although new crops such as tomatoes and potatoes were introduced. (Both took a long time to be accepted). In England, much of the Fens were drained for farming.
Farming in the Americas
Maize was the staple crop of the Aztecs. The Aztecs also grew tomatoes, avocados, beans, and peppers, as well as pumpkins, squashes, peanuts and amaranth seeds. They also ate fruit such as limes and cactus fruits. Aztecs food also included rabbits, turkeys, and armadillos. They also ate dogs. To grow food Aztec farmers did not have plows. However, they did use tools like a digging stick, clod breaker, and hoe. The Aztecs created small islands on marshy lakes. These were called chinampas. First plots of land were staked out with canals between them so they could be reached by canoe. The chinampa was built up in layers made of plants from the lake and mud from its bottom. The Aztecs planted willows around the edges of chinampas to make them more secure.
In the Inca Empire in the lowlands the staple food was maize. In the highlands it was potatoes. Incas also ate peppers, tomatoes, and avocados. They also ate peanuts and a grain called quinoa. Llamas and alpacas were kept for wool and for carrying loads but they were sometimes provided meat. Incas also ate guinea pigs. Inca farmers did not have plows pulled by animals. Instead, their main tools were digging sticks, clod breakers, and hoes. In hilly regions, Inca farmers terraced the land. They also irrigated crops. Inca farmers also used bird droppings called guano as fertilizer.
The Maya practiced 'slash and burn' agriculture. They cut down an area of forest and burned the trees. They Maya sowed crops in May and harvested them in November. However after a few years the soil would lose its fertility. The farmers would then 'slash and burn' another part of the forest. Meanwhile the abandoned area would become overgrown again.
Mayan farmers also drained swampy areas for farming. They dug canals for irrigation. Mayan farmers did not have plows but they did use digging sticks. Maize was the staple food of the Maya but they also grew beans, chilies, sweet potatoes and squashes. The Maya also ate fruit like papaya, watermelon and avocados. The Maya also kept bees for honey.
18th Century Farming
During the 18th century farming was gradually transformed by an agricultural revolution. Until 1701 seed was sown by hand. In that year Jethro Tull invented a seed drill, which sowed seed in straight lines. He also invented a horse drawn hoe which hoed the land and destroyed weed between rows of crops.
Furthermore until the 18th century most livestock was slaughtered at the beginning of winter because farmers could not grow enough food to feed their animals through the winter months.
Until the 18th century most land was divided into 3 fields. Each year 2 fields were sown with crops while the third was left fallow (unused). The Dutch began to grow swedes or turnips on land instead of leaving it fallow. (The turnips restored the soil's fertility). When they were harvested the turnips could be stored to provide food for livestock over the winter. The new methods were popularized in England by a man named Robert 'Turnip' Townshend (1674-1741).
Under the 3 field system, which still covered much of England, all the land around a village or small town, was divided into 3 huge fields. Each farmer owned some strips of land in each field. During the 18th century land was enclosed. That means it was divided up so each farmer had all his land in one place instead of scattered across 3 fields. Enclosure allowed farmers to use their land more efficiently.
Also in the 18th century farmers like Robert Bakewell began scientific stock breeding (selective breeding). Farm animals grew much larger and they gave more meat, wool, and milk. However despite the improvements in farming food for ordinary people remained plain and monotonous. For them, meat was a luxury. They lived mainly on bread, butter, potatoes, and tea.
Life in the 18th Century
19th Century Farming
A granary in Catherington, Hampshire
In the early and mid-19th century farming in Britain prospered. In the mid-19th century, it was helped by the rapid growth of towns (providing a huge market) and by railways. (The railways made it easier to transport produce).
Farming was also helped by new technology. Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) and John Lawes (1814-1900) introduced new fertilizers. Farmers also began using clay pipes to drain their fields. Meanwhile, Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884) invented the reaping machine in 1834 and in 1837 John Deere (1804-1886) invented the steel plow. In 1856 John Fowler invented the steam plow.
However the good times for British farmers ended in the 1870s. In the USA a network of railways had been built and steamships were sailing across the Atlantic. The result was that American farmers could now move their grain to ports and it could be shipped to Britain. Cheap American grain helped ordinary people in the towns but it meant a depression in British farming. Furthermore, at the end of the 19th century, the invention of refrigeration meant meat could be imported from Australia and New Zealand.
Life in the 19th Century
20th Century Farming
In the 20th century British farms greatly increased production. There were a number of reasons why. New varieties of cereal were introduced and from the 1940s new pesticides were developed. Also in the 1940s farmers began using artificial insemination. Farmers also used far more artificial fertilizers.
Farming also became mechanized. In the earlier 20th century tractors gradually replaced horses. Milking machines were rare in the early 20th century but they became common from the 1940s to the 1960s. From the 1950s combine harvesters became common.
21st Century Farming
The latest development in farming is genetically engineered crops. GM crops are now being grown in many countries.
A brief history of work
A brief history of drinks
A brief history of food
A brief history of fruit
A brief history of vegetables
A brief history of herbs and spices
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0.0095878783... | 3 | A BRIEF HISTORY OF FARMING
By Tim Lambert
The Farming Revolution
After 9,000 BC a great change came over the world. Previously humans lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Then about 8,500 BC people began to grow wheat, barley, peas and lentils instead of gathering them wild. By 7,000 BC they domesticated sheep, pigs and goats. By 6,000 BC they also domesticated cattle.
Farming first began in the Fertile Crescent, which stretches from Israel north to southeast Turkey then curves southeast to the Persian Gulf. However agriculture was also invented independently in other parts of the world as well. Meanwhile farming spread from the Middle East to Europe. By about 4,000 BC people in central Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. About the same time people in the Middle East began using donkeys as beasts of burden. Also about 4,000 BC horses were domesticated on the steppes of Eurasia.
Farming in the Ancient World
Egypt was said to be the gift of the Nile. Each summer the Nile flooded and provided water to grow crops. For irrigation Egyptians used a device called shaduf. It was a 'see-saw' with a leather container at one end, which was filled with water and a counterweight at the other. When the Nile flooded it also deposited silt over the land near the banks, which made the land very fertile once the water had subsided.
Life in Ancient Egypt
In contrast farmers in Greece were hampered by rocky soil. Nevertheless, they grew barley and wheat. Greek farmers also grew olives (which were part of their staple diet) and they grew vines. Greek farmers also raised goats and sheep.
In France and England the Celts grew crops in rectangular fields. They raised pigs, sheep, and cattle. They stored grain in pits lined with stone or wicker and sealed with clay. The Celts also brewed beer from barley.
In Israel farmers grew olives. They also grew crops of flax (for linen), wheat and barley. The people planted vegetables. Grapes were also an important crop. So were pomegranates and figs. Meanwhile, shepherds looked after sheep and goats. Farmers also kept oxen and asses. Both were used for pulling plows. Oxen also threshed grain by walking on it.
The Chinese began farming about 5,000 BC. From about 5,000 BC rice was cultivated in southern China and millet was grown in the north. By 5,000 BC dogs and pigs were domesticated. By 3,000 BC sheep and (in the south) cattle were domesticated. Finally horses were introduced into China between 3,000 and 2,300 BC.
Under the Han Dynasty agriculture improved partly due to an increasing number of irrigation schemes, partly due to the increasing use of buffaloes to pull plows and partly due to crop rotation which was introduced into China about 100 BC.
Meanwhile in the Roman Empire most people continued to use the same methods of farming they had employed for centuries. The Romans grew, among other things, wheat, barley, grapes, and olives. There were some large estates worked by slaves. However, there were also many small farms worked by families. In Roman France, a harvesting machine called a gallus was invented. It was a box on wheels with horizontal blades at the front. The box was pushed by an ox. As it moved forward through the wheat the blades cut the heads of the crop and they fell into the box.
Farming in the Middle Ages
Farming improved in the Middle Ages. One big improvement was the heavy plow. Sometime before 900 a new kind of plow was invented which plowed the heavy, clay soil of northern Europe much more efficiently. Another important development was the 3-field system. The land was divided into 3 huge fields. Each year 2 were sown with crops while one was left fallow (unused) to allow it to recover. Each peasant had some strips of land in each field. Most peasants owned only one ox so they had to join with other families to obtain the team of oxen needed to pull a plow. After plowing the land was sown. Men sowed grain and women planted peas and beans.
Most Medieval peasants also owned cows, goats and sheep. Cows and goats gave milk and cheese. Most peasants also kept chickens for eggs. They also kept pigs. Peasants were allowed to graze their livestock on common land. In the autumn they let their pigs roam in the woods to eat acorns and beechnuts. However, they did not have enough food to keep many animals throughout the winter. Most of the livestock was slaughtered in autumn and the meat was salted to preserve it.
Life in the Middle Ages
There were no fundamental changes to farming in England the 16th century. Nor were there any in the 17th century although new crops such as tomatoes and potatoes were introduced. (Both took a long time to be accepted). In England, much of the Fens were drained for farming.
Farming in the Americas
Maize was the staple crop of the Aztecs. The Aztecs also grew tomatoes, avocados, beans, and peppers, as well as pumpkins, squashes, peanuts and amaranth seeds. They also ate fruit such as limes and cactus fruits. Aztecs food also included rabbits, turkeys, and armadillos. They also ate dogs. To grow food Aztec farmers did not have plows. However, they did use tools like a digging stick, clod breaker, and hoe. The Aztecs created small islands on marshy lakes. These were called chinampas. First plots of land were staked out with canals between them so they could be reached by canoe. The chinampa was built up in layers made of plants from the lake and mud from its bottom. The Aztecs planted willows around the edges of chinampas to make them more secure.
In the Inca Empire in the lowlands the staple food was maize. In the highlands it was potatoes. Incas also ate peppers, tomatoes, and avocados. They also ate peanuts and a grain called quinoa. Llamas and alpacas were kept for wool and for carrying loads but they were sometimes provided meat. Incas also ate guinea pigs. Inca farmers did not have plows pulled by animals. Instead, their main tools were digging sticks, clod breakers, and hoes. In hilly regions, Inca farmers terraced the land. They also irrigated crops. Inca farmers also used bird droppings called guano as fertilizer.
The Maya practiced 'slash and burn' agriculture. They cut down an area of forest and burned the trees. They Maya sowed crops in May and harvested them in November. However after a few years the soil would lose its fertility. The farmers would then 'slash and burn' another part of the forest. Meanwhile the abandoned area would become overgrown again.
Mayan farmers also drained swampy areas for farming. They dug canals for irrigation. Mayan farmers did not have plows but they did use digging sticks. Maize was the staple food of the Maya but they also grew beans, chilies, sweet potatoes and squashes. The Maya also ate fruit like papaya, watermelon and avocados. The Maya also kept bees for honey.
18th Century Farming
During the 18th century farming was gradually transformed by an agricultural revolution. Until 1701 seed was sown by hand. In that year Jethro Tull invented a seed drill, which sowed seed in straight lines. He also invented a horse drawn hoe which hoed the land and destroyed weed between rows of crops.
Furthermore until the 18th century most livestock was slaughtered at the beginning of winter because farmers could not grow enough food to feed their animals through the winter months.
Until the 18th century most land was divided into 3 fields. Each year 2 fields were sown with crops while the third was left fallow (unused). The Dutch began to grow swedes or turnips on land instead of leaving it fallow. (The turnips restored the soil's fertility). When they were harvested the turnips could be stored to provide food for livestock over the winter. The new methods were popularized in England by a man named Robert 'Turnip' Townshend (1674-1741).
Under the 3 field system, which still covered much of England, all the land around a village or small town, was divided into 3 huge fields. Each farmer owned some strips of land in each field. During the 18th century land was enclosed. That means it was divided up so each farmer had all his land in one place instead of scattered across 3 fields. Enclosure allowed farmers to use their land more efficiently.
Also in the 18th century farmers like Robert Bakewell began scientific stock breeding (selective breeding). Farm animals grew much larger and they gave more meat, wool, and milk. However despite the improvements in farming food for ordinary people remained plain and monotonous. For them, meat was a luxury. They lived mainly on bread, butter, potatoes, and tea.
Life in the 18th Century
19th Century Farming
A granary in Catherington, Hampshire
In the early and mid-19th century farming in Britain prospered. In the mid-19th century, it was helped by the rapid growth of towns (providing a huge market) and by railways. (The railways made it easier to transport produce).
Farming was also helped by new technology. Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) and John Lawes (1814-1900) introduced new fertilizers. Farmers also began using clay pipes to drain their fields. Meanwhile, Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884) invented the reaping machine in 1834 and in 1837 John Deere (1804-1886) invented the steel plow. In 1856 John Fowler invented the steam plow.
However the good times for British farmers ended in the 1870s. In the USA a network of railways had been built and steamships were sailing across the Atlantic. The result was that American farmers could now move their grain to ports and it could be shipped to Britain. Cheap American grain helped ordinary people in the towns but it meant a depression in British farming. Furthermore, at the end of the 19th century, the invention of refrigeration meant meat could be imported from Australia and New Zealand.
Life in the 19th Century
20th Century Farming
In the 20th century British farms greatly increased production. There were a number of reasons why. New varieties of cereal were introduced and from the 1940s new pesticides were developed. Also in the 1940s farmers began using artificial insemination. Farmers also used far more artificial fertilizers.
Farming also became mechanized. In the earlier 20th century tractors gradually replaced horses. Milking machines were rare in the early 20th century but they became common from the 1940s to the 1960s. From the 1950s combine harvesters became common.
21st Century Farming
The latest development in farming is genetically engineered crops. GM crops are now being grown in many countries.
A brief history of work
A brief history of drinks
A brief history of food
A brief history of fruit
A brief history of vegetables
A brief history of herbs and spices
Last Revised 2019 | 2,499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group who inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century, and .. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the . The people we call Anglo-Saxons were actually immigrants from northern Bede names three of these tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Were there any significant cultural differences between the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes in the early medieval period? variations in the types of brooches and cremation urns found in early Anglo-Saxon burial sites.
According to St. Bede the Venerable, the Anglo-Saxons were the descendants of three different Germanic peoples—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. By Bede's. A whistle-stop tour of Anglo-Saxon England: who were the Anglo-Saxons; where from three very powerful Germanic peoples, the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. Source for information on Angles, Saxons, and Jutes: Ancient Europe, Northumbrians, and other Anglian peoples were descended from the people of Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in England have produced ceramics identical to.
The Angle, Saxon, and Jute are known as the Anglo-Saxons. The Angles and the Saxon tribes were the largest of the three attacking tribes and so we often. Where did the Anglo-Saxons come from? Learn about Anglo-Saxons The three biggest were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The land they settled in. There is even some evidence to suggest that, initially, some Saxons were the Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians began to arrive – at first. Two early accounts of the Anglo-Saxon migration were written by authors who came from three tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who themselves came. It was during these Dark Ages that the Anglo-Saxons became established in Little mercy was shown as men, women and children were slaughtered. better know as the English counties; Kent (Jutes), Sussex (south Saxons), Wessex ( west.
The Anglo-Saxons were a group of farmer-warriors who lived in Britain tribes who came over from Europe, they were called the Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes. But the Jutes were not the only newcomers to Britain during this period. The new Anglo-Saxon nation, once known in antiquity as Albion and then Britannia. There were actually three main peoples: the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. After these people moved to Britain they became known as the Anglo-Saxons. Who were the Anglo-Saxons and where did they come from. Why did the This area is in between the territories of the Saxons and the Jutes.
The Anglo Saxons. During the s, Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Friesians) came from continental Europe and settled in the British Isles after the fall. The Jutes were also Germanic people. But it was the Anglo-Saxon culture and Germanic language that shaped England for centuries. The Romans and the Anglo-Saxons were some of the first people to make the UK their Britain was again invaded by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the. | <urn:uuid:057cef8f-8db4-4fb5-9cb4-a44db62e1b68> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://specmactader.tk/entertainment-arts/who-were-the-anglo-saxons-and-jutes.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.981202 | 719 | 4.375 | 4 | [
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-0.1668994... | 1 | The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group who inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century, and .. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the . The people we call Anglo-Saxons were actually immigrants from northern Bede names three of these tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Were there any significant cultural differences between the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes in the early medieval period? variations in the types of brooches and cremation urns found in early Anglo-Saxon burial sites.
According to St. Bede the Venerable, the Anglo-Saxons were the descendants of three different Germanic peoples—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. By Bede's. A whistle-stop tour of Anglo-Saxon England: who were the Anglo-Saxons; where from three very powerful Germanic peoples, the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. Source for information on Angles, Saxons, and Jutes: Ancient Europe, Northumbrians, and other Anglian peoples were descended from the people of Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in England have produced ceramics identical to.
The Angle, Saxon, and Jute are known as the Anglo-Saxons. The Angles and the Saxon tribes were the largest of the three attacking tribes and so we often. Where did the Anglo-Saxons come from? Learn about Anglo-Saxons The three biggest were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The land they settled in. There is even some evidence to suggest that, initially, some Saxons were the Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians began to arrive – at first. Two early accounts of the Anglo-Saxon migration were written by authors who came from three tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who themselves came. It was during these Dark Ages that the Anglo-Saxons became established in Little mercy was shown as men, women and children were slaughtered. better know as the English counties; Kent (Jutes), Sussex (south Saxons), Wessex ( west.
The Anglo-Saxons were a group of farmer-warriors who lived in Britain tribes who came over from Europe, they were called the Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes. But the Jutes were not the only newcomers to Britain during this period. The new Anglo-Saxon nation, once known in antiquity as Albion and then Britannia. There were actually three main peoples: the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. After these people moved to Britain they became known as the Anglo-Saxons. Who were the Anglo-Saxons and where did they come from. Why did the This area is in between the territories of the Saxons and the Jutes.
The Anglo Saxons. During the s, Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Friesians) came from continental Europe and settled in the British Isles after the fall. The Jutes were also Germanic people. But it was the Anglo-Saxon culture and Germanic language that shaped England for centuries. The Romans and the Anglo-Saxons were some of the first people to make the UK their Britain was again invaded by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the. | 703 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, Mordecai Kaplan struck a fundamental blow for women’s participation in Jewish ritual with the bat mitzvah of his eldest daughter, Judith. Kaplan studied at the Jewish Theological Seminary from 1893–1902 and earned a doctorate from Columbia University, but was ordained privately by Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reines in 1908 and began working as an Orthodox rabbi. He was founding rabbi of the Jewish Center from 1918–1922, where he worked to include women in synagogue life and wrote articles on women’s rights for the synagogue newsletter. In February 1922, as part of his intense questioning of Jewish tradition, he founded the Society for the Advancement of Judaism and one month later celebrated the bat mitzvah of his daughter Judith. Kaplan spent his career questioning basic assumptions of Jewish tradition, such as the concept of a chosen people, and his impact was felt throughout the Jewish community through his founding of Reconstructionist Judaism, his revisions to the prayer book, and his scholarship as a professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary.
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Mordecai Kaplan." (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://jwa.org/people/kaplan-mordecai>. | <urn:uuid:c080bc5f-a9c2-4292-a813-15f48bc217e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jwa.org/people/kaplan-mordecai | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.98333 | 262 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.038037411868572... | 1 | The founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, Mordecai Kaplan struck a fundamental blow for women’s participation in Jewish ritual with the bat mitzvah of his eldest daughter, Judith. Kaplan studied at the Jewish Theological Seminary from 1893–1902 and earned a doctorate from Columbia University, but was ordained privately by Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reines in 1908 and began working as an Orthodox rabbi. He was founding rabbi of the Jewish Center from 1918–1922, where he worked to include women in synagogue life and wrote articles on women’s rights for the synagogue newsletter. In February 1922, as part of his intense questioning of Jewish tradition, he founded the Society for the Advancement of Judaism and one month later celebrated the bat mitzvah of his daughter Judith. Kaplan spent his career questioning basic assumptions of Jewish tradition, such as the concept of a chosen people, and his impact was felt throughout the Jewish community through his founding of Reconstructionist Judaism, his revisions to the prayer book, and his scholarship as a professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary.
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Mordecai Kaplan." (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://jwa.org/people/kaplan-mordecai>. | 281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mongols became the largest empire under the rule of Chinggis Khan. However after Chinggis’s death his vast realm was divided into four regional empires by his heirs. Two of the four regional empires was China which was ruled by the Great Khans and Persia, which is in the Middle East, was ruled by the ilkhans. In China and the Middle East, Persia, the Mongols had both a political and economic effect including administration, downfall of the economy and trade. One political effect the Mongols had in China and Persia was their administration. The Mongols weren’t very effective administrators so they had other people administer for them. In Persia the Mongols allowed the Persians to administer the ilkhanate; however the Persian had to maintain order of the land and give receipts of taxation to the Mongols. Also the Persians were able to become ministers, local governors and even state officials but at a lower level. While the Mongols and their allies obtained the most powerful position of administration. However in China it was the complete opposite situation than in the Middle East. In China the Mongols found no benefit from native Chinese administrators unlike the Mongols found in Persia. As a result of the situation in China the Mongols had brought in foreign administrators to be in control. These foreign administrators consisted of Arabs, Persians, the Mongols allies and even some Europeans. The Mongols also had an effect on the economy of Persia and China, for instance trade. China and Persia were affected in a positive matter due to trade. Trade helped many lands be able to communicate more and exchange luxury goods, allowing lands to acquire items they don’t have a surplus of due to the efforts of the Mongols, trade routes were secured and the safety of merchants that would pass through Mongols territory was guaranteed. This helped the surplus of trading between regions to increase which of course led to cultural diffusion. As a result of an increase in cultural diffusion, China and Persia were able to acquire goods that weren’t manufactured in there region. Plus due to trade routes being more secure the possibility of caravans being raided decreased which was also a positive effect since it meant more goods could arrive to their destinations. However one of the most important benefits of trade was an increase in the amounts of money regions had acquired, allowing a boost in economy. Lastly not only did merchants carry luxurious good along their journey but they also helped spread religions. This allowed lands to have more opportunities open for people of different cultures; which many people found to be an attractive trait. This allowed the rate of population to increase, allowing the amount of money an area would take in and manufacturing goods to increase. The Mongols also had played a role in the downfall of the economy in China and Persia. After the reign of Khubilai Khan the Mongols had trouble with governing Persia and China. One of the reasons for the decline of both the ilkhanate and Yuan dynasty was the downfall of their economy. In Persia the constant spending of money had weakened the treasury and their overuse of peasants had caused a decrease in their revenue. The Persians tried to fix their economic problem with…
nown during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was the son of a Mongol chieftain. He suffered a difficult childhood, and when his young wife Börte was kidnapped by a rival tribe, Temujin united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule through political manipulation and military might. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Kereyd chieftain Wang Khan Toghoril, and Temujin's childhood anda (blood brother) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help,…
Mongol rule in China and the Middle East was similar in providing security, along trade routes and keeping the local government intact but differed in their treatment of the Arabs/Persians.
Economic- Comparison Mongols provided security along the Silk Road. Increased trade, disease merchants, were safe, Mongols collected taxes, caught stealing=death. The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road (via…
Throughout the time that the Mongols lived, they had accomplished many things. But many think it was because they were so barbaric and fierce to the people they conquered that they could have taken over all of Asia and Europe. But then others think the Mongols weren’t very barbaric at all, they just did what was necessary to them. See what you think with the following information whether they were as barbaric as people say.
The Mongols had a very vast military of great numbers.…
in the history of the world.
These barbarians were the Mongols. Their conquest of civilized society was frightening. They tore down scores of great cities. They slaughtered hundreds of thousands of people. Civilized people lived in terror of them. Some believed that Mongols ate humans. Some believed that Mongol ponies were big enough to eat trees. It seemed that no story about the Mongols was too fantastic to believe.
How were the Mongols able to conquer civilized societies? How did it all begin…
November 15, 2014
Mongol Woman Witness Sheet
Mongol women under the rule of Genghis Khan had a relatively high social status compared to other societies in Asia. There was a division of labor between men and women. The men were responsible for military, administrative, and trade affairs. Women’s main responsibilities were in the household where they would care for children, do housework, and cook. A Mongol woman often would tend for their own flock of sheep. When the men…
Background of Mongol Takeover of Korea
-During the 13th century, the Mongolians were intensively expanding their territories throughout the world and Korea initially was their ally that eventually aided the Mongol’s complete takeover of China in 1219, defeating the Kitans at Pyongyang.
-Despite their allegiance, the Mongols demanded Koryo to pay them burdensome tributes and required Koryo to host the Mongol army as they prepared to invade Japan a price of being allies, clearly knowing their dominance…
Centralization and Militarism in East Asia Outline 1200-1500
A. Korea from the Mongols to the Yi, 1231-1500
1. Korea's leaders initially resisted the Mongol invasions but gave up in 1258 when the king of Koryo surrendered and joined his family to the Mongols by marriage. The Koryo kings then fell under the influence of the Mongols and Korea profited from exchange with the Yuan in which new technologies including cotton, gunpowder, astronomy, calendar making, and celestial clocks were introduced…
The Mongols rule had significant economic, political, religious, and agricultural effects on both China and the Middle East. Although the Mongol takeover in the Middle East was far more harsh and abrupt than the takeover in China; the assimilation of cultures amongst the Mongols and the Middle East is more apparent.
Economical similarities and differences could be seen in both China and the Middle East following the Mongol rule. Both regions were taxed, however initially the Middle East Persians…
There were some features of the Mongol empire that were different from what had occurred in previous civilizations, such as the enormous size of their empire, their tolerance of different religions, the equality of men and women and their global integration. Prior to the time they built their empire, pastoral people rarely banded together at all, but stayed in kinship groups that often competed with each other. Although other civilizations such as…
was still valued during the Mongol rule
*Traditional value such as Confucianism stayed intact
conflict, Political structures, Empires,
Revolts and revolution)
*China was controlled by many empires and dynasties during the postclassical periods.
*China was divided at the beginning of the Mongol Empire Changes
*Mongol reunified China
*Chinese officials held advisory and lower-ranking positions than the Mongols
*Mongols incorporated huge number of… | <urn:uuid:5a7a3d62-3021-4825-b86a-81bddbaf00f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Mongols-Essay-557635.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.982468 | 1,671 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.0644934475421905... | 1 | The Mongols became the largest empire under the rule of Chinggis Khan. However after Chinggis’s death his vast realm was divided into four regional empires by his heirs. Two of the four regional empires was China which was ruled by the Great Khans and Persia, which is in the Middle East, was ruled by the ilkhans. In China and the Middle East, Persia, the Mongols had both a political and economic effect including administration, downfall of the economy and trade. One political effect the Mongols had in China and Persia was their administration. The Mongols weren’t very effective administrators so they had other people administer for them. In Persia the Mongols allowed the Persians to administer the ilkhanate; however the Persian had to maintain order of the land and give receipts of taxation to the Mongols. Also the Persians were able to become ministers, local governors and even state officials but at a lower level. While the Mongols and their allies obtained the most powerful position of administration. However in China it was the complete opposite situation than in the Middle East. In China the Mongols found no benefit from native Chinese administrators unlike the Mongols found in Persia. As a result of the situation in China the Mongols had brought in foreign administrators to be in control. These foreign administrators consisted of Arabs, Persians, the Mongols allies and even some Europeans. The Mongols also had an effect on the economy of Persia and China, for instance trade. China and Persia were affected in a positive matter due to trade. Trade helped many lands be able to communicate more and exchange luxury goods, allowing lands to acquire items they don’t have a surplus of due to the efforts of the Mongols, trade routes were secured and the safety of merchants that would pass through Mongols territory was guaranteed. This helped the surplus of trading between regions to increase which of course led to cultural diffusion. As a result of an increase in cultural diffusion, China and Persia were able to acquire goods that weren’t manufactured in there region. Plus due to trade routes being more secure the possibility of caravans being raided decreased which was also a positive effect since it meant more goods could arrive to their destinations. However one of the most important benefits of trade was an increase in the amounts of money regions had acquired, allowing a boost in economy. Lastly not only did merchants carry luxurious good along their journey but they also helped spread religions. This allowed lands to have more opportunities open for people of different cultures; which many people found to be an attractive trait. This allowed the rate of population to increase, allowing the amount of money an area would take in and manufacturing goods to increase. The Mongols also had played a role in the downfall of the economy in China and Persia. After the reign of Khubilai Khan the Mongols had trouble with governing Persia and China. One of the reasons for the decline of both the ilkhanate and Yuan dynasty was the downfall of their economy. In Persia the constant spending of money had weakened the treasury and their overuse of peasants had caused a decrease in their revenue. The Persians tried to fix their economic problem with…
nown during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was the son of a Mongol chieftain. He suffered a difficult childhood, and when his young wife Börte was kidnapped by a rival tribe, Temujin united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule through political manipulation and military might. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Kereyd chieftain Wang Khan Toghoril, and Temujin's childhood anda (blood brother) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help,…
Mongol rule in China and the Middle East was similar in providing security, along trade routes and keeping the local government intact but differed in their treatment of the Arabs/Persians.
Economic- Comparison Mongols provided security along the Silk Road. Increased trade, disease merchants, were safe, Mongols collected taxes, caught stealing=death. The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road (via…
Throughout the time that the Mongols lived, they had accomplished many things. But many think it was because they were so barbaric and fierce to the people they conquered that they could have taken over all of Asia and Europe. But then others think the Mongols weren’t very barbaric at all, they just did what was necessary to them. See what you think with the following information whether they were as barbaric as people say.
The Mongols had a very vast military of great numbers.…
in the history of the world.
These barbarians were the Mongols. Their conquest of civilized society was frightening. They tore down scores of great cities. They slaughtered hundreds of thousands of people. Civilized people lived in terror of them. Some believed that Mongols ate humans. Some believed that Mongol ponies were big enough to eat trees. It seemed that no story about the Mongols was too fantastic to believe.
How were the Mongols able to conquer civilized societies? How did it all begin…
November 15, 2014
Mongol Woman Witness Sheet
Mongol women under the rule of Genghis Khan had a relatively high social status compared to other societies in Asia. There was a division of labor between men and women. The men were responsible for military, administrative, and trade affairs. Women’s main responsibilities were in the household where they would care for children, do housework, and cook. A Mongol woman often would tend for their own flock of sheep. When the men…
Background of Mongol Takeover of Korea
-During the 13th century, the Mongolians were intensively expanding their territories throughout the world and Korea initially was their ally that eventually aided the Mongol’s complete takeover of China in 1219, defeating the Kitans at Pyongyang.
-Despite their allegiance, the Mongols demanded Koryo to pay them burdensome tributes and required Koryo to host the Mongol army as they prepared to invade Japan a price of being allies, clearly knowing their dominance…
Centralization and Militarism in East Asia Outline 1200-1500
A. Korea from the Mongols to the Yi, 1231-1500
1. Korea's leaders initially resisted the Mongol invasions but gave up in 1258 when the king of Koryo surrendered and joined his family to the Mongols by marriage. The Koryo kings then fell under the influence of the Mongols and Korea profited from exchange with the Yuan in which new technologies including cotton, gunpowder, astronomy, calendar making, and celestial clocks were introduced…
The Mongols rule had significant economic, political, religious, and agricultural effects on both China and the Middle East. Although the Mongol takeover in the Middle East was far more harsh and abrupt than the takeover in China; the assimilation of cultures amongst the Mongols and the Middle East is more apparent.
Economical similarities and differences could be seen in both China and the Middle East following the Mongol rule. Both regions were taxed, however initially the Middle East Persians…
There were some features of the Mongol empire that were different from what had occurred in previous civilizations, such as the enormous size of their empire, their tolerance of different religions, the equality of men and women and their global integration. Prior to the time they built their empire, pastoral people rarely banded together at all, but stayed in kinship groups that often competed with each other. Although other civilizations such as…
was still valued during the Mongol rule
*Traditional value such as Confucianism stayed intact
conflict, Political structures, Empires,
Revolts and revolution)
*China was controlled by many empires and dynasties during the postclassical periods.
*China was divided at the beginning of the Mongol Empire Changes
*Mongol reunified China
*Chinese officials held advisory and lower-ranking positions than the Mongols
*Mongols incorporated huge number of… | 1,699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Prehistoric Scorpion Was Larger Than A Man | Scorpion Control Tucson
Scorpions are not the cuddliest animals on the planet as far as humans are concerned. Scorpions fascinate some people, while others are repulsed and/or terrified of scorpions. However, one thing is for sure, the now extinct sea scorpion would have scared even the bravest of people.
Several years ago researchers discovered an enormous fossilized claw belonging to an ancient animal. This giant claw belonged to what is now believed to be the largest bug ever known to man. To be more precise, the extinct organism was a scorpion that was as large as a crocodile. This scorpion lived around three hundred and ninety million years ago, and it was the most fearsome predator around at that time. Although researchers have never found a fossil showing the complete size of this ancient scorpion, researchers now believe that this scorpion measured at an astounding eight feet in length. This is the estimate researchers agreed on after measuring its eighteen-inch fossilized claw. Imagine the scorpions you know today possessing eighteen-inch claws—not a pleasant thought.
Scientists have long known that prehistoric insects were amazingly large as a result of higher oxygen levels on earth millions of years ago. However, scientists had no idea that prehistoric bugs could grow to proportions as large as this recently discovered scorpion. These enormous scorpions were cannibals but they also fed on now extinct armored fish, and probably anything else that got in their way. In fact, many researchers are now convinced that many prehistoric fish only possessed their armor coating as a way to protect themselves from the ancient scorpions ravenous ways. Once these enormous scorpions died out, fish no longer needed their armor coating, and that is why fish look the way they do today. Everything about the fossil evidence during this particular period indicates that this giant scorpion was at the top of the food chain.
Have you ever been stung by a scorpion? If so, how painful was it? | <urn:uuid:6d90be27-4519-47f7-9e25-9b5cf215edf2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.azpest.com/bug-blog/this-prehistoric-scorpion-was-larger-than-a-man-scorpion-control-tucson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.9806 | 409 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.377358853816986... | 10 | This Prehistoric Scorpion Was Larger Than A Man | Scorpion Control Tucson
Scorpions are not the cuddliest animals on the planet as far as humans are concerned. Scorpions fascinate some people, while others are repulsed and/or terrified of scorpions. However, one thing is for sure, the now extinct sea scorpion would have scared even the bravest of people.
Several years ago researchers discovered an enormous fossilized claw belonging to an ancient animal. This giant claw belonged to what is now believed to be the largest bug ever known to man. To be more precise, the extinct organism was a scorpion that was as large as a crocodile. This scorpion lived around three hundred and ninety million years ago, and it was the most fearsome predator around at that time. Although researchers have never found a fossil showing the complete size of this ancient scorpion, researchers now believe that this scorpion measured at an astounding eight feet in length. This is the estimate researchers agreed on after measuring its eighteen-inch fossilized claw. Imagine the scorpions you know today possessing eighteen-inch claws—not a pleasant thought.
Scientists have long known that prehistoric insects were amazingly large as a result of higher oxygen levels on earth millions of years ago. However, scientists had no idea that prehistoric bugs could grow to proportions as large as this recently discovered scorpion. These enormous scorpions were cannibals but they also fed on now extinct armored fish, and probably anything else that got in their way. In fact, many researchers are now convinced that many prehistoric fish only possessed their armor coating as a way to protect themselves from the ancient scorpions ravenous ways. Once these enormous scorpions died out, fish no longer needed their armor coating, and that is why fish look the way they do today. Everything about the fossil evidence during this particular period indicates that this giant scorpion was at the top of the food chain.
Have you ever been stung by a scorpion? If so, how painful was it? | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Had three regicides fled somewhere other than New Haven Plantation, Connecticut might look a lot different today.
The three Puritan ‘king-killers’ who opposed King Charles I were among the 59 commissioners who sat in judgment of him and signed his death warrant. Charles was beheaded on Jan. 30, 1649, but the governments that succeeded him only lasted 11 years. His son Charles II became king on his 30th birthday, May 29, 1660, and sought revenge for his father’s killers.
About 20 regicides were executed. Some were drawn and quartered. Some fled to the Continent, but three fled to the Puritan colony of New Haven in 1661, where they expected to find refuge. They did.
After the Restoration, Edward Whalley and William Goffe fled together to North America, landing in Boston. John Dixwell went to New Haven. He made the better choice.
John Dixwell was a colonel in the Parliamentary army and a member of four parliaments. When he arrived in New Haven Colony, it had been a staunch Puritan plantation since 1637. Over time it included Milford, Guilford, Stamford and Branford.
Dixwell immediately went undercover, assuming the name John Davids. Royalists in England believed he died, and never searched for him. He settled in a house near his friend the Rev. James Pierpont, an ancestor of Aaron Burr and J.P. Morgan. In 1673 he married widow Joanna Ling, and four years later he married Bathsheba How. They had a son and two daughters.
Regicides on the Lam
Edward Whalley fought under Oliver Cromwell, his cousin, during the English Civil War as a lieutenant general.
William Goffe married Whalley’s daughter Frances and became a major general in Cromwell’s army. Politically radical and deeply religious, he was known as ‘Praying William.’ After the Restoration, he and Whalley fled together to North America.
On July 27, 1660, they arrived in Boston, where they knew Increase Mather and Daniel Gookin. Gov. John Endecott received them warmly. They thought themselves safe and lived openly in Cambridge, believing rumors that all but seven of the regicides would receive pardons. Those turned out to be false.
As the new Parliament debated what to do with people who committed crimes (including king killing) during the Interregnum, Endecott began to wonder whether he should have greeted the regicides with open arms. On Feb. 22, 1661, he gathered a court of assistants to discuss whether to arrest the two men. Whalley and Goffe decided to head south. They left on February 26, and orders for their arrest arrived from Barbados on March 8.
Whalley and Goffe arrived in New Haven two days after Boston magistrates received the royal order for their arrest. They hid out with a sympathetic minister, the Rev. John Davenport. When the news of their arrest orders arrived, they made a show of leaving for Milford, but returned secretly to New Haven that night. For two months they stayed with Davenport and other sympathizers as royal agents swept the countryside in search of them.
New Haven Gov. William Leete received the orders for their arrest in Guilford, but Leete sympathized with the regicides and delayed the king’s agents. That gave Whalley and Goffe enough time to escape and hide out in Judges Cave, where they lived most of the summer.
In August they moved to a house in Milford, where they lived for two years until their hideout was discovered. They moved back to the cave until Indians found them. On Oct. 13, 1663, they set out for western Massachusetts, traveling only by night. They arrived in Hadley, Mass., where the Rev. John Russell sheltered them. Goffe managed to exchange letters with his wife, still in England. She sent him money.
In 1665, King Charles II punished New Haven for protecting the regicides. He merged the colony with Connecticut.
Angel of Hadley
During King Philip’s War, Indians attacked Hadley. According to legend, all seemed lost until a powerful-looking old man with a white beard and a sword appeared. He rallied the militia in a successful defense against the Indians and then disappeared. There is reason to believe the Angel of Hadley was William Goffe.
Edward Whalley is believed to have died in 1675 in Hadley. Goffe is believed to have died in Hartford some years later.
John Dixon died on March 18, 1689, in New Haven.
A seven-mile hiking trail in Connecticut’s West Rock Ridge State Park is called The Regicides Trail. Judges Cave, where they hid, is near the south end of the trail, which is within New Haven, Hamden, Woodbridge and Bethany. For more information, click here.
This story about the regicides was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:9320be9b-3946-4f69-a008-da90153c24b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/how-new-haven-became-part-of-connecticut-it-was-the-regicides/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.980075 | 1,053 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0569227... | 3 | Had three regicides fled somewhere other than New Haven Plantation, Connecticut might look a lot different today.
The three Puritan ‘king-killers’ who opposed King Charles I were among the 59 commissioners who sat in judgment of him and signed his death warrant. Charles was beheaded on Jan. 30, 1649, but the governments that succeeded him only lasted 11 years. His son Charles II became king on his 30th birthday, May 29, 1660, and sought revenge for his father’s killers.
About 20 regicides were executed. Some were drawn and quartered. Some fled to the Continent, but three fled to the Puritan colony of New Haven in 1661, where they expected to find refuge. They did.
After the Restoration, Edward Whalley and William Goffe fled together to North America, landing in Boston. John Dixwell went to New Haven. He made the better choice.
John Dixwell was a colonel in the Parliamentary army and a member of four parliaments. When he arrived in New Haven Colony, it had been a staunch Puritan plantation since 1637. Over time it included Milford, Guilford, Stamford and Branford.
Dixwell immediately went undercover, assuming the name John Davids. Royalists in England believed he died, and never searched for him. He settled in a house near his friend the Rev. James Pierpont, an ancestor of Aaron Burr and J.P. Morgan. In 1673 he married widow Joanna Ling, and four years later he married Bathsheba How. They had a son and two daughters.
Regicides on the Lam
Edward Whalley fought under Oliver Cromwell, his cousin, during the English Civil War as a lieutenant general.
William Goffe married Whalley’s daughter Frances and became a major general in Cromwell’s army. Politically radical and deeply religious, he was known as ‘Praying William.’ After the Restoration, he and Whalley fled together to North America.
On July 27, 1660, they arrived in Boston, where they knew Increase Mather and Daniel Gookin. Gov. John Endecott received them warmly. They thought themselves safe and lived openly in Cambridge, believing rumors that all but seven of the regicides would receive pardons. Those turned out to be false.
As the new Parliament debated what to do with people who committed crimes (including king killing) during the Interregnum, Endecott began to wonder whether he should have greeted the regicides with open arms. On Feb. 22, 1661, he gathered a court of assistants to discuss whether to arrest the two men. Whalley and Goffe decided to head south. They left on February 26, and orders for their arrest arrived from Barbados on March 8.
Whalley and Goffe arrived in New Haven two days after Boston magistrates received the royal order for their arrest. They hid out with a sympathetic minister, the Rev. John Davenport. When the news of their arrest orders arrived, they made a show of leaving for Milford, but returned secretly to New Haven that night. For two months they stayed with Davenport and other sympathizers as royal agents swept the countryside in search of them.
New Haven Gov. William Leete received the orders for their arrest in Guilford, but Leete sympathized with the regicides and delayed the king’s agents. That gave Whalley and Goffe enough time to escape and hide out in Judges Cave, where they lived most of the summer.
In August they moved to a house in Milford, where they lived for two years until their hideout was discovered. They moved back to the cave until Indians found them. On Oct. 13, 1663, they set out for western Massachusetts, traveling only by night. They arrived in Hadley, Mass., where the Rev. John Russell sheltered them. Goffe managed to exchange letters with his wife, still in England. She sent him money.
In 1665, King Charles II punished New Haven for protecting the regicides. He merged the colony with Connecticut.
Angel of Hadley
During King Philip’s War, Indians attacked Hadley. According to legend, all seemed lost until a powerful-looking old man with a white beard and a sword appeared. He rallied the militia in a successful defense against the Indians and then disappeared. There is reason to believe the Angel of Hadley was William Goffe.
Edward Whalley is believed to have died in 1675 in Hadley. Goffe is believed to have died in Hartford some years later.
John Dixon died on March 18, 1689, in New Haven.
A seven-mile hiking trail in Connecticut’s West Rock Ridge State Park is called The Regicides Trail. Judges Cave, where they hid, is near the south end of the trail, which is within New Haven, Hamden, Woodbridge and Bethany. For more information, click here.
This story about the regicides was updated in 2019. | 1,069 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Six epidemics from American history show how urban design affects our health
Cities that are organized on grids are more than just convenient. They're good for your health too, according to Sara Jensen Carr, assistant professor of architecture. Americans learned that the hard way in the 1800s during the cholera outbreaks, when infected water would pool in crooked, unpaved streets.
"During this time, there was a coordinated movement to get all of the waste out of the streets and bring fresh water to houses," Carr says. "The net effect is that we have straighter streets to accommodate long pipes underneath to move water and waste more safely."
Carr is writing a book, The Topography of Wellness, that chronicles six health crises throughout U.S. history and how those epidemics have informed the design of our cities. In addition to infectious diseases like cholera, yellow fever, and tuberculosis, Carr focuses on "social diseases" like crime and chronic illnesses, such as obesity, and how those either influence, or are influenced by, changes in American urban landscapes.
"The city was really thought of as an incubator of disease for much of American history," Carr says. That was especially true in the early 19th century when people believed in a theory called miasma, the idea that diseases floated aimlessly through the air and water.
"This really terrified people," Carr says. During the Industrial Revolution when cities became densely populated, people started to worry about crowded housing conditions for fear of catching the "bad air." As a result, Carr says, toward the end of the 19th century, there was a huge push to design buildings and outdoor areas that brought in fresh air and sunlight.
Around this time, the landscape architect and public health officer Frederick Law Olmsted started designing public parks, such as the Emerald Necklace in Boston and Central Park in New York City. "Even though he didn't have a lot of scientific knowledge to back it up, he knew intrinsically that we needed space to breathe," Carr says.
Public parks became even more popular as tuberculosis swept through the U.S. at the turn of the 20th century. "The interesting thing about tuberculosis is that air and sunlight were actually very curative," Carr says.
Photos from early 1900s "consumption" hospitals designed to treat tuberculosis patients show people lying outside in beds, sunning themselves, as a form of treatment. More affluent patients could afford to rig up their beds in "window tents" to sleep in fresh air without leaving the comfort of their bedroom.
These disease-inspired designs continued into the 20th century. "Tuberculosis influenced a lot of architecture and urban planning up to about the 1960s, especially in modern public housing," Carr says.
The mid-20th century also marked the beginning of the urban crisis in American cities, during which racial tensions were high, and wealthy white citizens began moving to the suburbs, taking business with them.
"Cities were in ruin," Carr says. "There was this ephemeral boogey man of blight in cities." But instead of fearing miasma and "bad air," people now feared things like violence and drugs. "There was a lot of conflating of poor neighborhoods with disease," she says.
"People were cutting down wide swaths of the city and building federal highways, making literal walls around poor neighborhoods, basically quarantining immigrant and minority populations through housing covenants," Carr says.
Essentially, these covenants were contracts that stayed with the land, regardless of the owner, that prohibited non-white people from purchasing or renting that property. And a lot of these covenants actually used health as an excuse to exclude owners by race.
"There's a history of covenants all the way up to the 1960s that say homeowners should not sell their properties to African-Americans because they have higher rates of mortality than white homeowners," Carr says.
But while the white flight movement to the suburbs in the mid-20th century originally excluded people of color, Carr says that we're now seeing the opposite trend. "There's actually a pattern now of minority and immigrant populations moving out to the suburbs farther away from jobs."
The latest health crisis that Carr researched for her book is the link between suburbia and obesity. "People in the suburbs have to spend more time in cars commuting. They don't have time to exercise. They're not able to walk to the grocery store," Carr says. "Suburban sprawl is not the cause of the obesity epidemic, but a lot of people agree that it's certainly a contributor."
These are some of the consequences Carr hopes designers will consider more seriously in the future. "We need to start addressing the health needs of our communities and account for the unintended fallout of what we've done in the past," she says. | <urn:uuid:45d0135f-bc0a-427c-a411-da02c2791332> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-08-epidemics-american-history-urban-affects.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.98205 | 992 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.148938864469... | 4 | Six epidemics from American history show how urban design affects our health
Cities that are organized on grids are more than just convenient. They're good for your health too, according to Sara Jensen Carr, assistant professor of architecture. Americans learned that the hard way in the 1800s during the cholera outbreaks, when infected water would pool in crooked, unpaved streets.
"During this time, there was a coordinated movement to get all of the waste out of the streets and bring fresh water to houses," Carr says. "The net effect is that we have straighter streets to accommodate long pipes underneath to move water and waste more safely."
Carr is writing a book, The Topography of Wellness, that chronicles six health crises throughout U.S. history and how those epidemics have informed the design of our cities. In addition to infectious diseases like cholera, yellow fever, and tuberculosis, Carr focuses on "social diseases" like crime and chronic illnesses, such as obesity, and how those either influence, or are influenced by, changes in American urban landscapes.
"The city was really thought of as an incubator of disease for much of American history," Carr says. That was especially true in the early 19th century when people believed in a theory called miasma, the idea that diseases floated aimlessly through the air and water.
"This really terrified people," Carr says. During the Industrial Revolution when cities became densely populated, people started to worry about crowded housing conditions for fear of catching the "bad air." As a result, Carr says, toward the end of the 19th century, there was a huge push to design buildings and outdoor areas that brought in fresh air and sunlight.
Around this time, the landscape architect and public health officer Frederick Law Olmsted started designing public parks, such as the Emerald Necklace in Boston and Central Park in New York City. "Even though he didn't have a lot of scientific knowledge to back it up, he knew intrinsically that we needed space to breathe," Carr says.
Public parks became even more popular as tuberculosis swept through the U.S. at the turn of the 20th century. "The interesting thing about tuberculosis is that air and sunlight were actually very curative," Carr says.
Photos from early 1900s "consumption" hospitals designed to treat tuberculosis patients show people lying outside in beds, sunning themselves, as a form of treatment. More affluent patients could afford to rig up their beds in "window tents" to sleep in fresh air without leaving the comfort of their bedroom.
These disease-inspired designs continued into the 20th century. "Tuberculosis influenced a lot of architecture and urban planning up to about the 1960s, especially in modern public housing," Carr says.
The mid-20th century also marked the beginning of the urban crisis in American cities, during which racial tensions were high, and wealthy white citizens began moving to the suburbs, taking business with them.
"Cities were in ruin," Carr says. "There was this ephemeral boogey man of blight in cities." But instead of fearing miasma and "bad air," people now feared things like violence and drugs. "There was a lot of conflating of poor neighborhoods with disease," she says.
"People were cutting down wide swaths of the city and building federal highways, making literal walls around poor neighborhoods, basically quarantining immigrant and minority populations through housing covenants," Carr says.
Essentially, these covenants were contracts that stayed with the land, regardless of the owner, that prohibited non-white people from purchasing or renting that property. And a lot of these covenants actually used health as an excuse to exclude owners by race.
"There's a history of covenants all the way up to the 1960s that say homeowners should not sell their properties to African-Americans because they have higher rates of mortality than white homeowners," Carr says.
But while the white flight movement to the suburbs in the mid-20th century originally excluded people of color, Carr says that we're now seeing the opposite trend. "There's actually a pattern now of minority and immigrant populations moving out to the suburbs farther away from jobs."
The latest health crisis that Carr researched for her book is the link between suburbia and obesity. "People in the suburbs have to spend more time in cars commuting. They don't have time to exercise. They're not able to walk to the grocery store," Carr says. "Suburban sprawl is not the cause of the obesity epidemic, but a lot of people agree that it's certainly a contributor."
These are some of the consequences Carr hopes designers will consider more seriously in the future. "We need to start addressing the health needs of our communities and account for the unintended fallout of what we've done in the past," she says. | 994 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ralph Ellison struggled through much of his career with his role as a black American writer. Alternately patronized and exalted in his early career, by the 1960s the militant tone of the black intellectual world deemed him irrelevant. Activists of the civil-rights movement preferred the militancy and anger of works like Black Boy, (written by Richard Wright, one of Ellison’s mentors) over Ellison’s moderate stance. Ellison never felt comfortable with what he saw as the limitations of the genre of “Negro literature.” “I am a human being, and not just the black successor to Richard Wright,” he wrote, “and there are ways of celebrating my experience more complex than terms like ‘protest’ can suggest.”
Ellison was educated in the two most important “schools” for black intellectuals and artists of the time. He attended Alabama’s Tuskegee Institute, the college founded by Booker T. Washington; and lived in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance, a period which produced an explosion of critically acclaimed literary and artistic works that originated with black artists living there. He also felt the strong influence of the late nineteenth century’s most important black American thinkers: Washington, who argued for tolerance and patience in racial matters; and W. E. B. DuBois, who urged a more confrontational stance.
In 1952, Ellison published Invisible Man, which won the National Book Award and has since gained recognition as one of the most important American novels of the twentieth century. The novel, modeled after Fedor Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground, tells the story of a young black man who leaves his small town to attend a school much like Tuskegee, then moves on to New York where he falls in with a radical group. Ellison’s protagonist does not see militancy as a legitimate solution, and at the end of the book he remains as alienated from his surroundings as he was in his segregated hometown. In this, Ellison is closer to modernist writers such as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf than he is to writers such as Wright.
“King of the Bingo Game,” from 1944, is in many ways a precursor to Invisible Man. As in the later novel, the story’s unnamed protagonist does not feel connected to any of the other characters in the story (although he is dedicated to his sick wife Laura, who does not appear except in his thoughts). He seeks to turn his marginality into a mechanism by which he can control his own fate. This marginality is symbolized by his own particular personal situation, his identity as a rural Southerner in the urban North, and his identity as a black man in a white-dominated society. The topics of alienation and control were written about extensively by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. The presence of these themes within “King of the Bingo Game” demonstrates the influence Nietzsche had on Ellison.
The story is almost perfectly divided in half. The themes, events, characterization, and even the style of the narration abruptly shift at the halfway point. This is not to say that the story is not unified; each half comments on its counterpart, and complements the other.
In the first half of the story, we meet our unnamed protagonist. He is sitting in a movie theater, watching a movie, and feeling the pangs of hunger as he smells the roasted peanuts that the woman in front of him is eating. Throughout this half of the story, the protagonist is passive and has no control over his surroundings. He is also vaguely dissatisfied: ‘”If this was down South,’ he thought, ‘all I’d have to do is lean over and say, ‘Lady, gimme a few of those peanuts, please ma’am,’ and she’d pass me the bag and never think nothing of it … Folks down South stuck together that way.” We see immediately that he does not feel at home. The solidarity of the oppressed which black people shared in the South is lost here, and the (relative) freedom from the Jim Crow segregation laws is cold comfort to our hungry hero.
As he watches the movie, the protagonist thinks to himself that’ They had it all fixed. Everything is fixed.” He already knows what is going to happen, not only in the movie but in his own life. He dreams of what might happen if the events in the film were somehow altered. The protagonist’s daydream about the white woman removing her clothes implicitly suggests a violation of one of the most crucial elements of Jim Crow laws, the prohibition against any sexual relationship between whites and blacks. But obviously, this does not happen, and the protagonist is trapped in his fate. He is poor and unemployed, his wife is dying and he cannot afford a doctor, and he cannot count on the even superficial friendliness that he would have found among Southerners.
The story begins to shift as the protagonist”felt for his bingo cards, smiling.” The curtain rises, suggesting the suspension of reality which the stage symbolizes, and the bingo game begins. The protagonist has improved his odds on winning by buying five cards, and although he has difficulty keeping up with the caller’s numbers (much as he cannot keep up, financially, with the demands of his wife’s illness), he ends up winning. The fact that he “stumbled up the aisle” and that the audience refers to him as “fool” indicates to us that this minor victory is not yet enough to save him. As the authorities check his number, he is still at the mercy of forces beyond his control, and he remains so as the bingo caller makes fun of his accent and upbringing.
However, as he takes the button from the bingo caller and prepares to try to win the jackpot, his outlook changes. “He steeled himself; the fear had left, and he felt a profound sense of promise, as if he were about to be repaid for all the things he’d suffered in his life.” In the second half of the story, the protagonist is transformed: he finally has power, not only over his own fate, but over the entire audience. The wheel spins and spins and he watches it, both frightened and enthralled by the unfamiliar thrill of being in control. “He and only he could determine whether or not [the jackpot] was to be his. Not even the man with the microphone could do anything about it now. He felt drunk.”
The protagonist is drunk with power. The power that the button gives him allows him to step beyond the limitations on his actions imposed by his race, class, and origins. As the spectators watch him, impatiently yelling at him to hurry up and finish, he looks down on them from the stage, both figuratively and literally: “Those folks did not understand what had happened to him. .. . He watched the wheel whirling past the numbers and experienced a burst of exaltation: This is God! And as if God was on his side, the protagonist defies a white authority figure, an act of defiance that he would never have dared to commit before. The bingo caller’s “hand fell on his shoulder .. . He brushed the hand violently away. ‘Leave me alone, man. I know what I’m doing.”‘ In the face of the potential jackpot, all men are equal.
The protagonist even takes his newfound equality a step further as the wheel continues to spin madly. The crowd yells at him to come down from the stage, but by now he has transcended not only his race but his humanity. “He was a long thin black wire that was being stretched and wound upon the bingo wheel; wound until he wanted to scream; wound, but this time himself controlling the winding.” With his hand upon the button, he has somehow tapped into the power of the Fates that control the universe.
The spinning wheel as the arbiter of fate is one of the oldest images in Western literature. Ancient Roman literature often refers to the Wheel of Fortune, and in the The Consolation of Philosophy, the Roman statesman Boethius meditates on how the spinning wheel, which once placed him in high and prestigious positions, now has overseen his death penalty from the imperial government. Chaucer, in Troilus and Criseyde, also uses the concept of the wheel of fortune to explain people’s seemingly inexplicable shifting fates. In Ellison’s “King of the Bingo Game,” the hero clearly has spent most of his life on the bottom of the wheel, and his initial victory at bingo indicates to readers familiar with this image that he will now have the pleasure of fortune’s favor.
The bitter irony of the story lies in the fact that the protagonist’s triumph is momentary. Confronted by the spinning wheel of Fate, he seeks not to trust in the wheel’s wisdom, but rather to control it. The wheel, in the story, is indeed God: it determines the fates of the bingo victors. The protagonist’s fault here is another one with an ancient heritage; he suffers from hubris, the belief that one is superior to fate and the gods. By the end of the story, the crowd which he previously commanded is mocking him, stomping and singing derisive rhymes, and the authorities are called. He runs away from them in circles, looking to the audience like an actor in a slapstick sketch, and finally is knocked down and kicked in the head as the audience applauds.
Another parallel for Ellison’s story is the Gospel narrative of Jesus before the mob. At first encouraging and eager, the crowd quickly turns ugly and before long sides with the authorities who oppress them. Both the crowd and the protagonist here are black and the authorities are white; in the Christ story, Jesus and the mob are Jewish and the authorities are Roman. In both cases, the individual who is chosen feels separated and alienated from what should be his people.
As in much of Ellison’s writing, “King of the Bingo Game” weaves together communal themes of racial oppression and individual themes of alienation. Ellison’s refusal to indicate which of the two is more fundamental to his characters’ predicaments condemned him to a marginal place both among the modernist writers (who valued the theme of individual alienation above all) and the radical black writers of the Harlem Renaissance and the 1960s (who felt that racism was the most important topic to explore). However, it is precisely that indeterminacy that helps Ellison capture the complexity of the dynamic between self and society.
Kathleen Wilson (Editor), Short Stories for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context & Criticism on Commonly Studied Short Stories, Volume 1, Ralph Ellison, Published by Gale, 1997.
Greg Barnhisel, for Short Stories for Students, Gale Research, 1997 | <urn:uuid:e00f7021-92cb-44b8-8ac2-eb2d7947a5c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jottedlines.com/king-of-the-bingo-game-analysis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.980434 | 2,293 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.188271403312... | 9 | Ralph Ellison struggled through much of his career with his role as a black American writer. Alternately patronized and exalted in his early career, by the 1960s the militant tone of the black intellectual world deemed him irrelevant. Activists of the civil-rights movement preferred the militancy and anger of works like Black Boy, (written by Richard Wright, one of Ellison’s mentors) over Ellison’s moderate stance. Ellison never felt comfortable with what he saw as the limitations of the genre of “Negro literature.” “I am a human being, and not just the black successor to Richard Wright,” he wrote, “and there are ways of celebrating my experience more complex than terms like ‘protest’ can suggest.”
Ellison was educated in the two most important “schools” for black intellectuals and artists of the time. He attended Alabama’s Tuskegee Institute, the college founded by Booker T. Washington; and lived in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance, a period which produced an explosion of critically acclaimed literary and artistic works that originated with black artists living there. He also felt the strong influence of the late nineteenth century’s most important black American thinkers: Washington, who argued for tolerance and patience in racial matters; and W. E. B. DuBois, who urged a more confrontational stance.
In 1952, Ellison published Invisible Man, which won the National Book Award and has since gained recognition as one of the most important American novels of the twentieth century. The novel, modeled after Fedor Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground, tells the story of a young black man who leaves his small town to attend a school much like Tuskegee, then moves on to New York where he falls in with a radical group. Ellison’s protagonist does not see militancy as a legitimate solution, and at the end of the book he remains as alienated from his surroundings as he was in his segregated hometown. In this, Ellison is closer to modernist writers such as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf than he is to writers such as Wright.
“King of the Bingo Game,” from 1944, is in many ways a precursor to Invisible Man. As in the later novel, the story’s unnamed protagonist does not feel connected to any of the other characters in the story (although he is dedicated to his sick wife Laura, who does not appear except in his thoughts). He seeks to turn his marginality into a mechanism by which he can control his own fate. This marginality is symbolized by his own particular personal situation, his identity as a rural Southerner in the urban North, and his identity as a black man in a white-dominated society. The topics of alienation and control were written about extensively by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. The presence of these themes within “King of the Bingo Game” demonstrates the influence Nietzsche had on Ellison.
The story is almost perfectly divided in half. The themes, events, characterization, and even the style of the narration abruptly shift at the halfway point. This is not to say that the story is not unified; each half comments on its counterpart, and complements the other.
In the first half of the story, we meet our unnamed protagonist. He is sitting in a movie theater, watching a movie, and feeling the pangs of hunger as he smells the roasted peanuts that the woman in front of him is eating. Throughout this half of the story, the protagonist is passive and has no control over his surroundings. He is also vaguely dissatisfied: ‘”If this was down South,’ he thought, ‘all I’d have to do is lean over and say, ‘Lady, gimme a few of those peanuts, please ma’am,’ and she’d pass me the bag and never think nothing of it … Folks down South stuck together that way.” We see immediately that he does not feel at home. The solidarity of the oppressed which black people shared in the South is lost here, and the (relative) freedom from the Jim Crow segregation laws is cold comfort to our hungry hero.
As he watches the movie, the protagonist thinks to himself that’ They had it all fixed. Everything is fixed.” He already knows what is going to happen, not only in the movie but in his own life. He dreams of what might happen if the events in the film were somehow altered. The protagonist’s daydream about the white woman removing her clothes implicitly suggests a violation of one of the most crucial elements of Jim Crow laws, the prohibition against any sexual relationship between whites and blacks. But obviously, this does not happen, and the protagonist is trapped in his fate. He is poor and unemployed, his wife is dying and he cannot afford a doctor, and he cannot count on the even superficial friendliness that he would have found among Southerners.
The story begins to shift as the protagonist”felt for his bingo cards, smiling.” The curtain rises, suggesting the suspension of reality which the stage symbolizes, and the bingo game begins. The protagonist has improved his odds on winning by buying five cards, and although he has difficulty keeping up with the caller’s numbers (much as he cannot keep up, financially, with the demands of his wife’s illness), he ends up winning. The fact that he “stumbled up the aisle” and that the audience refers to him as “fool” indicates to us that this minor victory is not yet enough to save him. As the authorities check his number, he is still at the mercy of forces beyond his control, and he remains so as the bingo caller makes fun of his accent and upbringing.
However, as he takes the button from the bingo caller and prepares to try to win the jackpot, his outlook changes. “He steeled himself; the fear had left, and he felt a profound sense of promise, as if he were about to be repaid for all the things he’d suffered in his life.” In the second half of the story, the protagonist is transformed: he finally has power, not only over his own fate, but over the entire audience. The wheel spins and spins and he watches it, both frightened and enthralled by the unfamiliar thrill of being in control. “He and only he could determine whether or not [the jackpot] was to be his. Not even the man with the microphone could do anything about it now. He felt drunk.”
The protagonist is drunk with power. The power that the button gives him allows him to step beyond the limitations on his actions imposed by his race, class, and origins. As the spectators watch him, impatiently yelling at him to hurry up and finish, he looks down on them from the stage, both figuratively and literally: “Those folks did not understand what had happened to him. .. . He watched the wheel whirling past the numbers and experienced a burst of exaltation: This is God! And as if God was on his side, the protagonist defies a white authority figure, an act of defiance that he would never have dared to commit before. The bingo caller’s “hand fell on his shoulder .. . He brushed the hand violently away. ‘Leave me alone, man. I know what I’m doing.”‘ In the face of the potential jackpot, all men are equal.
The protagonist even takes his newfound equality a step further as the wheel continues to spin madly. The crowd yells at him to come down from the stage, but by now he has transcended not only his race but his humanity. “He was a long thin black wire that was being stretched and wound upon the bingo wheel; wound until he wanted to scream; wound, but this time himself controlling the winding.” With his hand upon the button, he has somehow tapped into the power of the Fates that control the universe.
The spinning wheel as the arbiter of fate is one of the oldest images in Western literature. Ancient Roman literature often refers to the Wheel of Fortune, and in the The Consolation of Philosophy, the Roman statesman Boethius meditates on how the spinning wheel, which once placed him in high and prestigious positions, now has overseen his death penalty from the imperial government. Chaucer, in Troilus and Criseyde, also uses the concept of the wheel of fortune to explain people’s seemingly inexplicable shifting fates. In Ellison’s “King of the Bingo Game,” the hero clearly has spent most of his life on the bottom of the wheel, and his initial victory at bingo indicates to readers familiar with this image that he will now have the pleasure of fortune’s favor.
The bitter irony of the story lies in the fact that the protagonist’s triumph is momentary. Confronted by the spinning wheel of Fate, he seeks not to trust in the wheel’s wisdom, but rather to control it. The wheel, in the story, is indeed God: it determines the fates of the bingo victors. The protagonist’s fault here is another one with an ancient heritage; he suffers from hubris, the belief that one is superior to fate and the gods. By the end of the story, the crowd which he previously commanded is mocking him, stomping and singing derisive rhymes, and the authorities are called. He runs away from them in circles, looking to the audience like an actor in a slapstick sketch, and finally is knocked down and kicked in the head as the audience applauds.
Another parallel for Ellison’s story is the Gospel narrative of Jesus before the mob. At first encouraging and eager, the crowd quickly turns ugly and before long sides with the authorities who oppress them. Both the crowd and the protagonist here are black and the authorities are white; in the Christ story, Jesus and the mob are Jewish and the authorities are Roman. In both cases, the individual who is chosen feels separated and alienated from what should be his people.
As in much of Ellison’s writing, “King of the Bingo Game” weaves together communal themes of racial oppression and individual themes of alienation. Ellison’s refusal to indicate which of the two is more fundamental to his characters’ predicaments condemned him to a marginal place both among the modernist writers (who valued the theme of individual alienation above all) and the radical black writers of the Harlem Renaissance and the 1960s (who felt that racism was the most important topic to explore). However, it is precisely that indeterminacy that helps Ellison capture the complexity of the dynamic between self and society.
Kathleen Wilson (Editor), Short Stories for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context & Criticism on Commonly Studied Short Stories, Volume 1, Ralph Ellison, Published by Gale, 1997.
Greg Barnhisel, for Short Stories for Students, Gale Research, 1997 | 2,189 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egyptian Grave Robbers
Being put into a grave was very important for the Ancient Egyptians and being put into the grave meant that they could go to the afterlife after they died. During these times though, people called grave robbers would come and would take things out of the tombs.
One of the worst crimes that could be committed during the Ancient Egyptian times was robbing a grave. Grave robbers would steal whatever they could find, and they would break things that had no value to them.
If someone was caught robbing graves, they would receive a punishment that was cruel and then they would be killed. This is one reason that most grave robbers would break anything in their path because they were always in a hurry so that they wouldn’t be caught.
Things inside of the graves of the Ancient Egyptians was very important to them. Some of these things were left as gifts for the dead to take to the afterlife and some were important for the dead to even make it to the afterlife like the name plate.
The name plate was very important because the Ancient Egyptians believed that the name had to be put on the coffin in order for the Ba and Ka to find their way back to the body and so the person could go to the afterlife.
Ba and Ka
The Ba and Ka are part of the soul. They are split into two different parts when someone dies. The Ba goes to watch over the dead persons friends and family and the Ka goes to live in the Land of Two Fields and to enjoy life.
When a person has a name plate on their coffin, the Ba and Ka can come together at night and be with the person in the afterlife. But if the name plate is lost, the Ba and Ka could get lost and not be able to find your body or to return to the tomb. If this would happen, the person that died could be lost forever and would never make it to the afterlife.
Sometimes, the grave robbers would rip the mummy cloth or the fabric that was covering the body. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the body had to be mummified in order for the person to be able to enter into the afterlife, so when the grave clothing was ripped, it could cause damage to the body and stop them from being able to go into the afterlife.
Since making it to the afterlife is the primary purpose of all beings, the Ancient Egyptians were very strict with how they punished grave robbers. This was a very serious crime.
It was believed that whatever was left in the tomb with the body was what the person that died could take with them to the afterlife. When a person would leave treasures such as jewelry, food, spices, clothing, toys or other things, these were important to the families because they wanted their loved one to have a happy life in the afterlife.
When the grave robbers would go into the graves, they would take anything that they found valuable such as jewelry, clothing, toys, spices and more. When this happened, the Ancient Egyptians would have to replace those valuables.
Sometimes, the people were not very rich, and it was hard for them to replace the valuables that were taken by grave robbers.
More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Grave Robbers:
- Sometimes families would leave garbage and bricks in the tomb so that grave robbers would have a harder time getting to the goods.
- Some pharaohs would leave words of a curse on their graves so that people would be afraid to steal from those tombs.
- One of the most famous curses found in a tomb was found in the tomb of King Tut.
- Most of the grave robbers would take things from the tomb almost right after a person was buried.
- People would sometimes try to hide the tombs so that grave robbers would not know where they could find treasures.
What Did You Learn?
- What is a grave robber? A grave robber in Ancient Egyptian times was a person that would break into the tombs of people and steal things that were valuable.
- Why would things in the tombs get broken? Things in the tombs would get broken because the grave robbers were in a hurry because they were afraid, they would get caught.
- What would happen if a grave robber got caught? Grave robbing was a serious crime and if caught, the person would be punished and killed.
- Why was it bad for the grave robbers to break things in the tombs? Some of the things in the tombs were there so that the body could make it to the afterlife, like the name plate. When this was broken, the Ba and Ka would not know where to return to the body.
- Why were some of the bodies harmed by the grave robbers? Sometimes, families would hide jewels and valuable things in the cloth of the mummy and so the grave robbers would pull off the cloth and would sometimes harm the body while doing it. | <urn:uuid:6a777f43-aab9-4282-b45f-7d1ead9a2eb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-grave-robbers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.989699 | 992 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.28126877546310... | 14 | Ancient Egyptian Grave Robbers
Being put into a grave was very important for the Ancient Egyptians and being put into the grave meant that they could go to the afterlife after they died. During these times though, people called grave robbers would come and would take things out of the tombs.
One of the worst crimes that could be committed during the Ancient Egyptian times was robbing a grave. Grave robbers would steal whatever they could find, and they would break things that had no value to them.
If someone was caught robbing graves, they would receive a punishment that was cruel and then they would be killed. This is one reason that most grave robbers would break anything in their path because they were always in a hurry so that they wouldn’t be caught.
Things inside of the graves of the Ancient Egyptians was very important to them. Some of these things were left as gifts for the dead to take to the afterlife and some were important for the dead to even make it to the afterlife like the name plate.
The name plate was very important because the Ancient Egyptians believed that the name had to be put on the coffin in order for the Ba and Ka to find their way back to the body and so the person could go to the afterlife.
Ba and Ka
The Ba and Ka are part of the soul. They are split into two different parts when someone dies. The Ba goes to watch over the dead persons friends and family and the Ka goes to live in the Land of Two Fields and to enjoy life.
When a person has a name plate on their coffin, the Ba and Ka can come together at night and be with the person in the afterlife. But if the name plate is lost, the Ba and Ka could get lost and not be able to find your body or to return to the tomb. If this would happen, the person that died could be lost forever and would never make it to the afterlife.
Sometimes, the grave robbers would rip the mummy cloth or the fabric that was covering the body. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the body had to be mummified in order for the person to be able to enter into the afterlife, so when the grave clothing was ripped, it could cause damage to the body and stop them from being able to go into the afterlife.
Since making it to the afterlife is the primary purpose of all beings, the Ancient Egyptians were very strict with how they punished grave robbers. This was a very serious crime.
It was believed that whatever was left in the tomb with the body was what the person that died could take with them to the afterlife. When a person would leave treasures such as jewelry, food, spices, clothing, toys or other things, these were important to the families because they wanted their loved one to have a happy life in the afterlife.
When the grave robbers would go into the graves, they would take anything that they found valuable such as jewelry, clothing, toys, spices and more. When this happened, the Ancient Egyptians would have to replace those valuables.
Sometimes, the people were not very rich, and it was hard for them to replace the valuables that were taken by grave robbers.
More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Grave Robbers:
- Sometimes families would leave garbage and bricks in the tomb so that grave robbers would have a harder time getting to the goods.
- Some pharaohs would leave words of a curse on their graves so that people would be afraid to steal from those tombs.
- One of the most famous curses found in a tomb was found in the tomb of King Tut.
- Most of the grave robbers would take things from the tomb almost right after a person was buried.
- People would sometimes try to hide the tombs so that grave robbers would not know where they could find treasures.
What Did You Learn?
- What is a grave robber? A grave robber in Ancient Egyptian times was a person that would break into the tombs of people and steal things that were valuable.
- Why would things in the tombs get broken? Things in the tombs would get broken because the grave robbers were in a hurry because they were afraid, they would get caught.
- What would happen if a grave robber got caught? Grave robbing was a serious crime and if caught, the person would be punished and killed.
- Why was it bad for the grave robbers to break things in the tombs? Some of the things in the tombs were there so that the body could make it to the afterlife, like the name plate. When this was broken, the Ba and Ka would not know where to return to the body.
- Why were some of the bodies harmed by the grave robbers? Sometimes, families would hide jewels and valuable things in the cloth of the mummy and so the grave robbers would pull off the cloth and would sometimes harm the body while doing it. | 997 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australia is having a tough time dealing with the deadly bushfires that have ravaged the island country. The fires, in total, have burned as much as 10.3 million hectares of land, which is approximately eight times more than what Amazon fires last year had destroyed.
Moreover, burning land has also led to the killing of many animals who have been living in and around the jungles. As per reports, as many as one-billion animals have died due to Australian bushfires.
The fires have also destroyed much of what animals feed on leading to widespread starvation among them. And in order to save them from starving to death, Australians have come up with a brilliant idea.
Australia has deployed helicopters to drop food in the burnt areas on the country, especially New South Wales so that the stranded animals can feed themselves.
The aerial food drops are expected to help the survival of endangered species like the wallabies. As a herbivorous, Wallabies relies on grasses and leaves diet, which has been ravaged due to fire.
Australia is also installing cameras in the state with much of the Wallabies population to help them be up-to-date with their diet needs. For facts, Wallabies are considered as an endangered species in New South Wales.
As per the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List released in 2014, only 20,000 of these creatures exist in the world. | <urn:uuid:a8776172-ebcc-46ca-aa2e-6807643c5ea3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.viralbake.com/pictures-of-australian-firefiregethers-dropping-food-in-burnt-jungles-is-winning-the-internet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.980339 | 287 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.2497737556695938,
0.5136062502861023,
... | 3 | Australia is having a tough time dealing with the deadly bushfires that have ravaged the island country. The fires, in total, have burned as much as 10.3 million hectares of land, which is approximately eight times more than what Amazon fires last year had destroyed.
Moreover, burning land has also led to the killing of many animals who have been living in and around the jungles. As per reports, as many as one-billion animals have died due to Australian bushfires.
The fires have also destroyed much of what animals feed on leading to widespread starvation among them. And in order to save them from starving to death, Australians have come up with a brilliant idea.
Australia has deployed helicopters to drop food in the burnt areas on the country, especially New South Wales so that the stranded animals can feed themselves.
The aerial food drops are expected to help the survival of endangered species like the wallabies. As a herbivorous, Wallabies relies on grasses and leaves diet, which has been ravaged due to fire.
Australia is also installing cameras in the state with much of the Wallabies population to help them be up-to-date with their diet needs. For facts, Wallabies are considered as an endangered species in New South Wales.
As per the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List released in 2014, only 20,000 of these creatures exist in the world. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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